Elk habitat use and the impact of the construction and energization of a 500-KV ac powerline on the
North Boulder Winter Range, Montana
by Jodie Ellen Canfield
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Fish
and Wildlife Management
Montana State University
© Copyright by Jodie Ellen Canfield (1984)
Abstract:
Elk habitat use, activity patterns, and winter distribution, before and after energization of a 500-kV AC
powerline which crosses critical winter range in southwestern Montana, was studied during the mild
winters of 1983 and 1984. Methods included 24 hour continuous radio-monitoring, track and pellet
group counts, and direct ground and aerial observations. Habitat use by the elk herd, which apparently
was at or above carrying capacity, was influenced by weather parameters, distribution of available
forage (as influenced by snow conditions and cattle grazing), and population density. The powerline
crosses a bunchgrass range at about the level where timber begins, and elk typically crossed the
powerline corridor twice a day while traveling between bedding and feeding areas. Powerlihe
construction in the spring of 1983 displaced radioed elk prior to spring migration. ' Four of 11 elk with
functional radios did not return to the study area to winter in 1984 after the powerline was energized.
The physical presence of the powerline did not alter elk distribution or activity patterns, however, noise
generated from corona discharge off the conductors during precipitation caused elk to hesitate and
show excitability before crossing a "noisy corridor" , and may alter basic elk daily activity patterns
during storms. It is not expected that elk will further acclimate to precipitation noise levels because the
rate of animal exposure is low on the relatively arid North Boulder range, and the corridor itself is not
an attractive forage source. The level of impact from corona noise may change with more severe winter
conditions if elk are forced by deep snow to congregate on lower elevations entirely below the
powerline corridor. The number of hunters declined from historical figures in the area after powerline
access roads were built. Hunter distribution also changed, however, total harvest remained the same.
Placement of future extra high voltage (EHV) lines should consider not only the effect of the physical
presence of the corridor and towers on wildlife, but also the potential impacts of electro-magnetic fields
and corona discharge. It is recommended that future EHV lines are not placed across concentrated big
game use areas.
ELK HABITAT USE AND THE IMPACT OF THE CONSTRUCTION' AND
ENERGIZATION OF A 500-KV AC POWERLINE ON THE
NORTH BOULDER WINTER RANGE,.MONTANA
by
Jodie Ellen Canfield
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree
of
Master of Science
in
Fish and Wildlife Management
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
November 1984
MAIN LIB.
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requirements
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able
to
of a master's degree at
Montana
of
State
I agree that the Library shall make it avail­
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quotations
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Library.
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provided
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duction
of
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professor,
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of
or
extensive quotation from
thesis
in his/her
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be
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absence, by
the opinion of
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Any
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copying
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V
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I
wish
following
study:
to
express my sincere appreciation
to
the
people for their valuable contributions to this
Dr. H . D . Picton,, Montana State University, major
advisor, who invested time and energy in all phases of the
study;
Dr.
R.
J.
Mackie;,. and Dr.
R . E . Moore, MS U, for
review of the manuscript; Mr. D . Burkhal ter, MSU computingi
.
services,,
for
conducting
.
•-
the
‘
'
computerized
analyses and for assistance with TELDAY;
Tina
Crump,
Deerlodge
National
statistical
Mike Paterni and
Forest,
tremendous contributions to the fieldwork;
. for
Mike
their
Frisina,
MDFWP area manager, for conducting the trapping operations
and
providing background information;
others
of
the
Bonneville
Power
providing constructive criticism,
and
weather and noise data;
Mr.
Jack Lee
Administration
and
for
technical publications,
The Gallatin Flying
Service
for their expertise in aviation and locating elk; the many
;
volunteers from the Deerlodge National Forest and
I
State University who made the 24 hour monitoring
and
pellet
group counts a
success;
assistance,
encouragement,
and patience;
Montana
sessions
Ron Spoon for field
my family
for
their support throughout my academic endeavors; and my dog
Mac for his constant companionship in the field.
vi
i
TABLE. OF CONTENTS
Page
APPROVAL PAGE......
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE.......................
VITA............
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.... . . t . . . ... ........ ............... . .
TABLE OF CONTENTS.......
ii
I ii
iv
v
vi
LIST OF TABLES..... ......... '........................
viii
LISiT OF FIGURES.......................................
x
ABSTRACT......
xvii
INTRODUCTION. ..........................................
I
STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION................................
6
Location and Access.................................
Physiography........................................
Geology and Soils...........
Cl Ima t .....................................
Vegetation...... ............................. ......
Land Use .... .........................................
History of the Herd................................
The Transmission Li n e..............................
6
8
8
9
11
14
15
15
METHODS................
Radio telemetry.....................
Direct Observations...........
Pellet and Vegetation Transects...................
Track Transects.................
Climatic Measurements..............................
Snow Depths......................................
Temperature......................................
Hunter Surveys..........
Historical Information.............................
RESULTS
17
17
20
20
22
22
22
23
24
24
25
vi i
TABLE OF CONTENTS— Continued
Page
Population Dynamics.................................
Trapping and Telemetry.... ................
General Elk Distribution.................
High Use Areas...................................
Influence of Snow Cover.........................
Foo d Habits . ..............
Winter Movements....................................
Seasonal Movements..........
Spring............................................
Fall..............................................
Habitat Selection
in Relation to Availability.....
Habitat Selection
in Relation to Activity.........
Slope..........
Topography.................................. .... ■
Aspect...........................
Vegetation T ype..................................
Snow Depth ..... .........
Distance to the Power line.......................
Individual Home Ranges and Movements.... .........
Daily Home Range..............
Cumulative Seasonal Home Ranges................
Movement s ..... ......... .........................
Fidelity to Home Range..........................
Power line Effects...................................
Clearing and Line Construction.................
Elk Distribution Near the Li n e ...........
Power line Crossings.... .............
Elk Observations Near the Line.................
Acoustical Effects...........................
Elk Distribution and Audible Noise.............
Powerline Access Roads and Hunting.............
25
25
'28
28
28
33
34
35
35
37
38
41
41
41
43
43
48
48
51
51
52
53
54
63
63
63
6.9
71
72
73
75
DISCUSSION.............................................
79
LITERATURE CITED.......
96
APPENDICES............ I..................... .........
Appendix A - Weather Data..........................
Appendix B - Computer Coding Format for Elk
Observations and Radio Locations...............
Appendix C - Elk Distribution During 24 Hour
Monitoring and Aerial Flights.......
Appendix D - Individual Elk Home Ranges During
24 Hour Monitoring Sessions.....................
104
105
108
Ill
119
viii
LIST OF TABLES
Page
Table I.
Table 2.
Table 3.
Table 4.
Table 5.
Table 6 .
Table 7.
Table 8 .
Table 9.
Table 10.
Climatic data summary from Butte
and Boulder weather stations.......... .
10
Averages and ranges of snow depths
by month at Elk Park and Uncle Sam's
Gulch, Montana, 1941-1974 and 19681973 base respectively. . . ..................
10
Major plant species or genera represented
on the study area ..... .....................
13
Summary of elk capture data and
fate of the radiocollars put out
in January 1983......................... .
27
Elk distribution in relation to
forage distribution within each
pasture, 1983 and 1984, N. Boulder
winter range , Montana.............. .......
33
Number of radioed elk on winter,
transitional, and summer range at
various dates in May 1983, N. Boulder
River, Montana.............................
37
Average standard diameter size for 14
elk during each 24 hour session, 19831984, N. Boulder winter range, M t .........
52
Summary of home range size and movements
for individual elk acumulated
throughout the winter, 1983-1984, N .
Boulder River, Montana.....................
53
Contribution of significant factors
(P<.05) to the pellet group regression,
1983 & 1984 pellet group transects.......
65
Contribution of significant factors
(,P<.05) to the total R squared in the
total plant utilization regression,
1983 and 1984. ..... ...... ............... .
65
ix
LIST OF TABLES— Continued
Pag e
Table 11.
Table 12.
Table 13.
Table 14.
Table 15.
Table 16.
Table 17.
Table 18.
Table 19.
Table 20.
Table 21.
The average number of track crossings
on 100 m line transects (n=l2 ) under,
and parallel north and south of the
powerline, N . Boulder winter range,
1983-1984...................................
70
Comparison of track crossings under
and near the powerline the day following
a storm vs. one or two days later, N.
Boulder winter range, 1984................
71
Percent of the time noise levels exceeded
55 dB(A) at the edge of the corridor in
1984, based on BPA noise statistical
plots, averaged for all frequencies......
73
Percent of elk relocations in 1984
during precipitation (P) and non­
precipitation (NP), within various
distances from the powerline at dawn,
dusk, and dark, N . Boulder
winter range..... .........................
75
Examples of comments offered by hunters
about BPA roads and the powerline in
1982 and 1983, N. Boulder River, M t ......
77
Percent of hunters interviewed hunting a
given area in 1982 and 1983, N. Boulder
River , Mt..... ...... .......................
78
Bull harvest statistics from district
318, Montana..... ....... ..................
79
Harvest data from either sex permits,
district 318, Montana................. ....
79
Mean snow depth in cm between January
and March at each snow stake in.1983
and 1984.
Elevation at snow stakes
ranged from 19 05-1965 m ....... ............
106
Means, standard deviations, and ranges
of temperatures (Centigrade) based on
Butte weather data (USDC-N0AA )............
106
Coding format for elk observations..... .
109
X
LIST OF FIGURES
Page
Figure I
Figure 2
Figure 3
Figure 4
Figure 5
Figure 6
Figure 7
Figure 8
Map of the N. Boulder range showing
location of the powerline, antenna
stations, and open winter roads.... ..
7
Map of the western two thirds of
the study area and Lowland Creek
showing distribution of major
vegetation types.................. ......
12
Calf/cow ratios and total number of elk
during MDFWP winter trend flights on the
N. Boulder winter range, M t .............
26
Distribution of elk groups based on
MDFWP aerial trend counts, 1973-1984,
N. Boulder winter range, M t .... ........
29
Relative densities of pellet groups
per square km on the western end of
the N. Boulder winter range in 1975,
1982, 1983, and 1 984.
High=6 ,
medium=4, low=2 (Cole 197 5).............
30
Relative densities of pellet groups
per square km on the eastern end of
the N. Boulder winter range in 1975,
1982, 19 83, 1984 . High = 6,, medi um=4 ,
Io w= 2 (Cole 1975)... ................ ....
31
Distribution of elk on the N . Boulder
winter range between January and March
of 19 83 and 1984 based on total visual
observations and radiolocations.........
32
Mean elevation of marked and unmarked
elk locations for daytime and evening
through early morning periods during
each climatic division or period of
similar weather based on Butte
temperature and precipitation data..... .
36
xi
LIST OF FIGURES— Continued
Page
Figure 9.
Radioed elk distribution relative
to the powerline on October 2 4, 19 83
(one day before hunting season began)
and November 3 0, 1983 (3 days after
season ended), N. Boulder winter
>
range , Mt *.......................... :.....
39
Figure 10. Centroids and ranges of discriminant
scores of elk radiolocations (for 1983
and I 984 combined) and random habitat
points on the N . Boulder winter range 6
determined by discriminant analysis.
The canonical coefficients describe
the relative importance of each
measured parameter in distinguishing
between the two groups.
Habitat
parameters and associated relative
values explained 59 % of the variation
between locations and random habitat
points .... ............................. .
40
Figure 11. Average slope (%) at elk locations in
each of four time divisions in 1983
and 1984 compared to the average
available slope on the N. Boulder
winter range, M T ..........................
42
Figure 12. Frequency distribution of winter elk
use of topographic features in each
of four time divisions in 1983 and
1984 compared to availability of
topographic classes on the N.
Boulder winter range, M T ....... .........
44
Figure 13. Frequency distribution of winter elk
use of aspect for each of four time
divisions in 1983 and 1984.
Stars
indicate frequencies that differ
significantly (using chi-square) from
available aspects on the N. Boulder
winter range, M T .....................
45
Figure 14. Frequency distribution of winter elk
use of major vegetation types in each
of four time divisions in 1983 and
}
1 984 relative to their availability
on the N . Boulder range.... ..............
46
xii
LIST OF FIGURES— Continued
Page
Figure 15.
Figure 16.
Figure 17.
Figure 18.
Figure 19.
Figure 20.
Figure 21.
Figure 22.
Frequency distribution of distance to
timber at elk locations in each of four
time divisions in 1983 and 1984, N.
Boulder winter range.
The 0-100 m
class includes elk located within
timber................ ...................
Average elevation (m) at elk locations
in each of four time divisions in 1983
and 1984 relative to the average elev­
ation of the powerline and the average
elevation available on the N. Boulder
winter range, M T ........ .................
47
1
49
Typical 24 hour home range and
habitat use pattern of a radioed elk
relative to the powerline, on the N .
Boulder range.
Relocations are numbered
sequentially
from 1-13 beginning with
1300 hours, every 2 hours, for a 24 hour
period.
..............................
50
Seasonal polygons and standard dia­
meters for elk #3 and #5 in 1983 and
1984 relative to the powerline, N.
Boulder winter range , M T ................
56
Seasonal polygons and standard dia­
meters for elk #6 and #7 in 1983 and
1984 relative to the powerline, N.
Boulder winter range,M T .................
57
Seasonal polygons and standard dia­
meters for elk #8 and #9 in 1983 and
1984 relative to the powerline, N.
Boulder winter range, M T ................
58
Seasonal polygons and standard dia­
meters for elk #11 and #12 in 1983
and 1984 relative to the powerline,
N . Boulder winter range, M T ..........
59
Seasonal polygons and,standard dia­
meters for elk #13 in 1983 and 1984
relative to the powerline, N . Boulder
winter range, M T .........................
60
xiii
LIST OF FIGURES--Continued
Pag e
Figure 23.
Figure 24.
Figure 25.
Figure 26.
Figure 27.
Figure 28.
Figure 29.
Seasonal polygons and standard dia­
meters for elk #14 and #15 in 1983 and
1984 relative to the pdwerline, N.
Boulder winter range, M T ..............
61
Distribution of groups of unmarked
elk on the N. Boulder range based on
direct observations in 1983 and 1984
between January and March.
The center
of distribution is the geographic
activity center (GAC) stated as UTM
coordinates...........................
62
Relocations of four radioed elk
before and during powerline construc­
tion on the eastern edge of the N.
Boulder winter range, M T .............
64
Average number of pellet groups counted
and total percent of grazed bunchgrass
plants in 1983 and 1984 and the percent
of plants grazed by cattle in 1983 on
50 m transects under and adjacent to
the powerline ( total N=90).............
68
Radioed elk distribution over .the
entire winter period in relation to
distance from the powerline (km) in
1983 and 1984 during precipitation
and during fair weather, N. Boulder
winter range, M t ................. ......
74
Winter climate index values (Pic ton
1984c) based on Boulder MT. data,
1968 to I 984........... .................
107
Radioed elk distribution during 24
hour monitoring sessions in February
1983.
Under the date is given (top
to bottom) mean elevation at elk
locations (m ) , mean temperature (C)
over the period, and mean weekly
snow depth (cm) on the N . Boulder
winter range, M T ....................
