The impacts of trace metals on grass communities along the floodplains of Soda Butte Creek, Montana
and Wyoming
by Julie Ann Stoughton
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in
Earth Sciences
Montana State University
© Copyright by Julie Ann Stoughton (1995)
Abstract:
Existing research documents that high levels of copper and other, trace metals can be toxic to plants,
but little has been written about the spatial extent of ecosystem disturbance due to trace metal
deposition. Outside of Yellowstone National Park, in Montana and Wyoming, tailings from an old
mine have been deposited downstream by large flood events. Elevated levels of trace metals from the
displaced tailings have been identified 25 km downstream (Meyer, 1993).
This study evaluates whether grass species diversity, density, and biomass: (1) decrease as trace metal
concentrations increase; and (2) decrease as soil pH decreases. In order to assess the role of
environmental variables unrelated to mine tailings, the study also evaluated whether grass species
diversity, density, and biomass: (1) vary with soil clay content and salinity; (2) vary as a function of
distance from the stream channel or elevation above the. channel; or (3) change in the downstream
direction.
Trace metal levels frequently exceed Maximum Acceptable Concentrations for agricultural soils
(Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1992) at points within all four meadows sampled along Soda Butte
Creek. pH levels in the four sites mark the presence of strongly acid and moderately acid soils, with
values as low as pH 3.4.
Results from four meadow sites along Soda Butte Creek indicate that vegetation diversity, density, and
biomass decrease at threshold levels of trace metals and soil pH. CuSum plots of diversity in relation to
trace metal levels show a decrease in mean diversity at 3I5ppm copper, 22ppm arsenic, 4.2% iron,
65ppm lead, and 17Oppm zinc. Densities of Phleum pratense and Poa pratensis were significantly
lower (p<=0.001) on plots with more than 25Oppm copper. Above-ground biomass of Phleum pratense
was also significantly lower on plots with copper levels above 250ppm. Decreased mean grass density
was found on plots with pH<6.4, but the only statistically significant difference was for Juncus
balticus. which had increased density on plots with pH<6.4. In contrast to the clear impacts of trace
metals and pH on vegetation, factors such as soil salinity, soil clay content, site elevation above stream
and distance from stream did not alter vegetation patterns. THE IMPACTS OF TRACE METALS ON GRASS COMMUNITIES
ALONG THE FLOODPLAINS OF SODA BUTTE CREEK,
MONTANA AND WYOMING
by
Julie A nn S to u g h to n
A thesis su b m itte d in p a rtia l fu lfillm en t
o f th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r th e degree
of
M aster o f Science
in
E arth Sciences
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, M o n tan a
D ecem ber 1995
ii
APPROVAL
of a thesis su b m itted by
Julie A nn S toughton
This thesis h as been re a d by each m em b er o f th e thesis co m m ittee a n d
h as b een fo u n d to be satisfacto ry re g a rd in g c o n ten t, English usage, f o r m a t,
citations, b ib lio g rap h ic style, a n d consistency, a n d is re a d y fo r subm ission to
the College of G raduate Studies.
/
Date
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.
C h airp erso n , G rad u ate Com m ittee
A pproved fo r th e M ajor D ep artm en t
r-
Date
z -
W
M
Head, M ajor D ep artm en t
A pproved fo r the College of
G raduate Dean
tu d ies
iii
STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE
In p re s e n tin g th is th esis in p a rtia l fu lfillm en t o f th e re q u ire m e n ts fo r
a m a ste r's d eg ree a t M o n tan a S tate U niversity, I ag ree th a t th e L ibrary sh all
m ake it available to b o rro w ers u n d e r ru le s o f th e Library.
If I h a v e in d ic a te d m y in te n tio n to co p y rig h t th is th esis b y in clu d in g a
c o p y rig h t n o tic e p a g e, c o p y in g is allo w ab le o n ly fo r sc h o la rly p u rp o se s,
c o n siste n t w ith "fair use" as p re s c rib e d in th e U.S. C o p y rig h t Law.
R equests
fo r p e rm issio n fo r e x te n d e d q u o ta tio n fro m o r re p ro d u c tio n o f this thesis in
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Signature
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I o ffe r h e a r tfe lt th a n k s to m y a d v iso r. D r. A n d rew M arcus, w ho h a s
b e e n a m e n to r in th e fu lle s t sense.
I w ill re m e m b e r h im fo r his lo v e o f
g e o g ra p h y , h is c o m m itm e n t to h e lp in g m e le a rn a n d g ro w th ro u g h o u t m y
m a ste r's p ro ject, his p ro fessio n al skills a n d w isdom , a n d th e jo y a n d h u m o r h e
b ro u g h t to all situations. I am also in d e b te d to m y o th e r com m ittee m e m b e rs,
in c lu d in g D r. K athy H ansen, w ho firs t w elcom ed m e in to th e D e p a rtm e n t of
E arth Sciences a n d in s p ire d m e to becom e a g eo g rap h er; D r. R obin Patten, fo r
h e r ad v ice in th e field a n d ecological in sig h ts; a n d Dr. Bill Q uim by, fo r h is
statistical assistance a n d su p p o rt.
S e v e ra l o rg a n iz a tio n s p r o v id e d fin a n c ia l s u p p o rt fo r th is p ro je c t,
in c lu d in g th e M o u n tain R esearch C en ter a t M o n tan a S ta te U n iv ersity , th e
C in n a b ar F o u n d atio n , Yellow stone Ecosystem Studies, a n d th e D e p a rtm e n t o f
E arth Sciences. I a p p re c ia te th e ir in v e stm e n t in this im p o rta n t research .
In th e s p irit o f in te rd is c ip lin a ry re s e a rc h , I s o u g h t th e w isd o m o f
n u m e ro u s facu lty a n d g ra d u a te stu d en ts. I w ould p a rtic u la rly like to th a n k Dr.
R obin T iern ey , D r. Steve C herry, Dr. Jo n W raith, D r. Bill Inskeep, Dr. M att
Lavin, Clain Jones, C had M oore, a n d Ian Godwin. Scott Ladd, W endi Urie, D enise
C ulver, a n d G ary M ilner o ffe re d in v a lu a b le assistan ce in th e field a n d th e
classroom , n o t to m e n tio n comic relief. I also ,am th an k fu l fo r th e h elp o f m y
field a n d la b crew, in clu d in g Joe, Pam, C indy, M elinda, Erin, Jo n ath o n , Amy,
Chris, M ark, Leslie, a n d Sam.
. Finally, I o ffe r a sp ecial th a n k y o u to D an K ind, K aren A llen, Jo h n
M cConnell, a n d C arol K uester fo r believing in m e, a n d to m y fam ily fo r th e ir
lifetim e love a n d su p p o rt.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I. RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE..........................................................I
R esearch Q u e stio n s...............................
L ite ra tu re R eview .................................
B ioavailability o f T race m etals
pH a n d Redox Potential.....
Clay M in e ra ls ......................
O rganic M a tte r....................
P lant U ptake o f Trace M etals....
H eavy M etal Toxicity in Plants
Toxicity o f Specific E lem e n ts........... ........................................................10
C opper................................................
11
L ead.......................................................................................
11
Z in c ...........................................................................
12
I r o n ..............................................................
13
A rs e n ic ..:................................................................................................13
G rass Species C haracteristics a n d Responses
to Trace M etals.....................................................................................14
R elated Studies in th e Cooke City A re a ................................................... 14
2. FIELD AREA AND METHODS................................... ................................... ,.............. 17
Field A re a .................................................................................................................. 17
H abitat T ypes.................................................................................................. 17
Study S ites.................................... ................................................................ 21
G eneral Clim ate C h ara c te ristic s..........................
24
H istoric M ining Practices............................................................................ 26
C hm ate Events arid Tailings T ra n sp o rt.................................................. 27
M ethods...................................................................................................................... 28
F ie ld w o rk ........................................................................................................29
Soil A n aly sis...................................................................................................32
3. DATA................................................................................................................................. 34
Soil S am ples..................................................................................
34
Study S ites................................................................................................................. 35
Fish M eadow ...;...............................................................................................35
v ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS - Continued
Hollywood M eadow ....................................................................................... 38
Icebox M eadow ............................................................. ;.............................. .38
R ound P rairie.................................................................................................. 39
4. DATA ANALYSIS.............................................................................. '........................... 40
R elationship o f T race M etals a n d V e g e ta tio n .............................................. 41
D iversity........................................................................................................... 42
D ensity.............................................................................................................. 45
B iom ass........................................
49
R elationship o f Soil C haracteristics a n d V eg etatio n .................
50
pH ...............................
50
D iversity..........................................................
50
D ensity.......... ..........................;..............................................................50
B iom ass...................................................................................................55
S a lin ity ........................
55
P ercent Clays...................................................................................................57
M u ltiv ariate A n a ly sis..................................................................................... .....58
D istance fro m a n d Elevation above S tre a m ...................................................59
D ow nstream V a ria tio n s...........................
64
5. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS........................................................................
66
S u m m a ry ................................................................................................................... 66
D iscu ssio n ................................................................................................................. 68
F u tu re R e s e a rc h ..................................................................................................... 71
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s..................................................................................................73
REFERENCES........................
75
APPENDIX...................................
84
Key to Colum n H eadings.....................................................
85
Key to Colum n N u m b ers................................
86
D ata T able.................................................................................................................. 88
v iii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
P ag e
1.
N o rth e a st E ntrance Station: T e m p e ra tu re a n d p re c ip ita tio n
fo r Ju n e, July, a n d A ugust...................................................................................26
2.
C om parison of m eans, s ta n d a rd deviations, a n d ran g es a t
O-IOcm a n d 10-20cm d e p th s o f tra c e m etals in fo u r m eadow s
along Soda Butte C re e k ......................................................................................... 34
3.
M ean, s ta n d a rd d eviation, a n d ra n g e o f vegetation,
soil (O-IOcm), a n d m e tal v ariab les in Fish Meadow, Hollywood
M eadow, Icebox M eadow, a n d R ound Prairie along Soda Butte
Creek, MT a n d WY..................................................................................................37
4.
T race m etal c o n cen tratio n s along Soda Butte Creek, MT a n d WY
in re la tio n to suggested m axim um tra c e m etal lev els............................... 41
5.
K ruskal W allis co m p ariso n of m e an species d en sity on
plots w ith hig h (Cu>250ppm ) a n d low (Cu<250ppm) levels
o f copper, fo r all grasses a n d fo rb s in c lu d e d in th e M argalef
D iversity I n d e x ....................................................................................................... 46
6.
K ruskal W allis com parison o f m e an species d en sity o n plots
w ith h ig h (pH>6.4) a n d low (pH<6.4) pH levels, fo r all grasses
a n d fo rbs in c lu d e d in th e M argalef D iversity Index....,............................ 54
7.
R esults of logistic re g re ssio n an aly sis fo r fo u r grass species
59
ix
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re
P ag e
1.
M ap o f stu d y a re a a n d Yellowstone re g io n ................................................... 18
2.
M ap o f m eadow stu d y sites along Soda Butte Creek, MT a n d WY............. 19
3.
Photo of Fish M eadow ............................................................................................22
4.
Photo o f H ollywood M eadow ................................................................................22
5.
Photo of Icebox M eadow ........................................................................................23
6.
Photo of R ound P rairie........................................................................................... 23
7.
N o rth e a st e n tra n c e sta tio n c lim o g ra p h ......................................................... 25
8.
V ariatio n in m e an d e n sity levels o f P h leu m n ra te n s e along
a sam ple tra n se c t............................................................
9.
Box plots o f As, Cu, Fe, Pb, a n d Zn a t stu d y sites along Soda
Butte Creek, MT a n d WY........................................................................................ 36
10.
S catter p lo t o f DMg (M argalef s D iversity Index) a n d
c o p p er levels w ith a n o v erlay of sm o o th ed d a ta p o in ts
a n d CuSum p lo t o f cum ulative d ev iatio n fro m m ean
d iv e rsity (DMg) in re la tio n to c o p p er levels along
Soda Butte C reek..................................................................................................... 43
11.
CuSum plots o f th e cum ulative d ev iatio n from m ean
d iv ersity (DMg) in re la tio n to arsenic, iro n , lead, a n d zinc
levels as calculated fo r Fish M eadow, Hollywood Meadow,
a n d Icebox M eadow .............................................................. ;............................... 44
12.
S catter p lo t of co p p er levels in re la tio n to d en sity o f P h leu m
p ra te n se a n d Poa n ra te n sis along Soda Butte C re e k .................................. 47
13.
CuSum plots o f cum ulative deviations fro m th e m ean d en sity
in re la tio n to c o p p er levels fo r P h le u m p ra te n s e
a n d Poa p r a te n s is ............................. ....................................................................48
14.
S catter p lo t o f ab o v e-g ro u n d biom ass of P hleum p ra te n s e
in re la tio n to c o p p er levels along Soda Butte C reek..................................49
J
X
LIST OF FIGURES - C ontinued
15.
S catter p lo t o f M arg alefs D iversity Index (DMg) a n d
pH levels, w ith a n overlay o f sm o o th ed diversity d a ta
a n d CuSum p lo t of th e cum ulative d ev iatio n from m ean
d iv ersity (DMg) h i re la tio n to soil pH fo r th e com bined
d a ta from Fish^ Hollywood, a n d Icebox M eadow s........................................ 5V
16.
S catter p lo t o f pH in re la tio n to d e n sity o f Poa p ra te n sis along
Soda Butte Creek................................. :.................................................................. 52
17.
CuSum p lots o f cum ulative d ev iatio n s fro m m ean d e n sity in
re la tio n to pH levels fo r two grass sp ecies................................................... 53
18.
S catter p lo t o f a b o v e-g ro u n d biom ass o f P hleum n ra te n s e
in re la tio n to pH levels along Soda Butte Creek...........................................55
19.
CuSum p lo t o f th e cum ulative d ev iatio n s fro m m ean
d iv ersity (DMg) h i re la tio n to salinity, a n d scatter p lo t o f
P h le u m n ra te n s e d e n sity in re la tio n to s a lin ity ........................................ 56
20.
CuSum p lo t o f th e cum ulative d ev iatio n s fro m m ean
d iv ersity (DMg) in re la tio n to p e rc e n t c la y ............... :................................. 57
21.
S catter p lo t o f P h leu m p ra te n s e d e n sity in re la tio n to
p e rc e n t clays............................................................................................................. 58
22.
O verlay of changes in c o p p er levels relativ e to ch an g es in
d iv e rsity (DMg) along tra n sec ts in th re e m eadow s.....................................61
23.
S catter p lots o f M arg alefs D iversity Index (DMg) in re la tio n
to d istan ce fro m stre am c h an n e l a n d elev atio n o f sam ple .
p o in t above stre a m C h an n el.............................................................................. 62
24.
C o n cen tratio n o f c o p p er in re la tio n to d istan ce fro m stre am
c h an n e l a n d e lev a tio n of sam ple p o in t above stre am c h a n n e l............ 63
25.
Box p lo t o f M arg alefs D iversity Index (DMg) fo r Fish,
Hollywood, a n d Icebox M eadow s........................................................................65
xi
ABSTRACT
Existing re s e a rc h d o c u m en ts th a t h ig h levels o f c o p p e r a n d other, tra c e
m etals can b e toxic to p lan ts, b u t little h a s b e e n w ritten a b o u t th e spatial e x te n t
of ecosystem d istu rb a n c e d u e to trace m e ta l deposition. O utside o f Yellowstone
N ational Park, in M o n tan a a n d W yom ing, tailings fro m a n o ld m in e hav e b e e n
d e p o site d d o w n stre am b y la rg e flo o d ev en ts. Elevated levels o f tra c e m e ta ls
fro m th e d isp la ce d tailings h a v e b e en id e n tifie d 25 km d o w n stream (M ey er,
1993).
T his s tu d y e v a lu a te s w h e th e r g ra ss sp ecies d iv e rs ity , d e n sity , a n d
biom ass: (I) d ecrea se as tra c e m etal c o n ce n tra tio n s in crease; a n d (2) d ecrease
as soil pH d ecreases. In o rd e r to assess th e ro le o f e n v iro n m e n ta l v a ria b le s
u n re la te d to m in e tailin g s, th e s tu d y also e v a lu a te d w h e th e r g rass sp ec ie s
diversity, d ensity, a n d biom ass: (I) v a ry w ith soil clay c o n te n t a n d salinity; (2)
v a ry as a fu n c tio n o f d istan ce fro m th e stre a m c h an n e l o r elev atio n above t h e .
chan n el; o r (3) ch an g e in th e d o w n stream d irectio n .
T race m etal levels fre q u e n tly exceed M axim um A cceptable C o n cen tratio n s
fo r a g ric u ltu ra l soils (K abata-P endias a n d Pendias, 1992) a t p o in ts w ith in all
fo u r m eadow s sam pled along Soda Butte Creek. pH levels in th e fo u r sites m a rk
th e p re sen c e o f stro n g ly a cid a n d m o d e ra te ly acid soils, w ith values as low as
pH 3.4.
R esults fro m fo u r m ead o w sites along Soda B utte C reek in d ic a te th a t
v e g eta tio n diversity, d ensity, a n d biom ass d ecrease a t th re s h o ld levels o f tra c e
m etals a n d soil pH. CuSum plots o f d iv e rsity in re la tio n to tra c e m etal levels
show a d ecrea se in m e an d iv e rsity a t 3 IS p p m co p p er, 2 2 p p m arsen ic, 4.2%
iro n , 65p p m le ad , a n d 17Oppm zinc. D ensities o f P h le u m p r a te n s e a n d P o a
n ra te n sis w ere significantly low er (p<=0.001) o n plots w ith m o re th a n 25Oppm
c o p p er. A b o v e -g ro u n d b io m ass o f P h le u m p r a te n s e w as a lso sig n ific a n tly
low er o n plots w ith c o p p er levels above 250ppm . D ecreased m e a n grass d e n sity
was fo u n d on plots w ith pH<6.4, b u t th e o n ly statistically sig n ifican t d ifferen ce
was fo r Tuncus b a ltic u s. w hich h a d in c re a se d d en sity o n p lo ts w ith pH<6.4. In
c o n tra st to th e clear im pacts o f tra c e m etals a n d pH o n v eg etatio n , facto rs su ch
as soil salinity, soil clay co n ten t, site elev atio n above stre a m a n d distance fro m
stre am d id n o t a lte r veg etatio n p a tte rn s.
I
CHAPTER I
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES AND SIGNIFICANCE
R esearch Q uestions
Existing re se a rc h d o cu m en ts th a t h ig h levels of c o p p e r a n d o th e r m etals
can be toxic to p la n ts (K abata-Pendias a n d P endias, 1992). In th e m o u n tain o u s
West, w here histo ric a n d active m ines d o t th e landscape, tra c e m etals released
b y m in in g a c tiv ity c an p o se to x icity h a z a rd s to v e g e ta tio n .
O u tsid e th e
n o r th e a s t c o rn e r o f Y ellow stone N atio n al Park, ta ilin g s fro m th e in a c tiv e
M cLaren o p e n p it m in e h a v e b e e n a so u rc e o f su ch tra c e m etals.
Before
co rrectiv e actions w ere reco m m en d ed fo r th is tailings d e p o sit in 1989 (B ureau
of R eclam ation, 1994), th e tailings im p o u n d m e n t d am fa ile d d u rin g a la rg e
flo o d e v e n t in 1950 a n d Soda B utte C reek c a rrie d tailin g s a n d tra c e m etals
dow nstream . Elevated levels o f trace m etals in floodplain sedim ents have b een
id e n tifie d as fa r as 25km dow nstream (M eyer, 1993). Little is know n a b o u t th e
sp a tia l d is trib u tio n o f th e tr a n s p o r te d tra c e m etals a n d th e ir im p a c t o n
d o w n stre am v eg etatio n .
This re s e a rc h focuses on assessing th e im p acts o f th e d isp laced m in e
tailin g s o n g ra ssla n d v e g e ta tio n along Soda B utte C reek w ith in Y ellow stone
N a tio n a l P ark.
S p ecifically , th e s tu d y e v a lu a te s w h e th e r g rass sp ec ie s
d iv e rsity , d e n sity , a n d biom ass: (I ) d e c re a se as tra c e m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s
increase; a n d (2) decrease as soil pH d ecreases. These k ey issues w ere ch o sen
o n th e basis o f re se a rc h in o th e r areas w h ere h ig h tra c e m e ta l levels a n d low
2
pH levels led to d ecrea se d v egetatio n diversity, d ensity, a n d biom ass (M acnicol
a n d Beckett, 1985; K abata Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992; Levy e t aL, 1992).
In o rd e r to assess th e ro le o f en v iro n m e n ta l v ariab les u n re la te d to m in e
tailings, I also e v alu ated w h e th e r grass species diversity, d en sity , an d biom ass:
(I) v a ry w ith soil clay c o n te n t a n d salinity; (2) v a ry as a fu n c tio n o f d istan ce
fro m th e stre am c h an n e l o r elevatio n ab o v e th e channel; o r (3) change in th e
d o w n stre a m d ire c tio n .
Each o f th e se e n v iro n m e n ta l v a ria b le s can a ffe ct
v eg etatio n p a tte rn s. For exam ple, h ig h clay co n ten ts can d ecrease trace m etal
a v a ila b ility a n d th u s re d u c e im p acts o f tra c e m etals (Allbw ay, 1995); h ig h
sa lin ity can re d u c e p la n t yields (Brady, 1990); site lo c atio n in re la tio n to a
w a te r so u rc e c an in flu e n c e m o istu re levels, w h ich th e n a ffe c t p la n t g row th
(B arbour e t al., 1987); a n d th e do w n stream lo catio n o f a site is tie d to changes
in e lev a tio n a n d h a b ita t ty p e (D espain, 1990).
This s tu d y w ill a d d to o u r
know ledge of th e te m p o ra l a n d sp atial im p acts o f m in e tailin g s in h ig h la n d
e n v iro n m e n ts .
T his re s e a rc h w ill n o t o n ly p ro v id e in fo rm a tio n o n im p acts o f p a s t
m ining activity, b u t m a y also p ro v e u sefu l in assessing th e p o te n tia l im p acts
o f a n e a rb y p ro p o se d m ine. Crown B utte Mines, Inc., a su b sid ia ry of N o ran d a
M inerals C orp., h a s su b m itte d exten siv e p ro p o sa ls fo r a n u n d e rg ro u n d gold
m in e a d ja c e n t to th e o ld M cLaren o p e n p it m in es (G re a te r Y ellow stone
C oalition, 1992). T he m ining o p e ra tio n as p ro p o se d w ould n o t d irectly affect
Soda B utte Creek, because p re lim in a ry p lan s fo r th e m ine suggest p lacem en t of
th e tailin g s p ile in th e a d ja c e n t F isher C reek d ra in a g e (C row n B utte M ines,
Inc., 1992).