112
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES— Continued
Page
Figure 30.
Figure 31.
Figure 32.
Figure 33.
Figure 34.
Radioed elk distribution during
24 hour monitoring sessions in
March 1983.
Under the date is given
(top to bottom) mean elevation at elk
locations (m), mean temperature over
the period (C) , and mean weekly snow
depth (cm) on the N.Boulder winter
range, MT ........ ............ .
113
Radioed elk distribution during
24 hour monitoring sessions in
April 1983.
Under the date is given
(top to bottom), mean elevation at elk
locations (m), mean temperature over
the period (C) , and mean weekly snow
depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range, M T ................ ..............
114
Radioed elk distribution during
24 hour monitoring sessions in
January 1984.
Under the date is given
(top to bottom), mean elevation at elk
locations (m), mean temperature over
the period (C) , and mean weekly snow
depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range, MT..................... ....... .
115
Radioed elk distribution during
24 hour monitoring sessions in
February 1984.
Under the date is given
(top to bottom), mean elevation at elk
locations (m ) , mean temperature over
the period (C), and mean weekly snow
depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range , M T ..................... ..........
116
Radioed elk distribution during
24 hour monitoring sessions in
March 1984.
Under the date is given
(top to bottom), mean elevation at elk
locations (m ) , mean temperature over
the period (C), and mean weekly snow
depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range , M T ........................... .
117
XV
LIST OF FIGURES— Continued
Page
Figtire 35.
Figure 36.
Figure 37.
Figure 38.
Figure 39.
Figure 40.
Figure 41.
Figure 42.
Figure 43.
Radioed elk summer aerial relocations
from June to September 1983.
Under
plot is given mean temperature (C)
during flight and mean elevation (m)
at elk locations..........................
118
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #3 on the N. Boulder
winter range , M T .......... . . ......... .
120
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #5 on the N. Boulder
winter range , M T . ............ ........ .
121
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #6 on the N. Boulder
winter range , M T ........................ . .
122
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #7 on the N. Boulder
winter range, M T ..........................
123
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in.1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #8 on the N. Boulder
winter range , MT........... . ............
124
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk # 9 on the N. Boulder
winter range , M T ........... ...............
125
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #11 on the N. Boulder
winter range , MT...........................
126
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #12 on the N. Boulder
winter range , M T . . . . .......................
127
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES--Continued
Page
Figure 44.
Figure 45.
Figure 46.
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1 984
radioed elk #13 on the N. Boulder
winter range, M T ......................
.128
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and 1984
for radioed elk #14 on the N. Boulder
winter range, MT ....... ...................
129
Polygons and standard diameters for
each 24 hour session in 1983 and I 984
for radioed elk #15 on the N. Boulder
winter range, MT
130
xvi i
ABSTRACT
Elk habitat use,
activity patterns,
and winter
distribution, before and after energization of a 500-kV AC
powerline which crosses critical winter range in south­
western Montana,
was studied during the mild winters
of
1983 and 1984.
Methods included 24 hour continuous radiomonitoring,
track and pellet group counts,
and direct
ground and aerial observations.
Habitat use by the elk
herd,
which apparently was at or above carrying capacity ,
was influenced
by weather parameters,
distribution
of
available
forage
(as influenced by snow conditions and
cattle grazing).,
and population density.
The powerline
crosses a bunchgrass range at about the level where timber
begins, and elk typically crossed the powerline
corridor
twice a day while traveling between bedding and feeding
areas.
Powerlihe
construction
in the spring
of 1983
displaced radioed elk prior to spring migration. ' Four of
11 elk with functional radios did not return to the study
area to winter in 1984 after the powerline was energized.
The physical presence of the powerline did not alter elk
distribution
or activity
patterns,
however,
noise
generated
from corona discharge off the conductors during
precipitation caused elk to hesitate and show excitablity
before
crossing a "noisy corridor" , and may alter
basic
elk daily activity patterns during storms.
It is not
expected
that elk will further acclimate to precipitation
noise levels because the rate of animal exposure is low on
the relatively arid North Boulder range,
and the corridor
itself is not an attractive forage source.
The level
of
impact from corona noise may change with more
severe
winter
conditions if elk are forced by deep
snow
to
congregate
on lower elevations
entirely
below
the
powerline corridor.
The number of hunters declined from
historical
figures in the area after powerline access
roads were
built.
Hunter
distribution
also changed,
however,
total harvest remained the same.
Placement
of
future
extra high voltage (EHV) lines should consider not
only
the effect of the physical presence of the corridor
and towers on wildlife,
but also the potential impacts of
electro-magnetic
fields and corona
discharge.
It is
recommended
that future EHV lines are not
placed across
concentrated big game use areas.
I
INTRODUCTION
Rocky
hunting
Mountain elk
opportunities
(Cervus elaphus nelson!) and the
source
of
recreational wealth and economic benefit (Boyd 1978).
As
a species,
in
the
they
create
are
a
elk provide the most days of hunter recreation
state
of Montana (Aderhold
Montana
1984).
also
Rich
deposits
in
Eastern
generate
benefits
and
provide energy for the needs of
coal
economic
a
growing
human population.
The "Cols trip Project" was designed to use these coal
resources
in
electrical
order
energy
to
meet
anticipated
in the Pacific Northwest.
phase of the project was to build
transmission
line
the
line
line.
west
to
a 500-kV
for
final
AC electrical
built
the
M o n t a n a a n d from there
Power Administration (BPA) continued
the
integrate Colstrip
BPA
power
transmission grid (Cols trip EIS 1979).
the
The
The Montana Power Company
from Cols trip to Townsend,
Bonneville
demands
into
the
The BPA portion of
line in Montana skirts the Elkhorn Mountains
between
Townsend and Boulder, continues up the North Boulder River
drainage,
and
crosses
the
eastern
Continental Divide west of Basin.
foothills
of
the
2
The
River,
foothills,
constitute
hunting
rising
up
from the
Boulder
the only major elk wintering
district 318 (Egan 1967).
hemionus)
North
area
in
Mule deer (Odqcoileus
and moose (Alces alces shirasi) also winter
in
the area.
The
Colstrip EIS (1979) states that the
impacts
of
the extra high voltage (EVH) transmission line on deer and
elk range would be long-term, high, and direct in terms of
cover
removal,
construction,
activities
of
forage disturbances
increased
due to road and tower
stress on animals
and access roads,
due
human
and potential fragmentation
habitat.
Other
phenomena
associated with EHV
lines
electrical fields,
magnetic fields,
which
foul weather audible noise
results
production.
significant
in
to
the
in
Sheppard
and corona discharge
and
suggested that
it
voltage
was
transmission
beyond
the
scope
line"
of
ozone
there
biological interactions with electric
"high
However,
(1983)
include
are
fields
environment.
this
study
to
investigate these aspects as they relate to elk in a field
situation.
Responses
of
and
of big game to EHV powerlines and the
associated corridors were evaluated by Goodwin
Griffith
current
study
(1977).
is
Relative to
unique
in
that
these
it
(1975)
studies,
provided
use
the
the
3
opportunity
to
gather
energization
of
the line ,
habitat
disruption, and
Elk
limited
west,
The
winter
by
south,
at
and
during the years of
altitudes
N.
after
greatest
above 1500 m .
Boulder
drainage
snow accumulations to
the
is
north,
east.
in
turn,
to the elk population (Chrest and Herbert
1980,
and
and by human settlement to
quality of winter
Chrest and Childress 1976).
the
before
the
amount
habitat
both
in the
excessive
and
limiting
range
data
range
is,
Therefore, any reduction in
or changes in patterns of elk use associated with
transmission line,
will directly affect
the
future
populations.
There is potential for impacts of the power line, to be
masked or compounded by climatic conditions,
of
forage
and
recognized
and
man's
activities.
It
is
that future changes in land management on this
winter range,
or
cover ,
availability
in terras of timber harvest, cattle grazing,
recreational
uses,
may
potentiate
or
ameliorate
power line effects.
Because
elk
are
large mobile, animals,
expected they will respond to change
it
can
be
in their environment
by adjusting behavior in regard to distribution, movement,
and use of specific habitats (Mackie pers . comm. 1984).
The
general
objective of this ongoing study
is-
to
evaluate factors influencing elk habitat use and movements
4
on
the North Boulder River winter range
energization
are
of the power line.
to (I)
patterns
before and after
The specific
evaluate elk habitat selection
on
variables,
winter
forage
transmission line,
range
in
relation
availability,
animal
objectives
and
movement
to
climatic
activity,
the
and human activities and (2) determine
if elk avoid or show distinct behavioral responses to
any
activity
and
or
phenomena associated with
construction
operation of the power line.
The original proposal recommended 3 years of baseline
data
collection
impacts
of
Delays
and an additional 3 years to
powerline
construction
energization.
By that time, the transmission line towers and
access roads had been completed.
Clearing of the corridor
completed and the lines strung in spring
1983.
the
in funding precluded fieldwork until the winter of
1982-1983.
was
and
study
The
second
line was energized in October 1983,
field
season
energization period.
(1983-1984)
represents
and
summer
thus
the
the . post­
My field, studies were conducted from
late
December 1982 to June of 1983 and from mid- December
1983
to
late
March of 1984.
continue through the spring 1985.
The
overall
study
will
5
This
study
was
funded
by
the
Bonneville
Administration
(U.S. Department of Energy),
United
Forest
States
Department of Fish,
Service.
Mike
and
Frisina,
Power
by
the
Montana
Wildlife, and Parks (MDFWP), provided
assistance in capturing and marking el k .
6
STUDY AREA DESCRIPTION
Location and Access
The study area is in the North Boulder River drainage
of southwest Montana, approximately 26 km (16 mi) north of
Butte. The area includes approximately 52 km
the
Deerlodge
private
east,
National
holdings.
Little
Boulder
River
forest and a
Boundaries
Cottonwood
small
9
mi ), of
portion
are Basin Creek
Creek on the
on the south,
9' (20
west,
and the 2100 m
on
the
of
the
North
(7,000
ft)
contour line on the north.
Vehicular
grave I roads:
Interstate
Boulder
west
is
provided
by
three
principal
the Red Rock Creek road extending north off
15 near the eastern study area
River road following the
boundary;
valley floor from
to headwaters along the Continental Divide;
Saratoga
the
access
road running north from the river
western
addition,
mining
margin of the study area
there is a variety of jeep trails,
roads,
I).
along
In
logging and
and newly built BPA powerline access roads
which penetrate every drainage in the area,
closed
1-15
and the
bottom
(Figure
the
but which are
to motorized vehicles between December I
and
May
Figure I.
Map of the N. Boulder range showing location of the
powerline, antenna stations, and open winter roads.
8
15.
The
USFS
in
road
closures were Implemented in 1973 by
recognition of the area as critical
the
winter
elk
range.
Physiography
The
region
area can be generally classified as
east
of the Continental
described
the
mountains
which
from
Divide.
a
Ruppel
area as the northern part of
are low and rounded.
1644 m (5 480 ft)
foothills
(1963)
the
Boulder
Elevations
to 2220 m (7400 ft).
The
range
general
exposure is southerly , but many small deep gulches dissect
the range in a north/south direction,
a
diversity of aspects.
thus giving the area
The predominant landform
series of ridges running north/south.
is
a
Flat rolling areas
and steep sided knolls are superimposed.
Geology and Soils
The
area
extensive
is
part
outcropping
of
the
Boulder
Ba thoIith,
of igneous granitic material
an
that
was formed by several small molten magma intrusions during
the Cretaceous Period (Alt and Hyndman 1972).
Tertiary,
and
the inter-mountain valleys filled with
sediments,
Pleistocene
area
during
was
the
During the
and
were
later eroded
and moved by the
glaciers to create the foothills.
additionally influenced
Tertiary
(Ruppel
by
1963).
gravels
The study
volcanic
Thus
the
activity
parent
9
materials
from which the area soils were derived
include
g rani tic s , glacial deposits, volcanics, alluvial deposits,
and
noncalcareous
frost churning,
the
sedimentary
rocks.
glacial deposition,
Stream
erosion,
and mass wasting are
primary processes inferred to be responsible for
geomorphology
Soils
loams
are
of
the
area (Ruppert
generally
1980) .
well-drained,
shallow,
and sandy loams of the taxonomic order
rocky
Inceptisol .
Severe late summer moisture stresses occur in most of
soils on the winter range.
the
In contrast,
the
the summer range
to the north has poorly drained soils and remains lush and
green
on
for most of the summer.
landtype s ,
found
in
soils,
More detailed information
and geology of the study area
Ruppert (1980),
Montagne et
al.
(1982),
are
and
Ruppel (1963), respectively.
Clima t e .
The
limited
lists
area
has
a montane
continental
climate
precipitation and extreme temperatures.
the
average
precipitation
and
with
Table I
temperatures
for
Boulder, and Butte, Montana— the nearest weather recording
stations to the study area (USDC-NOAA 1983).
10
Table I. Climatic
data
summary from Butte and Boulder
weather stations.
Elevation(m) Mean annual precip .
at station
(1941-1970 base)
Butte (1658)
Boulder (1471)
Table
30.67 cm
2 7.60 cm
Mean Jan .
temp .
17.2° C
18.6° C
-9.17° C
-Si78U C
2 is. derived from Montana snow course
(F a m e s and Shafer 197 5)
study
Mean July
temp .
area,
and
for
for Elk Park,
9 km south of the
Uncle Sam Gulch,
boundary of the study area.
records
on
the
eastern
The elevation at both sites
is 1950 m (6500 ft).
Table 2.
Averages and ranges of snow depths by month at
Elk Park and Uncle Sam's Gulch, Montana, 19411974 and I 968-1 973 base respectively .
Date
Average snow depth(cm)
Elk Park
U.S. Gulch
January I
February I
March I
April I
May I
«■
•
The
North
southwesterly
■■
39.5
46.0
40.3
23.0
—--20-75
23.-8 0
18-73
00-75
33 — 81
58-76
43-113
55-88
00-83
normally
receives
50.9
73. I
74.3
7 0. 6
46.0
T
Boulder
River valley
chinook winds consistantly
winter and spring.
Range (cm)
throughout
the
These winds keep south and west slopes
on the winter range relatively free of snow.
Based on
a
11
climate Index for the period November to March, which used
Boulder
data
winter
for
precipitation
of 1982-83 rated a + 6 ,
rated
and
temperatures,
and the winter of
the
1983-84
a +9 on a scale ranging from -10 to +10 (Figure 28,
Appendix A ) .
Vegetation
As determined by a LMS (light metering system), which
computes
areas
from
aerial
photographs,
54 % of the study area is timbered,
41 % is
open
and
parks,
of
contrasting
shades
the remaining 5 %
represents
riparian
vegetation
2).
of the North Boulder River floodplain
(Figure
•Z
Table 3 lists the scientific and common names of the
major
plant
following
species-or genera found on
the
the
study
classification of Hitchcock and
area
Cronquist
(1973).
Douglas
fir
is the predominant overstory in
stands at lower elevations.
of creeping juniper,
association
and
east
southern
is
The usual understory consists
pinegrass,
and kinnickinick.
exposures.
Ponderosa pine is present
exposure with sandy soil.
southerly
exposures.
Old
currently active cutting units,
(7,000 f t) .
This
found primarily in drainages and on north
Lodgepole Pine forms thick "doghair"
dry
timber
on
one
At higher elevations,
stands on all but the
clearcuts,
as
well
are present above 2100
as
m
12
5 km
N. Boulder R. flood plain
timbered areas
open areas
I
N
Figure 2.
Map of the western two thirds of the study
area and Lowland Creek showing distribution
of major vegetation types.
13
Table 3.
Genus
Major plant species or genera represented on the
study area.
Species
TREES:
Pseudot sug a menziesii
Pinus contorta
Pinus ponderosa
Populus tremuloides
Common name
'
Douglas fir
Lodgepole pine
Ponderosa pine
Quaking aspen
SHRUBS:
Juniperus horizontalis
Juniperus scopulorum
Artemesia tridentata
Chrysothamnus viscidiflorus
Artemesia frigida
Purshia tridentata
Artostaphylos uva-ursi
Douglasia montana
Amelanchier alnifolia
Rosa woods!!
Potentilla fruticosa
Prunus virginiana
Berberis repens
Salix
Creeping juniper
Rocky Mn. juniper
Big sagebrush
Green rabbi thrush
Fringed sagewort
Bitterbrush
Kinnickinick
Mountain douglasia
Serviceberry
Wood’s rose
Cinquefoil
Chokecherry
Oregon grape
Wi Ilow
FOR B S :
Lomatium cous
Lupinus
As tragalus
Phlox
Arenaria
A n tennaria
Taraxacum
Selaginella
Mountain lomatium
Lupine
Milkvetch
Phlox
Sandwort
Pussytoes
Dandelion
Clubmos s
GRAMINOIDS:
Agropyron spicatum
Fe stuc a idahoen sis
Fe stuca scabrella
Bromus
Koeleria cristata
Danthonia
Poa sandbergii
Ca rex filifolia
Ca rex geyerii
Calamagros tis rubescens
Bluebunch wheatgrass
Idaho fescue
Rough fescue
Bromegra ss
Junegra s s
Oatgrass
Sandberg’s bluegrass
Threadleaf sedge
Elksedge
Pinegrass
14
Grasslands
1950
extend
from the valley bottom
m (6500 ft) on southerly aspects.
association
is
bluebunch
The
wheatgrass and
to
about
predominant
Idaho
fescue.
Rough fescue occurs on much of the area and appears to
be
heavily
is
found
used
by both cattle and el k .
Big sagebrush
in dense stands on a few local sites
area, typically on southerly exposures.
often abundant
Aspen
swales
curtailed
Elk browsing
and
some
has
bark
severely
stripping
communities
is
occur in all the drainages
Willows are the dominant
other shrubs and sedges
vegetation,
are
found.
of the valley floor.
North
Boulder River valley produce a dense, tall stand
which
are
a
Beaver
has resulted in extensive willow development
However,
in
but
parts
grasses
in
Bluegrasses are the usual understory.
of
activity
bottoms.
reproduction,
area.
variety
Bunchgrasses are
under individual sagebrush plants.
creek
Riparian
the
study
stands are found throughout the study area
and
evident.
in the
on
other areas of the
harvested annually for
hay
to
of
feed
wintering livestock.
Land Use
Historically,
source
the
Boulder
Batholith has
of many valuable deposits of copper,
been
the
silver,
and
15
gold.
The
remnants
of
mining
dredging and exploratory adits,
activities,
including
are currently visible
on
the study area.
Current
lands
multiple use activities on
include
recreational
timber
uses.
harvest,
National
cattle
Forest
grazing,
There are three campgrounds and
trailheads on the N.
Boulder road.
and
two
Hunting, fishing, and
snowmobiling attract many people to the area year round.
History of the Herd
Reports of elk using the N . Boulder winter range date
back to the 1940's.
were
Between 1939 and 1968,
planted in the vicinity of the study
district 318) from Yellows tone Park.
the
over 500 elk
area
(hunting
Tag returns through
years revealed that most of the transplanted elk were
harvested in hunting district 318 (Egan 1967).
The Transmission Line
The
areas
powerline essentially divides northern timbered
from
winter
southern grasslands across most
range
of
the
elk
(Figure 2).
Between Pole Mountain and Torpy Gulch (Figure I), the
line follows an abandoned telephone line corridor;
Torpy
Gulch and Thunderbolt Creek,
ridgetops
and
across
steep
between
it was placed on open
gulleys.
This
placement
16
resulted
In
vegetative
roads.
minimal
disturbance
forest
was
clearing.
The
major
for tower bases
and
access
Approximately 1% of the study area was
disturbed
by powerline construction.
The
AC
right-of-way
transmission
width for a double circuit
line is 42.6 m.
Towers are of a
configuration design, 53.6 m tall and 17.2 m wide.
5 00-kV
stack
17
METHODS
Radlotelemetry
Individual
general
radlocolI ared
distribution
movements,
seasonal
From
data
this
following:
periods,
lin e ,
of
elk
elk
on
movements $
base,
habitat
were
to
winter
range,
and daily
home
inferences were
selection
used
made
in relation
study
winter
ranges.
about
to
the
activity
elk distribution in relation to the transmission
elk response to powerline energization and to human
disturbances (hunting,
construction activities),
and elk
distribution and movement patterns in relation to climatic
factors.
Radiocollars
consisted
of
inserted into molded PVC plastic pipe.
AVM
transmitters
A unique symbol or
color combination identified each collar.
Fifteen
cow
January 1983.
helicopter.
cow
was
Kasworm
collared
and
ear tagged
M-99 was the immobilizing drug.
and wear,
palpation,
collected.
were
in
Elk were captured using a dart gun from
immobilized,
replacement
uterine
elk
Fecal
(MDFWP)
and
age
was
estimated
a
While the
from
tooth
pregnancy status was determined by
fecal
and
blood
samples
samples were later analyzed
for food habit information.
by
were
Wayne
18
Aerial
spring
relocations were made bimonthly in winter and
and
(weather
once a month for the remainder
permitting)
mounted
of
the
year
from a Piper Supercub with a
belly
three element Yagi antenna and an AVM model
receiver.
LAl2
The general distribution of all elk observed on
the winter range was also recorded during each flight.
Three
permanent
ground triangulation stations
established in locations such that bearings from
were
any
two
stations to heavy elk use areas on the winter range formed
an
angle
station
as close to 90® as possible (Figure
employed ' a Telonics TAG-5
precision
I).
direction­
finding array with dual three element antennas.
rose
provided
calibrated
of
direction
from
each
Each
A compass
antenna.
It
from true north using a compass and the
declination.
These
calibrations were
then
was
angle
checked
using stationary transmitters (beacons) at known locations
and
compass
bearing s
from
the
stations.
Stationary
beacons were also used to test the accuracy of the system.
Stations
month
the
were manned (2 people per station)
by , student volunteers from MSU and personnel
Deerlodge National Forest.
person
every
I
signal
yielded the most accurate information (as
Pac (1978) also suggested).
radioed
interpreting
a
from
Placement of at least
(per station) experienced in
characteristics
all
twice
An attempt was made to locate
animals (simultaneously from
2 hours over a 24 hour
period.
all
Compass
stations)
bearing s
19
from
each
station were compiled,
triangulated
locations
on
were
photo-orthoquad
and the elk
maps.
locations
Questionable
disregarded (evaluations were
made
from
observer comments).
Each elk location was described
and
converted
computer format given in
Table,
21,
using
the
into
the
Appendix
B.
computer
program
using
the
Data were plotted and analyzed
SPSS
calculator,
frequency
TELDAY (MDFWP).
software
package
included mea n s ,
distributions.
Statistical
and
a
analyses,
programmable
standard deviations, ranges,
Student's
t-tests,
linear
regression, and two-way analysis of variance.
The availability of habitat components was determined
through systematic random point descriptions of the
area
from a photo-orthoquad map.
A total of 334
were described using the following variables:
the
main
road,
distance to the powerline,
timbered cover,
vegetation
Analysis
type
(Table
(SPSS)
differences
locations
elevation,
was
between
and
random
study
points
distance to
distance
to
topography, slope, aspect, and
21,
used
Appendix
to
habitat
habitat
weights
and
fashion
in order to maximize
B).
Discriminate
determine
statistical
components at elk
points.
This
24
hour
procedure
combines the variables measured in a
linear
the differences between the
two groups being compared (Klecka 1975) .
In this case, it
20
gives
an
measured
indication
variable
of elk habitat
relative to its
winter range.
selection
for
any
on
the
availability
.
Direct Observations
Visual
possible
observations were made on a daily basis
from topographic high points (often the
stations) and from on foot in the field.
only
visible at dawn and dusk,
when
antenna
Because elk were
observations were made at
/
these
times using 7 X 35 binoculars and a 32
scope.
Due
habitats
used
to
and
bias of these observations
feeding activity periods,
X
spotting
toward
open
these data
were
only to compare the distribution of unmarked
of elk between years.
groups
Observations were recorded in
the
computer format given in Table 21, Appendix B , and plotted
relative to the powerline using the program TELDAY.
Pellet and Vegetation Transects
General
distribution
of
elk on
the
winter
range
during the period 1 982 -T 984 was also examined using, pellet
group counting routes which sampled the entire study area.
These routes were marked on aerial photograph overlays and
walked
each year in late spring.
The observer
the change in relative density of pellet groups
to
the
method
information
described
was collected in
by
Cole
recorded
according
(19 75) .
1975 for this area.
Similar
21
Ten
used
permanently
to
powerline
measure
ma rked
pellet
transects
elk distribution in
right-of-way .
Each
we re
relation
to
transec t consis ted
the
of
9
lines, each .50 m in length, layed out under the centerline
and at parallel distances of 15,
50, 100, and 200 m north
and
south from the outer conductor of the powerline.
the
spring
within
of 1983,
one
the total number of
pellet
m on either side of the line was
each line of each transect.
groups
counted
This procedure was
In
on
repeated
in 1984, including only "fresh" pellet groups.
Concurrent with pellet counts, vegetation utilization
was
measured
on
7 of the
bluebunch wheatgra ss,
to
10
transects.
The
nearest
Idaho fescue, or rough fescue plant
each I m mark on a 50 m tape was recorded as grazed or
ungrazed,
and
Slope,
aspect,
vegetative cover were recorded for each line of
transect.
1984,
and its height was measured.
each
This procedure was followed in spring 1983
and
and in fall 1983 after cattle were removed from the
study area allotments.
Cattle utilization on bunchgra sse s
was calculated using the percent of plants grazed and USFS
height/weight
using
curves.
Transect
multiple regression (SPSS).
data were
The number of
groups (representing elk use) and total plant
were
entered
analyses;
the
as
slope,
powerline,
dependent
aspect,
and
analyzed
variables
in
pellet
utilization
two
separate
vegetative type, distance from
direction
from the
powerline
were
22
entered as independent variables.
cattle
In the 1984 regression,
utilization (as measured in the fall of 1983)
entered as an additional independent
multiple
regression
gives
an
variable.
indication
was
Stepwise
of
which
independent variable or set of variables best explains the
variation in the dependent variable.
Track Transects
During the winter, elk use of the powerline right-ofway
was
examined
using
each
consisting
transects,
powerline
of
track
count
of
transects.
a 100 m line
under
and a parallel line 100 m both north and
the corridor,
were examined after every
After the powerline was energized in 1983,
measured
Four
more
avoidance
of
frequently
the
to
investigate
powerline during
snow
the
south
storm.
transects were
possible
precipitation
elk
noise
levels.
Climatic Measurements
Snow Depths
In January 1983,
one
drainage
aspect,
and
on
ten snow stakes were stratified in
the study
cover type.
area
by
elevation,
In March 1983,
an
slope,
additional
23
eight stakes were placed at higher elevations.
In
both
1983 and 1984, snow depths were monitored once a week from
first
snowfall
depths
at
conditions
to snowmelt for use
elk
locations
over
time .
and
in
estimating
monitoring
snow
general
snow
Wind speeds and directions
were
also estimated at each stake.
Tempera ture
In January 1983, a transect consisting of six min/max
thermometers, placed
north
timbered
every 50 m in elevation up
slope,
was read once a week to
temperature extremes and the presence of
a
steep
document
inversions.
It
was removed in 1984 because there was no indication of any
inversions
in this area and because the Bonneville
Administration
station
established a weather and noise monitoring
on the study area in May 1983.
record
daily
Power
I
continued
to
temperature extremes and the occurrence
of
precipitation from one location on the study area in 1984.
The
audible
BPA
noise
Monitoring
data
for
Station
the
provided
days
monitored for 24 hour periods in 1984.
graphical
field
which
elk
and
were
BPA also provided
monthly summaries of audible noise for the 1984
season.
emmission
in
weather
from
publications.
Technical
EHV
information on
powerlines
was
audible
obtained
from
noise
BPA
24
Boulder
determine
and Butte weather station data were used
long-term
climatic
trends
and
to
to
gather
additional weather data relevant to the study period.
Hunter Surveys
For
two weekends during the general big game hunting
season both years,
on
the
study
que stionaire
number
not
hunter checking stations were operated
area.
Hunters were
asked
to
answer
concerning how they hunted the area and
and location of animals seen or killed.
specifically requested,
some offered
a
the
Although
their
opinion
about the new BPA transmission line and access roads.
Historical Information
Ten
years
of
baseline
data
concerning
hunting
pressure and success, elk population trends, productivity,
and
distribution
available
information
from
was
of the elk herd on the study
MDFWP
reports.
collected
from
Other
the
area
was
historical
files
of
MDFWP
biologist Mike Frisina.
Historical
the
information concerning cattle grazing
study area allotments and previous elk/cattle
allocation
conflicts
(Deerlodge
National
Frisina.
was
gathered
from
USFS
Forest) and from the files
on
forage
records
of
Mike
25
RESULTS
Population Dynamics
The
North
Boulder
winter
range
is
used
exclusively by cows, calves, and yearling bulls.
almost
The size
of
the wintering population has increased an
average
7
%
3).
per
year
between
1964-1984
(Figure
productivity (calves per 100 cows) has fluctuated
a
high of 70 in 1974 to a low of 29 in 1982.
the winters of 1983 and 19 84 were 37 and 45
of
Herd
between
Ratios for
respectively.
Of
the 15 cow elk palpated for pregnancy in January 1983,
11
were pregnant,
number
including one of two
of calves per 100 cows was
yearlings.
negatively
with
the
number of cows (from trend counts)
range
(r=
-.65),
positively
The
correlated
on
winter
but the absolute number of calves
correlated
with
the
total
number
of
was
cows
(r=.79), and the total number of elk counted during winter
trend counts (r=.91).
1
Trapping and Telemetry
Table
the
4
summarizes the data on capture and fate
radiocollars
radiolocations
put
out in
1983.
A
total
and 713 visual observations were
of
of
1301
compiled
Calves/100 Cows
a 400
no data
trend count
calves/100 cows
Figure 3.
Calf/cow ratios and total number of elk during MDFWP
winter trend flights on the N. Boulder winter
range, Mt.