H ow ever, th e p re lim in a ry E n v iro n m en tal Im p a c t S tatem en t lists
sites in th e Soda B utte C reek d ra in a g e as a lte rn a tiv e ta ilin g s im p o u n d m e n t
locations (USES a n d DSL, 1995). R esearch o n th e ex ten t a n d im pacts o f tra c e
3
m e ta l d istrib u tio n in th e Soda B utte C reek a re a will p ro v e u sefu l in p lan n in g
m itig a tio n m e a s u re s , a sse ssin g th e p o te n tia l h a z a rd s o f th e re m a in in g
M cLaren tailings, a n d estim atin g p o te n tia l im p acts o f th e p ro p o se d m in e o n
o th e r stre a m d rain ag es.
L ite ra tu re Review
As scientists c o n tin u e to assess th e im plications of h u m a n reso u rce use,
a com plex p ic tu re o f th e links b etw een m in e ra l e x tra c tio n a n d im p acts o n
p la n ts a n d soils h a s e m e rg e d .
W h en m in in g a c tiv ity in c re a s e d in th e
n in e te e n th a n d e a rly tw e n tie th c e n tu ry , m in e rs h a d littie know ledge o f th e
im pacts o f th e w aste p ro d u c ts o f th e ir tra d e , i.e. m ine tailings containing m an y
h eav y m etals. Today, th ese h isto ric d ep o sits o f m ine tailings p o se a significant
h a z a rd in term s o f m etal co n tam in atio n in soils a t th e m in e site a n d in alluvial
soils d o w n stream (M arcus, 1989, 1991). W ithout rem ed iatio n , th e h eav y m etal
c o n ta m in a tio n o f soils g e n e ra lly will la s t fo r d ecad es to c e n tu rie s, as soils
serve as h eav y m etals sinks (Franzle, 1993).
T he lite ra tu re speaks to several asp ects o f th is com plex e n v iro n m e n ta l
issu e.
W ork b y p la n t a n d soil sc ie n tists ex p lain s th e soil fa c to rs w h ich
in flu en c e b io av ailab ility a n d tra n s p o rt o f tra c e m etals in to p la n t tissues, th e
effects of toxicity o f specific tra c e m etals o n v eg etatio n , a n d ch arac te ristic s
a n d to le ra n c e levels o f in d iv id u a l p la n t species (K abata P endias a n d P en d ias,
1992).
M any stu d ie s focus on site-specific im p acts o f a b a n d o n e d m ines a n d
m in e tailings, a n d a few exam ine th e d o w n stre am im p acts o f d isp laced m in e
tailings (C ham bers e t al., 1987; Levy et al., 1992; Erickson a n d N orton, 1994).
4
E ioavailabilitv o f T race M etals
C e rta in tra c e m e ta ls a re c o n sid e re d e sse n tia l fo r p la n t g ro w th a n d
re p ro d u c tio n .
A t h ig h levels, how ever, th e se sam e tra c e m e ta ls can le a d to
m ild o r sev ere d ecreases in y ie ld (M acnicol a n d Beckett, 1985).
The fa c to rs
w hich c o n tro l p la n t u p ta k e o f tra c e m e ta ls in clu d e: ( I ) c o n c e n tra tio n a n d
sp eciatio n o f th e m e ta l in th e soil a n d w a te r solution; (2) m o v em en t o f th e
m e ta l fro m th e b u lk soil to th e ro o t surface; (3) tra n s p o rt o f m etal fro m th e
ro o t su rface in to th e root; a n d (4) tra n slo ca tio n from th e ro o t to th e shoot. Of
th e se facto rs, m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n a n d sp eciatio n in th e soil a re th e p rim a ry
influence on p la n t u p ta k e o f m etals (Alloway, 1995).
T race m e ta l sp ec ia tio n re fe rs to th e p h ases (solid, liq u id o r gas) a n d
chem ical fo rm o f each elem en t, w hich c an ra n g e fro m in so lu b le a n d h e n c e
n o n -b io a v a ila b le solids, to p o te n tia lly b io a v a ila b le o rg a n ic a n d in o rg a n ic
c o m p lex es, to b io a v a ila b le a n io n s a n d c a tio n s in th e
a tm o s p h e re .
soil s o lu tio n o r
Specific soil c o n d itio n s e x e rt m a jo r c o n tro ls o n tra c e m e ta l
so lu b ility (sp e cia tio n ) a n d b io a v ailab ility .
Soil p ro cesses w hich can a ffe ct
tra c e m e ta l so lu b ility in c lu d e d isso lu tio n , so rp tio n , com p lex atio n , m ig ratio n ,
p re c ip ita tio n , occlusion, diffusion, b in d in g b y organic su b stan ces, a b so rp tio n
a n d s o rp tio n by m ic ro b io ta , a n d v o la tiliz a tio n (K abata-P endias a n d P en d ias,
1992). T hese soil processes, in tu rn , a re co n tro lled b y soil p ro p e rtie s su ch as
soil pH , re d o x p o te n tia l, a n d c a tio n e x ch an g e c ap a c ity (CEC) a n d b y th e
carb o n ate, Fe a n d Mn h y d ro u s oxide, a n d clay m ineral c o n te n t o f th e soil.
Soil p ro p e rtie s a n d c o m p o sitio n c a n serv e as a n in d ic a to r o f th e
b io av ailab ility o f tra c e m etals in soils a n d are easier to m e asu re th a n specific
soil processes. P lant a n d soil scientists g en erally agree th a t soil pH an d red o x
p o te n tia l e x ert th e g re a te st in flu en c e o n tra c e m etal b io av ailab ility (A driano,
5
1986; B arbour, e t al., 1987; K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992; Alloway, 1995).
Clay m in e ra ls a n d o rg an ic m a tte r a re th e soil p ro p e rtie s w hich a re th e m o st
im p o rta n t con tro ls o n th e so rp tio n o f tra c e m etals (Horowitz, 1991). These key
soil processes a n d c o n tro ls a re exam in e d fu r th e r in th e follow ing subsections.
pH a n d Redox P o te n tia l: Soil o x id a tio n -red u c tio n sta tu s in flu en ces th e
s o lu b ility a n d to x ic ity o f tra c e m e ta ls a n d c o n tro ls n u tr i e n t a v a ila b ility
(Alloway, 1995). As soil oxygen is d e p le te d d u e to w aterlogging o r com paction,
a n a e ro b ic m ic ro o rg a n ism s p re d o m in a te a n d c e rta in tra c e m e tals u n d e rg o
re d u ctio n . The c o n se q u e n t low red o x p o te n tia l o f a w aterlogged soil can le ad to
re d u c ed p h o to sy n th esis (K ludze a n d DeLaune, 1995) an d d ecreased live biom ass
(Koch a n d M endelssohn, 1989).
In g en eral, low er red o x p o te n tia ls co in cid e
w ith th e m ost m obile io n fractions (Brady, 1990).
Acid soils (pH < 6.5) lead to leaching o f various elem ents, including zinc,
copper, a n d iro n . A driano (1986) re p o rts th a t in soils w ith a pH betw een 4.2
a n d 6.6, zinc is m obile, arsenic is m o d e ra tely m obile, a n d c o p p e r an d lead a re
slowly, m obile.
Soil acid ificatio n stro n g ly im p a c ted tra c e m e ta l m o b ility in a
s tu d y b y K abata-P endias a n d W iacek (1 9 8 6 ).
Total m etal c o n c e n tra tio n (th e
sum of iro n , m anganese, zinc, lead, copper, a n d cadm ium ) was 9080 n g /l fo r an
acidified soil solution versus 17 n-g/l in th e sam e soil type w ith a n e u tra l pH. A
review o f lite ra tu re o n m etal fluxes in fo re st soils co n clu d ed th a t b o th soil ty p e
a n d v e g e ta tio n ty p e affect th e ra te o f soil a cid ificatio n a n d m etal leach in g
(B ergkvist e t al.,
1 9 8 9 ).
O verall, in c re a s in g pH re d u c e s h e a v y m e ta l
b io a v ailab ility a n d d ecreasin g pH in c re ase s m o b ility o f h e a v y m etal catio n s
(B arbour e t al, 1987; Brady, 1990).
pH levels also in flu en c e o th e r soil re a ctio n s.
For exam ple, h y d ro ly sis
a n d organic com plexing a re th e m ost p re v a le n t reactio n s in soil solutions, a n d
)
6
b o th a re pH sen sitiv e (K abata-P endias a n d Pendias, 19 9 2 ).
In solid p h a se
re a c tio n s, soil colloids dev elo p n e g ativ ely c h arg ed su rfaces a t h ig h pH a n d
a d so rb cations (heavy m etals).
C hanges in pH c an c re a te o b serv ab le changes in v e g e ta tio n p a tte rn s .
W indblow n su lfu r d u s t fro m a p la n t in A lb erta c reated ex trem ely acid soils (pH
I to 2) w ithin 200m o f th e p la n t, a n d m oss p lan ts in th e a re a w ere m ostly d ead .
F u rth e r dow nw ind soil pH in c re ase d to 3.6 a n d th e m oss was d e ad o r dy in g
(N yborg a n d M alhi, 1 9 9 1 ).
Sm all re g io n s o f th e K lam ath M o u n tain s in
C alifornia h a v e ex trem ely acidic soils (pH <4.5) w here a re a s w ith o u t conifers
a re s u rro u n d e d b y n o rm a l co n ifero u s fo rests (D ahlgren, 1 9 9 4 ).
V eg etatio n
ty p e s o n a d ja c e n t p e a t m o u n d s in M in n eso ta e x h ib it stro n g lin k s b etw een
d iv ersity a n d pH (G laser e t al., 1990). pH levels can also ch an g e rad ically o v er
sh o rt d istan ces (K ershaw a n d Looney, 1985). A stu d y o f th e m ic ro d istrib u tio n
o f T rifo liu m re p e n s rev ealed a pH g ra d ie n t w hich v aried b y a facto r o f 3 in a
60 cm d istance (Snaydon, 1962).
I
Clav M in erals: T he larg e surface a re a a n d p e rm a n e n t surface n eg ativ e
c h arg e o f clay m in e ra ls in flu en ce tra c e m e ta l b io av ailab ility b y th e ir affin ity
fo r catio n s (H orow itz, 1991). H igher clay co n ten ts g en erally in d icate a h ig h e r
catio n exchange cap acity (CEC) (A driano, 1986) an d h en ce h ig h ad so rp tio n a n d
b u fferin g c ap a c itie s (K abata-P endias a n d Pendias, 1992).
C o n seq u en tly , th e
p re sen c e o f clays can re d u c e th e b io av ailab ility of h e av y m etals.
Blume a n d
B nim m er (1987) d escrib e clay a d so rp tio n levels o f several tra c e m etals below
th e pH level w h ere m etals fo rm stro n g oxides o r hydroxo-com plexes.
Clays
h av e m e d iu m a d so rp tio n of zinc below pH 5.5, m ed iu m a d so rp tio n o f c o p p e r
below pH 4.5, h ig h a d so rp tio n o f lead below pH 4.0, a n d v ery h ig h ad so rp tio n of
iron(III) below pH 3.5. A dsorption does v a ry according to th e type o f clay, fo r
7
exam ple, k a o lin ite a d s o rb e d 3.4 m eq /lO O g Zn2+ w h e rea s m o n tm o rillo n ite
adsorbed 88 to 108 m eq/lO O g Zn2+ (Stuanes, 1976).
O rg an ic M a tte r:
O rganic m a tte r h a s h ig h a b so rp tiv e c ap acities fo r
cations a t pH levels > 5 (Alloway, 1995). T race m etals can fo rm com plexes w ith
so lu b le o rg a n ic lig a n d s o r c h e la te co m p lex es w ith h u m ic acid s (L inehan,
1985). In c o n tra st to th e com plexes o f hu m ic acids a n d m etal ions, com plexes o f
m etals a n d fulvic acids te n d to be m o re b io av ailab le (C o tten ie e t ah, 1979;
H orth, 1988). Blume a n d B riim m er (1987) state th a t organic m a tte r can fix iro n
a n d le a d v e ry strongly, a n d zinc slightly. A driano (1986) lists copper, lead, an d
zinc as h av in g a h ig h a ffin ity fo r o rg an ic m a tte r.
A lth o u g h org an ic m a tte r
can co n tro l tra c e m e ta l bioavailability, in m o st soils organic m a tte r com prises
o nly 2% o f to tal soil w eight (K abata-Pendias a n d P endias, 1992).
Plant U ptake of Trace M etals
P la n ts p o sse ss a n a m azin g a b ility to a d a p t to n e w o r c h em ica lly
im b a la n c e d e n v iro n m e n ts.
For m o st p la n ts, how ever, th e ir a b ility to a d a p t
re a ch e s lim its w h en tra c e m e ta l levels d ro p below o r rise above a ra n g e o f
acceptable levels (Beckett a n d Davis, 1977).
A lth o u g h o th e r p la n t tissues can a b so rb tra c e m etals, th e m a jo rity o f .
a b so rp tio n occurs in p la n t roots.
D uring passive u p tak e, tra c e m etals diffuse
in to th e ro o t, w hereas active u p ta k e b rin g s trace m etals in to th e p la n t a g ain st
a c o n c e n tra tio n g ra d ie n t (i.e. tra c e m e ta l c o n ce n tra tio n s in sid e th e p la n t a re
h ig h e r th a n tra c e m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s o u ts id e th e p la n t) (R orison a n d
R obinson, 1986; A llow ay, 1995).
S cien tists d isag ree a b o u t specific u p ta k e
m echanism s fo r in d iv id u al elem ents, b u t th e ra te of trace m etal u p tak e shows a
8
p o sitiv e c o rre la tio n w ith th e p o o l o f b io av ailab le m etals a t th e ro o t su rface
(K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992).
Plants a re m o st likely to a b so rb tra c e m etals w hich a re p re se n t in soil
so lu tio n s in a n io n ic o r a c h e la te d a n d com plexed fo rm , a lth o u g h o rg an ic
com p o u n d s p ro d u c e d b y ro o ts can release tra c e m etals fixed to clay m in erals.
In o n e s tu d y (O lsen e t al., 1981) su n flo w er p la n ts u n d e r stress d u e to iro n
deficiency p ro d u c e d ro o t exudates w hich low ered th e soil pH. T he low ered pH
th e n so lubilized th e iro n , in creasin g its bioavailability.
T ra n s fe r co efficien ts o ffer a fra m e o f re fe re n c e fo r co m p arin g p la n t
u p ta k e o f d iffe re n t tra c e m etals. T he tra n s fe r coefficient is th e ra tio betw een
th e m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n in above g ro u n d p la n t tissu e a n d th e to ta l m e ta l
c o n c e n tra tio n in th e soil. T ran sfer coefficients Usted b y Kloke e t al. (1994) fo r
trace m etals c o n sid ered in th is stu d y include: c o p p er 0.1-10, lead 0.01-0.1, zinc
1-10, a n d arsenic 0.01-0.1.
A tm ospheric d ep o sitio n o f h e av y m etals can also le a d to p la n t u p tak e.
Fine p a rtic u la te m a tte r associated w ith m etal co n tam in an ts can a d h ere d ire c tly
to p la n t leaves fo r fo liar u p ta k e a n d m o v em en t w ith in th e p la n t. In a d d itio n ,
ra in sp lash o f c o n ta m in a te d soil p articles o n to a p la n t le a f re p re se n ts a n o th e r
tr a n s p o r t m e c h a n ism in a re a s w h ere c o n ta m in a n ts a re p re s e n t a t th e soil
surface (H aygarth a n d Jones, 1992).
In m in e d a re a s sim ila r to th o se o f Soda B utte C reek, tailin g s h a v e
im p a c te d soils a n d p la n ts in m o u n ta in m eadow s (Levy, 1992).
H ydraulically
tra n s p o rte d m in e tailin g s fro m m in in g n e a r Leadville, C o lo rad o in th e e a rly
1900's a re resp o n sib le fo r h ig h soil m etal levels a n d acidic soils (pHs less th a n
5.6).
T race m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s in p la n ts w ere sig n ifican tly c o rre la te d w ith
to tal soil m etal levels fo r lead a n d Iuncus so ., lead a n d Poa so ., a n d zinc a n d Poa
9
sp.
F or m a n y m e ta ls p la n t m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s ex ceed "norm al" fo liag e
concentrations of 3 to 20 p p m copper, 0.10 to 1.0 p p m cadm ium , 2 to 5 p p m lead,
an d 15 to 150 p p m zinc.
T he Sum m itville, C olorado m in e d is a s te r also re s u lte d in d o w n stream
d is tu rb a n c e d u e to tr a n s p o r t of acid ic, m e ta l-b e a rin g s u rfa c e w a te r a n d
sed im en t (King, 1995). Soils along th e A lam osa River 25 to 5 0 k m .d o w n stream
fro m Sum m itville ra n g e from 38 to g re a te r th a n 75p p m co p p er. C opper levels
in a lfa lfa a n d b a rle y irrig a te d w ith m e ta l-e n ric h e d w a te r a re h ig h e r th a n
levels in c o n tro l fields, b u t sim ilar to levels re p o rte d fo r o th e r areas in th e
W estern U.S.
S tudies o f w etlan d s in th e v alley show h ig h e r m etal levels in
a q u a tic p la n ts re c eiv in g w a te r fro m th e m in e d a re a th a n in p la n ts w ith a
d iffe re n t w a ter source.
Heavy M etal Toxicitv in Plants
A fin e lin e exists betw een re q u ire d co n ce n tra tio n s o f tra c e m etals a n d
levels w hich p ro v e h a rm fu l to p la n t m etab o lism . D istin g u ish in g "excessive"
q u a n titie s c an b e difficu lt.
As tra c e m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s in c re ase to h ig h
levels, p la n ts show o n e o f th re e b e h av io ral resp o n ses: ( I ) n o change, d u e to
to leran ce m echanism s; (2) d ev elo p m en t o f b eh av io ral to leran ce; o r (3) dam age
a n d d e ath , d u e to lack of tolerance (K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992).
M u ltilp le p la n t sp ec ie s g ro w in g o n m in e ra l d e p o s its h a v e b e e n
id e n tifie d as m e ta l to le ra n t, in c lu d in g c o p p e r to le ra n t G v o sp h H a p a tr in i,
P o lv c a r p e a s p i r o s t v l i s . A c r o c e o h a lu s r o b e r t i . a n d M e r c e v a la tifo lia : iro n
to le ra n t B etula sp . a n d C lusia rosea: lead to le ra n t E rian th u s g iganteus: a n d zinc
to le ra n t Viola c alam in eria (C annon, 1960). M cGrath et al. (1993) tested T h laso i
c a e ru le s c e n s . a species a d a p te d to m e ta l-ric h le a d /z in c soils in Europe, a n d
fo u n d zinc accum ulations 150 tim es th a t o f a n o n -accu m u lato r species.
10
Som e p la n t p o p u la tio n s
c o lo n iz in g
m in e
sp o ils h a v e
d e v e lo p e d
b e h a v io ra l to le ra n c e s o v e r tim e, d e m o n s tra te d b y lo w er s h o o t tissu e m e ta l
c o n ce n tra tio n s in to le ra n t popu latio n s. A re n a ria douglasii. B rom us m ollis, a n d
V u ln ia m ic ro s ta c h y a p la n ts grow ing o n c o p p e r m in e spoils a ccu m u lated less
c o p p e r in s h o o t tissu e th a n p la n ts o f th e sam e species fro m c o n tro l sites
(K ruckeberg a n d W u, 1992).
P lan t a d a p ta tio n to in c re a se d m etal levels c an
o ccu r ra p id ly , som etim es w ith in a few y e a rs o f th e d is tu rb a n c e (T yler e t al.,
1989).
S ensitivity o f in d iv id u a l species c an v a ry greatly, a lth o u g h m o st grasses ,
a re m o re to le ra n t o f excessive tra c e m etals (A driano, 1986). A stu d y o f p la n t
re sp o n se to h ig h levels of tra c e m etals in sewage sludge fo u n d ch ard , le ttu c e,
beets, a n d carro ts w ere in to le ra n t, w h ereas th e grasses Poa p ra te n s is . F e stu c a
sp .. A vena sp.. D actvlis s lo m e ra ta w ere to le ra n t a n d B rom us in e rm is was v e ry
to le ra n t (Logan a n d C haney, 1983).
T ra c e m e ta l a c c u m u la tio n s in p la n ts d iffe r b e tw e e n p la n t p a r ts .
G enerally, c o n c e n tra tio n s in v e g eta tiv e tissu e a re h ig h e r th a n in seeds.
In
c o m , fo r exam ple, m etal co n ce n tra tio n s d ecrease fro m le a f to stem to h u sk to
kern el. Trees show a d ecrease in m e tal co n cen tratio n s fro m ro o ts to foliage to
b ra n c h to tru n k .
o f a p la n t.
T race m etal levels can also change o v er th e grow ing season
Fescue leaves (F e s tu c a s p .) sh o w ed a d e c re a se in cad m iu m ,
c h ro m iu m , c o p p e r, m a n g a n e s e , le a d
and
zin c as th e
grow ing s e a s o n
p ro g ressed (A driano, 1986).
Toxicitv o f Specific Elem ents
T he tra c e m etals o f in te re s t in this s tu d y in clu d e co p p er, lead, zinc, iro n ,
a n d a rsen ic .
e lem en t.
Specific im pacts' of tra c e m e ta l toxicity v a ry fro m e le m e n t to
11
C o p p e r: Toxic c o n ce n tra tio n s o f c o p p e r can cau se tissu e d am ag e a n d
elo n g atio n o f ro o t cells, a lte ra tio n o f m e m b ra n e p erm eab ility , p e ro x id a tio n o f
c h lo ro p la s t m e m b ra n e lip id s a n d in h ib itio n o f p h o to s y n th e tic e le c tro n
tra n s p o rt, a n d im m o b ilizatio n of c o p p e r in cell walls, in cell vacuoles a n d in
n o n -d iffu sib le c o p p e r p ro te in com plexes (K abata-Pendias a n d P en d ias, 1992).