27
Table
Elk ID
4.
Summary of elk capture
data and fate
of the radiocollars put out in January 1983.
Age
Trap location
I
8-10
lower Alta Gulch
2
2
w . of Finn Gulch
3
4— 6
upper Alta Gulch
4
2
n . of Berkin Flat
5
3
I ower Boyle Gulch
6
2
I ower Finn Gulch
7
4— 6
W . of Finn Gulch
8
5-7
W . of Alta Gulch
9
5-6
W . of Alta Gulch
10
6
11
Ad.
12
I
Berkin Flat
13
I
w . of Torpy Gulch
14
3-4
lower Finn Gulch
15
6— 8
upper Alta Gulch
Torpy. Gulch
w . of Torpy Gulch
Fate of collar
elk legally shot in 1983;
put out again in 3/84.
transmitter malfunction
in February 1983; collar
never recovered.
transmitter
on original
e Ik and functioning in
June 1984.
transmitter malfunction
in June 1983;collar never
r e c over ed.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
June 1984.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84 .
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84.
signal traced to ridge on
summer range;
collar
buried under snow and not
on an elk.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/34.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84 .
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84.
transmitter on original
elk and functioning in
6/84.
28
over
2
years fieldwork.
The average ground
telemetry
I
system error, determined from stationary radios at known
locations,
reported
was less than .2 km.
by
Biggins
Hammond (1980),
This error is less than
and Pitcher (1978) and
Lonner
and
and possibly due to shorter triangulation
distances and improved accuracy of the TAG-5 system over a
standard
were
null-peak system.
also
used
triangulated
to
test
The stationary
for
possible
transmitters
distortion
locations by the powerline.
No
of
influence
was detected.
General Elk Distribution
High Use Areas
Winter
group
aerial surveys (Figure 4),
density
(Figures 5 and 6),
relative pellet
and total
winter
elk
radiolocations (Figure 7) show general elk distribution on
the
N.
Boulder winter range.
common
moderately
timber
patches.
steep
Lower
Heavy use areas
bunchgrass
parks
have
with
use areas are those
in
nearby
with
dense
timber having little or no under story.
Influence of Snow Cover
The correlation between the distribution of available
forage in an average snow year (Frisina et
the
percent
a l . 1976)
of marked and unmarked elk relocations
and
(for
Figure 4
Distribution of elk groups based on MDFWP
aerial trend counts, 1973-1984, N. Boulder
winter range, Mt.
Relative densities of pellet groups per square
km on the western end of the N. Boulder winter
range in 1975, 1982, 1983, and 1984.
High=S,
medium=4, low=2 (Cole 1975) .
32
♦V
1983
I- - 1- - 1_ _ I_ _ I
5 km
Figure 7.
I
Distribution of elk on the N. Boulder winter
range between January and March of 1983 and
1984 based on total visual observations and
radiolocations.
33
both
years combined) in a given pasture was
I
and r= .7 8 respectively)
(r=.91
(Table 5).
■
Elk distribution in .relation to forage
distribution within each pasture , 1983
and 1984, N . Boulder winter range, Montana •
Table 5.
Pasture
high
% Available
forage
N =7.89 s q .km
Pole Mn.
Carlson
Red Rock
Torpy
North
Terry
Lowland
Elk
Boyle
Berkin
3
NA
8
4
NA
7
NA
28
16
28
% Unmarked elk ^
1983
1984
N=410
N = 303
I
9
13
8
O
O
5
21
11
21
.
% Marke d elk 2
1983
1984
N = 775
N = 526
4
16
7
11
O
2
2
27
13
9
2
3
3
4
I
I
25
17
15
28
2
3
I
3
8
7
18
15
17
26
i
The percentage of all unmarked elk observed in. a given
2 pasture
The percentage of 24 hour relocations for radioed elk
within a given pasture
NA: Information not available
Foo d Habits
The
importance of bunchgrass parks to wintering
was emphasized by winter food habit analysis.
elk
The average
diet (as determined from 15 fecal samples taken
capture d
animals
graminoids,
in
January
1983) consisted
of which bluebunch wheatgrass,
and Idaho fescue predominated.
15%
elk
and 18% of the average
variety of species.
diet.
of
from
67
%
rough fescue,
Forbs and browse made
These included a
up
wide
34
Winter Movements
General field and aerial observations indicated
climatic
factors
area.
Snowfall
lower
elevations,
influenced elk movements^on
that
the
study
accumulated resulted in elk
using
whereas
unseasonable
resulted in elk use of higher elevations.
elevation
at
elk
indicator
of
elk response to climatic
locations
warm
periods
Changes in mean
was therefore
used
on
field
precipitation
conditions
records
data
and
Butte
as
conditions.
field seasons were broken into similar periods of
based
that
weather
in order to separate "normal"
and
winter
During
period,
mean
elevations at elk locations were
against
mean
daily
temperatures and
The
temperatures
from severe or mild conditions.
mean
an
each
regressed
weekly
snow
depths (averaging snows ta ke s from all aspects at 1920 m ) .
In
1983,
mean
elevation
at
elk
locations
was
significantly correlated with mean temperature (r =.84) but
I 1
not
significantly
correlated with
mean
snow depth
(r=-.54).
The
opposite relation occurred with
correlations.
correlated
temperature
That
with
snow
(r=.39) .
is,
elevation
depths
Elk
was
(r=-.85)
in
the
1984
significantly
but
not
with
the winter of 1984 used
higher elevations (Figure 8) and more area relative to the
winter of 1983.
The maximum areas used by radioed elk in
35
1983
and
Although
(Table 19,
the
1984
snow
were 99 km ^ and
depths
1983
the predominant winds were
from
general
and kept southerly aspects
in 1984,
and
not as efficient at
snowfree.
respectively.
in
contrast,
were
km^
were greater in
Appendix A),
southwest
147
snowfree.
In
winds from the northwest predominated
Temperatures
keeping
southerly
slopes
in both winters were similar and
mild (Table 20, Appendix A).
Figures 29 to 34 (Appendix C)
show
distribution
of
radioed elk in relation to mean temperature and snow depth
throughout
both
winters
as
determined
from
24
hour
monitoring sessions.
Seasonal Movements
Spring
Elk remained on winter range through April, utilizing
new
green growth at lower elevations on the winter range .
The
usual crepuscular activity periods were abandoned
this
day.
time and elk were seen feeding at all times
Migration
mid-July.
responded
A
by
of
at
the
began in early May and was completed by
spring storm occurred May
moving
down in elevation
range back on to winter range (Table 6).
9-12,
from
and
elk
transition
36
1980
X =1949
X =1930 m
Mean Etevation in Meters
19501
0 9 0 0 -1 6 0 0 hours
19201
h=18te7m
1890
hours
1860
18301
17701
1983
1984
Climate Divisions
over Time
Figure 8.
Mean elevation of marked and unmarked elk
locations for daytime and evening through
early morning periods during each climatic
division or period of similar weather based
on Butte temperature and precipitation data.
37
Table
6.
Number of radioed elk on winter, transitional,
and summer range at various dates in May 1983,
North Boulder River, Montana.
No . of radioed
elk o n :
4/26
5/3
5/5
5/13
2
2
I
I
I
12
0
4
4
I
0
3
0
Winter range 13
8
4
9
6
6
0
Unknown
location
0
3
2
4
2
I
Summer
range 0
Transition
0
Calving.
winter
the
range
N.
(Figure
5/1 9
6/14
apparently occurred on the upper fringes
of
and in the Lowland Creek drainage south
of
Boulder
35,
5/15
River.
Aerial relocations on
July
19
Appendix C ) showed that radioed elk migrated
to two distinct summer ranges— one a few kilometers north
I
and up in elevation from the winter range, and the other
in
the Bi son Creek drainage ( "Elk Park") approximately
9
km south of the N . Boulder River.
Fall
Radioed elk remained on summer range between June and
October.
from
April
The
mean elevation of elk locations
through
September (Figure 35,
July, then declined
Appendix C ) .
in
increased
August
Few elk were observed
during summer and fall aerial flights due to their use
dense timbered cover.
and
of
During the hunting season, October
,38
25
to November 27,
elk moved up in elevation,
days after the big game season ended,
the
air
to be migrating toward or on
(Figure 9).
and three
elk were seen
the
winter
from
range
AlI radioed elk were on winter range by mid-
December, 19 83.
Habitat Selection in Relation to Availability
Habitat
locations
parameters
(discriminate
canonical
portance
winter
of
its
the
analysis r=.59) (Figure
coefficient represents the
associated variable
between the two groups.
whether
elk
did not differ significantly from random
descriptions
Each
measured at radioed
in
relative
point
10).
im­
distinguishing
The sign of a coefficient denotes
variable is making a
negative
or
positive
contribution to the discriminant function.
Elk
locations
selection
for
demonstrated
a
open cover types close
small
to
degree
timber,
of
lower
topographic points, steeper slopes, and southeast aspects.
The
analysis
elevation
main
also
showed elk to prefer areas
(and consequently nearer the powerline and
road)
than the 2100 m (7000 ft) contour
line
was defined as the upper limit of winter range.
elk
were
majority
I
of
occasionally
of the range
seen at
used by
this
upper
elk between
lower
the
which
Although
limit,
the
November and
39
*c
:o°i
#0'
#F
WG
N
w®
I
5 km
letters: before big game season
01:
Figure 9.
after season
Radioed elk distribution relative to the
powerline on October 24, 1983 (one day before
hunting season began) and November 30, 1983
(3 days after season ended) , N. Boulder winter
range, Mt.
40
centroid
24 hour elk locations
Random habitat points
-3
-2
- 1 0
1
2
3
distance to Boulder R. Road
near
far
Ipw
elevation
high
near
far
distance to the oowerllne
near
far
distance to timber
ridgetop
topography
creek bottom
open canopy
closed canopy
cover type
slope
steep
gentle
aspect
N
NE
E
SE
S
SW
W
NW
Figure 10.
standardized
canonical
coefficient
-1.13
-.5 3
.32
.32
-.58
.23
-.08
Centroids and ranges of discriminant scores of elk
radiolocations (for 1983 and 1984 combined) and
random habitat points on the N. Boulder winter
range, determined by discriminant analysis. The
canonical coefficients describe the relative
importance of each measured parameter in
distinguishing between the two groups. Habitat
parameters and associated relative values ex­
plained 59% of the variation between locations
and random habitat points.
.07
41
March In both years was below 2040 m (6800 ft).
That is,
the 2100 m contour line is an artificial boundary and
not
a good indicator of available elevations.
Habitat Selection in Relation to Activity
Habitat
during
24
through
parameters
at all locations of radioed
hour sessions were average d for
the
elk
February1
April and January through March sessions in
1983
and 1984, respectively (total N=1301 relocations).
Slope
Use
years
That
of
slopes during all time periods and
was in proportion to the average
is,
slope
in
both
available.
elk used shallow slopes as well as steep slopes
(F igure l l ) .
Topography
In
upper
both
slopes.
proportion
1983 and 1984,
m i d-sIopes ,
daytime beds on
and
to the availability of
broad
flat
selected
the
drainages
on the study area ,
slopes.
creek beds
these
ridgetops,
occurred
features.
sma 11
and selected agains t
I ower
Use of topography at dusk occurred in proportion
to availability with the exception of a selection
rldgetops
Elk
be tween
rIdges
foun d
in
in
1984.
Night
locations in
selection against upper and mid-slopes.
1983
against
revealed
In both 1983 and
42
20
20
-I
Average Slope (%)
H-
key:
198311
random habitat p o in ts *
19840
Dusk
Figure 11.
Dawn
Average slope (%) at elk locations in each
of four time divisions in 1983 and 1984
compared to the average available slope on
the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
43
1984,
At
elk selected for drainage bottoms
dawn,
during the night.'
elk in 1983 selected against ridgetops and
broad flat ridges and drainage bottoms,
for
but in 1984, used
topography in proportion to its availability (Figure 12).
Aspect
Southerly aspects predominate on the study area,
showed
a
predominance of all elk locations in
divisions.
the
and
all
time
Figure 13 indicates at which aspects and times
frequency
at
elk locations
differed from
available
aspects.
Vegetation Type
Daytime beds were generally in timber.
showed selection for edge,
in
sagebrush,
1984
and
bunchgrass parks in
selected
for
bunchgrass parks.
showed
for
and riparian types
1983 .
Dawn
By dusk, elk
By
locations
selection for bunchgrass parks in both
riparian areas in 1984.
were above 2040 m,
dark,
was very rare (Figure 14).
again
years
Elk use of clearcuts,
elk
and
which.
Of the six
vegetation types defined, four of the types were typically
used by an individual elk per day in both 1983 and 1984.
Elk
edge
and
locations
demonstrated an affinity
nearness to security cover.
determined
The
for
habitat,
as
from random point description, provides a high
degree of security in the form of timbered cover and
(Figure 15).
timber
edge
key:
42.
□
Day
MO
Dusk
1984
H S 1983
availability
1
2
3
4
5
«
topography
Figure
12.
Frequency distribution of winter elk use of topographic
features in each of four time divisions in 1983 and 1984
compared to availability of topographic classes on the N.
Boulder winter range, MT.
ASPECT
19 83
% Frequency of elk locations
1984
Dawn
sig n ifica n tly d iffe re n t fro m available
Figure 13.
Frequency distribution of winter elk use of
aspect for each of four time divisions in
1983 and 1984. Stars indicate frequencies
that differ significantly (using chi-square)
from available aspects on the N. Boulder
winter range, MT.
% Frequency
Figure 14.
Frequency distribution of winter elk use of major vegetation
types in each of four time divisions in 1983 and 1984
relative to their availability on the N. Boulder range.
47
Day
Dusk
key:
# # 1983
I— 11984
% Frequency of elk locations
^availability
ma*
— —*
■100 1 0 0 -2 0 0 2 0 0 -3 0 0
0 -1 0 0
1 0 0 -2 0 0 2 0 0 -3 0 0
Distance to timber (m)
0 -1 0 0 1 0 0 -2 0 0 2 0 0 -3 0 0 3 0 0 -4 0 0 0 -1 0 0
Figure 15.
1 0 0 -2 0 0 2 0 0 -3 0 0 3 0 0 -4 0 0
Frequency distribution of distance to timber
at elk locations in each of four time
divisions in 1983 and 1984, N. Boulder winter
range. The 0-100 m class includes elk located
within timber.
48
Snow depth
The
from
weekly
years
and
average
snow depth at elk locations
(estimated
snow stake measurements) was 17 cm
in
both
11 cm in both years at
dawn
and 16 cm and 13 cm at dusk in
1983
at daytime locations,
dark locations,
and I 984, respectively.
Distance to the Powerline
Elk
use
of
elevation, relative
elevation of the powerline,
dark
time divisions,
habitat
use on the N .
Daytime
beds
average,
across
at dawn,
to
the
average
daylight, dusk, and
shows the general daily pattern
Boulder winter range (Figure
throughout
the
winter
north of the powerline.
the powerline and
occurred,
of
16).
on
the
Elk began moving south
towards feeding areas at
dusk,
and fed downhill once they reached south facing bunchgrass
slopes.
Figure 16 indicates that elk were more nocturnal
in
and
1984
sunset.
that
night.
often crossed the powerline to
Information
from 24 hour
monitoring
indicated
Typically, at midnight or 2 a .m. , elk began moving
having often spent time in the N .
River bottom and adjacent sagebrush flats.
after
after
elk may be actively moving for a good portion of the
back up slope,
were
feed
feeding uphill and had moved back into
dawn.
illustrates
A
this
Boulder
By dawn,
timber
typical home range of an individual
pattern
of
movement
(Figure
elk
soon
elk
17).
<0
O 1980
'm
o
O
£ 1950
E 1924
ava. elev. available
C
O
%
> 1890 1
O
avg. elev. of powerllne
c
CO
® 1 8 fifi
1830
CO
CO 3
0) 0)
CO
CO CO
0> 0»
CO
CO CO
0) 0)
CO
CO
CD
*
CO
0)
180fi
Dusk
Figure 16.
Dark
Dawn
Average elevation (m) at elk locations in
each of four time divisions in 1983 and 1984
relative to the average elevation of the
powerline and the average elevation available
on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
standard diameter
Figure 17.
Typical 24 hour home range and habitat use pattern of a
radioed elk relative to the powerline on the N. Boulder
range. Relocations are numbered sequentially from
1-13 beginning at 1300 hours, every two hours, for a
24 hour period.
■ti.
51
Individual Elk Home Ranges and Movements
Daily Home Range
Plots
of each 24 hour home range for the 11 elk with
functional
radios during both field seasons are found
in
Appendix D (Figures 36-46).
Polygon
sessions
home
(maximum
range sizes for individual
km^)
2
varied
sessions (0.16 -16.33 km ) .
the
number
period
use
Standard
because
with
area
are
elk
and
of
a
24
hour
The average
24
hour
2
km .
an individual elk
thought to be
was
a
2.3
less
of home range size (Lonner and
variable
Hammond
1980)
the standard diameter is the diameter of a circle
the geographic activity center at its center and
least
68 % of an animals relocations within
(Harrison 1958,
24
for
hour
This is partly a function
and Tester 1967).
diameters
comparison
among
and timing of relocations within
(Heezen
polygon
widely
24
hour session,
standard
and Hayne 1949).
season (Table 7).
was
quite
circle
When averaged for each
daily home range size,
diameters,
that
at
similar
as expressed by
throughout
the
52
Table 7.
Average standard diameter for 14 elk during each
24 hour session, 1983-1984, N. Boulder winter
range , Mt.
Average standard
diameter (km)
Date
Standard
devia t i on
I 983
2/12-13
2/18-19
3/18-19
3/26-27
4/1 6-17
4/23-24
I 983 Mean
1.6
2.3
2.3
1.9
2.3
2.8
2. 2
.98
.67
.82
.68
.73
I. 9
1984
1/14-15
1/21-22
2/11-12
2/18-19
3/10-11
3/18-19
1984 Mean
2.1
1.6
2.3
2.3
1.9
2.4
2. I
1 .3
1.0
.83 .
.69
.64
1.8
Cumul a tive Seasonal Home Ranges
Cumulative
winter
polygon
home
range
sizes
for
individual
to
elk varied from 12.5 km^ to 35 km^ and 14 km^
o
44.3 km in 1983 and 1984, respectively.
Cumulative
standard
diameters varied from 2.6 to 7.6 km in 1983
2.8 to 6.1 km in 1984.
year
differences
(Table 8).
and
When averaged for all elk, between
in home range size
were
insignificant
53
Table
8.
Elk SD1
ID 83
km
Summary of home range sizes for individual
elk accumulated throughout the w i n t e r ,
1983-1984, N . Boulder R i v e r , Mt.
SD
84
km
Max. area
1983
kin ■
2
Ma x . area
1984
kin
Mean #
of fixes
83
84
I
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
2.6
4.2
4.5
3.2
2.8
3.6
4.0
3.2
4.5
4.8
4.1
7.6
3.7
3.6
dea d
2 .9
dea d
2.8
3.8
3.7.
3.2
3 .7
dea d
3 .9
4.9
6.1
3.6
3.6
15.4
26.1
26.2
17 .4
13.0
34.0
35.5
18.7
23.0
20.7
22.6
30.5
17.6
12.5
dea d
14.0
dea d
14.0
33.0
23.2
17.8
29.9
dea d
14.8
44.3
16.5
17.5
33.4
85
52
47
52
63
74
64
64
55
54
74
30
67
62
X
4.0
3.8
22.4
23.5
56
dea d
64
dead
62
47
64
81
50
dead
42
52
21
61
75
56
Standard diameter average d over 6 sessions.
Maximum Area of polygon average d over 6 sessions.
Home ranges were not calculated from flight locations
since only 5 winter, flights were accomplished in 1983
3 in 1984.
and
Youmans (1979) found that even weekly sampling
of deer populations from the air underestimated home range
size and extent of movements.
Movements
Monitoring
during
24 hour sessions
indicated
radioed elk moved between each successive relocation.
rate
of movement between sessions and years was
that
The
similar,
54
rate
of movement between sessions and years was
averaging
km/hour
.44
and
km/hour
and 10 k m / day in
8 km/day in 1984.
1983,
Elk using
moved an average distance of 10.4 km/day,
average
similar,
and
Lowland
.37
Creek
compared to
movement of 9.2 km/day for elk on the N.
an
Boulder
range.
The
minimum
(straight
line)
distance that
would
have to travel to maintain the typical
using
four
elk
pattern
of
vegetation types was calculated to be 2.2
km
for an elk bedding below the powerline,
bedding
an
above
the
powerline,
4.7 km for an elk
and 2.3
km
for
an
elk
utilizing the Lowland Creek area.
Maximum
indicated
as
65
elk
movements
calculated
with
TELDAY
that it was not unusual for elk to move as.
km
per day,
especially during
mild
periods
far
of
we a ther .
Fidelity to Home Range
Geographic
compare
used
to
years.
A
differences
in
years for significant shifts in either
an
t-test
between
east/west
radioed
centers
(GAC)
were
fidelity to winter home range between
two-sample
GACs
activity.
was used to test
direction
elk,
for
or a north/south direction.
I demonstrated a significant shift
Of
in
11
the
east/west direction, 4 demonstrated a north/south shift, 2
shifted
i
in
both
directions
(P<.001) ,
and
4
did
not
55
significantly
1984.
Of
shift
activity
centers between
the 6 elk shifting in latitude,
direction
1983
and
5 moved in
away from the powerline an average distance
1.12 km,
and I moved in a direction toward the
a
of
powerline
1.2 km (Figures 18-23).
It
was
utilized
previously
in
mentioned that
1984 than in 1983.
more
This
range
additional
use occurred on the west end of the study area,
was
range
and south
of the N . Boulder River in the Lowland Creek drainage.
1983,
the
soon
after elk were collared, elk #6 moved south to
Lowland Creek drainage and remained there
the winter.
As spring migration began,
moved south.
support
more
All
throughout
.5 additional elk
That is, the Lowland Creek area appeared to
a small number of wintering elk in 1983,
used primarily as transitional range.
the
In 1984,
Lowl and drainage had less snow cover
elk ,
of
including
the
radioed
Creek in 1984
but was
however,
and
supported
4 radioed animals (ID's
6,7,9,12).
animals
that wintered
in
//12
times
Creek.
crossed
in 1984,
Lowland
also used this drainage while migrating
summer range in "Elk Park" in the spring of 1983.
and
In
the river onto the study
but spent most of the winter
Geographic
to
Elk #9
area
several
in
Lowland
activity centers of unmarked elk
not differ significantly between years (Figure 24).
did
56
ELK#3
1983
5 km
I ------- r
(GAC)
\
ELK*5
Figure 18.
Seasonal polygons and standard diameters for
elk #3 and //5 in 1983 and 1984 relative to
the powerline, N. Boulder winter range, MT.
ELK*6
1983—
1984-
5 km
-1983
Figure 19.
Seasonal polygons and standard diameters for
elk #6 and //7 in 1983 and 1984 relative to
the powerline, N. Boulder winter range,MT.
58
ELK#8
.1983
1984-
1 km
/
-1983
Figure 20.
Seasonal polygons and standard diameters for
elk //8 and #9 In 1983 and 1984 relative to
the powerline, N. Boulder winter range, MT.
59
ELK*11
-1983
5 km
-1983
-1984
Figure 21.
Seasonal polygons and standard diameters for
elk /Zll and /Z12 in 1983 and 1984 relative to
the powerline, N. Boulder winter range, MT.
60
ELK* 13
t— S-Km
Figure 22.
Seasonal polygons and standard diameters for
elk #13 In 1983 and 1984 relative to the
powerline, N. Boulder winter range, MT.
61
ELK* 14
ELK# 15
4+ +
1984
+Xt-
Flgure 23.
-1983
Seasonal polygons and standard diameters for
elk //14 and //15 in 1983 and 1984 relative to
the powerline, N. Boulder winter range, MT.
62
+ -H+
++
1983
G AC: 3924 51242
G A C : 13925 51241
Figure 24. Distribution of groups of unmarked elk on the
N. Boulder range based on direct observations
in 1983 and 1984 between January and March.
The center of distribution is the geographic
activity center(GAC) stated as UTM coordinates.
63
Powerline Effects
r
Clearing and line Construction
In
late
April 1983,
entry
onto
(Pole
Mountain)
Four
BPA contractors
the eastern most portion of
were
the
allowed
study
to .begin stringing conductors on
area
towers.
radioed elk previously utilizing this area moved out
of the area soon after, construction began (Figure 25).
t-test showed the shift south to be significant
It
is
not
migrating
known if they eventually
north,
but
came
it is doubtful since
A
(P<.001).
back
before
construction
expanded after May 15 when road closures were no longer in
effect.
known
Timber
bedding
clearing
was
clearing for the corridor disrupted
area.
still
However,
timber adjacent
available and utilized
by
one
to
the
elk
for
bedding in 1984.
Elk Distribution Near the Line
Results of the multiple regression analysis of pellet
group
to
and plant utilization transects under and
the powerline corridor (total N=90) are
Tables 9 and 10.
I
parallel
presented
in
64
Construction area
Pole Mn.
before construction
i
t
i
>
i
i
5km
Figure 25.
Relocations of four radioed elk before and
during powerline construction on the eastern
edge of the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
65
Table 9.
Contribution of significant factors (P <.05) to
the pellet group regression, 1983 & 1984pellet group transects.
Contribution to
Variable
XXX
-.18
+ . 21
-.21
-. 19
+ .05
+ .16
-.04
— .01
+ .01
+ .02
+.0001
I
Total R 2 70(r=. 84)
1983
Total R 2 4 I (r=.64)
1984
+ .004
-
Contribution of significant factors (P<.05)
to the total
in the total plant
utilization regression, 1983 and 1984.
Va riable
Contribution to R":
1983
1984
XXX
Total R 2 7 7 (r= .88 )
I 983
Total R 2 35(r = .60)
I 984
+ .18
+ .21
+ .29
+ .16
+ .10
+ .16
-.05
-.001
+ .02
-.03
-.001
+
Cattle use
No . of pellet
groups
Aspec t
Slo pe
Cover
Distance to
powerline
Direction
f r om
powerline
O
■P-
Table 10.
1984
O
NS
Cattle use
Total percent
plants grazed
Cover Type
Aspect
Slope
Distance
from powerline
Di re c tion
from powerline
1983
not signif.
66
In 1983,
the
number
the factors that best explained variation in
of pellet groups on a transect
percent of plants grazed,
cover type,
and
included
the
aspect.
The
number of pellet groups counted increased as the number of
plants
grazed increased,
northerly
and
in timbered cover types and
easterly aspects.
The number
of
on
pellet
groups also increased with distance from the powerline and
north of the powerline (relative to south).
Total utilization of bunchgrass in 1983 (cattle
elk
use)
groups,
was
best
aspect,
on steeper,
Al though
explained by the
number
slope, and cover type.
of
south slopes with sagebrush and grass
cover.
distance or direction from the powerline did not
energization),
the
same
of
and
relatively closer
relations
pellet
explained less),
powerline;
(before
more plants were grazed on transects south
powerline
The
number
pellet
Feeding occurred
contribute a great deal to the regression in 1983
of
plus
that
groups
in
to
explained
1983
the
line.
variation
held
in
1984
in
(but
with the exception of direction from the
the number of pellet groups increased south of
the line in 1984.
Total
explained
bunchgrass
utilization
by cattle utilization.
in
1984
That is,
was
most of
best
the
I
vegetation under and adjacent to the powerline was removed
by
cattle.
cattle
The
number of animal unit months (AUMs)
I
grazed bn the winter range increased from 625
of
in
67
1983
to
1090
utilization
grazing.
in
1984.
related
Factors
explaining
total
more to cattle grazing than
to
elk
Total utilization showed a relative increase
northerly
and easterly aspects,
cn
closer to the power line,
on open cover types, and shallower slopes.
Pellet
group counts were lower on transects
grazed by cattle.
by
cattle
within
included
m
on either side
mostly
(percent
That is, the percent of plants grazed
negatively influenced the
20 0
of
heavily
gentle
plants
of
occurrence
the
slopes.
grazed)
on
power line.
Cattle
the
of
Boyle
pastures, both having steep south slopes and
elk
This
utilization
and
Berkin
both heavily
used by wintering elk, average d 41% and 5 3%, respectively.
Average
plant biomass
Pasture
and 32% in Berkin Pasture.
taken
removed by cattle was 21% in Boyle
The "Elk Pasture" was
out of the pasture rotation system and reserved for
winter
elk
use in 1975.
Elk have
traditionally
shown
heavy use of this pasture for feeding.
Analysis
groups
to
of
be
variance
showed the
significantly different
number
of
(P < .001)
pellet
between
transects at intervals of 15, 50, 100, and 200 m north and
south
data
of the power line in 1983,
but not in
1984.
The
were biased due to heavy elk use around a salt block
(present
for many years) on a transect 50 m north of
power line (Figure 26).
the
68
+ pellet groups/50m
% plants g ra z e d /5 0 m (utlllzatl
18 84 total utilization
19 83 aummar cattle utilization
\
Z
A
1983 total utilization
1 9 83 pallet count
19 84 pallet count
NORTH
Figure 26.
(meters from powerline)
TRANSECT
SOUTH
Average number of pellet groups counted and
total percent of grazed bunchgrass plants in
1983 and 1984 and the percent of plants grazed
by cattle in 1983 on 50 m transects under and
adjacent to the powerline (total N=90).
69
Powerline Crossings
Track
transects,
twelve
100 m lines,
times between January and April 1983.
were read
Lack of sufficient
amounts of new snow prevented more frequent readings.
1984,
5
transects were read 13 times between late
In
December
1983 and March 1984.
There
were several major trails on the west half
of
the winter range which elk used in travelling from bedding
areas
the
north
of the powerline to feeding
corridor.
these
trails
there
was
occurred
areas south
Because 2 sets of transects
(2 and 4),
intersected
and the other 2 sets
much variability in the
data.
of
did
not,
Transect
"I"
in an open meadow that elk used consistently
1983, but not in 1984.
in
While measuring cattle utilization
in the fall of 1983, it was noticed that cattle had grazed
that
area
very heavily.