Alloway (1995) lists c o p p er as am ong th e m o st toxic tra c e m etals w hen p re s e n t
a t excessive levels.
S ym ptom s o f c o p p e r to x ic ity in c lu d e re d u c e d g ro w th vigor, p o o rly
d e v elo p e d a n d d isco lo red ro o ts, a n d le a f chlorosis (A driano, 1986).
Roots,
w hich a re th e m a in site o f c o p p e r a b so rp tio n , also serve as th e lo catio n fo r
d e p o sitio n o f excess c o p p e r (Linder, 1991).
A lthough c o p p e r is essen tial fo r
p la n ts , o n ly a n a rro w ra n g e o f c o p p e r c o n c e n tra tio n s p ro v e a cc e p tab le fo r
p la n t g ro w th (B arber, 1995).
For ex am p le, P e tte rso n (1 9 7 6 ) d o c u m e n te d
d e p re ssed p la n t grow th w ith a solution o f lO nm ol/L copper.
B oth soil pH a n d in te ra c tio n w ith o th e r tra c e m e ta ls affect c o p p e r
bioavailability (A driano, 1986; Linder, 1991; K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992;
A llow ay, 1995; B arber, 1995).
C opper av ailab ility in creases below pH 6, a n d
peaks below pH 5. As pH levels in crease above pH 6.5, c o p p e r com plexes form .
O rganically com plexed c o p p er increases above pH 7. C opper ab so rp tio n can be
in h ib ite d by zinc, b ecause b o th a re a b so rb e d b y th e sam e m ech an ism (Linder,
1991).
L ead:
Lead can also in te rfe re w ith essen tial p la n t p ro cesses su ch as
p h o to s y n th e sis , g ro w th , a n d m itosis w h e n p re s e n t in h ig h c o n c e n tra tio n s
(K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992).
For exam ple, le ad 's a b ility to m im ic th e
b eh av io r of calcium can in h ib it p la n t enzym es.
Sym ptom s o f le a d toxicity in
12
p la n ts a re n o t well know n, a lth o u g h th e y in c lu d e d a rk g reen leaves, w ilting o f
o ld e r leaves, stu n te d foliage, a n d brow n sh o rt ro o ts (Foy e t al„ 1978).
As w ith co p p er, p la n ts a b so rb le a d th ro u g h th e ir ro o ts, a n d store excess
le a d in th e roots. O rganic m a tte r is co n sid e re d th e p rim a ry soil sink o f excess
lead. High soil pH also serves to d ecrease le a d u p tak e b ecau se th e lead form s
in so lu b le com plexes.
im m obilizing th e lead .
For exam ple, le a d c an com plex w ith p h o sp h ate s, th u s
In ad d itio n , zinc can re d u c e th e tra n slo c a tio n o f le a d
from p la n t ro o ts to tops (A driano, 1986; K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992). In
g en eral, a lth o u g h le a d is c o n sid e re d to p o te n tia lly b e o n e o f th e m o st toxic
tra c e m etals, le a d so lu b ility , m obility, a n d th u s b io av ailab ility are g e n erally
low over a w ide ra n g e o f pH levels (AUoway, 1995).
Z inc: Sym ptom s o f zinc toxicity in clu d e chlorotic a n d n ecro tic leaf tips,
re ta rd e d p la n t grow th, a n d "b arb ed wire" ro o ts (Cannon, 1960). As w ith c o p p er
a n d lead, p la n t ro o ts te n d to co n tain m o re zinc th a n p la n t tops. M any p la n ts
c an to le ra te h ig h levels o f zinc, w h ich is n o t c o n sid e re d h ig h ly p h y to to x ic
(K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992); how ever, zinc is co n sid e re d highly m obile
a n d bioavailable (Alloway, 1995).
Zinc u p ta k e a n d bioavailability re la te m o st closely to pH, h y d ro u s oxides
a n d clay m in e ra ls (Alloway, 1995).
S olubility of zinc in c re ase s u n d e r acidic
conditions, b u t zinc can also form com plexes w ith soluble org an ic m aterials in
soils w ith pH levels g re a te r th a n 6.5 (B arber, 1995).
S everal tra c e m etals,
in clu d in g co p p er, iro n , a n d arsenic, h a v e an tag o n istic in te ra c tio n s w ith zinc,
in w hich th e u p ta k e of one elem en t can b e com petitively lim ited b y th e o th e r
(K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992).
13
Iro n :
Signs o f iro n to x icity v a ry w idely am ong p la n t g en o ty p es a n d
'
species, a lth o u g h sym ptom s can in clu d e d a rk g reen foliage a n d s tu n te d ro o ts
a n d to p s (Foy, 1983).
P lants can tak e u p larg e q u a n titie s o f iro n w h en in
soluble form . It h a s b een re p o rte d th a t fo rb s ab so rb m o re iro n th a n grasses.
T he level o f iro n bio av ailab ility re la te s closely to soil pH a n d ra tio s o f
iro n w ith o th e r h e a v y m etals such as m an g an ese a n d c o p p e r (K abata-Pendias
a n d P e n d ia s, 1992).
D ecreasing soil pH in creases iro n so lu b ility , a n d toxic
effects also te n d to co rre la te w ith salin ity a n d low soil p h o sp h o ro u s (Foy e t al.,
1978). In c o n tra st, w h en iro n c h elate co m p o u n d s form , th e y a re m o re stab le
th a n c o m p o u n d s w ith o th e r tra c e elem en ts, u n less h ig h c o n ce n tra tio n s o f th e
o th e r ions cause m ass action d isp lacem en t (Barber, 1995).
A rs e n ic :
G row th re d u c tio n is th e m o st com m on sy m p to m o f a rsen ic
toxicity, in a d d itio n to le a f w ilting a n d v io le t c o lo ra tio n (A driano, 1 9 8 6 ).
S p e c ific ally , excess a rs e n ic
re d u c e s w a te r m o b ility a n d
h in d e rs
se e d
g e rm in atio n (Alloway, 1995). Plants in th e rice, bean, a n d legum e fam ilies a re
co n sid e re d sensitive to excess levels of arsen ic. As w ith th e o th e r trace m etals
discussed, p la n ts te n d to c o n ce n tra te excess arsenic in ro o t tissue.
T he soil p ro p e rtie s w hich in flu en c e a rsen ic so lu b ility in c lu d e p e rc e n t
clays, organic m a tte r, hydroxides, a n d pH (W oolsen e t al., 1973). Sandy soils
fa c ilita te h ig h e r a rse n ic m o b ility a n d p h y to to x ic ity th a n clay ey soils.
For
exam ple, san d y soils h av e a toxicity th re sh o ld o f 40m g /k g v ersu s 2 0 0 m g/kg fo r
clay ey soils (S h ep p a rd , 1992).
A rsenic im p a c ts v a ry in th a t toxicity o f th e
e lem en t in creases a t pHs less th a n 5, y e t h ig h e r pH soils m a y in crease p la n t
arsen ic u p ta k e.
14
G rass Species C h aracteristics a n d R esponses to T race m etals: The v ast
m a jo rity o f s tu d ie s o n p la n t re s p o n s e to tra c e m e ta l to x ic ity fo cu s o n
a g ric u ltu ra l p la n ts .
M any o f th e se stu d ie s grow p la n ts u n d e r la b o ra to ry
c o n d itio n s a n d d o n o t s tu d y tra c e m e ta l to x icity u n d e r n a tu ra l c o n d itio n s.
M acnicol a n d Beckett (1985) list critical co n cen tratio n s o f tra c e m etals in p la n t
tissues (p p m d ry w eight) o f cro p p la n ts a n d species u sed as te st p lan ts fo r 10%
yield losses. The critical levels w ere 1-20 p p m arsenic, 10-30 p p m copper, an d
I
100-500 p p m zinc.
K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias (1992) r e p o r t sim ilar critical
c o n c e n tra tio n s fo r g row th d e p re ssio n in sen sitiv e p la n t species, in clu d in g 1520 p p m copper a n d 150-200 p p m zinc.
O ne o f th e grasses in c lu d e d in th is stu d y , D e s c h a m n s ia c e s p ito s a . is
know n to colonize d istu rb e d sites a n d displays h ig h to leran ce fo r acid soils a n d
h ig h c o n c e n tra tio n s o f so lu b le m etals (Brow n e t al., 1 9 8 8 ).
to le ra n ce v aries w ith local p o p u la tio n .
D e s c h a m n s ia
D e sc h am n sia c e s n ito s a from a c o p p e r
m ill ta ilin g s p ile n e a r A naconda, MT fo r exam ple, w ere sig n ific a n tly m o re
to le ra n t o f c o p p e r a n d zinc th a n a com m ercial p o p u la tio n o f th e sam e species
(S urbrugg, 1982).
D ow nstream fro m a fo rm er m ining reg io n in Spain, b o th Tuncus effu su s
a n d B ra ch v th e c iu m riv u la re co n tain ed e lev ated trace m etal levels, th a t ra n g e d
fro m 290 to 11800 p p m zinc a n d 4 to 1690 p p m lead (Sanchez et al., 1994).
A lthough Sanchez e t al.'s stu d y fo u n d n o co rrelatio n betw een m etal levels in J.
effu su s a n d valley sedim ents, th e a u th o rs re p o rt Tuncus s p p . growing in m in e
tailings a n d m in e w a ter p o n d s in o th e r a re as a ro u n d th e w orld.
R elated Studies in th e Cooke City A rea
S everal re s e a rc h e rs h a v e s tu d ie d th e M cLaren m in e site o r m in in g
re la te d im p a c ts o n th e S oda B utte C reek flo o d p lain .
C ham bers e t al. (1 9 8 7 ) ,
15
stu d ie d on site im p acts of. th e M cLaren o p e n p it m ine, exa m in in g trace m etal
levels, soil c h arac te ristic s, a n d v eg etatio n resp o n se. T he m in e spoil m aterial,
fro m th e sam e so u rce as th e m in e tailin g s, h a s low o rg an ic m a tte r, low pH,
h ig h b u lk d e n sity a n d in c re ase d m etal solubility.
T he p re se n c e o f this spoil
m a te ria l h a s h a d im p acts o n soil m icrobiota, m esobiota, m acro b io ta, a n d p la n t
species com p o sitio n .
P lants w hich h av e n a tu ra lly re c o lo n ize d th e a re a grow
p rim a rily in places w ith am en a b le soil c h arac te ristic s (e.g., soil pHs g re a te r
th a n 7.0).
H ow ever, th e se n a tu ra lly re v e g e ta te d areas still h a d sig n ifican tly
low er v eg etativ e c o v er a n d biom ass th a n n e a rb y re fe re n c e a re a s w hich h a d
n o t b e e n d is tu rb e d .
A vailab ility o f iro n , m a n g an ese, a lu m in u m a n d zinc
in creased in sites w ith pHs below 6.5.
Efforts b y Brown e t al. (1984) to re e sta b lish v e g eta tio n o n th e M cLaren
a lp in e m in e site fo c u se d on th e ro le o f fe rtiliz e rs in d ev elo p in g p ro te c tiv e
p la n t cover. D espite re p e a te d applicatio n s o f fertilizer over a fo u r y e ar p erio d ,
th e re s e a rc h e rs fo u n d th a t species d iv e r s ity . o n th e m in e -im p a c te d sites
re m a in e d low.
T he re se a rc h e rs sta te d th a t in creases in species d iv ersity m ay
on ly o ccu r over a long tim e p erio d , a n d a re in flu en ced b y clim atic v ariatio n .
A n o th e r s tu d y by C ham bers e t al. (1991) ta rg e te d D aisy Creek, , in th e
S tillw ater River d ra in a g e below th e M cLaren m ine. The re se a rc h e rs ex am ined
s m a ll
sc a le
s p a tia l
d is tu r b a n c e
by
m e a s u rin g
v e g e ta tio n
and
so il
ch aracteristics a t 500m in tervals along th e creek, u p stre a m a n d dow nstream o f
a n acid m ine d ra in a g e source.
C o n cen tratio n s of alu m in u m , c o p p er a n d iro n
te n d e d to d e crea se in a d o w n stream d ire c tio n a n d w ere g e n erally in v e rsely
re la te d to pH levels.
T he h ig h e st pH levels o c c u rre d u p s tre a m of th e acid
d ra in a g e a n d a t th e p o in t fu r th e r fro m th e acid d rain ag e.
tra c e
m e ta l le v e ls in
p la n ts
w ere p o o r ly
c o r r e la te d
R esults of tests o n
w ith
soil m e ta l
16
c o n cen tratio n s; how ever, th e re sea rc h ers suggested this co u ld be a fu n c tio n o f
h ig h ly organic soils a n d re d u c e d p la n t u p ta k e, o r th e to le ra n c e o f th e C arex
n a y s o n is th e y stu d ie d .
C opper levels in C arex leaves d id exceed su g g ested
m axim a fo r p la n ts a n d livestock forages.
B a rb a ra E rickson, o f th e U.S. G eologic Survey, h a s c o lle cte d p la n t
sam ples from seven sites along Soda Butte Creek from th e m in e tailings to a site
n e a r th e co n flu en ce o f Soda B utte C reek a n d th e Lam ar R iver (Erickson a n d
N orton, 1994). She collected grasses, h o rsetails (E quisetum s p .). Iodgepole p in e
(P in u s c o n to r ta ) . E ngelm ann sp ru ce (P icea e n e e lm a n n ii). a n d willow sh o o ts
(Salix sp .) in th e fall of 1992 a n d 1993. Results of trace m etal analysis o n th e
p la n t sam ples show d o w n stre am d e crea se s in c o p p e r lev els fo r willow a n d
grass, a n d decreases in zinc levels fo r grass. Lead a n d iro n levels v a ry in th e
d o w n stre a m d ire c tio n .
T he h ig h e s t c o p p e r, le ad , a n d zinc levels w ere
id e n tifie d in p la n ts collected fro m th e tailin g s site. These re su lts suggest th a t
p la n t m e ta l u p ta k e along Soda B utte C reek m ay co rre la te w ith th e p resen ce of
m in e ta ilin g s.
F u r th e r sam p lin g w o u ld b e u sefu l to c o lle c t p la n ts fro m
a d ja c e n t d ra in a g es w ith o u t m in e tailin g s to estim ate b a ck g ro u n d p la n t m e ta l
levels, c o m p a re m e ta l levels in p la n ts co llected a t d iffe re n t p o in ts in th e
grow ing season, a n d an aly ze th e re la tio n s h ip betw een soil m etal levels a n d
p la n t m e tal c o n ce n tra tio n s.
17
CHAPTER 2
FIELD AREA AND METHODS
Field A rea
T he Soda B utte C reek flo o d p lain s w ere u se d to ex am in e th e im pacts o f
d isp la ce d M cLaren m in e tailings.
Soda B utte C reek o rig in a te s e a st o f Cooke
City, M ontana, th e n flows p a st m ine tailings fro m th e M cLaren o p en p it m in es
a n d in to Y ellowstone N ational Park (Figure I). The stream also flows p a st a n d
actively e ro d e s th e RepubUc sm elter site a t th e so u th w est e n d o f Cooke C ity
(Kirk, 1992).
Soda B utte Creek re a ch e s th e Lam ar R iver 30 km d o w n stre am
from Cooke City.
T he m e a d o w /g rasslan d s along th e creek a re c h a ra c te riz e d b y a v a r i e t y .
o f g ra sse s in c lu d in g P h le u m p r a t e n s e , B ro m u s e n e r m i s . A g r o p v r o n s p ..
D e s c h a m p s ia c e s p ito s a . a n d Poa s p .. fo rb s, willows (Salix s p .). a n d c o n ife rs
(D espain, 1990). The tailings sed im en ts in th e m e ad o w /g rasslan d s flo o d p lain
a p p e a r as a d iscrete oxidized la y e r ran g in g in thickness fro m 35cm to 5cm o r
less, a n d a re u n e v en ly d istrib u te d (M eyer, 1993).
H abitat Types
E n g e lm a n n
sp ru c e (P ic e a e n g e l m a n n i i ) a n d s u b a lp in e fir (A b ie s
la sio c a rp a ) forests, along w ith s c a tte re d m eadow s a n d w illow thickets b o rd e r
th e u p p e r re a ch e s o f Soda Butte Creek. Below Icebox C anyon (Figure 2), Soda
B utte C reek e n te rs b ro a d v a lle y g ra ssla n d s o f g rasses, sed g es, sa g e b ru s h
B ozem an
Yellowstone
Region
Livingston
Utah
R ed L o d g e
Colorado
Cooke City
_Montan_a
W yom in g
Yellowstone
/'
V ./x
\d o h o
National
Yellowstone
Lake
Figure I. Map of stu d y area a n d Y ellowstone region.
C o o k e Cityi
Soda Butte Creek
Study Sites
FISH
MEADOW/
McLaren
Tailings
Pile
Shoshone
I___ Nat[onaJ_Forest____
Yellowstone National Parkx ,
N
\
^Icebox
Canyon
5km
rTjQ r/5
Figure 2. Map of m eadow study sites along Soda Butte Creek, MT an d YVY.
20
(A rte m e sia sp .), ra b b itb ru s h (C hrvsotham m us sp .). a n d w ildflow ers (E v ersm an ,
1992).
T he m e ad o w /g rasslan d s fo u n d alongside Soda B utte C reek a re classified
in to sev eral h a b ita t ty p es (D espain, 1 9 9 0 ).. T u fted h a irg ra s s ID e s c h a m o s ia
c e s p i t o s a ) / sed g e (C a re x sp..) a n d T u fte d h a irg ra s s /I d a h o fescu e (F e s tu c a
id a h o e n s is ) h a b ita ts o c cu r alo n g s tre a m sid e s.
T y p ically th is h a b ita t ty p e
occurs in a re a s w h ere su fficien t g ro u n d w a te r accu m u lates.
The soils d e riv e
fro m alluvial m a te ria l a n d a re h ig h in clay, silt, a n d org an ic m a tte r. A v a rie ty
o f o th e r sedges (e.g. C arex a th ro s ta c h v a a n d C arex a lb o n ig ra ) a n d fo rb s (e.g.
P o ly g o n u m b is to rto id e s . A n te n n a ria c o rv m b o sa . a n d P o te n tilla g ra c ilis) o ccu r
in th e tu fte d h a irg ra ss h a b ita t types.
In m o re m e sic site s, th e p r e d o m in a n t h a b ita t ty p e s a r e
Id a h o
fe s c u e /b e a rd e d w h e a tg ra ss (A g ro o v ro n s c rib n e ri) ab o v e 2 2 70m a n d Id a h o
fe s c u e /b lu e b u n c h w heatgrass. (A g ro o v ro n so ic a tu m ) fro m 1670m to 1970m .
T he Id a h o fe scu e h a b ita ts in m o is te r a re a s fe a tu re a stic k y g e ra n iu m
(G e r a n iu m v is c o s is s im u m ) p h a se r a th e r th a n b e a rd e d w h e atg rass.
O th e r
co m m o n sp ec ie s in c lu d e P o te n tilla g r a c ilis . B ro m u s c a r i n a t u s , S o lid a g o
m isso u rien sis a n d C arex ra v n o ld sii (D espain, 1990). Soils in b o th h a b ita t types
are d e riv e d fro m an d esitic volcanics.
T he m e a d o w /g ra ssla n d h a b ita ts alo n g Soda Butte C reek also c o n tain a
n u m b e r o f in tro d u c e d species, such as com m on tim o th y (P h leu m p ra te n s e )
(R um ely a n d Lavin, 1993).
In tro d u c e d species often p ro v e m o re re silie n t to
clim ate ch an g e a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l d is tu rb a n c e th a n n a tiv e species (Rom m e,
1992).
21
Study Sites
Four m e ad o w /g rasslan d stu d y sites along Soda Butte C reek w ere selected
to re p re s e n t v a rie d elev a tio n s a n d d o w n stre a m d ista n ce s fro m th e ta ilin g s
so u rce a n d b ecau se o f th e ir a cc e ssib ility (Figure 2).
B ased o n soil p ro b e
surveys, all th e m eadow s selected h a d a n oxidized o ran g e soil la y e r th a t w ere
m in e tailings, b a se d o n d escrip tio n s b y M eyer (1993), as well as areas w ith o u t
e v id e n c e o f ta ilin g s.
T h e m ead o w s s e le c te d a lso
c o m m u n itie s w ith s im ila r sp ecies c o m p o sitio n .
r e p r e s e n t v e g e ta tio n
A lth o u g h se v e ra l o f th e
m eadow s ex ten d upslo p e across old flo o d p lain terraces (M eyer, 1993), th e stu d y
sites w ere lim ited to th e m o d e rn floodplain.
Fish m eadow (elevation 2175m ) is lo c ated 9km d o w n stre am from Cooke
City along U.S. R oute 212 (Figure 2). This sm all m ead o w is betw een two 9 0 °
b e n d s in Soda Butte Creek, on th e n o rth side o f th e creek. D ense fo rest hem s in
th e m ead o w o n th e n o rth a n d east, th e so u th edge ru n s along th e creek, a n d
the w est side is a steep slope up to th e ro a d b e d (Figure 3). W ithin th e m eadow ,
a few willows a re sca tte re d am ongst th e grasses an d forbs. Tuncus b a lticu s was
p re v a le n t in th is m eadow , w hich was a w e tte r site th a n th e m e ad o w site s
d o w n stream .
H ollyw ood M eadow sits o n th e e a s t side o f Soda B utte C reek a t a n
elevation o f 2130m , 15.5km from Cooke City (Figure 2). I selected a section o f
th e m eadow lo cated betw een Soda Butte C reek a n d a d e p re ssio n b e h in d a tre e
islan d fo r sam pling. This sam ple a re a in clu d es a relativ ely b a re p atch o f m ine
tailings exposed a t th e surface. Hollyw ood m eadow co n tain s a diverse a rra y o f
grasses a n d forbs, w ith s c a tte re d sag e b ru sh o n old flo o d p lain te rra c es fu r th e r
I
fro m th e creek (Figure 4).
22
Figure 3. Fish M eadow (top) a n d Figure 4. Hollywood M eadow (bottom )
23
Figure 5. Icebox M eadow (top) an d Figure 6. Round Prairie (bottom )
24
Icebox M eadow occupies a n a rro w strip betw een th e highw ay a n d th e
creek, 17.8km d o w n stream from Cooke City (Figure 2). This m ead o w a t 2 1 00m
h a s E ngelm ann sp ru c e a n d willow, in a d d itio n to g rasses a n d forbs.
As in
H ollyw ood m ead o w , s c a tte re d sa g e b ru sh o c cu r f u r th e r fro m th e c re ek o n
e lev ated flo o d p lain te rra c e s (Figure 5).
A fter S oda B utte C reek p asses th ro u g h Icebox C an y o n , it !lows in to
R ound P rairie a t 2055m .
R ound P rairie covers a m u ch la rg e r a re a th a n th e
u p stre a m m eadow s, b u t th e stu d y site was lim ited to a series o f sm all "islands"
b e tw ee n in te rm itte n t c h an n e ls a t th e so u th e n d o f th e p ra irie , 22.4km fro m
Cooke C ity (Figure 6).
T hese "islands" w ere e q u iv alen t in size to th e o th e r
stu d y sites.
G eneral C lim ate C haracteristics
A ir m asses fro m th e Pacific O cean, th e A rctic, a n d th e Gulf o f M exico
a ffe c t th e c lim a te o f th e n o r th e r n Y ellow stone a re a .
As th e je t s tre a m
m ig rate s so u th in th e w in ter, storm s b rin g m o istu re fro m th e Pacific.
From
D ecem b er u n til F eb ru ary , Y ellow stone also receives cold, d ry c o n tin e n ta l a ir
m asses fro m th e w estern G reat Plains. In co n trast, su m m er storm s arise m o re
o ften from locahzed convection th a n fro m fro n ta l system s (D espain, 1990).
W inter is th e lo n g est season in th e stu d y area, lastin g fro m m id to la te
O cto b er u n til la te M arch o r e a rly A pril, w ith p e rm a n e n t sn o w c o v er a n d
b elo w -freezin g a v e ra g e d a ily te m p e ra tu re s ra n g in g fro m 0 ° to -10°C. T he
su m m er season in. July a n d A ugust is c h a ra c te riz e d b y w a rm e r days ( IO0C to
13°C), occasional n ig h t te m p e ra tu re s b elow 0°C a n d fre q u e n t th u n d e rsto rm s.
Freezing ev en in g co n d itio n s o ccu r ag ain in S ep tem b er (D espain, 1990).
T he
N o rth e a st E n tran ce S tation SNOTEL site is a d jac e n t to Soda Butte Creek a t th e
n o r th e a s t b o r d e r o f Y ellow stone N a tio n a l P ark a n d p ro v id e s s e a s o n a l
25
p re c ip ita tio n a n d te m p e ra tu re d a ta (Figure 7) (SCS,1994). T he snow pack lasts
a p p ro x im a te ly 200 d ay s o f th e y ear, w ith a p eak snow w a ter eq u iv alen ce o f
ap p ro x im ately 25cm , usually occurrin g n e a r April I (D espain, 1990). A verage
a n n u a l p re c ip ita tio n a t th e N o rth e a st E n tran c e sta tio n (2 1 6 2 m ) is < 70cm
(Despain, 1990).
80
“ I
Q
40 m
5
20 £>
0
I
-20 g
Month of the Year
Figure 7. Y ellow stone N ational Park N o rth e a st E n tran ce S tatio n C lim ograph
(Despain, 1990).
Table I lists average m axim um a n d m inim um re c o rd ed te m p e ratu res a n d
a v e ra g e p re c ip ita tio n a m o u n ts b a se d o n SNOTEL d a ta fro m th e N o rth e a st
Entrance Station d u rin g th e growing season. D uring th e 1993 field season, th e
clim ate was w etter th a n th e p reviou s ten y e a r average by a t least 2.4cm e a c h
m o n th , a n d co o ler th a n th e ten y e a r m axim um te m p e ra tu re s a n d a v e ra g e
te m p e ra tu re s by v ary in g a m o u n ts (T able I).
The significance to v eg etatio n
sam p lin g o f th e cool 1993 su m m e r is d iscu ssed la te r in th e sectio n o n
field w o rk .
26
T able I. Y ellow stone N atio n al Park N o rth e a st E n tran ce S tation: T e m p e ra tu re
a n d P recip itatio n fo r June, July, a n d A ugust.__________________________________
Tmax (0C)
AVG 1993 1994
JUNE
29
Tmin (0C)
AVG 1993 1994
Tavg (0C)
AVG 1993 1994
Prec (cm)
AVG 1993 1994
16.1
20.1
- 4 .5
0.6
1.2
8 .8
8.4
10.7
7
9.5
7.7
JULY 2 8 .4
17.7
23.7
- I
1.9
2.9
11
9.8
13.3
7 .1
9.5
6.0
AUG
19.7
24.9
- 2 .5
2.2
3.6
1 1 .5
10.9
14.3
3 .6
6.2
3.7
2 9 .2
AVG tem perature d a ta from 1 9 8 4 ,1 9 8 6 ,1988, 1990, 1992 SNOTEL (SCS, 1994)
AVG precipitation d a ta from 1984, 1986, 1988, 1990, 1992 prec (SCS, 1994)
1993 an d 1994 d a ta from U.S. D epartm ent o f Commerce (1993, 1994)
H istoric M ining P ractices
Cooke City, lo cated below th e h ead w aters of Soda B utte Creek (Figure I),
cam e in to ex isten c e as a m in in g tow n.
Crow In d ia n s m a n a g e d to k e ep
fu rtra p p e rs a n d m in e rs a t b a y fo r n e a rly 50 y ears from th e tim e Jo h n C olter
first saw th e a re a in 1808. Two groups o f p ro sp ecto rs re tu rn e d to th e a re a in
1864 a n d w ere, follow ed b y a n influ x o f m in ers a n d m in in g claim s.
In th e
1870's 80 tons o f silver-lead o re fro m M iller M ountain a n d R epublic M ountain
w ere sm elted b y th e E astern M ontan a M ining a n d Sm elting C om pany (Crow n
Butte Mines, Inc., 1994).
/
Jay Cooke, Jr. a rriv e d from th e East in 1880, b o u g h t th e R epublic M ine
p ro p e rty , a n d p ro m ised to bring a ra ilro a d to th e area, so th e resid en ts d ecid ed
to n a m e th e tow n Cooke City (G yan-G orski, 1977). A ro a d was b u ilt into Cooke
City b y Jack A llen in s u b se q u e n t y ears, b u t th e ra ilro a d n e v e r m aterialized .
The p o p u la tio n o f th e a re a ra n g e d fro m 10 p eo p le to 1,000 p eo p le as m in es
o p e n ed a n d closed a n d ru m o rs a b o u t th e ra ilro a d circulated (H ansen, 1962).
M ajor G eorge Eaton in v ested in th e R epublic M ining C om pany in 1883,
d eveloping m ines a n d a sm elter on th e so u th side of Soda B utte Creek a t th e
so u th east e n d of Cooke City. In 1885, th e Republic sm elter p ro d u c e d 440 tons o f
27
s ilv e r-le a d b u llio n fro m R epublic M o u n tain o re a n d M ille r M o u n tain o re
(C row n B utte M ines, Inc., 1994).
W hen th e R epublic m in e a n d sm elter s h u t
dow n in 1886, m ining c o n tin u e d th ro u g h th e 1890's o n H en d erso n M ountain a t
th e H om estake m ine, th e D aisy m ine, a n d th e Alice E. m in e.
The H om estake
m in e a n d th e D aisy m in e g e n e ra te d 4 2 0 to n s o f o re b e fo re th e H o m e s ta k e
p r o p e r ty w as a b a n d o n e d .
A ctiv ity o n th e D aisy c laim th e n in c re a s e d ,
follow ing a n in itial sh ip m e n t o f 390 to n s o f ore, u n til th e D aisy m ine closed in
1894. A cyanide m ill processed 2500 to n s o f o re fro m th e Alice E. m ine in 1893,
b u t m ining o p e ra tio n s ceased b y 1895 (Crown Butte Mines, Inc., 1994).
M ine p ro d u c tio n e n te re d a lull in th e e a rly 190 0 's b u t re tu rn e d w ith
th re e o p e n p it m in es in the. 1930's.
T he G len g arry C o m p an y a t Lulu Pass
o p e ra te d th e Como Pit fro m th e m id -1 9 4 0 's u n til 1955. In th e la te 1940's, th e
H om estake g ro u p o f m in es w ere also re o p e n e d .
The M cLaren G old M ines
C om pany b e g an o p e n p it o p e ra tio n s o n th e w est side o f F ish er M o u n tain in
1933, a n d c o n tin u e d u n til 1953. The co m p an y p u rc h a se d th e sm elter b u ilt b y
M ajor G eorge Eaton on Soda Butte Creek, a n d tra n sfo rm e d it in to a mill. O ver
th e course o f its o p eratio n s, th e M cLaren m in e p ro d u c e d 60,000 ounces o f gold,
88,000 o u n ces o f silver, a n d 2000 to n s o f c o p p e r (Crow n B utte M ines, Inc.,
1994).
Tailings fro m th e M cLaren m in e w ere sto re d a t th e m ill site (Figures I
a n d 2) in th e h e ad w a te rs of Soda Butte Creek, a n d a re th e p ro b a b le so u rce o f
th e m ine tailings d eposits now fo u n d along th e floodplains o f Soda Butte C reek
(M eyer, 1993). A t p re s e n t large-scale m in in g has ceased a n d Cooke City a n d
Silver G ate re ly on to u rism a n d re c re a tio n fo r th e ir econom ic base.
Clim ate Events a n d Tailings T ran sp o rt
Cooke City re sid e n ts, in te rv ie w ed b y R alph G lidden, re c a lle d a tailin g s
im p o u n d m e n t d a m fa ilu re in th e su m m er o f 1950 follow ing a series o f h e a v y
28
ra in sto rm s a n d flash floods in th e u p p e r b asin (M eyer, 1993). A tailings p o n d
on
M iller C reek m ig h t h a v e
fa ile d
a s w ell.
The
Y e llo w sto n e
P a rk
S u p e rin te n d a n t's r e p o r t fo r Ju n e, 1950 ex p resses c o n ce rn a b o u t a fa ilu re o f
th e M cLaren tailings d a m (YNP, 1950):
Large q u a n titie s o f m in e tailin g s flow ed in to Soda B utte C reek
th ro u g h a b re a k in th e e a r th w all o f t h e ' settlin g p o n d s o f th e
M cLaren m in e s w hich a re lo c a te d a b o u t five m iles a b o v e th e
n o rth -e a s t e n tra n c e o f th e p a rk ...th e w all was b e in g r e p a i r e d
w h en a n in sp e c tio n was m a d e o n Ju n e 28 b u t th e m ass o f th e
a cc u m u la te d m in e refu se con tin u es to be a serious th r e a t to p a rk
w a te r s ..
D aily a n d h o u rly p re c ip ita tio n re c o rd s show a ra in s to rm o n Ju n e 24,
1950 d ro p p e d 4.83cm of ra in betw een 1300 a n d 1400 local tim e, a n d a to tal o f
5.15cm fo r th e d a y (USDC, 1950). T he h o u rly re c o rd s co n flict w ith th e d a ily
re c o rd s, w hich list 2.2cm o f p re c ip ita tio n fo r Ju n e 24, 1950.
However, if th e
h o u rly re c o rd s a re c o rrect, th e s u d d e n in flu x o f ra in co u ld p ro d u c e a flo o d
e v e n t a n d tailings failu re.
In a d d itio n , 2.53cm o f p re c ip ita tio n fell Ju n e 22,
1950, w hich m ay have s a tu ra te d th e g ro u n d p rio r to th e ra in sto rm on Ju n e 24,
1950 (USDC, 1950).
P relim in ary stu d ies along th e flo o d p lain s o f Soda B utte C reek b y M eyer
(1993) in d ic a te th a t th e larg e flood e v en t tra n sp o rte d m in e tailings as fa r as 25
km dow nstream . E lem ent levels in th e tailings im p o u n d m e n t a n d in flo o d p lain
sed im en ts exceed b ack g ro u n d levels b y several o rd e rs o f m a g n itu d e a n d m etal
levels decline in c o n ce n tra tio n dow nstream , as w ould b e ex p ected w ith d ilu tio n
d u rin g d o w n stream tra n s p o rt (M eyer, 1993).
M ethods
I co llected d a ta on v eg etatio n , soil a n d site c h arac te ristic s in o rd e r to
s tu d y p o ssib le re la tio n s b etw een h e a v y m e ta l levels a n d g rass co m m u n ities
29
alo n g th e flo o d p la in .
I sam p led tra c e m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s , soil pH , soil
electrical c o n d u ctiv ity (EC), a n d p e rc e n t clays a t two soil d e p th s fo r 45 to 100
p o in ts in each stu d y site. V egetation d a ta a t the sam e sam p le p o in ts in c lu d e d
d e n sity o f fo u r g rass species, p e rc e n t co v er, ab o v e g ro u n d biom ass o f o n e
grass species, a n d species d iv e rsity a n d a b u n d a n c e .
I also m e a s u re d th e
e le v a tio n o f e ac h sam ple, p o in t a b o v e th e activ e s tre a m c h a n n e l a n d its
d istan ce to th e stre am channel.
Fieldw ork
In each m eadow , I d o c u m en ted th e d istan ce to th e stre a m c h an n e l a n d
elev atio n above th e stre am fo r each sam ple p o in t b y surveying transects. This
d a ta was u sed to d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e tailings c o n c e n tra te d in a sy stem atic
s p a tia l p a tte r n , w ith in a c e rta in d is ta n c e fro m th e s tre a m c h a n n e l o r a t
specific elev atio n s ab o v e th e ch an n el.
In ad d itio n , th e se d a ta allow ed m e to
te s t if d is ta n c e fro m th e s tre a m a n d e le v a tio n ab o v e th e c h a n n e l a f f e c te d
v e g e ta tio n p a tte rn s .
T he tra n se c ts r a n p e rp e n d ic u la r to th e d ire c tio n o f stre a m flow a n d
began a t eq u ally sp aced in terv als along th e stream bank. T he tra n se c t sp acin g
along th e stre a m b a n k v a rie d accord in g to th e le n g th a n d w id th o f each site.
T he d ista n ce betw een tra n se c ts was IOm in Fish M eadow, 15m in H ollyw ood
M eadow, 30m in Icebox M eadow a n d 15m in R ound P rairie.
T he tr a n s e c ts
e x te n d e d in to th e m eadow s vary in g d istan ces, d e p en d in g o n th e w idth o f th e
active flo o d p lain .
My objective, b a se d o n p re lim in a ry d a ta p lo ttin g species
d e n sity vs. n u m b e r o f q u a d ra ts, was to p la ce en o u g h tra n s e c ts to ach iev e a
m in im u m sam ple size o f 30 q u a d ra ts in each m ead o w (C hapm an, 1986).
m a rk e d th e e n d p o in ts o f each tra n se c t w ith flagging fo r fu tu re referen ce.
I
30
In each o f th e fo u r m e a d o w /g ra s s la n d s s e le c te d fo r stu d y , I u sed
system atic sam pling w ith m ultiple ra n d o m starts along th re e to six tran sects to
locate sam p le p o in ts (Brown, 1983).
A ra n d o m n u m b e r ta b le p ro v id e d th e
location o f th e first q u a d ra t on each tra n se c t w ithin 200cm o f the stream edge.
S u b se q u en t q u a d ra ts w ere spaced a t two m e te r in te rv a ls alo n g th e tra n se c t
from th e first q u a d ra t.
D ata from a sam ple tra n sec t show ed th a t th e v a ria tio n
in m ean d en sity levels d a m p ed at this two m e te r in terv al along a 30m tra n sec t
(Figure 8).
I u sed c irc u la r q u a d ra ts to m in im ize sam p lin g e rro r a sso c iate d
w ith hig h b o u n d a ry lengthcarea ratio s (C hapm an, 1986). T he q u a d ra t size of
SOOcrn2 was w ith in th e suggested size ra n g e fo r sam pling grasses a n d fo rb s
(Bonham, 1989).
mean density
Number of quadrats along transect
Figure 8. V ariation in m ean d en sity levels o f P hleum p ra te n s e along a sam ple
tra n s e c t.
Four p e re n n ia l grass species w ere selected d u e to th e ir p resen ce in m y
stu d y a re a a n d ease o f identification, inclu d in g D escham psia cesp ito sa. B rom us
s p . A g ro p v ro n s p .. a n d P h Ieu m p r a te n s e (W hipple, 1993).
In each c irc u lar
q u a d ra t I re c o rd e d grass species d en sity , visually estim ated th e p e rc e n t co v er
o f m oss, h erb s, grasses, a n d b a re ground; a n d collected
ab o v e-g ro u n d grow th
31
o f P h le u m p ra te n s e d u rin g th e sum m er o f 1993. T he b io d iv e rsity m e asu re s I
c o n d u cte d in 1994 (d escrib ed below) a d d e d d en sity d a ta fo r all grass a n d fo rb
species in Fish M eadow, Hollywood M eadow, a n d Icebox M eadow.
I collected soil sam ples fro m O-IOcm w ithin 269 q u a d ra ts a n d fro m 1020cm fo r 125 q u a d ra ts (m an y q u a d ra ts lack ed sufficient d e p th fo r a 10 -2Ocm
sam ple). I also re c o rd e d soil color a n d te x tu re a n d n o te d th e d e p th o f th e soil
la y er.
D ividing th e soil p ro file in to two d e p th s allow ed fo r a m o re fo cu sed
p ic tu re of th e d is trib u tio n o f tra c e m etals in th e flo o d p lain a n d acco u n ts fo r
v e g eta tio n w ith d iffe re n t ro o t lengths.
All soil sam ples w ere sto re d in ziploc
bags in a fre e z e r u n til I b eg an analysis.
D uring th e first w eek o f A ugust in 1994, I re tu rn e d to m y stu d y sites to
collect d a ta fo r a b io d iv e rsity index. I re lo c a te d th e tra n sec ts in Fish M eadow,
H ollywood M eadow a n d Icebox M eadow a n d u sed th e sam e q u a d ra t spacing a n d
lo catio n s.
W ithin e ac h q u a d ra t I c o u n te d th e n u m b e r o f d is tin c t species
(d iv e rsity ) a n d th e n u m b e r o f in d iv id u a ls o f e ac h s p e c ie s
(M agurran, 1988).
(a b u n d a n c e )
O verall, th e su m m er o f 1994 was w a rm e r a n d d rie r th a n
sum m er 1993 (USDC, 1994). In 1994, average daily tem p eratu res fo r the m o n th s
of May, June, July a n d A ugust w ere I to 7°F h ig h e r th a n in 1993 (Table I). The
a v erag e m in im u m d a ily te m p e ra tu re s w ere n o m o re th a n 4°F h ig h e r w hile
av erag e m axim um d a ily te m p e ra tu re s w ere u p to IO0F w a rm e r in 1994. The
clim ate s ta tio n re c o rd e d 3.3 m o re in c h es o f p re c ip ita tio n b etw een May a n d
A ugust o f 1993 th a n th e sam e m o n th s in 1994 (USDC, 1994). These differences
in clim ate re s u lte d in e a rlie r p la n t m a tu ra tio n in 1994.
As a co n seq u en ce,
species id e n tific a tio n w as e a s ie r a n d p e rh a p s m o re a c c u ra te in 1994.
A
co m p ariso n of th e n u m b e r o f q u a d ra ts co n tain in g B rom us s p . a n d A g ro p y rp n
so . shows a slight in crease in 1994. In 1993, A g ro p y ro n sp . o ccu rred in 6% o f
32
th e q u a d ra ts v ersu s 8% in 1994, a n d B ro m u s sp . o c cu rred in 9% o f th e 1993
q u ad rats a n d 14% o f th e 1994 quadrats.
Soil A nalysis
T he soil sam ples w ere first oven d rie d o v ern ig h t in a fo rced a ir o v en a t
3 5 °C.
Each sam ple was sieved fo r 3.5 m in u te s using a m e ch an ical siev er to
rem o v e th e c o arse fra c tio n (>2m m ) (Klute, 1986).
G enerally, soil fra g m e n ts
la rg e r th a n 2m m (pebbles a n d cobbles) h a v e only a m in o r ro le in soil fu n c tio n
(B arbour, 1987). T he soil analysis p ro c e d u re s I u sed re q u ire d soil size <2m m
(M ontague, 1984; Klute, 1986). T he sieving tim e was selected b ased o n th e sm all
size o f th e sam ples (<75g) (Tyler, 1993) a n d because I o n ly d id one size split
using th e sieve (less th a n a n d g re a te r th a n 2m m ).
A pproxim ately 3g o f each sam ple was sen t to C hem ex Labs in Butte, MT
fo r a 32 e le m e n t in d u c tiv e ly co u p led p la sm a (ICP) analysis.
Chem ex u ses a n
a q u a re g ia d ig e stio n , w hich disso lv es o rg a n ic m a tte r a n d sulfide m in e ra ls.
D e te c tio n lim its v a ry fro m o n e e le m e n t to a n o th e r .
ICP m e a s u re m e n t
p recision varies fro m + /- 100% a t d etectio n lim its to + /- 10% a t values 100 tim es
h ig h e r th a n d e tec tio n lim its (Chemex, 1991).
To select th e elem ents w hich w ould b e co n sid ered in d a ta analysis, th re e
c rite ria serv ed to elim in ate u n n e e d e d tra c e m etals: (I) th e tra c e elem en t level
o fte n fell below d e te c tio n lim its; (2) th e re was n o sig n ifican t v a ria tio n in th e
tra c e e le m e n t lev el th ro u g h o u t th e s tu d y reg io n ; o r (3) a cco rd in g to th e
lite ra tu re , th e tra c e e le m e n t d id n o t exceed toxic levels (K abata-P endias a n d
P e n d ia s, 1992).
I e lim in a te d 27 o f th e 32 re p o rte d tra c e elem en ts, re ta in in g
arsenic, copper, iro n , lead , a n d zinc fo r fu r th e r analysis.
In o rd e r to assess th e level o f p re c isio n of th e tra c e e lem en t re su lts, I
sen t a n a d d itio n a l 27 d u p licate soil sam ples to th e la b o ra to ry . For each o f th e
33
five elem en ts u sed in m y stu d y I c alcu lated th e av erag e p e rc e n t d ifferen ce in
re su lts b e tw ee n th e d u p lic a te s a n d th e o rig in al.