Because of
these
sources
of
i
variability
and
small
sample sizes,
it was
felt
statistical comparisons between years and among
were not meaningful.
The
comparison
that
transects
The data are presented in Table 11.
of track counts immediately after
a,
storm relative to I or 2 days following, in 1984, may have
significant
biological
implications.
Data
transect sets where elk frequently crossed are
from
the
2
presented.
70
Table 11.
The average number of track crossings on 100 m
line ‘transects (n=l2) under, and parallel north
and south of t'he power line, N . Boulder winter
range, 1983-1984.
Year/trans ec t
Average no. tracks■crossing transect:
100 m south
Center
100 m north
I
I
2
2
3
3
4
4
1983
1984
1983
1984
1983
1984"
1983
1984
1983 Mean
1984 Mean
On
8.4
.8
3.5
5.2
2.0
I .4
4.0
11.5
10.6
0
0
3.3
0
.6
3.2
7.7
8.8
.5
.5
5.3
0
.15
3.0
9.0
4.5
4.7
3.8
3.4
3.5
3.2
4 different occasions,
transects were run immediately
after a storm and again the following day or 2 days
later
(if
track
no
new
crossings
storm.
One
snow
fell
during
that
time).
No
were counted on the day immediately following a
to 2 days after a storm,
elk crossings
were
usually numerous, especially if crossings just missing the
transects are taken into account (Table 12).
71
Table
12.
Comparison of track crossings under and near
the powerline the day following a storm vs.
one or two days later, Ni Boulder winter
range, 1984.
Numbe r of tracks crossing
100 m
100 m Center
n or th
south
Transec t
number
Date
of run
Date
of storm
4
2/18
2/1 7
0
0
0
4
2/20
2/17
40
32
41
2
2/22
.2/2 1
0
0
0
2
2/24
2/21
30
43
36
4
2/22
2/21
0
0
0
4
2/23
2/21
48
64
87
4
3/5
3/4
0
0
0
4
3/6
2
3/5
3/4
0
0
0
(tracks cross just west of transec t)
3/4
0
0
0
2
3/6
4
3/11
0
3/4
0 ■
4
cross
(tracks
east of transec t)
3/10
0
0
0
4
3/12
3/10
10
14
2
Elk Observations Near the Line
I had the opportunity on several occasions to observe
elk
cross under the line in 1984.
walked
slowly
"sub-groups"
weather
moving
and calmly across the
of
2 and -3 animals.
In fair weather,
corridor
in
small
On March 2nd in
elk were seen crossing the powerline at dusk
downhill into the "Elk
Pasture".
The
elk
fair
and
following
morning, it was snowing hard shortly before dawn.
Because
72
of
poor
visibility,
observed
I
approximately
climbed the ridge
140
elk spread out
about 250 m south of the power line.
dawn,
on
foot
and
and
feeding
One half hour
after
the lead cows began walking uphill, and the rest of
the group followed single file.
Noise from the power line,
a crackling and hissing sound, was quite loud from my post
300 m away.
elk
in
About 20 m from the outer conductor,
the lead
stopped and hesitated and the rest of the elk
on them in a large tight circle.
for about 5 minutes,
closed,
They stood in place
then some exhibited a westward pacing
movement parallel to the line.
Snowfall let up
slightly
at this time, and the lead elk began crossing the corridor
and
moving quickly into a timber patch north of the line.
The rest of the group followed single file.
Acous tical Effects
Ambient noise levels on the study area range
25 and 45 dB (A ) .
weather
that
and noise station data on the study area indicate
audible
55 dB (A) at the edge of the corridor (Table
At the centerline
an
Statistical plots produced from the B PA
during foul weather (precipitation),
exceeds
between
average
decreasing
(B B ST 1982).
during precipitation,
noise
13).
the noise level at
powerline elevation of 1890 m
is
60
dB(A ),
to 49 dB (A) at 120 m and to 40 dB (A) at 500
m
73
Table
Percent of the time noise levels exceeded
55 dB(A) at the edge of the corridor in
1984, based on BPA noise statistical plots,
averaged for all frequencies.
13.
Month
Nov.
De c .
Jan.
Feb.
Mar .
% of time noise exceeded 55 dB(A)
and % standard deviation (in parentheses)
83
83
84
84
84
8.5
10.0
7.2
7.6
17.2
(4.1)
(7.8)
(5.2)
(5.6)
(13.9)
Elk Distribution and Audible Noise
Elk 24 hour relocations were analyzed for differences
in
distribution relative to the powerline, between years,
and
considering
precipitation,
this
locations
using
analysis
during
and
not
analysis of variance.
revealed
that
elk
during
Results
were
of
distributed
significantly closer to the powerline in 1983 than in 1984
(P<.001).
Relocations
during
precipitation
were
significantly closer to the powerline in 1983 relative
relocations
However,
during
in
1984
to
(E<.001) .
no significant differences occurred between 1984
precipitation
,A
precipitation
also
closer
and non-precipitation relocations.
look
at
elk
distribution
around
the
powerline revealed that during precipitation in 1984,
the
highest
the
percentage of elk were found within 100 m of
powerline and the lowest percentage 101-200 m away (Figure
27).
showed
TELDAY
plots of relocations
during
precipitation
indication of this "clumping" effect south of
the
percent of elk relocetlone
1 9 8 3 preclpltetlon
1 9 8 3 no precipitation
»Z!J35%8J984 no precipitation
,984 precipitation
distance from powerline centerline
Figure 27.
In kilometers
Radioed elk distribution over the entire winter period in
relation to distance from the powerline (km) in 1983 and
1984 during precipitation and during fair weather,
N. Boulder winter range, Mt.
75
powerline during morning hours.
of
potential
crossing
Daytime
the
beds
Dusk plots showed 2 cases
" turnaround" effects,
powerline at dusk
and 4 cases
during
light
of
elk
snowfall.
were generally greater than 300 m from
the
powerline regardless of weather conditions.
Throwing
using
out daytime locations and locations of
Lowland Creek (>2 km from the study area),
found that elk were
elk
it
was
distributed significantly nearer
the
powerline at dawn and dark during fair weather relative to
foul
weather in 1984 (P <.05) .
This relationship did not
hold at dusk (Table 14).
Table 14.
Percent of elk relocations in 1984 during
precipitation (P) and non-precipitation (NP),
within various distances from the powerline at
dawn, dusk, and dark, N . Boulder winter range .
% Relocations within X m o f
Dawn
Dusk
P
NP
P
NP
n=3 7 n=l 05
n=61
n=l 5
X m
100 m
200 m
300 m
>300
13
23
36
64
3
5
22
78
7
7
7
93
2
4
13
87
powerline
Dark
P
NP
n=2 8
n=5 4
8
8
8
92
11
I6
16
84
Powerline Access Roads and Hunting
Powerline acces.s spurs from the N . Boulder River Road
were constructed in 1982.
Jeep trails and unimproved dirt,
roads already existed, and these were
and
gravelled
from
the N.
widened,
Boulder River
Road
improved,
to
the
76
powerline.
New roads,
15 km in total length, were built
under the line to access every tower.
Data collected during hunter check stations
that
in 1982,
Butte,
84
Montana,
% of
the hunters interviewed resided in
30 % reported seeing elk,
killed an animal.
%
revealed
but .only 3
%
In 1983, 74 % of those interviewed were
from Butte,
29
saw elk,
and 2 % killed an animal.
both years,
88 % of those interviewed indicated that they
hunted from roads at least part of the time.
%
In 1982,
of the Interviewed hunters specified they did not
on
BPA roads and had various negative comments about
powerline
and
the new roads.
In 1983,
7 %
In
made
18
hunt
the
this
specification or offered negative comments (Table 15).
Table 15.
1982
(1)
(2)
(3)
1983
(1)
(2)
Examples of comments offered by hunters
about BPA roads and the powerline in 1982 and
1983, N. Boulder River, Montana.
"BPA roads concentrate people and push the elk up in
elevation. Would be mass slaughter if it snowed
hard during the season."
"B PA left a big mess behind."
"The construction of this powerline lowered the
quality of hunting in this area.”
"The density of road hunters has increased because
of B PA access roads. People are driving off the
roads as well, even if there are road closures."
"The noise from the powerline is bad for elk."
77
The
overall distribution of hunting pressure changed
between
1982 and 1983 (Table 16) probably in response
greater
use
roads.
It
of the new BPA access roads or improved
decreased in the Thunderbolt Creek
along the Continental Divide,
west to Boyle Gulch,
and
and increased in Alta Gulch
in the Little Cottonwood Creek area,
% Hunting in 1982
(N = 109)
% Hunting in 1983
(N = 14 0)
Thunderbolt Cr.
Saratoga Mine
63
27
Little Cotton­
wood Cr, Rock Cr.
10
28
8
11
Berkin Flat
!
Alta Gulch to
Boyle Gulch
14 '
51
>
Red Ro ck Cr.
Pole Mn.
5
17
18
10
Lockhart Meadow
Cont. Divide
According
.number
1973
!
and
Percent of hunters interviewed hunting a given
area in 1982 and 1983, N . Boulder River, MT.
Area used
f
old
in the Red Rock Creek area (see Figure I for a map).
Table 16.
5
?:
area
to
to MDFWP hunter survey data,
the
of hunters hunting district 318 between
was
(s= 17 0).
increased
702 (s=140),
Because
in
recent
and between 1974 and
the
accuracy
years,
of
the
these numbers
average
1957
1983,
surveys
may
not
and
1244
has
be
78
entirely comparable (Frisina pers.
comm.)*
The historic
hunter success rates on district 318 w e r e , on the average ,
25
% lower than regional success rates between
1973, and 50 % lower between 1974 and 1983.
hunters
in
1982
respectively,
than
and
I 983 were
13.5%
1957
and
The number of
and
the 1974-1983 average.
23%
lower,
District 318
had a bull only season until 1 979 (Table 17).
From
1979
to the present, either sex permits have been issued (Table
18).
The composition of the bull harvest has averaged 40%
mature bulls (2+) and 60 % yearlings.
hunters
in
1983 and 1984,
Despite the drop in
the number of
elk
harvested
remained quite steady.
;
■
Table
17.
Year
No. hunters
1980
1981
1982
1983 ,
Table 18.
Year
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
Bull harvest statistics from
Montana.
1119
1184
1076
958
district 318,
Total harvest* %Suc ce ss-318
104
107
104
112
9
9
10
12
Regional
16
16
16
16
Harvest data from either sex permits, district
318, Montana.
No. permits issued
No. animals killed
25
25
75
25
75
200 (Frisina pers. c o mm.)
10
9
36
6
25
79
DISCUSSION
The
extent and condition of winter range is believed
to be important in regulating the size and productivity of
elk
populations (Boyd 1 970,
Knight 197 0).
Climate
and
land use in turn influence how much range is available and
the
condition
The
has
of available elk winter
elk population on
increased
the
N.
range.
Boulder winter range
for the past 20 years,
with a
concurrent
downward trend in calf recruitment (Figure 3),
indicating
that the winter population may be at or above the carrying
capacity of the range.
climate
and
population
cow
at
Pi c ton 1984 c) .
may
Changes in calf survival with both
population density is
expected
carrying capacity (Sauer and
for
Boyce
1983,
Fluctuations in cal f/ cow ratios over
also be related to the method of
a
classification.
time
A
large calf cohort results in a high proportion of yearling
elk
year
the following year.
would
yearling
tjhe
A classification count in
underestimate production
since
non-breeding
cows cannot be distinguished from adult cows
field
(Frisina
pers.
comm.).
that
Because
of
in
the
■
segregation of mature bulls from cow/calf
groups
during
i
■
the winter and a permit system of harvesting anterless elk
I
I
80
in this district, it is doubtful at this time that harvest
plays
a
big
role
in
the
regulation
of
the
winter
population.
Cattle
area,
grazing is an important land use on the study
Although
temporally,
the
cattle
use and elk use
they share a common forage
potential
for indirect competition
1966).
Track
transects
pellet
group counts (Tables 9 and 10,
observations,
grazed
(Table 11,
heavily
an
segregated
base;
therefore,
exists
transect
1984) ,
(Stevens
I,
1984),
and
field
verified that elk avoided areas that cattle
the previous
summer.
forage allocation within the N.
in
are
average
production
Equal ' elk/cattle
Boulder winter range zone
year
with
average
snow
accumulations was calculated to be 860 AUMs cattle and 415
head of elk (Frisina et
years,
an
al.
1976).
Over
the past nine
average of 880 AUMs of cattle were grazed each
year on the winter range, which roughly corresponds to the
above
calculation.
theoretical
stocking
Elk
carrying
rates.
This
have
capacity
may
increased
under
be related
current
to
cattle
mild
greater
then
in
which ' the
normal,
or
because elk populations at carrying
capacity
also increase at the expense of the soil/plant
capital
bring
was
before
the
negative feedback mechanisms
their
recent
winters
may
forage supply
beyond
range
operate
herd and the range to a steady state.
to
81
It is expected that the winter elk population in 1985
will
exceed
winter
6 00
animals.
A
severely
snow-restricted
range may not support this many elk under
current
cattle stocking rates.
Comparisons show that the general distribution of elk
on
winter range has not changed over time (Figures 4,
6, and 7).
elk
et
5,
Although cover on winter range is important to
for security and shelter during severe weather
aI . 1982), it
,(Peek
appears that cover on the study area is
adequate (Figure 13), and that overall winter distribution
is keyed to available forage (Table 5).
High correlations
of elk use with the distribution of available forage
also documented by Franklin et
Larson
(1971).
aI .
(1975) and
Irwin and Peek (1983)
were
Clary and
found that
forage
conditions were the primary factor influencing the size of
elk
and
home ranges in Idaho.
type
(which
availability)
Beall
(1974),
The Importance of snow
influences
forage
depth
distribution
and
on elk distribution has been documented
Knight (1970),
and Desimone and
by
Thompson
(1983).
Although
group
counts
underestimated
area
elk
distribution
and radiotelemetry was
radioed
et
and Collins and Urness 1979),
elk
from
similar,
elk use on the eastern half of
(also discussed by Leopold
1984,
determined
consistently
used
■7 P
the
al.
pellet
telemetry
the
1984,
study
Collins
because only I of 15
east
end
(Pole
82
Mountain).
including
Seven
five
additional
elk
elk were collared in
that use
the
Pole
Mountain
1984
area.
Informationf will be gathered on this segment of the
during
the
remainder of the
observations
but
study.
Aerial
and
herd
visual
were also used to document elk distribution,
these are limited to early morning and
when elk feed in open habitats.
late
Therefore,
evening
these methods
underestimated elk use of bedding sites.
Changes
subtle,
and
are
6).
the
began
Road,
increased
distribution
over
time,
although
apparent from pellet group counts (Figures 5
in
harvest
access
elk
Decreases
occurred
Creek
in
in
elk use between . 1983
vicinity of
a
timber
in the summer of 1983,
and
sale
in
route.
which
and near Red
where winter vehicular traffic has
because
1984
the road was improved as
Rock
probably
a
powerline
Increases in the use of higher
elevation
areas between 1975 and 1984 are likely attributable to elk
population
(1974)
growth
and
mild
winter
conditions.