T he a v e ra g e d iffe re n c e s
ra n g e d fro m 6% fo r iro n , 7% fo r zinc, 8% fo r copper, a n d 14% fo r lead, to 36%
fo r a rsen ic .
pH a n d EC analysis w ere co n d u cted o n a 1:2 so il/w a ter solution following
p ro c e d u res o u tlin ed b y M ontagne (1984). I p laced Sg of each soil sam ple in to a
te st tu b e a n d a d d e d IOml o f d eio n ized w ater. A Beckm an pH m e te r a n d ATC
(te m p e ra tu re p ro b e ) p ro v id e d pH values.
The sam ples th e n sa t o v e rn ig h t to
allow p a rtic u la te m a tte r to settle, a f te r w hich EC w as m e a s u re d w ith a
p re c a lib ra te d cell.
P e rc e n t clays p re s e n t in e ac h soil sam p le w ere d e te rm in e d using a
h y d ro m e te r. Following th e m eth o d o u tlin e d b y Klute (1986), I vyeighed 40.0g of
each sam ple in to a b eak er, a d d e d deio n ized w ater an d IOOmL o f HMP (Sodiumh ex am e ta p h o sp h a te ) so lution to d isp erse aggregates. A fter soaking o v ern ig h t,
th e sam ples w ere m ixed fo r 5 m in u tes in a n electric m ixer, th e n tra n sfe rre d to
a se d im e n ta tio n c y lin d e r w ith e n o u g h d e io n iz ed w ater to b rin g th e so lu tio n
volum e to I lite r.
Following a th o ro u g h m ixing w ith a p lu n g e r, I low ered th e
h y d ro m e te r in to th e su sp e n sio n a n d re c o rd e d re a d in g s a t 30 seco n d s, 60
seconds, 1.5 h o u rs, a n d 24 h o u rs to calcu late th e p e rc e n t clay fractio n in each
sam ple.
34
CHAPTER 3
DATA
Each o f th e fo u r stu d y sites v a rie d slightly in e lev a tio n , m o rp h o lo g y ,
soil ch arac te ristic s a n d v eg etatio n .
The follow ing d iscu ssio n com pares th e 0-
IOcm a n d IO-ZOcm soil sam ples a t all sites, th e n h ig h lig h ts th e n a tu r e o f
vegetation, soils, a n d trace m etals w ith in each m eadow . Copies o f the com plete
d a ta set a re available fro m Dr. A ndrew M arcus, D e p artm en t o f E arth Sciences,
M ontana State U niversity, Bozeman, MT 59717.
Soil Sam ples
Each soil sam ple was divided in to a O-IOcm sam ple a n d a IO-ZOcm sam ple.
For each o f th e five trace m etals, a W ilcoxon Signed Ranks T est show ed th a t th e
m e an levels w ere significantly h ig h e r (p= 0.000) in the 10 - ZOcm subsam ples
(Table Z).
Table Z. C om parison o f m eans, s ta n d a rd deviations a n d ra n g e s of trace m etals
a t O-IOcm a n d IO-ZOcm d ep th s in fo u r m eadow s along Soda Butte Creek.________
TRACE
METAL ■
ARSENIC ppm
COPPER ppm
IRON %
LEAD ppm
ZINC ppm
n
MEAN
O-IOcm
13.77
152.35
• 3.79
42.73
104.83
269
STDDEV
O-IOcm
13.45
107.44
1.10
26.93
44.77
269
RANGE
O-IOcm
2 -7 2
'
25-668
2.4-9.2
14-190
50-432
269
MEAN
10-2 0cm
18.8
203.48
4.24
54.4
133.22
125
STD DEV
10-2 0cm
2 1 .0 4
183.70
1.37
43.72 •
88.87
125
RANGE•
10-2 0cm
2-118
31-1143
2.6-9.3
8-270
5 0 -5 9 8
125
35
A P earso n C orrelation, how ever, show s th e trace m e ta l levels a t th e two
d e p th s h a d c o rre la tio n coefficients ran g in g fro m r=0.73 to r= 0.76, in d icatin g a
close association betw een m etal co n ce n tra tio n s a t d iffe re n t d e p th s. Due to this
close asso ciatio n , th e fa c t th a t IO-ZOcm sam ples w ere n o t av ailab le fo r o v e r
h a lf th e q u a d ra ts b e ca u se o f shallow soil p ro files, a n d th e a ssu m p tio n b y
vario u s a u th o rs th a t th e top IOcm o f soil c o n tain 65% o f th e to tal ro o t biom ass
(B artos a n d Sim s, 1974; M ilchunas a n d L a u e n ro th , 1989), I u sed th e soil
c h a r a c te ris tic s fro m
th e O-IOcm la y e r f o r th e m a jo r ity
o f s ta tis tic a l
com parisons in th e follow ing ch ap ters. Box p lo ts of arsenic, copper, iron, le ad ,
a n d zinc levels a t th e fo u r m eadow sites illu s tra te th e ra n g e o f trace m etal
levels w ithin each site fo r th e O-IOcm soil sam ples (Figure 9).
Study Sites
Fish M eadow
T he v e g eta tio n in Fish M eadow (Figures 2 a n d 3) is c h a ra c te riz e d b y
species w hich flo u rish in w e tte r h a b ita ts.
Mosses, Tuncus b a ltic u s. C arex s p .,
a n d E q u ise tu m v a r ie g a tu m w ere th e first, second, fo u rth , a n d sev en th m o st
fre q u e n t species, as d e te rm in e d b y th e p e rc en ta g e o f p lo ts w ith each sp ecies.
The o th e r six m o st fre q u e n t species in d escen d in g o rd e r w ere A ster h e sp e ris.
T r if o liu m r e n e n s . P h le u m n r a t e n s e . A n te n n a r ia a n a p h a l o i d e s . T r if o liu m
lo n g ip es. a n d Poa p ra te n s is . Fish M eadow is th e only site w h ere I d id n o t fin d
A g ro n v ro n so . The n u m b e r o f d iffe re n t species in in d iv id u a l q u a d ra ts ra n g e d
fro m th re e to tw elve (Table 3).
T h e ra n g e o f e le c tric a l c o n d u c tiv ity v a lu es fa ll w ith in
a n o rm a l
s p e c tru m fo r n o n -s a lin e soils (B rady, 1990), a n d th e p e rc e n t clay v a lu es
Cl
30-
S 20-
Figure 9.
300 200 -
Box plots of As, Cu, Fe, Pb, and Zn at study sites along Soda Butte Creek. Center line is median, center square is
mean, top and bottom edges of box are 25th and 75th quartiles, ends of whiskers are 10th and 90th quartiles.
meadow, H-Hollywood Meadow, I-Icebox Meadow, R-Round Prairie.
F-Fish
Table 3.. M ean, sta n d a rd deviation, a n d ran g e of vegetation, soil (0-1 Ocm), a n d m etal variables in Fish Meadow (FISH),
Hollywood M eadow (HLYWD), Icebox M eadow (ICEBOX), an d Round Prairie (RNDPR), along Soda Butte Creek, MT a n d WY
V A R IA B L E
Poa so. Densityd'
FISH
1.87
M EAN
HLYWD ICEBOX RNDPR
NA
8.02
4.56
STA N D A R D DEVIATION
FISH
HLYWD ICEBOX RNDPR
NA
3 .4 8
7.70
4.15
FISH
0-17
RA N G E
HLYWD
ICEBOX
0-30
0-18
RNDPR
NA
Bromus so.
Density
Asroovron so.
Density
Phleum oratense
Density
.11
.45
.35
.23
.53
1.40
2 .3 8
.92
0-3
0-9
0-19
0-7
O
.47
.15
.02
0
1.47
.71
.14
0
0-9
0-5
0-1
.8 9
2.51
3.46
3.81
1.64
2 .8 9
3 .4 2
3.97
0-5
0-12
0-16
0-27
Biomass (gK
#Species/plot (S)
Diversity Index
.170
.46
.84
NA
1.14
NA
0-5.39
. NA
8 .3 7
1.71
7.26
1.72
3.10
0 .8 2
2.48
0.61
NA
NA
2-12
0.312 .8 6
NA
NA
(DMs)O
% Clay
0 -1 .2 7 8
3-12
0.443.06
0-4.31
NA
NA
.3 3 6
2.32
0.57
.70
7.47
1.71
18.88
14
20.51
14.5
8.54
8 .7 3
10.23
7.10
pH 9
6.46
5.89
7.22
6.40
4.44
.59
7.58
.5.8855.58
4.5-7.74
Salinity (dS/m)
1.6947.78
3.757 ,9 6
.48-3.21
2 -7 2
2 .3 8 41.44
6.757.58
.47-1.85
2-24
59-668
2^869,18
20-190
66-432
25-483
2.45- 6.96
14-116
52-214
Arsenic (Ppmlfi
Copper (ppm)
Iron (%)
1.16
15
.9 8
18
2.9
21
1.00
5
.2 6
12
.53
16
1.40
12
.25
5
5.8149.75
5.647.16
.73-1.94
2-54
234
4.38
209
4.27
149
3 .8 8
73
3.08
113
.99
101
1.27
102
1.18
30
.30
50-535
2.69-7.3
Lead (ppm)
Zinc (ppm)
49
126.0
53
121
55
119
23
72
20
45
35
53
24
6
16
4.94 ■
38
-
18-116
66-272
0-13
0-3.49 '
.22-6.03
■2-48
32-206
2.43-4.1
14-52
50-134
65 .
76
76
101
46
101 .
n (# of quadrats)
46
65
46
76
65
101
o' Density - Number of culms per quadrat
J5 Above-ground biomass of Phleum pratense
O Margalefs Diversity Index (Magurran, 1988) DMg=(S-I)Zln N where S=#species/plot and N=total # of individuals of all species/plot
5 pH values converted from mean and standard deviation of proton activity levels
si All trace element levels are total metal concentrations
38
a p p ro x im a te th e p e rc e n t clay values fo u n d in th e o th e r m ead o w sites. T he pH
levels in Fish M eadow in d icate th e p resen ce o f m o d e ra tely acid soils.
T race m etal levels in Fish M eadow exceed b a c k g ro u n d levels in Soda
Butte Creek floodplains (M eyer, 1993) and. M axim um A cceptable C o n cen tratio n s
(MAC) fo r a g ric u ltu ra l soils (K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992). This m ead o w
h a d th e h ig h e st m e a n co n ce n tra tio n s o f co p p er, iro n , a n d zinc, alth o u g h p eak
c o n ce n tra tio n s fo r th ese elem ents o c cu rred in Hollywood M eadow (Table 3).
Hollywood M eadow
T he p la n t species in Hollywood M eadow (Figures 2 a n d 4) are sim ilar to
th o se in Fish M eadow , a lth o u g h th e fre q u e n c y ra n k s d iffer.
The te n m o st
fre q u e n t species in H ollyw ood M eadow (fro m h ig h e r to lo w er freq u en cies)
in c lu d e P oa n ra te n s is . m osses, T rifo liu m re p e n s . A ster h e s o e riu s . A n te n n a ria
a n a p h a lo id e s . Tuncus b a ltic u s . T rifo liu m lo n e ip e s. F r a e a ria v e sc a . C arex s p ..
a n d A goseris e la u c a .
The soils in Hollywood M eadow in clu d e som e stro n g ly acid soils, w ith pH
values as low as 3.75 (Brady, 1990). All o f th e q u a d ra ts h a v e n o n -salin e soils.
The ra n g e o f clay values is sim ilar to th e o th e r m eadow sites (Table 3). T race
m etal levels in H ollyw ood M eadow in c lu d e a m o re ex ten siv e ra n g e th a n th e
o th e r sites, in c lu d in g th e h ig h e st c o n ce n tra tio n s of each tra c e m e ta l fo u n d
an y w h ere in th e stu d y sites.
Icebox M eadow
Icebox M eadow (Figures 2 a n d 5) co n tain s species th a t a re also fo u n d in
Fish M eadow a n d H ollyw ood M eadow .
T he te n m o st fr e q u e n t species in
d e sc e n d in g o r d e r w ere T r ifo liu m r e p e n s . P o a n r a t e n s i s . Tuncus b a l t i c u s .
39
A n te n n a ria a n a p h a lo id e s . F ra s a ria vesca. P h leu m e r a te n se . C arex so ., m o sses,
A ster h e sp e riu s. a n d E guisetum v a rie s a tu m .
Icebox M eadow soils d iffe r fro m th e o th e r m e a d o w sites in th e ir
re la tiv e ly h ig h salin ity levels (T able 3).
T he m e an EC is still n o n -salin e, b u t
several q u a d ra ts h a v e EC values above 4.0 d S /m , th e in d ic a to r value fo r saline
soils (M ontagne, 1984). P ercent clay valu es p arallel th e ra n g e o f values fo u n d
in th e o th e r m eadow sites. pH levels ra n g e fro m 4.45 to 7.74, in d icatin g th e
p resen ce o f strongly acid, m o d e ra tely acid, a n d n e u tra l soils (Brady, 1990).
Icebox M eadow h a d th e h ig h est m e an co n cen tratio n s o f le ad a n d a rse n ic
am ong th e fo u r m eadow s a n d som e q u a d ra ts h a d trace m etal levels reach in g o r
exceeding MAC (K abata-P endias a n d Pendias, 1992). M ean tra c e m etal levels
exceed b a c k g ro u n d tra c e m e ta l levels in th e Soda B utte C reek flo o d p la in
(M eyer, 1994).
R ound P rairie
D ue to tim e c o n strain ts on th e field season, I d id n o t com pile a com plete
species list fo r R ound P rairie (Figures 2 a n d 6). The v e g eta tio n d a ta th a t was
collected fo r th is site in d ic a te s th a t P h le u m p r a te n s e was p re s e n t in g re a te r
densities th a n a t th e o th e r sites (Table 3).
Soil c h arac te ristic s in R ound P rairie re fle c t a "norm al" ra n g e o f values.
P e rc e n t clay levels v a ry like th e o th e r m ead o w sites, pH le v e ls in d ic a te
p re d o m in a n tly n e u tra l soils, a n d EC values a re all no n -salin e (Table 3).
In term s o f tra c e m e ta l levels, m e a n c o p p e r a n d le a d levels ex ceed
b a c k g ro u n d levels, as d o som e o f th e p e a k arsen ic a n d zinc levels (M eyer,
1994).
A rsenic, c o p p e r, le ad , a n d zinc levels also fall w ith in c o n se rv a tiv e
estim ates o f MAC (K abata-Pendias a n d Pendias, 1992).
40
CHAPTER 4
DATA ANALYSIS
This s tu d y e v a lu a te s w h e th e r g ra ss sp ecies d iv e rs ity , d e n sity , a n d
biom ass: (I) d ecrease as tra c e m etal co n ce n tra tio n s in crease; a n d (2) d ecrease
as soil pH d e creases.
In o rd e r to assess th e ro le o f e n v iro n m e n ta l v a ria b les
u n re la te d to m in e tailings, I also e v a lu a te d w h e th e r grass species d iv e rsity ,
d e n sity a n d biom ass: (I) v a ry w ith soil clay c o n ten t a n d salinity; (2) v a ry as a
fu n c tio n o f d ista n ce fro m th e stre am c h a n n e l o r elev atio n ab o v e th e ch an n el;
o r (3) ch an g e in th e d o w n stream d ire c tio n . This c h a p te r p re se n ts a n an aly sis
of th e d a ta to answ er these questions.
T he v ariab les exam ined in this stu d y d o n o t h av e n o rm a l d istrib u tio n s,
w ith th e ex ce p tio n o f d is ta n c e fro m s tre a m c h a n n e l a n d e le v a tio n a b o v e
stre a m c h a n n e l.
T he soil a n d tra c e m e ta l v a ria b le s in p a rtic u la r te n d to
in c lu d e o u tliers.
In a d d itio n , th e p a tc h y d istrib u tio n o f m in e tailings im p lie s
th a t s p a tia l a u to c o r r e la tio n
co llin e arity .
statistics.
ex ists a n d
so m e o f th e v a ria b le s
d is p la y
T he d a ta th u s v io late m a n y o f th e a ssu m p tio n s o f p a ra m e tric
Given th e n a tu re o f th e d a ta co llected fo r th is stu d y , m uch o f th e
a n aly se s th e re fo re u tilize d e sc rip tiv e statistics a n d d ire c t g ra d ie n t a n aly sis
(Gauch, 1982) o r n o n p a ra m etric tests (Daniel, 1990).
S catterplots w ere u sed to d e m o n stra te th e re la tio n betw een in d e p e n d e n t
v a ria b le s a n d v e g eta tio n .
Specific sc a tte r p lo ts w ere sm o o th e d u sin g S u p er
Sm ooth to h e lp w ith d a ta in te rp re ta tio n (V enable a n d Ripley, 1994). In o rd e r
41
to m o re p re c ise ly id e n tify th e th re s h o ld p o in t w h ere d iv e rsity , d e n sity , o r
b io m a ss d e c lin e d , I u s e d p lo ts o f c u m u la tiv e d e v ia tio n s fro m th e m e a n
d e p e n d e n t v a ria b le .
T h resh o ld s o n th e se p lo ts a re show n b y shifts in th e
cum ulative d eviations th a t a re consisten tly below o r above th e overall m ean.
A CuSum p lo t is c o n stru cte d b y so rtin g th e p a ire d x (e.g. p p m co p p er)
a n d y (e.g., m e a n grass d ensity) v alu es fro m low to h ig h x, su b tra ctin g th e
m e a n y v alu e fro m all y values, th e n co m p u tin g a n d p lo ttin g th e cu m u lativ e
sum o f all th e d ev iatio n s fro m th e m e a n y, as x in creases fro m
(Borkowski, 1995).
x m in
to
Xm a x
If th e re is n o th re s h o ld re la tio n sh ip , th e CuSum p lo t will
v a cillate a ro u n d zero (th e p o in t w h ere a y v alu e e q u als th e m ean y).
If a
th re s h o ld re la tio n sh ip does exist, th e p lo t will show a n u p w a rd o r d ow nw ard
tre n d in re la tio n to th e m e an y, follow ed b y a rev erse o r p la te a u of th a t tre n d .
R elationship o f Trace M etals a n d V egetation
T he tra c e m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s fro m all fo u r m e ad o w sites (T able 4)
fre q u e n tly exceed M axim um A cceptable C o n cen tratio n s fo r a g ric u ltu ra l soils
(K abata-P endias a n d Pendias, 1992). This suggests th a t tra c e m etals m ay affect
v e g eta tio n div ersity , d en sity , a n d biom ass, as h y p o th e siz e d .. S catterp lo ts a n d
cum ulative d eviation plots a re u sed h e re to d eterm in e if im p acts do occur.
Table 4. T race m etal concen tratio n s along Soda Butte Creek, MT a n d WY in
re la tio n to suggested m axim um trace m e tal levels.________________________
TRACE METAL
BACKGROUND
LEVELS*
MCLAREN
TAILINGS PILE*
FLOODPLAIN
SOILS (0-2 0cm)
MAC in Ag •
Soils§
Arsenic (ppm)
<10
37-97
2-118
2-50
Copper (ppm)
29-37
20-140
841-12,600
25-1143
NA
Iron (%)
4.8-5.0
11.7-26.1
2.4-9.3
Lead (ppm)
11-13
71-672
20-500
8-270
Zinc (ppm)
70-400
63-69
120
50-598
* Trace metal levels of historic floodplain terraces and McLaren tailings (Meyer, 1993)
§ Maximum Acceptable Concentration (MAC) in agricultural soils as given by various
authors in Trace Elements in Soils and Plants (Kabata-Pendias and Pendias, 1992)
42
D iv ersity
T he re la tio n s h ip betw een b io d iv e rsity a n d tra c e m etals offers in sig h ts
a b o u t th e im pacts o f trace m etals on th e v egetation co m m u n ity as a whole. The
M argalef D iversity Index (DMg) m easu res d iv ersity w ith a ra tio o f th e n u m b e r
o f d iffe re n t species a n d th e a b u n d an c e o f all species in a plot:
DMg = S -l/ln N
w here S=total n u m b e r o f species p e r p lo t a n d N=total n u m b e r o f in d iv id u als of
all species p e r p lo t (M agurran, 1988).
)
Plots o f DMg a n d tra c e m e ta l lev els in d ic a te th a t th e tra c e m etals d o
affect d iv ersity .
A sc a tte r p lo t o f DMg in re la tio n to c o p p e r levels rev eals a
w ide ra n g e of d iversities up to SOOppm co p p er, a t w hich p o in t th e v a ria tio n in
d iv ersity a p p e a rs to decline (Figure 10). A lthough th e sc a tte r p lo t alo n e d o e s
n o t re v e al clear tre n d s, th e o v erlay o f sm o o th ed d a ta p o in ts shows a n o v erall
d eclin e o f d iv e rsity in re la tio n to in c re a sin g c o p p er levels.
The s m o o th in g
ro u tin e u sed looks fo r overall tre n d s in th e d ata, b u t is flexible enough to pick
u p a b ru p t changes in th e d a ta (V enable a n d R ip ley ,. 1994).
D iversity le v e ls
v a ry slig h tly b etw een 120 a n d SOOppm c o p p er, b u t d e c lin e stea d ily a b o v e
S lS p p m c o p p er (Figure 10).
A CuSum p lo t o f DMg in re la tio n to c o p p er levels shows th e sam e p a tte rn
as th e sm o o th ed d a ta . The cum ulative tre n d s rev eal th a t d iv e rsity levels a re
above th e m ean o r vacillating a ro u n d th e m e an u n til th e cu m u lativ e d ro p in
d iv e rsity above S lS p p m c o p p er (Figure 10). D iversity also a p p e a rs to d eclin e
above 2 2ppm arsenic, 4.2% iron, 65p p m lead, an d 17Oppm zinc (Figure 11).
43
3 .5 -
----------B-----□
3
n
I
a n
□
I
T
SrO
3
rV
□
% =P
3
.
n
l QQ
r*□
@
-
C
□ □
—
a
=
Smooth
■
* * *
•
•
□
□
□
□
5
□
n
cP
•
LI
□
=Bn
DMg
a
=Jnr^ a
*****
—
3
D
□
] □
= = --------C-------
C
D
D
□
□
□
D C%
t
II —
I
D
D n S 1
□ B [
35 II . Oc; —
Q
I
3
a O
□
----------- rB----
0-
O
100
200
300
400
500
600
TOO
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - Copper (ppm)
12.00
O)
Z
%
Q
?
5
5
6e
5
IO
-F
10.00
■
8 .0 0 -H-
/
6 .0 0 -
C
0
1
II
4.00-
2.00
3E
O
*
*
-F
rtr
I
DMg
S
t*
4-
-F
-------iF---------
9
*
*
+
*
-F
-F
-F
0.00
100
200
300
400
600
700
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - Copper (ppm)
Figure 10. S catter p lo t o f DMg (M arg alefs D iversity Index) a n d c o p p er levels
w ith a n o v e rla y o f s m o o th e d d a ta p o in ts a n d CuSum p lo t o f c u m u la tiv e
d e v iatio n from m e an d iv e rsity (DMg) in re la tio n to c o p p er levels along S o d a
Butte Creek.
Cumulative Deviation from Mean Diversii
£■14.00
gI 12.00
1 10.00
5
E 8.00
S
6.00
C
§
•2 4.00
Sa, 2.00
I
0.00
I -2.00
2.00
3.00
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
8,00
9.00
10.00
Cumulative Deviation from Mean Diversity
Iron (%)
£
.
10. 0 0 -
I
5
3
8 . 00 -
C
8
5
6.0 0 -
I
DMg
Sm
|§ c
M n j - _B___
B
D
c 4.00-
0
!
S 2.°0
1a
D
D
□
D
0.00-
3
E
3
°
D
3 D
r-C U
I
-
2.00
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
Zinc (ppm)
Figure 11.
CuSum plots of the cumulative deviation from the mean diversity (DMg) as calculated for Fish Meadow,
Hollywood Meadow, and Icebox Meadow.
45
D ensity
D ensities w ere n o te d fo r 33 species o f grasses a n d fo rb s in th e m ead o w
sites (Table 5). P h le u m p ra te n s e a n d P oa p ra te n s is p ro v id e a good p o rtr a it o f
ov erall grass re sp o n se to tra c e m e tals b e ca u se b o th o ccu r fre q u e n tly in th e
stu d y sites along Soda Butte Creek. C opper was u sed to exam ine re la tio n sh ip s
betw een d e n sity a n d tra c e m etals b ecau se it is a clear in d ic a to r o f th e m in e
tailings (M eyer, 1993), a n d c o p p e r levels c o rre la te well w ith th e o th e r tra c e
m etal levels. S catter p lo ts o f P h le u m p r a te n s e a n d Poa p ra te n s is d en sities in
re la tio n to c o p p er levels show w ide v a ria tio n in d e n sity levels u p to 2 5 Oppm
c o p p er, a t w hich p o in t a th re s h o ld is p a sse d a n d m e a n d e n sitie s d e c re a se
(Figure 12).
S c a tte r p lo ts fo r th e d e n sity o f th e o th e r grasses in re la tio n to
c o p p er levels show a sim ilar p a tte rn .
Using CuSum p lo ts to look fo r a th re sh o ld p o in t in c o p p e r levels reveals
a d istin c t d ro p below th e m e an a t 2 IG ppm co p p er fo r P h leu m p ra te n se d e n sity
a n d a t 2 3 Gppm c o p p e r fo r Poa p ra te n s is d en sity (Figure 13). CuSum p lo ts of
P h le u m p r a te n s e d e n sity in re la tio n to th e o th e r fo u r tra c e m etals show a
sim ilar th re s h o ld p a tte rn .
S catter p lo ts o f all 33 species in d ic a te th a t, o n average, species ex h ib it a
th re sh o ld to le ra n c e fo r c o p p er n e a r 2 50ppm . W hen th e d e n sity d a ta fo r each
species is d iv id e d in to d e n sities ab o v e a n d below 2 5 Oppm a K ruskal W allis
m ean s te st in d icates th e species w hich show re d u c e d d en sity . The d a ta violate
th e K ruskal-W allis a ssu m p tio n o f in d e p e n d e n t o b s e rv a tio n s a n d id e n tic a l
p o p u la tio n s (D aniel, 1990), th erefo re, o n ly v e ry sm all P v alu es (p<=0.001) will
be co n sid e re d significant. Based on this d a ta sep aratio n , P h leu m p ra te n se . Poa
p ra te n s is a n d Tuncus b a ltic u s d e n sity a re significantly d iffe re n t (Table 5).
46
T able 5. K ruskal Wallis com parison o f m e an species d en sity o n plots w ith h ig h
(C u>250ppm ) a n d low (C u<250ppm ) levels of copper, fo r all grasses a n d forbs
in c lu d e d in th e M argalef D iversity Index. T h ere w ere 4 9 p lo ts w here c o p p e r
levels e x ce e d ed 2 5Oppm a n d 114 p lo ts w h e re c o p p e r levels w ere less th a n
250ppm.
Species List
A c h ille a s p p .
A g o se ris glau ca
A g ro p yro n spp.
A n g e lic a s p p .
A n te n n a ria a n a p h a lo id e s
A s te r h e s p e r iu s
A stra g a lu s sp p .
B ro m u s s p p .
C arex s p p .
C era stic u m sp p .
C irsiu m sc a rio su m
D e sc h a m p sia c e s p ito s a
E p ilo b iu m a n g u stifo h u m
E q u isetu m v a rie g a tu m
F ragaria v e sc a
G en tia n a d e to n s a
Ju n cu s b a ltic u s
M u h le n b e rg ia filifo r m is
P e d ic u la ris s p p .
P h leu m p r a te n s e
Poa ju n c ifo lia
Poa p r a te n s is
P o te n tilla sp p .
Saxifraga s p p . I
S axifraga s p p .2
S e n e c io cra ssu lu s
S m ilacin a sp p .
T araxacum s p p .
T rifo liu m lo n g ip e s
T rifo liu m r e p e n s
T rigloch in m a r itim u m
V ero n ica s p p .
V iola s p p .
AVERAGE
DENSITY
DENSITY
p values
DENSITY Cu > 2 5 Oppm Cu < 2 5 Oppm
0.14
0.00
0.19
0.058
0.10
0.012
0.48
0.65
0.20
0.00
0.011
0.2-8
0.14
0.25
0.123
0.49
4.45
.3,84
4.72
0.373
1.72
0.092
1.35
1.88
0.487
0.40
0.10
0.53
0.36
0.20
0.43
0.961
1.54
1.37
1,61
0.759
0.04
0.02
0.615
0.05 .
0.050
0.11
0.02
0.15
0.512
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.470
0.15
0.08
0.18
14.87
0.045
11.73
4.43
0.095
1.11
0.98
0.69
0.07
0.02
0.09
0.348
31.24
11.28
0.000
17.28
0.22
0.281
0.25
0.33
0.10
0.18
0.15
0.628
1.42
3.49
0.000
1.79
0.14
0.20
0.138
0.00
0.001
2.80
6.35
5.28
0.04
0.353
0.00
0.03
0.127
0.04
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.02
0.901
0.02
0.221
0.47
0.58
0.55
0.04
0.353
0.03
0.00
0.087
0.02
0.12
0.09
3.18
0.603
2.95
2.43
0.348
13.22
11.96
13.76
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.531
0.127
0.02
0.00
0.01
0.02
0.512
0.01
0.00
Density (Phleum pratem
47
A
.-V a'-MA,
A A i AAi
/XfvAlV '
AR. VvAA AAA
AKA.. \A A A A
A
AZA
AA
, AAAAAA AAAAAA A AA A A
A
.-./'yWA' A A A /A A AA A A
Density (Poagrgjtensjs)
Soda Butte Creek - Copper (ppm)
OO
0 0 # " » OO- O-
O O
OOOO OO
J S W U -rv
OU -SO
C- -O—O-
::
: i c:HM #
Soda Butte Creek - Copper (ppm)
Figure 12. S c a tte r p lo t o f c o p p e r levels in re la tio n to d e n sity of P h le u m
p ra te n se an d Poa p ra te n sis along Soda Butte Creek.
48
L
I6 I
^I
_ll
I :
1 I
tr
100 "
£
\
O
_________ %
cu
&
£
C
S
Z
P h le u m p r a t e n s e
I
40
O
0
O
O
V
O
0
>
O
O
0
3
E
°
-20- I
O
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Soda Butte Creek - Copper (ppm)
160-1
I
SI
§
I4U
I
120
Il
y
#
#
100
I
I
I
I
B
I
>
O
3
‘f
80
«=-
%
O
P o a p ra te n s is
%
L
%
*
« -
40
20
*
0
3
U
»
OO
*
.
-4 0 -
0
e
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Soda Butte Creek - Copper (ppm)
Figure 13. CuSum p lo ts o f cum ulativ e d e v iatio n s fro m th e m ean d e n sity in
re la tio n to c o p p er levels fo r P hleum p ra te n s e an d Poa p ra te n s is .
49
Both Phleum p ra te n se a n d Poa p ra te n sis h a d lower den sities on th e plots
w ith c o p p er levels above 25Oppm, a n d Tuncus b a lticu s h a d h ig h e r d e n sity on
th e high c o p p e r p lots.
A lthough th e o th e r species d id n o t show significant
differences in d en sity a t the 0.001 level, a to tal of 26 of th e 33 species listed h a d
low er m e an d e n sitie s o n th e h ig h c o p p e r plots.
T he c o m b in a tio n o f th e
sm aller n u m b e r o f plots w ith high c o p p e r levels, th e re la tiv e ra rity of m an y
species o n th e list, a n d th e rig o ro u s statistical c rite ria m ay p ro v id e a p a rtia l
ex p lan a tio n for th e lack o f significant d ifferen ces.
Biomass
I collected th e a b o v e -g ro u n d bio m ass o f P h le u m p r a te n s e from Fish,
H ollywood, a n d Icebox M eadows. S catter p lo ts of biom ass in re la tio n to trace
m etals show th re sh o ld relatio n sh ip s w ith c o p p er (Figure 14). S catter p lo ts fo r
biom ass a n d th e o th e r trace m etals w ere sim ilar. In a d d itio n , using a th re sh o ld
v alu e o f 2 5 Oppm to d iv id e th e d a ta , th e K ruskal W allis
c o m p a ris o n
of m eans
in d ic a te d
th a t
n o n - p a r a m e tr ic
P h l e u m p r a t e n s e b io m a s s
w as
significantly d ifferen t above a n d below th e co p p er th re sh o ld (p<=0.001).
6
□
c
O
,
4
□
Biomass
□
□
□
3
^
v»
O
E
O
□
Si
q
3
I5 .
„
□
C
d
d
E
3
0)
□
C
2
I
'
^
Dr ^ D , Dg ^ D ? lD [ ^ n
____________________________________________________
.C
Q-
0 -'
0
liux-j u i u h u i - i ^
100
200
-----------------
300
— rT
n, rnr a
rn^— a□ I,
400
o -------------------,----------------a—
I
500
600
700
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - Copper (ppm)
Figure 14. S catter plo t of Phleum p ra te n se biom ass in re la tio n to co p p er levels.
50
RelationshiD o f Soil C h aracteristics a n d V egetation
SR
pH levels along Soda B utte C reek a re as low as pH 3.4, m ark in g th e
p re sen c e o f stro n g ly acid a n d m o d e ra te ly acid soils. T hese low pH levels also
c o rre sp o n d som ew hat w ith d e c re a se d grass d iv ersity , a n d m o re c learly w ith
d en sity a n d biom ass.
D iv e rs ity : As w ith th e s c a tte r p lo t o f d iv e rsity in re la tio n to c o p p e r
levels, th e s c a tte r p lo t o f d iv e rsity in re la tio n to pH d o e s n o t p ro v id e a n
im m ed iate p ic tu re o f tre n d s in th e d a ta (Figure 15). H ow ever, th e o v erlay o f
sm o o th e d d iv e rsity d a ta show s a n o v erall in c re ase in d iv e rsity as pH levels
increase. The exception to this tre n d is a d ecrease in d iv e rsity betw een pH 6.4
an d pH 6.6.
T he CuSum co m p ariso n o f d iv ersity (DMg) a n d pH shows d iv ersity levels
slightly above th e m e an a t pH 4.0 (Figure 15). However, th e overall tre n d fro m
pH 4.0 to pH 6.2 shows diversity levels below- th e m ean. From pH 6.2 to pH 6.5,
d iv e rsity levels in c re ase above th e m ean , as seen in th e o v e rla y o f sm o o th ed
d iv ersity d a ta. D iversity levels fall below th e m ean d iv ersity level fro m pH 6,5
to pH 7.0. Above pH 7.0, d iversity levels in crease steadily.
D e n s i t y : A s c a tte r p lo t o f P o a p r a t e n s i s d e n sity in re la tio n to pH
illu stra te s th e th re sh o ld p a tte rn , w ith m e a n d en sity in creasin g betw een pH 6.0
a n d pH 6.5 (Figure 16).
A cum ulativ e su m o f d ev iatio n s p lo t shows d e n sity
levels below th e m e an fro m pH 3.5 to pH 7.15 arid in creasin g above th e m e an
fro m pH 7.15 to pH 8.0 fo r P h le u m p r a te n s e . D ensity levels o f Poa p ra te n s is
also fall below th e m e a n d en sity level fro m pH 3.5 to pH 7.1, th e n c o n tin u ally
in crease above th e m ean(F igure 17).
51
3 .5 -
o>
Q
□ □
□
3
□ □
3
n '
n n SC 1
□ d [3
0 5
S
:
D ^
□
O
Z
n
=O
□Q]
c
*□
□
□
*
•
B
□
LI
ff-
□
□
n
□
100
□
□
□
SD
----------- S----
0
•
□
D
CP
O
Smooth
□
□
=T=L B
B
I1
D
]
•
□
□
%
3
H
J 15J _____i?
U
$
§>
hr
d
□
-
I
O DMg
O'",--- r—
200
300
400
500
600
TOO
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - Copper (ppm)
12.00
oi
5
f;
#-*■
io .oo
44-
.
c
8.00
________
g
5
I
£%
-H6.00
I
5
S
E*
4-
4*
* 1
*
O
0
1
\
DMg
•P
I
*
4 'r o
2.00
E
3
O
0.00
0
4-
**
J♦
44*
4-
*
4-------T-------4-
4-
4*
4-
4100
200
300
400
500
600
700
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - Copper (ppm)
Figure 15. S catter plo t of M arg alefs D iversity Index (D m 8) a n d pH levels, w ith
a n o v e rla y o f s m o o th e d d iv e rsity d a ta a n d CuSum p lo t o f th e c u m u lativ e
d ev iatio n from m ean d iv e rsity (DMg) in re la tio n to soil pH fo r th e co m b in ed
d a ta from Fish, Hollywood, an d Icebox Meadows.
52
Figure 16. S catter plo t of pH in relatio n to d en sity of Poa p ra te n sis along Soda
Butte Creek.
W hen a pH th re sh o ld of pH 6.4 was u sed to gro u p th e d ata, eighty-tw o
p e rc e n t o f th e p lo ts w ith low pH levels w ere also in th e h ig h c o p p er su b set.
T he o n ly species w ith a sig nifican t d ifferen c e (p<=0.001) in d en sity using a
Kruskal-W allis co m p ariso n of m eans was Tuncus balticus (Table 6). As w ith th e
c o p p e r co m p ariso n , Tuncus b a ltic u s d e n sity was h ig h e r o n th e low pH p lo ts
th a n on th e h ig h e r pH plots.
A lthough o n ly o ne species show ed a significant
differen ce in d en sity , 22 o f th e 33 grasses a n d forbs h a d h ig h e r m ean d e n sity
on th e h ig h e r pH plots. The lack of sig n ifican t d ifferen ces in v eg etatio n m ay
relate to th e small sam ple size of th e pH<6.4 group (n=28 v ersu s n=135), o th e r
e n v iro n m e n ta l factors, a n d th e rigo ro u s statistical c rite ria used.
Cumulative Deviation from Mean Density (Phleum pr
53
O
P h le u m p r a t e n s e
Cumulative Deviation from Mean Density (Poa pratensis)
Soda Butte Creek - pH
O
P o a p ra te n s is
Soda Butte Creek - pH
Figure 17. CuSum plots of cum ulative d ev iatio n s from m ean d en sity in relatio n
to pH levels for P hleum p ra te n se an d Poa p ra te n sis .
54
Table 6. K ruskal W allis co m p ariso n o f m e an species d e n sity o n plots w ith low
(pH<6.4) a n d h ig h (pH>6.4) pH levels, fo r all grasses a n d fo rb s in clu d ed in th e
M argalef D iversity Index. T here w ere 28 p lo ts w ith pH <6.4 a n d 135 plots w ith
pH>6.4.
Species List
Achillea, spp.
Agoseris glauca
A gropyron spp.
Angelica spp.
A ntennaria anaphaloid.es
A ste rh e sp e riu s
Astragalus spp.
Brom us spp.
Carex spp.
Cerasticum spp.
Cirsium scariosum
D escham psia cespitosa
Epilobium angustifolium
E quisetum variegatum
Fragaria vesca
G entiana detonsa
Juncus baltieus
M uhlenbergia filiform is
Pedicularis spp.
Phleum pra ten se
Poa juncifolia
Poa pratensis
Potentilla spp.
Saxifraga spp. I
Saxifraga spp.2
Senecio crassulus
Sm ilacina spp.
Taraxacum spp.
Trifolium longipes
Trifoliitm rep en s
Triglochin m a ritim u m
Veronica spp.
Viola spp.
AVERAGE DENSITY DENSITY p values
DENSITY pH < 6.4 pH >= 6.4
0.14
0.00
0.16
0.188
0.04
0.48
0.58
0.060 .
0.20
0.00
0.24
0.076
0.54
0.25
0.482
0.19
4.45
5.46
4.24 ' 0.252
1.72
1.46
1.77
0.979
0.07
0.40 .
0.47
0.401
0.36
0.18
0.40
0.782
1.54
1.39
1.56
0.885
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.871
0.11
0.07
0.12 . 0.321
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.648
0.07
0.17
0.532
0.15
11.73
4.25
13.28
' 0.107
1.04
. 0.98
0.720
0.98
0.07
0.00
0.08
0.220
29.89
14.67
0.001
17.28
0.07
0.25
0.196
0.29
0.15
0.04
0.18
0.216
2.27
1.79
■ 3.03
0.391
0.14
0.00
0.17
0.303
5.28
2.46
5.87
0.018
0.04
0.03
0.00
0.519
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.648
0.02
0.04
0.01
0.455
0.57
0.54
0.55
0.315
0.04
0.03
0.00
0.519
0.987
0.09
0.11
0.09
2.95
3.61
2.81
0.224
13.22
12.24
17.96
0.053
0.02
0.02
0.00
0.519
0.04
0.01
0.00
0.028
0.01
0.00
0.01
0.648
55
B iom ass: S catter plots o f a b o v e-g ro u n d biom ass o f P h le u m p ra te n s e in
re la tio n to pH show a th re s h o ld p a tte rn w hich m a tch es th e tre n d s seen in
density, w ith decreased biom ass below pH 6.5 (Figure 18).
O □
S
5
□
Biomass
□
o
A
4
□
O
V*
C
q
J
a.
2
I
□
□
E
A
n nD
Dn
E '
3
(LI
Z
£
I
1
o
I—I
Q
3.5
rrhJ
4
n
4.5
1— 1
5
f—i f—I
m
5.5
r
n r~i rrniiiBL
6
6.5
im i i i S i
7
lQ D
7.5
8
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - pH
Figure 18. S catter plo t of Phleum p ra te n se biom ass in re la tio n to pH
Salinity (EC)
D iversity does n o t a p p e a r to v ary co n sisten tly as a fu n ctio n o f salinity.
The c u m u lativ e d e v iatio n s from m ean d iv e rsity (DMg) in re la tio n to salin ity
fluctuate above a n d below the m ean DMg, w ithout any co n sisten t tren d s (Figure
19).
D iversity levels flu c tu a te abo v e a n d below th e m e an u p to 2.3 d S /m
salinity.
At 2.3 d S /m , d iv e rsity levels d ro p below th e m e an , th e n in c re ase
again a t 3.0 dS /m . T he in crease in d iv ersity above 3.0 d S /m m ay in d icate th e
p resen ce of salt-to le ra n t species (Brady, 1990).
S alinity a n d d e n sity e x h ib it a w eak th re sh o ld re la tio n sh ip .
A s c a tte r
plo t o f P h leu m p ra te n s e d e n sity in re la tio n to salinity shows a slight d ecrease
in av erag e d e n sity above 2.75 d S /m (Figure 19).
resu lts in a sim ilar plot.
Relating biom ass to salin ity
56
Cumulative Deviation from Mean Dlversl
v
DMg
Density (Phleum pratense)
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - Salinity (dS/m)
Figure 19. CuSum plo t of th e cum ulative d ev iatio n s from m ean d iv ersity (DMg)
in re la tio n to salinity, a n d sca tte r p lo t o f P h leu m p ra te n s e d e n sity in re la tio n
to salinity.
57
P ercen t Clavs
High c lay levels c an d e c re a se th e b io a v a ila b ility
(K abata-P endias a n d Pendias, 1992).
o f tra c e m e ta ls
However, th e re is n o c lea r re la tio n sh ip
betw een p e rc e n t clay a n d v eg etatio n c h arac te ristic s in th is study.
A CuSum
plo t o f d iv ersity a n d p e rc e n t clays shows D m 8 levels above a n d below th e m ean
DMg from 0% to 20% clay (Figure 20). At 20% clay, DMg tre n d s above th e m ean
as far as 23% clay, th e n vacillates above a n d below th e m ean.
O)
5Q_
i
5
5
C
§
s
E
S
O
0
1
V DMg
I3
E
3
O
-
10.00
Fish, Hollywood, and Icebox Meadows - Percent Clay
Figure 20. CuSum p lo t of th e cum ulative deviations from m ean diversity (DMg)
in re la tio n to p e rc e n t clay.
Likewise, s tu d y re su lts in d ic a te d e c re a se d d e n sity a t high clay levels
(F igure 21).
T he e x p la n a tio n fo r th e se fin d in g s m ay re la te m o re to p la n t
grow th re q u ire m e n ts th a n to tra c e m etal availability.
58
30-.
A
A Phleum pratense
5 20
I
A
iD 15<
lu
AA
^
in
A
A
A
A
A
“ AA
A
ZA
A A A
AAA
A
Li AIAAA A-ZKVw
A
A AAA
A A AAZ A
A "A&,m~ ZA zzzf
CL
A
A
AA Aa AAAZAA Z A j W , / \ A A A
A AAAA A , A , A A V V Y W i YY
Al
1k/V\AAAZAAA VZA , ICA A
A ZA A
A
TyA AA/tifcA- ^A1 AZ,/ |A; ■' A AAQA*;
I
5
o
0
10
20
A
A
30
O
A
50
60
Soda Butte Creek - Percent Clays
Figure 21. S catter p lo t of Phleum p ra te n se d en sity in re la tio n to p ercen t clays.