Beall
found that elk did not use logged sites the winter
following
elevations
timber
removal,
in mild winters.
and
that
elk
used
higher
Coop (1973) commented
that
elk avoid roads with vehicular activity.
Geist
disturbance
puts
seemed
(1982)
suggested
by h umans.
that elk are
Winter range on the
sensitive
N.
elk in close proximity to human activities,
to prefer, to remain as high in
elevation
to
Boulder
and elk
(toward
83
remote
summer
range) as possible in relation
conditions and day to day weather.
that
to
There is also evidence
elk have ‘a relatively low upper critical temperature
and that use of high elevations is related to
of
heat
1951).
during mild winter periods
In 1983,
correlated
1984,
with
(Beall
intolerance
1974,
patterns
elevations at elk locations were highly
variations in temperature,
whereas
with
in
changes
the N .
in snow
depths.
Boulder drainage are
was
winds
from
were
quite
especially
less overall snow in 1984
snow
This
was
Although
compared
to
1983,
patterns
variable.
elk
It
responsive
is
possible
that
to snow conditions
which
response to snow depth,
Mclean (1972) found that elk
temperature,
found
that
movements are
by a combination of these factors or
any one factor.
elk
In one winter during his
moved up in
in
and available food,
speculated that within seasonal areas ,
influenced
are
deviate
the Lochsa drainage of Idaho moved up in elevation
and
by
the northwest predominated and snow
from the average conditions.
of
highly
influenced
case in 1983 according to local residents.
there
in
Normal
southwest winds that usually occur all winter.
the
Murie
elk movements up and down in elevation were
correlated
in
forage
elevation
with
extremes
study,
he
increasing
temperatures despite a concurrent increase in snow depths.
84
Spring
the
first available succulent forage at lower
in April .
et
migration seemed to be delayed by elk use
of
elevations
This was also observed by Mclean (1 972 ), Dalke^
al. (1965) , and Beall (1974).
Subsequent altitudinal;
movements seemed to be correlated with rising temperatures,
and
vegetation development,
late
although elk did respond
to'
spring.snow storms by moving back onto winter range.'
Brazda
(1953) reported that snow cover did not
influence
elk migration to summer range in the Gallatin drainage
ofi
Montana,
by.
that
migration
was highly
influenced
calving activities.
Dalke et
a l . (1965)
found that elk;
followed
(1972)
but
developing vegetation to summer
stated that spring migration was closely
temperature
critical
range.
indicating
temperature
energetically
that
when elk
reach
of the thermoneutral
McIean:
tied
the
zone,
to.
upper;
it
is,
beneficial for them to seek cooler areas at:
higher elevations.
In the fall, movements back to winter:
range commenced as soon as the big game season
ended,
as
Coop (1973) also observed.
Elk
habitat
did
;
not show strong selection for
parameters
measured compared
any
of
the
to measurements a t.
random points throughout the winter range in 1983 and 1984
(Figure
10).
Both
winters
being
mild,
elk
were
not
restricted from using portions of the winter range because
of
deep
snow.
Conversations
with local
resource managers revealed that in heavy snow
ranchers
and
years,
elk
85
congregate in the N..
and
Boulder River willow and hay bottoms
at lower elevations within the canyon.
The-
pattern
general southerly exposure and regular
that
timbered
creates a complex of bunchgrass
cover patches on this winter range
drainage
parks
provides
energetically
favorable situation for elk in the
It
seems logical to conclude that
therefore
winter
and
range with inherently beneficial
utilize
Similar
to
variables
the
my
entire range
results,
when
Jeffrey
elk in Idaho
elk
select
characteristics ,
(1963)
on winter range in Utah and could
that
an
winter.
conditions
only 30 % of the variation in elk use,
and
permit.
measured
account
26
for
and Irwin and Peek
(1983)
concluded
selected
southwest
facing
winter home ranges with adequate supplies of
food
and cover rather than selecting for components within
the
winter range.
Use
of
habitat
features
during
divisions corresponded to elk activities.
different
time
During the da y ,
security cover was likely important since elk chose higher
elevation
timbered areas for bedding and rumination.
At
dusk, feeding activities predominated, and elk chose areas
with
available forage but still close to timbered
Although
telemetry
did
not
no visual observations were possible to
findings,
stay
confirm
night monitoring indicated that
bedded down,
Boulder River road,
cover .
but rather
crossed
the
elk
N.
and actively sought out feeding areas
I
86
in the valley bottom
Bailey
use
Rost and
(1979) suggested that animals avoid roads if
areas near
Vogel
which lack security cover.
roads at night but not in
they
daylight,
and
(1983) found that deer were more nocturnaIly active
in the presence of disturbance.
apparently
areas
used
In the N .
Boulder,
darkness as a means of securing
having rich food resources,
elk
use
but which have a
of
high
potential for disturbance and a lack of security cover
in
daylight.
Slk
the
and
study
occurred
than
mule
deer utilized common feeding areas
area,
feeding
periods
later in the morning and earlier in the
evening
elk
although'
mule
feeding activity peaks.
deer
on
When feeding
periods
overlapped, elk appeared to be dominant over mule deer and
often
behaved aggressively toward
partitioning
may
be important to
mule
deer.
Temporal
elk and deer in
areas
where they compete for the same forage base.
Home
I
range standard diameters were fairly consistent
among radioed elk throughout the winter.
As expected, the
home
range
hour
period is much smaller than the home range size
an
size for an. individual determined over
individual
winter
season.
a
from locations accumulated throughout
An
elk's temporal response
to
24
for
the
varying
weather conditions represents the fourth dimension or time
dimension
of home range (Baker 1978).
The intensity
of
87
relocations should therefore be keyed to the specific time
frame that the researcher is interested in.
Continuous telemetric monitoring showed that elk (for
both
winters)on the study area travelled an average of
km/day.
daily
elk
There
were
only small differences
in
movements between elk that used Lowland
that used the N .
range,
elk
Boulder range.
9
average
Creek
On the N .
and
Boulder
usually travelled between bedding sites north
of the power line to feeding sites south of the
power line,
even
individual
though it would be more efficient for an
elk to bed and feed south of the power line,
or to use the
Lowland
winters,
elk
not use higher elevation areas north of
the
Creek
probably
do
power line
range.
as
In
more
extensively as my
severe
data
indicate,
because
movements would be restricted by deep snow.
Continuous
Long
Tom
showed
Creek
that
elk
monitoring on this study area and on
area nearby (Lonner
al.
visual
time
Hammond
were active at an average rate
km/hour and .46 km/hour,
et
and
respectively.
1980)
of
.44
Because Craighead
(1973) verified daytime telemetry locations
with
observations and found that 40 % of an elk's daily
buget was spent bedded down,
movements
it may be
that
are an artifact of triangulation error.
errors from a variety of sources (Denton 1973,
during
the
successive locations of a bedded animal
Pac
these
Small
1978)
could
be
88
interpreted
as
small
movements.
On
the
other1 hand,
movements may be real.
It
is
individual
not
known whether
between
year
shifts
in
elk geographic activity centers was related to
energization of the powerline, or population pressures and
mild
weather.
migrated
Creek,
back
It
Is
possible that elk
,to the N.
Boulder range
in
late
through
fall
Lowland
were inhibited by an energized powerline, and then
returned
to
documented
Lowland Creek
to
winter.
Youmans
that some mule deer on winter range
(I 979)
exhibited
exploratory movements before settling on a core home range
where
they
possible
winter.
It
is
that elk shifted to Lowland Creek because
individuals
used
spent the rest of the
also
those
were familiar with that drainage (which
they
as a migration corridor) and that range was able
support
more wintering animals in 1984 compared to
to
1983.
The three statistically significant between year shifts in
GAC
away
from the powerline on the "study
were also shifts up In elevation.
Interpreted
as
a
response to
area
proper"
These shifts could
mild
winter
conditions.
Elk
literature considers that an individual returning
the
same winter range,
regardless of the
within
the range that the animal uses,
winter
range.
Elk
to
specific, arjea
shows fidelity to
shifts within seasonal
between years on the N.
be
home
ranges
Boulder range are not in conflict
with the existing literature.
89
It is not surprising that elk were displaced from the
Pole Mountain powerline construction area in the spring of
1983.
Stahlecker
ceased
in the vicinity of a 230-kV construction
Colorado.
(1975)
reported that animal
activity
site
in
Ward (1 9 7 3) and Be all (1974) found that during
the initial stages of active logging, elk moved out of the
area,
but eventually resumed normal activities.
spring
the
Because
is an energetically critical time for cow elk
effects of even short term displacement at this
could
be
significant,
suggestion
I
support
Thompson's
and
time
(1977)
that powerline construction activities through
heavy seasonal use areas during critical periods should be
prohibited.
The physical presence of a 5 00-kV p owe rline bisecting
major
use
change
areas on elk winter range
overall
travelling
sometimes
weather
elk
distribution
or
prevent
seen
(no
noticably
elk
from
Elk
were
feeding under the conductors during
fair
precipitation) where the
available forage.
corridor
included
As expected for a species!
operating under an energy conservation
strategy,
general
distribution was best explained by traditional use of
slopes,
aspects, cover types, and the influence of cattle
grazing,
Track
that
not
between bedding and feeding areas.
undisturbed,
elk
did
all in relation to snow accumulations.
counts and
patterns
of
elk
behavioral observations
activity
are
disrupted
indicated
by
an
90
energized ' powerline
weather".
noise,
during
corona
or
Most noticably this was a function of
(measured as dB( A )) ,
hissing
precipitation
noise
electric
field
audible
a random broadband crackling,
with a 120 Hz h u m ,
discharge.
"foul
Corona
which is a
discharge
result
occurs
intensity on the surface of
when
a
of
the
conductor
exceeds the breakdown strength of air; thus this phenomena
is
intensified at higher altitudes.
Water
beads on the
conductors are the most significant cause of
reference
to
emphasized
effects
wildlife impact,
Lee and
corona.
Griffith
(1978)
that there is the potential for audible
to
combine synergistically with the
construction,
maintenance
activities,
noise
effects
electric
In
of
fields,
and/or magnetic fields.
Lee
and
Griffith
(1978)- defined
"noise"
unwanted sound, an environmental pollutant.
hazards
of
noise
in the
masking of communication,
to
wildlife
behavioral
Skovlin 1982).
. an
The potential
environment
include
reducing the ability of animals
locate potential danger,
resulting
as
changes
physiological
(Lee
and
effects,
Griffith
and
1978,
Behavioral effects theoretically would be
expected anytime corona noise increases 1-3 dB beyond
acclimation
background noise level (Pic ton
Mountcas tie
1974) .
observations
Distribution of elk
pers.
and
the
comm. ,
behavioral
relative to an energized powerline might
be
explained by a model in which elk hesitate before crossing
91
a
"noisy" corridor,
elk
next
to
interferes
This
is
giving an apparent concentration
the powerline as
with
the flow of elk
acoustical
(Pic ton
corridor
pers.
comm.).
not to say that elk do not ultimately cross
powerline during foul weather,
corridor results in stress.
to
the
of
but that crossing a
the
noisy
Ames (1978) considered sound
be a potential "stressor" since it increased heart and
respiratory
rates in domestic
sheep.
Alarm
reactions,
excitement, and stress cost vital energy (Geist 1978).
'
Track transects examined on consecutive days in
indicated
that
elk did not cross the powerline
the evening of a storm,
nor did they cross the
morning,
of
regardless
interpretations
weather
are possible.
1984
corridor
following
conditions.
Either elk do not
Two
always
feed actively during foul weather (and consequently do not
cross the powerline toward feeding areas)
during
because activity
cold weather results in a thermoregulatory penalty
(Gates and Hudson 1979),
corridor
which is affected by
noise levels.
activity
or elk avoid the area around the
significant
precipitation
Whatever the cause, storms disrupted normal
patterns
over two feeding
periods.
That
is,
I
following a storm,
the
basic
elk did not seem to move south to feed
following morning.
activity
This would be a reversal of
pattern which involves elk
across the corridor into timber at dawn.
have
been
moving
the
north
Elk in 1984 may
more likely to cross the corridor
after
dark
92
(Figure
16) also as a response to disturbance from power­
line noise.
Driscoll
power line
(1975)
suggested that audible noise
rights-of-way less desirable to animals
inclement weather.
(Rangifer
in Norway
are disturbed
power line
increased
use
speculated
this
audible
noise
(1982)
stated
bursts
of
in
when
newly
Lee and Reiner (1933)
Oregon when it was
the line
response
and/or
that
corona
energized.
result
field
cattle were
noise
when
Goodwin (1975) ,
energized
of
They
transient
effects.
typically
an EHV
a
and
was de-energized.
was the
electric
of
Rogers
startled
power line
on the other hand,
by
_ was
reported
track patterns of elk crossing a 500-kV corridor
in
during precipitation did not indicate avoidance
or
deviation
crossing
of
by
that cattle decreased use in the vicinity
1100-kV
Idaho
reindeer
power lines because of their unf amiliarity and
the "hum" that power lines produce.
reported
during
Klein (1971) mentioned that
tarandus)
constructed
that
makeo
63
from
the norm.
the corridor
dB(A )
probable
intermittent
especially
evidence
animals
sounds
if
during a precipitation noise
without
that
the
He also observed two cow
of
of
acclimate
of
to
benefits to using
level
It
continuous
100 dB(A ) or less
(forage) exceed the costs (stress).
function
inhibition.
elk
a
(Ames
noisy
is
and
1978),
corridor
Acclimation is also a
background noise levels,
and
the . rate
of
93
animal
exposure
differences
to
precipitation
noise
levels.
The
between the current study and Goodwin's study
should be emphasized.
Animals had been accustomed to
the
energized power line on the the Idaho study area for a year
and one half before the study was initiated., The line was
cleared
through
differences
dense
in
timber
and
Goodwin
found
animal use of the right-of-way and
forest clearings were directly proportional to the
that
other
amount
of understory available as food. The Idaho area receives a
great
deal of precipitation as snow (38-152 cm/year),
so
wild animals there would be exposed to precipitation noise
levels
(30
more
continuously than elk on the relatively
cm/year
precipitation) N .
contrast to Goodwin's study,
energized during the study,
about
the
level
where
Boulder
range.
Also
dry
in
the N . Boulder powerline was
crosses a bunchgrass range at
timber
begins,
and
therefore
involved little timber removal and no concurrent increases
in
and
the forage base.
The higher altitudes (1644-2220
more open habitat on the N .
Boulder mean more corona
discharge and less noise attenuation (BBST 1982)
to
the
Idaho
study
m)
area elevations
(780-1700
compared
m)
and
timbered habitat.
Approximately 13 % of the winter range is impacted by
an
"acoustical corridor" with a length of 14.4 km
and
a
width of 500 m (the point at which the noise attenuates to
the
upper limit of ambient levels is 250 m on either side
94
of the corridor).
on
an
In 1984, precipitation effects occurred
average of -10.5 % of the 121 days in
period (Table 13).
precipitation
(Pic ton
winter
A normal winter was calculated to have
effects
1984 b).
the
on 22.5 % of the
. Although
121
day
period
it is expected that elk
acclimate to precipitation noise levels,
there is
can
little
basis for assuming more acclimation by N . Boulder elk than
is currently present.
I suggest that future EHV powerline corridors are not
placed
on winter game ranges in a manner
major
that
use areas.
large
that
separates
Corridors could be placed across areas
ungulates
already
avoid,
such
as
large
clearcuts (Thompson 1977).
Hunting
success
rates in hunting district 318
been consistently lower than the regional averages.
may indicate that this district has high security
for elk on fall transition range.
by
the
presence
pf
have
This
habitat
Security is influenced
access roads and the amount
quality hiding cover (Lonne r and Ca da 1982).
of
good
It is also
possible that the area, which is hunted, almost exclusively
by
locals,
has
always
had a high
percentage
of
hunters (the 1982 and 1 983 data indicate this trend),
road
and
studies in Montana have shown that road hunters add little
to the harvest (Basile 1973,
Coop 1973).
Griffith (1977)
and Goodwin (1975) reported heavy use of transmission line
I
access roads,
so the predominance of road hunters in 1983
95
and
I 984
may
also
be the result of
powerline access roads.
the
powerline
"quality"
hunt
of
this
and
improved
access
decreased
who
the
traditionally
This may explain the decrease
number
of hunters and negative comments in 1983
to 1982
(Table 15)*
Improved
improved
indicated that the presence
hunting for some people
area.
and
Comments offered by some hunters
interviewed in 1982 and 1983,
of
new
in
the
compared
access and the 15 km of new access probably
changed the kinds of vehicles travelling.through the
(four
wheel
drive not required),
which
vehicles
can
increased the rate
move through the
area
and
the
improved access roads are clustered on winter
the
greatest
impact to elk would be in
an
Since
range ,
autumn
snow when elk are forced to come down in
at
thereby
encounter animals, and shifted hunter distribution.
heavy
area
with
elevation
during the hunting season.
Closure
of
the
powerline access roads
during,
the
hunting season might lower hunter density and increase the
effective length of the season by holding elk in the
area
longer
and
spreading
and
Cada
1982,
and
Marcum
However,
road
and
out the harvest (Lonner
Lemkuhl
1980).
closures might.also exclude some people (famiIy groups and
older
area.
people)
from seeking hunting opportunites in
this
REFERENCES CITED
97
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_____ .
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1979.
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99
Desimone,
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1983.
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1975.
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1975.
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1976.
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Frisina, M . 1984.
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1979.
Effects of posture
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I
Geist, V.
1982.
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ecol. and manage. Stackpole Books,
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_____ •
1978.
Behavior. JEn Schmidt, J . L., and
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1975.
Big game movement near a 5 O-Ok V transmission line in northern Idaho. A study for
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56 pp.
100
Griffith, D . B . 1977.
Selected biological parameters
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94 p p .
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Evaluation of
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1973.
Flora of the
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1983.
Elk habitat use
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Factors influencing elk and cattle
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'
Klein, D . R . 1971.
Reaction of reindeer to obstruction ;
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Knight, R . R . 1970.
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66 pp.
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_____ , and D . B . Griffith.
1978.
Transmission line
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101
Leopold, B . D., P. R . Krausman, and J . J. Hervert.
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Comment:
the pellet-group census technique as an
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I 2: 325-326.
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Some effects of
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1982 Western States Elk Workshop, Phoenix, A R . :
119-128.
_____ , and G. R . Hammond.
1980.
Job II-B, Long Tom Creek
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Job II-D
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65 p p .
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Role of cover in habitat
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\
102
_____ • 1984b.
Winter range effect model. Unpubl. Rep.
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Distribution of
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1980.
Preliminary landtype inventory,
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109 pp .
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1983.
Density dependence
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Biological effects of high voltage
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,
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103
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APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
WEATHER DATA
106
Table 19.
Mean snow depth in cm between. January and
March at each show stake in 1983 and 1984.
Elevation at snow stakes ranged from 19051965m.
Aspect and cover
type at stake
1983
depth and st. dev.
cm
cm
Flat, open
Flat, timber
West, open
South, open
North , open
North, timber
East, open
East, timber
32
16
14
12
35
14
28
16
Table 20 .
Month/year
11.6
6.4
. 5.0
5.4
11.4
7. 9
12.0
3.4
7.2
4.7
8.0
7.9
9.5
4.7
8.7
6.7
22
7
12
10
25
5
24
9
Means, standard deviations, and ranges of
temperatures (Centigrade) based on Butte
weather data (USDC-N0A A ).
Mean temp .
Max.
Min.
Standard dev.
Min.
Max.
-9.7
— 8.6
-5.4
1.06
2.67
5.72
4.4
6.3
4.3
Ja n . 1984 -8.9
Feb. 1984 •-10. 9
Ma r . 1984 — 4.8
3.78
3.27
4.72
10.4
5.0
3.5
Jan. 1983
Feb . 1983
Ma r . 1983
1984
depth and st. d e v .
cm
cm
i
Ra ng e
Min.
M ax.
6.3
4.2
4.5
—2 4 —+1
-2 3 — 1-2
-5-+15
8.5.
3.4
2.8
— I 6— H I
-22-+4
-16-+.5
-11-+9
-7-+1I
-19-+..3
-32-+3
-2-+9
-2-+11
severe
Figure 28.
Winter climate index values (Picton 1984c)
based on Boulder MT. data, 1968 to 1984.
1 9 6 8 -6 9
1 9 6 9-70
1970-71
1971-72
1 9 7 2 -7 3
1 9 7 3-74
197 4 -7 5
1 9 7 5-76
1976-77
1 9 7 7 -7 8
1 9 7 8 -7 9
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
1 9 8 2 - 83
1 9 8 3 - 84
Winter Climate Index Value
108
APPENDIX B
i
i
COMPUTER CODING FORMAT FOR ELK OBSERVATIONS
AND RADIO LOCATIONS
I 09
Table 21.
Column(s)
Coddng format for elk observations.
Item
1-4
5
6-11
12-15
16
17
observation #
observer
date
t ime
day/night
observetion type
18-19
animal Id.
20-22
23-24
25-26
27-28
29-30
31
group size
# females
# males
//calves
# un kn o wn
observer Io c .
38-41
42-46
47
UTM x coord.
UTM y coord.
activity
48
dis turbance?
49
proximity to
Boulder R . R d .
50
human ac tivity
in vicinity
51
distance from
powerline r-o-w
Explanation
consecutive integers
e.g. 01/13/83
mill tary
I = dawn, 2= day, 3 = du sk, 4= da rk
2=air radio fix; no visual
S=Visual observations
5=air radio fix; visual
6=aerial survey
8=24 hour monitoring
00=unmarked elk
1—I 5=elk Id. based on
frequency.
l=on foot, 2=from vehicle,
3= fr om sta. I, 4= fr om sta.2
5= fr om sta. 3, 6 = fr om air
7 = from 2 of 3 stations
8=3 station triangulation
4 digit latitude
5 digit longitude
0=bedded,1=feeding, 2=running
3 =waIking,6=vigilant,watchful
8= unknown (no visual)
l=disturbed by observer
2 =no t disturbed
straight line distance:
1=0-.5 km, 2=.5-1, 3=1-1.5,
4 = 1.5-2, 5 = >2
l=roads,2=cattle,3=buildings,
4=ranching activity,5=hunting
6 = sn owmo biling, 7 = chainsaw
straight line distance:
I=0-100m,2=100-200,3=200-300,
4=300-400, 5=400-500,
6=.5-1 km,7=1-1.5, 8=1.5-2,
/
I
HO
Table 22 (continued)
win d speed
56
wind direction
57
cloud cover
58
precipita tion
62
type of snow
63
ground condition
64-67
elevation
68-69
70
si ope
topography
71
a spe c t
veg eta tion
74
CO
55
I
ambient temp.
CM
52-54
distance to
hiding cover
col .52:0=below 0 F . ,l= above 0
col.53-5 4 : degrees F .
0 = n o wind, I=O-Smph, 2=5-10,
3 = 10-20, 4=>20 mph
0=no wind ,l=north,2=northeast
3 = ea s t, 4 = southeast, 5= so u th ,
6= sw, 7= w, 8= nw
0=<10%, 1=10-50%, 2=50-90%
3 = overcast, 4 = fog
0=none,l=mis t or light snow,
2=rain, 3=intermittant snow
4= in termit. snow or rain ,
5=thunderstorm, 6=hail or
sleet
0= n o snow, 1= powder ,3 = crust
4=we t , 5 = ice
4= trace of snow, 5= alI snow
6 = green up, 7 = pa tc hy snow
estimated to the nearest 40
ft contour line on a map
estimated from maps (%)
1 = ridgetop,
2= uppe r slope,
3=mid-slope, 4= Iowe r slope,
5=ungulating flat,6=river or
creek bottom, or gulch
same codes as wind direction
10= timber
13=aspen stand
20=open bunchgrass park
21=grass/timber edge
22=clearcut
23=clearcut/forest edge
30= sagebrush stand
40 = riparian vegetation
1=0-100 m , 2 = 100-200,3=200-3 00(
4=300-400 m , 5=400-500,
6 = >500 m
Ill
APPENDIX C
ELK
DISTRIBUTION DURING
24 HOUR MONITORING
AND AERIAL FLIGHTS
112
+
+
2 /1 2 - 1 3 1983
1864
-2 .3
14
#
I
»
I
I
»
I
5 km
v*''/.I*
11
2 / 1 9 - 2 0 1983
1882
-
1.1
14
++
>%■
Figure 29.
Radioed elk distribution during 24 hour
monitoring sessions in February 1983.
Under the date Is given (top to bottom)
mean elevation at elk locations (m), mean
temperature over the period (C), and mean
weekly snow depth (cm) on the N. Boulder
winter range, MT.
113
3 /1 8 - 1 9 1983
s+
t
1891
-4 .4
+ +*
19
♦
I
»
1
I
»
I
5 km
++* +
Vtt
* + +\ +V
++
+
;
\
4 '?.*.
•'
*V+->
*
Figure 30.
++v+ <
++
3 /2 6 - 2 7 1983
1908
1.1
23
Radioed elk distribution during 24 hour
monitoring sessions in March 1983. Under
the date is given (top to bottom) mean
elevation at elk locations (m), mean temp­
erature over the period (C) , and mean weekly
snow depth (cm) on the N.Boulder winter
range, MT.
114
4 /1 6 -1 7 1983
1894
6.5
29
4* ♦ f+
5 km
4 /2 3 -2 4 1983
1871
5
12
Figure 31.
Radioed elk distribution during 24 hour
monitoring sessions in April 1983. Under
the date is given ( top to bottom), mean
elevation at elk locations (m), mean temp­
erature over the period (C) , and mean weekly
snow depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range, MT.
115
++
4%
*
.
1 /1 4 - 1 5 1984
*>
1902
;^
-1 4 .6
11
+++
I
i____»
•___ i
I
5 km
v
f
+%
/+
+
- -k...
t,
»
1 /2 1 - 2 2 1984
1915
-3
12
Figure 32.
Radioed elk distribution during 24 hour
monitoring sessions in January 1984. Under
the date is given (top to bottom), mean
elevation at elk locations (m) , mean temp­
erature over the period (C) , and mean weekly
snow depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range, MT.
116
♦>--
2 /1 1 -1 2 1984
1954
-.5
8
*
I____i
i____I
I____I
5 km
A
"it
'
**
++
2 /1 8 -1 9 1984
1894
-4 .4
12
Figure 33.
Radioed elk distribution during 24 hour
monitoring sessions in February 1984. Under
the date is given (top to bottom) , mean
elevation at elk locations (m) , mean temp­
erature over the period (C) , and mean weekly
snow depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range, MT.
117
i
I
I
»
»
»
5 km
3 /1 7 -1 8
1984
1884
-3
17
Figure 34.
Radioed elk distribution during 24 hour
monitoring sessions In March 1984. Under
the date is given (top to bottom), mean
elevation at elk locations (m), mean temp­
erature over the period (C), and mean weekly
snow depth (cm) on the N. Boulder winter
range, MT.
118
2070
2181
5km
%
'• L
"tC
VO
6 /1 4 /8 3
7 /1 9 83
1V*
/
28 .3
19
2146
'.C
ZF
2105
»F
5 km
*9
«0
8 /3 1 /8 3
Figure 35.
'0
9 /2 4 /8 3
Radioed elk summer aerial relocations from
June to September 1983. Under plot is given
mean temperature (C) during flight and mean
elevation (m) at elk locations.
119
APPENDIX D
INDIVIDUAL ELK HOME RANGES DURING INDIVIDUAL
24 HOUR MONITORING SESSIONS
I
120
1983
1984
JAN 21-22
FEB 11-12
JAN 14-16
MAR 10-11
ELK+3
Figure 36.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
//3 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
121
1983
MAR 26-27
MAR 16-16
APRIL 23-24 —
APRIL 16-17
16-20
1984
FEB 11-12
MAR 10-11
MAR 17-16
JAN 14-16
JAN 21-22
ELK+5
Figure 37.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
//5 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
122
A
P
R
I
L2
3
2
4
A
P
R
IL1
6
1
7
-
M
A
R
2
6
2
7
F
E
B1
9
2
0
'
E L K *6
Figure 38.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
#6 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
123
1983
APRIL 1 6 - 1 7
MAR 18-1®
APRIL 1 6 - 2 4
MAR 2 6 - 1 7
MAR 1 7 - 1 8
MAR 10 -11
JAN 1 4 -1 5
Figure 39.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session In 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
//7 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
124
1983
ELK+8
Figure 40.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
#8 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
125
1983
-APRIL 16-17
FEB 16-20
FEB 12-13
APRIL 23-24
1984
MAR 17-18
JAN 14-15
MAR 10-11
FEB 11-12
E L K +9
Figure 41.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session In 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
#9 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
126
ELK*11
Figure 42.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
#11 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
127
1983
/"
F
E
B
1
2
1
3
F
E
B
IB
2
0
M
A
R
IB
1
9
A
P
R
I
L2
3
2
4
M
A
R
1
7
1
8
.
M
A
R
1
0
1
1
J
A
N
1
4
1
8
F
E
B
1
1
1
2
Figure 43.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
#12 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
128
1983
F
E
B
IB
2
0
A
P
R
IIt 2
3
2
4
J
A
N
1
4
1
6
E L K *I 3
Figure 44.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
//13 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
129
1983
1984
ELK+14
Figure 45.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session In 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
//14 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
130
FEB IB-20
MAR 16-18
FEB 12-13
MAR 26-27
JAN 21-22
JAN 14-16
FEB 11-
MAR 10-11
MAR 17-18
ELK* 15
Figure 46.
Polygons and standard diameters for each 24
hour session in 1983 and 1984 for radioed elk
//15 on the N. Boulder winter range, MT.
MOHTMU STHE UWVERSin USURIES .
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