M ultiv ariate A nalysis
B ecau se
s e v e ra l
of
th e
c o n tr o l
v a r ia b le s
d is p la y
c o llin e a r ity
(p a rtic u la rly pH a n d trace m etals), it is difficult to allocate "responsibility" fo r
v ariatio n s in an y one resp o n se v ariab le to o n e control v ariab le. I used logistic
reg ressio n to assess th e p o te n tia l im p o rtan ce o f the d iffe re n t co n tro l v a ria b les
(i.e. tra c e m e ta l c o n c e n tra tio n s , soil p a ra m e te rs ) in d riv in g v a ria tio n s in
grasslan d com position.
Logistic reg ressio n uses p re se n c e /a b se n c e d a ta fo r the
d e p e n d e n t v a ria b le a n d ev alu a te s th e im p o rta n c e of v a rio u s in d e p e n d e n t
v ariables (Hintze, 1992).
I tested th e in flu en ce o f p e rc e n t clays, pH, salin ity , co p p er, iro n , a n d
zinc on th e p re sen c e an d ab sen ce o f th e fo u r grasses w ith h ig h e st d en sities,
in c lu d in g P h le u m p r a t e n s e . Poa p r a te n s is . A e ro o v ro n s p . a n d B ro m u s s p ..
59
T able 7 p re s e n ts re su lts fro m th is e x p lo ra to ry use o f logistic reg ressio n .
ta b le show s th e p e r c e n t o f sp ecies p re s e n c e /a b s e n c e re s u lts
The
c o r r e c tly
p re d ic te d b y th e logistic m o d el a n d th e in d e p e n d e n t v a ria b les w here p<=0.10
fo r each species.
In g en eral, th e logistic re g re ssio n m o d e ls w ere b e tte r a t
p re d ic tin g p re se n c e fo r th e m o re com m o n species (P h leu m p ra te n s e a n d P oa
p ra te n s is ) a n d b e tte r a t p re d ic tin g ab sen ce fo r th e ra re species (B ro m u s s p .
a n d A g ro p y rp n sp .).
As w ith o th e r analyses, b o th pH levels a n d tra c e m e ta l levels a p p e a r to
be significant. The c o m b in ed d a ta suggest th a t th e tailings, w ith th e ir low pHs
a n d h ig h tra c e m etals, a re larg ely re sp o n sib le fo r re d u c e d d iv ersity , d e n sity ,
a n d biom ass o f grass species along Soda B utte Creek.
Table 7. Results o f Logistic R egression A nalysis fo r fo u r grass species
MODEL PREDICTIONS
CONTROL VARIABLES, - P VALUES
% Clay
pH
EC
Cu
Fe
Zn
PRESENT
% correct
ABSENT
% correct
Phleum
oratense
NS
0.0011
NS
0.0003
0.0011
NS'
94.62%
25.32%
Poa
oratensis
0.0565
0.0554
NS
0.0033
0 .0 3 6 8
NS
89.32%
38.98%
AsroDvron
spp.
0.0945
0.0683
NS
NS
NS
0 .0 9 3 9
11.11%
99.60%
NS
0.0056
NS
NS
NS
NS
0.00%
100.00%
DEPENDENT
VARIABLES
Bromus
SEE-
D istance from a n d Elevation above Stream
E n v iro n m en tal ch arac te ristic s such as th e lo catio n o f a site in r e la tio n
to a w a te r so u rce can a ffect tra c e m e ta l m o b ility a n d in flu e n c e v e g e ta tio n
diversity. For th e m o st p a r t trace m etals w ere p atch ily d is trib u te d w ith in each
site.
T he follow ing d iscu ssio n h ig h lig h ts th e re su lts fo r c o p p er, w h ich a re
p o sitiv ely c o rre la te d w ith th e re su lts fo r th e o th e r tra c e m etals.
G rap h s o f
60
sam p le tra n s e c ts in Fish M eadow , H ollyw ood M eadow, a n d Icebox M eadow
illu stra te th e v a rie d n a tu re o f c o p p er levels a n d diversify, (DMg) in re la tio n to
d ista n ce fro m stre a m c h a n n e l (Figure 22).
Both c o p p e r levels a n d d iv e rsity
rise a n d fall a t sev e ra l p o in ts along e a c h tra n s e c t r a th e r th a n follow ing a
p a tte rn d efin e d by th e d istance of th e sam ple p o in t fro m th e stream . D iversity
a n d c o p p e r levels a re in v e rsely re la te d in som e cases. At sev eral p oints along
th e tra n s e c ts d iv e rs ity d e c re a se s w h en c o p p e r levels ris e a b o v e
SOOppm;
h o w ev er, a t o th e r p o in ts d iv e rs ity re m a in s h ig h w h e n c o p p e r levels ris e
above SOOppm. The overall th re sh o ld p a tte rn s discussed e a rlie r offer a c lea re r
ex p lan atio n o f th e re la tio n sh ip b etw een tra c e m etals a n d diversity.
S c a tte r p lo ts o f d iv e rsity (DMg) in re la tio n to d ista n c e d o n o t show a
re la tio n s h ip betw een v e g eta tio n a n d lo c atio n as fa r as 34m fro m th e s tre a m
(Figure 23).
T he low er d iv e rsity levels b e y o n d 34m m ay re la te m o re to site
c o n d itio n s such as m o istu re stre ss th a n tailin g s, since th e h ig h e r c o p p e r
levels a re fo u n d w ith in 35 to 45m o f th e stre am (Figure 24).
Elevation ab o v e
th e stre a m c h an n e l a n d d iv ersity a re n o t c o rre la ted (Figure 23).
S c a tte r p lo ts o f c o p p e r levels in re la tio n to d is ta n c e o f th e sam p le
q u a d ra t fro m th e stre am edge show th e h ig h e st m etal levels w ith in 35 m, a n d
d e c re a sin g m e ta l levels b e y o n d 4 5 m (F igure 24).
This suggests th a t th e
m a jo rity o f th e m in e tailings a t m y s tu d y sites w ere d e p o site d in flo o d p la in
a re as w ith in 4 5 m o f th e c u rre n t stre a m c h an n e l.
No a p p a r e n t re la tio n sh ip
exists b e tw e e n th e tra c e m etal levels a n d th e e le v a tio n ab o v e th e s tre a m
c h a n n e l o f each sam ple q u a d ra t (Figure 24).
61
a
300
S-
200
0
5
10
15
20
25
- 2 .5
5
- 1 .5
•<
- 0 .5
JF
30
Fish Meadow Transect B- Distance from stream (m)
700
600
Copper (ppm)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
I
I
I
5
10
15
'
I
I
20
25
30
Hollywood Meadow Transect F - Distance from stream (m)
Copper (ppm)
2
a
I
Index (I
2
S
Icebox Meadow Transect C - Distance from stream (m)
Figure 22. O verlay o f changes in c o p p er levels relativ e to changes in d iv ersity
(DMg) along tran sects in th re e m eadow s.
62
3 .5 -
—
* ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
*
*
i - Z J. u
* *
Q
o .
o>
ZL
O
S
*
:
*
*
******
* ^
*
.
*
'
* .
* *
*
*
*
*
,Z ,* *
*
*
*
*
_____ _____________
*
* _______________________________________________________
* *
15
'
I
*
DMg
*
*
*
*
***
^ * *
f
I
^ *
.
* *
* *
I
*
*
•
:
•
* 4 * *
.
*
*
*
•
* *
*
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t
*
★
II
★
A
W
^
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*
*
*
------1
1
*
*
1 - —
I
I
■
I
10
1
'
*
I
20
'
I
30
* i
40
60
50
Distance from stream (m)
3.5
X
3
X
X X
DMg
O)
Q
^
Z .O
I
C
V
“
*
*%
„
2
**
x
x
x
a
kX
&
x*
x V
^
t *
X x
*
cX
_____________________
x
& _____________________________________________
X
^
X
KI
0)
S
Q
"
I.O
I S
-
- _____________________________
'I
O
O)
B
5
I
1
;
„
_____________________________
X
X
XX
0.5
x
X
0
I
-C.4
I
X _________
*
I
I
l
I
- I- -
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
•
I
I
0.8
I
I '
1.2
I
.4
Elevation above stream (m)
Figure 23. S catter p lots o f d iv ersity (DMg) in relatio n to d istan ce from s tre a m
c h an n e l a n d elevation o f sam ple p o in t above stream ch an n el.
63
700■
600
Copper
■
, ■■ "
: - ‘
i
I
0
10
•
i
V : /C :'-:'
0-i
V .
■.
■.
: V
■ r .
:
.
*
■ ■■
yIOO
I
Copper (ppm)
500
C-
:
.
'
'
-
-
‘ ’■ "■: ^
'
I
2
' '
0
I
3
•••*"■
! ! ' I
0
0
I
5
0
I
6
0
.
I
7
0
8
0
Distance from stream (m)
Copper (ppm)
Copper
-0.5
0
0.5
I
1.5
2
Elevation above stream (m)
Figure 24. C o n cen tratio n o f c o p p er (ppm ) in relatio n to d ista n ce from stre am
c h an n el a n d elev atio n of sam ple p o in t ab o v e stream ch an n el.
64
The sca tte r p lo ts o f c o p p er in re la tio n to d istan ce a n d elev atio n fo r Soda
B utte C reek closely resem b le th e co rre sp o n d in g plots fo r in d iv id u a l m ead o w s.
T he la c k o f a c le a r sp a tia l p a tte r n su g g ests th a t th e v a ria tio n s in t h e s e
g ra ssla n d c o m m u n ities in th e a re as s tu d ie d a re o n ly w eakly co n tro lled , if a t
all, b y h y d ra u lic fa c to rs su ch as g ro u n d w a te r levels o r in c re a s e d m o istu re
levels in d ep ressio n s close to th e stre am channel.
D ow nstream V ariations
D ata analysis in d icates th a t a do w n stream spatial p a tte rn exists fo r som e
v ariab les a n d n o t fo r others. I co m p ared d a ta from th e fo u r m eadow stu d y sites
to d e te rm in e if collective d o w n stre am ch an g es in e n v iro n m e n t w ere d riv in g
v a ria tio n s in v e g e ta tio n ch arac te ristic s b etw een sites.
I also u sed d a ta fro m
th e in d iv id u a l sites to assess do w n stream d ifferences in tra c e m etal levels.
D ow nstream differences in v e g eta tio n d iv ersity can b e visualized w ith a
box p lo t (Figure 25).
sites.
T he m e an M argalef D iversity In d ex is 1.7 fo r all th re e
T hus v e g e ta tio n d iv e rsity re m a in s fa irly c o n sta n t b e tw ee n th e th re e
u p p e r m e a d o w site s.
R o u n d P ra irie w as n o t in c lu d e d in th e d iv e rs ity
m easu rem en ts d u e to tim e co n strain ts d u rin g th e field season.
The sim ilarities in m e an d iv ersity fro m m eadow to m ead o w suggest th a t
th e o v e ra ll e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n tro ls o n v e g e ta tio n (e.g., c lim ate, e le v a tio n ,
w a te r a v a ila b ility , so il c h a ra c te ris tic s ) d o n o t v a ry s ig n ific a n tly in th e
d o w n stream directio n . It a p p ea rs th a t w ith in m eadow v a ria tio n s in trace m e ta l
levels a n d soil c h a r a c te ris tic s serv e as th e p rim a ry fa c to rs in flu e n c in g
d iffe re n c e s in v e g e ta tio n r a th e r th a n th e d o w n stre a m
m eadow s.
p o s itio n s o f th e
65
2 .5 O)
Z
s
_c
5"O
K
J
Q
SO
P
O
5
Fish
Hollywood
Icebox
Figure 25. Box p lo t of M argalefs D iversity Index (DMg) for Fish, Hollywood, a n d
Icebox M eadows. C enter line is m edian, c e n te r square is m ean, top an d b o tto m
edges of box a re 2 5 th a n d 7 5th qu artiles, e n d s of w hiskers a re IOth a n d 9 0 th
q u a rtile s .
Som e o f th e tra c e m etal levels show a n o v e ra ll d o w n stre a m d e c lin e
(Figure 9). Because th e sam ple design o f this stu d y d id n o t a tte m p t to sam ple
e v ery site co m pletely, th e d o w n stre am v a ria tio n s sh o u ld be in te rp re te d as
g en eral tre n d s.
d ire c tio n .
M edian a n d m ean c o p p er a n d iro n d eclin e in a d o w n stream
The zinc m ean d eclines slightly, w hile the m e d ia n flu ctu ates th e n
declines in R ound P rairie (Figure 9).
D eclining trace e le m e n t c o n ce n tra tio n s
d o w n stre a m m ay be a ttrib u ta b le to d ilu tio n of th e ta ilin g s sed im en t w ith
u n c o n ta m in a te d se d im e n t d u rin g tra n s p o rt (Lewin, 1977; M arcus, 1987).
In
c o n tra st, m ean a n d m ed ian arsenic a n d lead levels in crease do w n stream from
Fish M eadow to Icebox Meadow, th en decline in Round P rairie (Figure 9).
66
CHAPTER 5
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
S u m m ary '
This re s e a rc h ex am in ed th e d is trib u tio n o f tra c e m e tals a n d im pacts o f
th e se m etals o n m eadow v eg etatio n along th e floodplains o f Soda Butte Creek,
M o n tan a a n d W yom ing in Y ellowstone N atio n al Park. T he tra c e m etals w ere
tr a n s p o r te d d u rin g a la rg e flo o d e v e n t in 1950, w h ic h c a r r ie d
d o w n stre a m fro m th e M cL aren m in e im p o u n d m e n t o u ts id e
ta ilin g s
Cooke C ity,
M ontana. The d a ta collected fo r this stu d y in clu d e grass a n d fo rb densities, soil
pH, soil clay co n ten t, soil salinity a n d soil m etal content, a n d site elevation a n d
d istan ce from th e stre am in 281 circu lar q u a d ra ts in fo u r m eadow s. The tra c e
m etals stu d ie d in clu d e arsenic, copper, iro n , lead, an d zinc.
V egetation d a ta was collected in 1993 a n d 1994. Q u ad rats w ere in th e
sam e locations d u rin g b o th field seasons.
The w arm er, d rie r w e ath e r d u rin g
th e 1994 season re s u lte d in e a rlie r p la n t m a tu ra tio n .
It is possible th a t th e
d iffe re n c e s in su m m e r w e a th e r a lte re d v e g e ta tio n p a tte rn s d u rin g th e two
seasons, th e re fo re , to m a in ta in consistency, th e d a ta an aly ses of d iv ersity a n d
d en sity d id h o t com bine d a ta from th e two seasons.
T he p rim a ry fin d in g o f th is p ro je c t w as th e th re s h o ld re la tio n s h ip
b e tw e e n v e g e ta tio n a n d tra c e m e ta ls fro m th e tailin g s in th e flo o d p lain .
V egetation d iv e rsity , d en sity , a n d bio m ass all v a rie d w id ely u p to a c e rta in
tra c e m etal level, a t w hich p o in t m e an d iv ersity , d e n sity a n d biom ass d ro p p e d
67
sig n ific a n tly (F igures 10, 12, 14).
T his re la tio n s h ip w as p a rtic u la rly w ell
illu stra te d w ith CuSum p lo ts o f th e tra c e m etals a n d v e g eta tio n ch aracteristics
(Figures 10, 11, 13). V egetation d iv e rsity d eclin ed above a th re sh o ld p o in t of
3 IS p p m co p p er, 22p p m arsen ic, 4.2% iro n , 65p p m lead , a n d 17Oppm zin c
(Figures 10 a n d 11). Not all species show ed statistically sig n ifican t d e crea se s
in d e n sity , a lth o u g h 26 o f 33 species h a d low er m e an d e n sity on p lo ts w ith
c o p p e r levels above 2 5 Oppm (Table 5).
Iu n c u s b a ltic u s was th e exception to
th is finding, w ith a significant in crease in d e n sity o n th e h ig h e r c o p p er plots.
V e g etatio n c h a ra c te ris tic s also v a rie d w ith soil pH.
pH levels in th e
stu d y a re a w ere closely c o rre la te d w ith h ig h tra c e m etal levels, w hich reflects
th e low pH o f th e tailings source m a te ria l.
pH h a d a th re s h o ld re la tio n sh ip
w ith v e g e ta tio n sim ila r to th a t o f th e m etals (Figures 15, 16, 18). At soil pH
levels below 6.5, m e an v eg etatio n d e n sity a n d biom ass d e c re a se d (Figure 17).
Tw o-thirds o f th e species h a d low er m e an d e n sity o n p lo ts w ith pH<6.5 (T able
6).
H ow ever, v e ry few species shoy/ed sta tistic a lly sig n ific a n t d e crea se s in
d e n sity on plots w ith pH<6.5, w hich m ay reflect th e sm all n u m b e r of plots w ith
low pH values. The re la tio n sh ip betw een pH a n d v eg etatio n d iv ersity w a s.n o t
as stro n g as th e links betw een pH a n d d e n sity o r b io m ass.
The s m o o th e d
o v erlay o n th e sc a tte r p lo t of v eg etatio n d iv ersity in re la tio n to pH shows a n
o verall in c re a se in d iv e rsity as pH levels in crease (Figure 15). The ex cep tio n
to this tre n d was a slight d ro p in d iv e rsity fro m pH 6 A to pH 6.6, w hich n iay
re la te to o th e r e n v iro n m e n ta l factors.
Soil sa lin ity a n d clay c o n te n t d id n o t a lte r v e g e ta tio n p a tte rn s in a
co n sisten t m a n n e r to th e sam e ex ten t as trace m etals a n d pH levels (Figures 19,
20, a n d 21). Likewise, th e distan ce of each p lo t fro m th e stre am was n o t a key
in flu en c e o n v e g e ta tio n p a tte rn s, w ith th e ex cep tio n o f p lo ts m o re th a n 35m
68
fro m th e stream , w here d iv e rsity d e crea se d (Figure 23). T he elevation o f each
sam ple p lo t d id n o t affect diversity, d en sity o r biom ass.
V ariations in th e d iv e rsity a n d d e n sity o f grasses re la te d m o re to local
changes in tra c e m etals a n d pH asso ciated w ith d isp ersio n o f th e tailings th a n
to d o w n s tre a m
c h a n g e s in e n v iro n m e n ta l c o n tro ls .
T h is fin d in g
w as
s u p p o rte d b y box p lo ts o f d iv e rs ity fo r th re e m ead o w sites, w h ere m e a n
d iv ersity d id n o t v a ry betw een m eadow s (Figure 25).
D iscussion
W hile th is s tu d y fo c u se d p rim a rily o n th e e m p iric a l re la tio n s h ip s
betw een vegetatio n p a ra m ete rs, trace m etals, a n d pH levels, th e stu d y o utcom es
c an o ffe r in s ig h ts
as
to
th e
e c o lo g ic a l
m e c h a n is m s
w h ic h
in flu e n c e
c o m m u n ity stru c tu re .
T he stu d y resu lts show a n in te re stin g d isp a rity b etw een th re sh o ld tra c e
m etal levels fo r changes in d iv ersity a n d changes in d en sity . CuSum p lo ts fo r
th e d e n sity o f two grass species show d e c re a se d d en sity ab o v e 216ppm c o p p er
fo r P h le u m n ra te n s e a n d above 236 p p m Copper fo r Poa p ra te n s is (Figure 13).
In c o n tra st, th e th re s h o ld lev el fo r d e c re a se d d iv e rsity o ccu rs a t 3 IS p p m
c o p p er (Figure 10). The d iv e rsity in d ex in clu d es d en sity d a ta fo r th e m ajo rity
of p la n t species in th e stu d y sites, w hich p ro v id es a n o v erall p o rtra it of p la n t
c o m m u n ity re sp o n se to tra c e m etals a n d pH levels.
H ow ever, th e fa c t th a t
d e n sity d e crea se s a t low er tra c e m etal levels suggests th a t p la n t d e n sity is a
m o re sen sitiv e m e a s u re o f v e g e ta tio n th re s h o ld levels th a n d iv e rsity .
A
h ig h e r th re s h o ld level fo r d ro p s in d iv e rsity m ean s th a t in d iv id u a l species
w ith low er tra c e m e ta l th re sh o ld s h a v e a lre a d y b e en a ffe cted .
In, a d d itio n ,
in d iv id u a l species can v a ry d ra m a tic a lly in th e ir re sp o n se to e n v iro n m e n ta l
69
p a ra m e te rs.
For exam ple, d e n sity o f Tuncus b a ltic u s was sig n ifican tly h ig h e r
on th e p lo ts w ith c o p p e r levels ab o v e 2 5 0 p p m , a n d five o th e r species h a d
h ig h e r m e an d en sity o n hig h co p p er p lo ts (Table 5). The d e n sity d a ta fo r th e se
m etal to le ra n t species was in clu d ed w ith d a ta fo r th e 26 o th e r m etal in to le ra n t
species in calculating th e d iv e rsity index.
D iversity th re sh o ld s a n d d e n sity th re sh o ld s fo r pH levels ex h ib it m o re
sim ila r b e h a v io r th a n th e tra c e m e ta l re s u lts.
D iv e rs ity le v els in c re a s e
consistently above pH 7.0 (Figure 15) a n d d en sity levels in crease above pH 7.15
fo r P h le u m p r a te n s e a n d pH 7.1 fo r P oa p ra te n s is (Figure 17).
N evertheless,
th e d iv e rsity in d ex in cludes d a ta a b o u t species w ith h ig h e r m e an d en sities o n
plots w ith pH levels, below 6.4 a n d species w ith low er m e an d en sities on low pH
plots (Table 6).
C learly, n o t all species ex h ib it th e sam e re sp o n se to changes in tra c e
m etal levels o r pH levels.
T he to le ra n ce o f a n in d iv id u a l species to ex trem e
c o n d itio n s ,can a ffect its co m p etitiv e a b ility in a p la n t co m m u n ity .
P lants
w hich d o m in a te h a b ita ts w ith sev ere c o n d itio n s a re so m etim es re s tric te d to
th e se h a b ita ts b e c a u se th e y a re p o o r c o m p e tito rs o n less e x tre m e site s
(B arbour e t al., 1987).
For exam ple, s e rp e n tin e e n v iro n m e n ts ty p ic a lly a re
h ig h in toxic tra c e m etals, w ith v e ry acidic o r basic pH level's.
S e rp e n tin e
e n d em ics fre q u e n tly grow fa s te r o n n o n s e rp e n tin e soils, b u t o n ly in th e
a b se n c e o f in te rsp e c ific co m p etitio n .
T olerance, o f s e rp e n tin e soils can be
c o n sid ered a m ech an ism fo r avoiding com petition.
A s tu d y o f d is trib u tio n g ra d ie n ts fo r several grass species along a pH
g ra d ie n t fro m pH 3.5 to pH 8.0 show ed th a t each species h a d a unique resp o n se
to v a rie d pH levels, a n d th e a b u n d a n c e levels o f d iffe re n t species o v e rla p p e d
c o n sid e ra b ly (G rim e a n d Lloyd, 1973).
T he re la tiv e ly low d iv e rsity levels
70
b etw een pH 6.5 a n d pH 7.0 in th is stu d y (Figure. 15) c o m p ared to h ig h e r a n d
low er pH levels co u ld re la te n o t o n ly to d ifferin g re s p o n se s o f in d iv id u a l
species to changes in pH, b u t also to ch an g es in co m p etitio n .
T ilm an (1990)
suggests th a t species d iffe r in th e ir a b ility to co m p ete fo r a lim iting soil
re so u rc e , w hich th e n in flu en c es th e ir a b ility to colonize sites w ith n u trie n t
p o o r substrates.
In th e case o f d iffe re n t th re s h o ld levels fo r d iv e rs ity a n d d e n sity in
re la tio n to tra c e m e ta ls, b o th to le ra n c e a n d c o m p e titio n m a y ex p lain th e
v a ria tio n in re sp o n se to h igh tra c e m etal levels.
The d is tu rb a n c e c au sed b y
th e d e p o s itio n o f m in e ta ilin g s p ro v id e d a m e c h a n is m
fo r
in c re a s in g
p o p u la tio n s o f m e ta l to le ra n t species in th e se areas. D iversity a n d d e n sity in
a re a s w ith lo w er tra c e m e ta l levels m o s t lik ely re la te to c o m p e titio n fo r
n u trie n ts a n d e n v iro n m e n ta l h e te ro g e n e ity (Begon e t al., 1986). As sta te d b y
W h ittak er (1965), th e "loosely o rd e re d com plexity" o f la n d p la n t com m unities
e m p h asizes th e n e e d fo r b o th g e n e ra l a n d specific o b se rv a tio n s to o b ta in a
b a la n c e d p e rs p e c tiv e on v e g e ta tio n p a tte rn s .
In th e case o f th is stu d y , as
discu ssed prev io u sly , changes in d e n sity o f in d iv id u a l species m ay p ro v id e a
b e tte r e stim a te o f p la n t h e a lth , w hile d iv e rsity m e a su re s illu s tra te b r o a d
p a tte rn s .
D ue to th e e n v iro n m e n ta l h e te ro g e n e ity o f th e s tu d y sites a n d n ic h e
d iffe re n tia tio n b etw een species, h ig h tra c e m e ta l levels a n d low pH levels
im p act in d iv id u a l species m o re th a n th e co m m u n ity d iv e rsity .
N evertheless,
th e d is p la c e d m in e ta ilin g s c a n h a v e c o n tin u e d im p a c ts o n th e p la n t
c o m m u n ity as a w hole fa r in to th e fu tu re .
Once excess tra c e m etals e n te r a
system , th e y re m a in b o u n d to soil co m p o n en ts, in c o rp o ra te d in to p la n t tissues,
o r can b e in g e ste d b y anim als o v er a n ex ten siv e tim e p e rio d .
E stim ates o f
71
re sid en c e tim e in soils fo r tra c e m etals in te m p e ra te clim ates ra n g e fro m 1000
to 3000 y e ars fo r co p p er, lead , a n d zinc (K abata-Pendias a n d P en d ias, 1992).
T he sp a tia l d is trib u tio n o f im p acts w ill m o st lik ely re m a in co n fin ed to th e
m eadow s along Soda B utte Creek w h ere th e tailings w ere o rig in ally d ep o sited .
As th e tailings a re in c o rp o ra te d in to a re a soils, fu rth e r tra n s p o rt o n th e scale
o f th e 1950 flood e v en t is unlikely.
F u tu re R esearch
This stu d y e sta b lish e d b ro a d asso ciatio n s betw een m e ad o w v e g eta tio n
along Soda Butte Creek, tra c e m etals, a n d soil pH. T hese associations suggest
m a n y av en u es fo r fu tu re re sea rc h .
First, th e sp atial e x te n t a n d to tal accu m u la tio n o f tailin g s along S oda
Butte C reek n eed s to be d o cu m en ted in o rd e r to evaluate th e p o ten tial ex ten t of
tailings re la te d im pacts. The d a ta fro m m y re se a rc h p ro je c t could be u sed to
stu d y th e sp atial a u to c o rre la tio n o f v a ria b le s a n d p re d ic t th e d istrib u tio n of
ta ilin g s d e p o sits u sin g k rieg in g c o u p le d w ith f u r th e r sam p lin g .
A glo b al
p o s itio n in g sy ste m (GPS) u n it w o u ld p ro v e u sefu l fo r m a p p in g d e p o sits,
p e rh a p s b y sy stem atically collecting a n d an alyzing soil sam p les fro m k n o w n
g eo g rap h ic lo cations.
In o rd e r to p re d ic t w hich tra c e m etals a re av ailab le fo r p la n t u p ta k e,
fu tu re re s e a rc h sh o u ld q u a n tify the b io av ailab le frac tio n o f each of th e tra c e
m etals.
D iscussions o f tra c e m etal c h e m istry in th e lite ra tu re suggest th a t
tra c e m e ta l e x tra ctio n s can p ro v id e a b e tte r e stim ate o f b io a v ailab le m e tals
th a n to ta l m etal c o n c e n tra tio n s (K abata-P endias a n d P e n d ia s, 1992).
F u tu re
w ork co u ld estab lish th e p artitio n in g o f tra c e m etals am ong soil fractio n s such
72
as organic m a tte r, clays,, a n d h y d ra te d m e ta l oxides, in O rder to e stim ate th e
bioavailable pool o f tra c e m etals.
As a p a rt o f biogeochem ical cycles, tra c e m etals can accu m u late in soils,
p la n ts, a n d o th e r organism s.
B arb ara E rickson's v e g eta tio n stu d y along Soda
B utte C reek (1994) p ro v id e s th e first step in assessing tra c e m etal u p ta k e b y
p la n ts. F u rth e r v e g eta tio n studies co u ld in c lu d e a co m p ariso n of m etal lev els
in d iffe re n t p la n t p a rts (roots, shoots, seeds), testing p la n ts a t d ifferen t p o in ts
in th e grow ing sea so n , a n d e x p a n d in g th e c o lle c tio n a r e a b e y o n d th e
stream b an k s a n d in to th e m eadow s.
T he tailings d a m b re a k o c c u rre d o v er fo rty y ears ago, a n d som e p la n t
species m ay h a v e d e v elo p e d to le ra n c e m ech an ism s in re sp o n se to h ig h tra c e
m etal levels.
Tuncus b a ltic u s . fo r exam ple, h a d significantly h ig h e r d e n sity o n
th e h ig h c o p p e r a n d low pH plots. F u rth e r re s e a rc h co u ld ex am in e w h e th e r
th is species utilizes to le ra n c e m ech an ism s.
In a d d itio n , im p acts d u e to th e
tailings m ay cause changes in p la n t assem blages. The sam pling schem e o f th is
s tu d y w as d e sig n e d fo r co m m o n g rass sp ecies, b u t a d iff e r e n t sam p lin g
p ro c e e d u re m ig h t a d d re ss th e ex ten t o f im pacts on ra re o r th re a te n e d species.
A lthough th e p re sen c e o f h ig h levels o f h eav y m e tals can affect p la n ts
d ire c tly , o th e r c o m p o n en ts o f th e eco sy stem also face p o te n tia l risks.
For
exam ple, soil m ic ro -o rg a n ism a ctiv ity d e crea se s in th e p re s e n c e o f c e rta in
h e av y m etals, w hich in te rfe re s w ith n o rm a l biom ass a ctiv ity (Alloway, 1995).
A stu d y o f fo rm e r m ining a re as in th e O iartzu n riv e r v alley , Spain, re p o rte d
h ig h d o w n stream c o n ce n tra tio n s o f h e av y m etals in sed im en ts, moss, a n d fish
tissues (Sanchez e t al., 1994).
A nim als can in ta k e h eav y m etals b y consum ing p la n ts w ith trace m e ta ls
o n th e p la n t surface o r w ith in th e p la n t tissues, o r b y in g estin g soil (A driano,
73
1986; H aygarth a n d Jones, 1992). D ow nstream accu m u latio n o f trace m etals in
soils a n d p la n ts h e a r Leadville, C olorado, c au sed a d v e rse h e a lth effects in
grazing livestock (Levy, 1992).
Sheep a re co n sid e re d p a rtic u la rly sensitive to
copper, toxicity, a n d o th e r anim als can accu m u late c o p p er in th e liv er (G ouch
e t ah, 1979). Some re se a rc h e rs have th e o riz e d th a t s o il/p la n t system s serve to
m inim ize tra c e m e ta l toxicity, in th a t p la n t grow th will Slow o r cease b e fo re
tra c e m e ta ls a c c u m u la te to levels h a rm fu l fo r a n im a ls (A llow ay, 1 9 9 5 ).
H ow ever, th is th e o ry neglects th e fa c t th a t an im als c an in g e st c o n ta m in a te d
soils, a n d th a t p la n ts can dev elo p to le ra n c e s a n d acc u m u la te h ig h levels o f
h e av y m etals.
R egardless, th e c lea r asso ciatio n betw een m etals a n d p la n ts in
m e a d o w s a lo n g
S oda
B utte C reek in d ic a te s
th a t f u tu r e
re se a rc h
on
b io accu m u latio n o f tra c e m etals in w ildlife in Yellowstone N ational Park m a y
be a p p ro p ria te .
R eco m m en d atio n s
T he re s u lts o f th is stu d y h a v e im p licatio n s fo r re s o u rc e m a n a g e rs in
Y ellow stone N a tio n al P ark a n d fo r th e c o rp o ra tio n
re s p o n s ib le fo r th e
M cLaren tailings pile o u tsid e Cooke City, M ontana. Park m a n ag e rs n e ed to b e
a w are o f p o te n tia l th re a ts to Y ellow stone flo ra a n d fa u n a .
A lth o u g h th e
d isp la c e d M cLaren tailings a re n o t d ecim atin g v e g eta tio n along Soda B utte
Creek, th e tailin g s h a v e h a d a n im pact.
locations o f all th e tailings d eposits.
At p re sen t, n o o n e h a s m a p p e d th e
A re c o n n aisa n ce o f th e m eadow s alo n g
Soda B utte C reek w ould be useful fo r re m e d iatio n a n d m o n ito rin g . Because th e
ta ilin g s a re p a tc h ily d is tr ib u te d
im possible to rem ove.
th e y w o u ld b e d iff ic u lt a n d p e r h a p s
However, p a rk m a n ag e rs m ay w an t to in v estig ate th e
fe a s ib ility o f re v e g e ta tin g sites w h e re b a r e p a tc h e s o f m in e ta ilin g s a re
74
exposed a t th e soil surface. In a d d itio n , p a rk m an ag ers m ay w an t to c o n s id e r
th e use o f soil a m e n d m e n ts such as lim in g o r fertilizers to m itig ate tailings
im pacts.
T h e re m a in in g m in e tailin g s p o se a p o te n tia l th r e a t to Y ellow stone
Park, p a rtic u la rly if th e im p o u n d m e n t is h o t secured. In 1990, u n d e r d irectio n
o f th e E nvironm ental P rotection Agency, K ennecott C opper C om pany fin a n c e d
site re m e d ia tio n to stab ilize th e tailin g s.
p re p a re d
by
th e
B u re au
A 1994 re s p o n s e a c tio n r e p o r t
o f R e c la m a tio n
c o n firm s
t h a t th e
ta ilin g s
im p o u n d m e n t co n tin u es to d isch arg e m etal-rich efflu en t d ire c tly to Soda Butte
C reek (B ureau of R eclam ation, 1994).
Soda B utte C reek also ero d es exposed
p o rtio n s o f th e tailings im p o u n d m en t. A n o th e r large flo o d e v e n t could c a rry
m o re ta ilin g s d o w n stre a m .
F u rth e r site re m e d ia tio n c o u ld a v e rt f u t u r e
e n v iro n m e n ta l im pacts fro m th e tailings.
T he o th e r im p licatio n of this stu d y re la tes to th e p ro p o s e d New W orld
D istrict gold m in e in th e F isher C reek d ra in a g e .
D ep en d in g o n th e ty p e o f
processing, th e tailings fro m th e p ro p o se d m in e m ay also c o n ta in high levels
o f acid -g en eratin g w aste rock. Clearly, th e location a n d fu tu re stab ility o f th e
tailings im p o u n d m e n t is k ey to avo id in g d o w n stre am im p acts.
A lthough th e
M cLaren ta ilin g s w e re im p o u n d e d less th a n fifty y e a rs ago, th e d isp la c e d
tailings m a y c o n tin u e to d e g ra d e th e la n d sc a p e fo r d e c a d e s to com e.
The
p ro p o se d New W orld M ine could hav e sim ilar, b u t m u ch la rg e r scale im pacts,
u n less we le a rn fro m th e p a s t b y giving c arefu l c o n sid e ra tio n to th e lo n g ­
te rm im pacts of re so u rce extraction on d o w n stream ecosystem s.
REFERENCES
76
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84
-
APPENDIX
85
APPENDIX - STUDY DATA '
Kev to Colum n H eadings
Colum n
H eading
D e sc rip tio n
T
T ran sect - First le tte r in d icates m eadow (F-Fish M eadow, HHollywood M eadow, I-Icebox M eadow, R-Rotmd Prairie); •
Second le tte r in d icates tra n s e c t w ithin a m eadow
Q.
Q u a d rat n u m b e r
DIST
D istance o f q u a d ra t fro m stre am c h an n el in m e te rs
ELEV
Elevation of q u a d ra t above stre am c h an n e l in m eters
As
Total arsenic c o n te n t o f O-IOcm soil sam ple in p p m
Cu
T otal c o p p er c o n te n t o f O-IOcm soil sam ple in p p m
Fe
T otal iro n c o n ten t o f O-IOcm soil sam ple in p e rc e n t
Pb
Total lead co n ten t of O-IOcm soil sam ple in p p m
Zn
T otal zinc c o n ten t o f O-IOcm soil sam ple in p p m
As2
T otal arsenic c o n te n t o f 10-2 Ocm soil sam ple in p p m
Cu2
T otal c o p p er c o n ten t o f 10-20cm soil sam ple in p p m
Fe2
T otal iro n c o n te n t o f 10-20cm soil sam ple in p e rc e n t
Pb 2
Total le ad c o n ten t o f 10-20cm soil sam ple in p p m
Zn2
Total zinc c o n ten t o f 10-2 0cm soil sam ple in p p m
%CL1
P ercen t clay c o n te n t o f O-IOcm soil sam ple
%CL2
P ercent clay c o n te n t of 10-20cm soil sam ple
pH I
pH level o f O-IOcm soil sam ple
pH2
pH level o f 10-20cm soil sam ple
ECl
Electrical C onductivity o f O-IOcm soil sam ple in (xmhos
86
Key to Colum n H eadings - C ontinued
Colum n
H eading
D e sc rip tio n
EC2
Electrical C onductivity o f IO-ZOcm soil sam ple in ^m hos
SALl
Soil salinity o f O-IOcm soil sam ple in d S /m
BIOM
A bove-ground biom ass o f P hleum p ra te n se in gram s
DIV
N um ber of d istin c t species w ith in th e q u a d ra t
DMg
M arg ale fs D iversity Index fo r th e q u a d ra t
Key to Colum n N um bers*
* Colum n n u m b e rs re fe r to p la n t species. R eported values in d ic a te n u m b e r o f
ind iv id u als of th a t p la n t w ithin th e q u a d ra t, un less otherw ise n o ted .
Colum n
N u m b er
P lan t Name
I
A chillea spp.
2
A g oseris glauca
3
A g ro p y ro n spp.
4
A ngelica spp.
5
A n te n n a ris a n a p h a lo id es
6
A s te r h e sp e riu s
7 '
A stragalus spp.
8
B rom us spp.
9
Carex spp.
10 .
C erasticum spp.
11
C ircium scariosum
12
D eschkm psia cespitosa
13
E pilobium a n g u stifo liu m
87
Key to Column N u m b ers-Con tin n e d
Colum n
N u m b er
P la n t Name
14
E quisetum variegatum
15
Fragaria vesca
16
G entiana detonsa
17
Ju n cu s balticus
18
M u h le n b e rg ia filifo rm is
19
Pedicularis spp.
20
.
P hleum p r a te n se
21
Poa jtm c ifo lia
22
Poa p ra te n sis
23
P otentilla spp.
24
Saxifraga spp. I
25
Saxifraga spp. 2
26
Senecio erassulus
27
Sm ilacina spp.
28
Taraxacum spp.
29
T rifolium lo n g ip es
30
T rifo liu m re p e n s
31
T riglochin m a ritim u m
32
Veronica spp.
33
Viola spp.
34
M oss spp.
( I indicates p resen ce, 0 indicates absence)
Cu
Fe
Q
DIST
ELEV As
Fa
I
0.96
0.16
Fa
2
2.96
0.42
Fa
3
4.96
Fa
4
6.96
Fa
5
8.96
0.4
Fa
6
10.96
0.41
Fa
7
12.96
0.41
6 144 3.87
Fa
8
14,96
T
Pb
Zn A s2
Cu2
Fe2 Pb2 Zn2
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
pH2
50 3.25
18
66
2
116 3.50
32
80
34.38
23.06
6.55
6.16
34
86
6
165 3.93
34
84
20.06
10.06
6.53
6.55
0.45
6 134 3.23
16 174 4.14
36
0.41
2 155 3 .8 2
2
. 6.76
266.88
1.07
6.49
309.90
1.24
8 156 3.76
5.81
6.52
322.61
1.29
4 145 3.58
36
84
7.63
6.49
272.75
1.09
38
90
5.81
6.5
292.30
1.17
42 106
13.5
6.51
338.25
1.35
9
16.96
18.96
0.34
Fa
11
20.96
0.335
Fa
12
22.96
0.34
24.96
0.34
26.96
0.34
1.19
5.88
10
13
1.17
10.63
Fa
14
292.30 424.28
298.17 145.66
92
Fa
Fa
EC2 SALI
36 . 88
94
36
0.46 18 152 3.66
4 123 3.32
0.48
Fa
ECI
42
92
6
171 .3.95
32
84
7.63
-2 107 3.09
28
82
-2
85 3.29
26
80
18,31
6
95 3.13
28
82
2
91 3.00
54 2.69
28
76
18
66
6 138 3.46
38
96
-2
11.81
192 4.20
30
94
14.19
257 5.92
36
98
17.47
6.7
6.54
115.36
222.89
1.23
1.00
236.58
6.6
6.51
21.25
307.94
251.24
6.67
11.19
11.81
12
6.67
6.56
12.94
4
6.68
0.95
1 7 9 .8 8
0.89
207.25
0.83
6.71
346.07 201.38
310.87
1.38
Fa
15
28.96
0.35
8 154 4.11
34
88
21.25
Fa
16
30.96
0.39
6 126 3.79
36
96
23.26
Fb
I
0.71
0.62
12 174 4.09
34
106
Fb
2
2.71
36 102
44 110
12 237 4.75
46 114
8 2 8 2 4.78
48 120
17.63
6.45
369.42
1.48
0.625 22 244 4.50
0.63 18 330 5.02
46
19.77
6.33
363.58
1.45
0.65 2 6 305 5.27
0.685 3 6 433 6.54
62
Fb
3
4.71
0.66 12 187 4.26
0.63 16 227 4.49
Fb
4
6.71
0.62
Fb _ 5
Fb
6
8.71
10.71
Fb
7
12.71
Fb
8
14.71
6.44
305.01
305.01
1.22
247.90 282.90
296.51 345.11
0.99
222.62
0.89
439 6.35
84 190
17.15'
13
6.53
6.05
419 7.17
102 170
17.68
10.63
6.4
5.77
864 9.33
138 366
118
17.47
6.5
15.38
6.55
6.22
2 6 6 .3 7
349.97
1.19
1.07
56 138
54
887 9.30
144 354
20.17
12.38
6.33
245.95 447.19
0.98
146
66
809 8.32
142 360
17.11
18.38
6.18
222.62
0.89
23.1
5.93
416.08
1.66
20.75
5.78
425.80
1.70
389.14
1.56
5.99
20.71
8 0 170
70 156
84 148
22.71
0.73
14 303 5.31
62 156
21.84
49.75
5.64
6.48
334.23
1.34
24.71
0.72 20 303 4.81
58 162
43.56
6.78
266.81
1.07
9
16.71
Fb
18.71
Fb
10
11
Fb
12
13
6.51
20.13
66
1.24
14.19
0.68 24 439 6.72
0.7 38 444 7.30
Fb
Fb
0.63
36
48
6.5
T
DIST
ELEV As
Cu
Fe
Pb
Zn A s2
Fb
Q
14
26.71
0.75 24 270 4.89
68 194
Fb
15
28.71
0.75
48 122
Fe
I
1.4
18 255 4.73
0.5 -2 111 3.44
Fe
2
3.4
0.625
8 135 3.64
Fe
3
5.4
0.595
Fe
4
7.4
Fe
5
Fe
28
Cu2
Fe2 Pb2 Zn2
497 ,6.14
68 198
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
pH 2
ECI
31.07
20.75
6.78
6.55
3 2 2 .6 7
23.13
6.89
. EC2 SALI
2 4 7 .5 4
1.29
147.37
0.73
0.95
261.99
1.05
28
86
4
234 4.14
38 104
18.38
20.13
7,16
7.19
183.01
38
94
26
320 4.46
56 158
18.38
18.88
7.03
6.97
237.91
12 198 3.70
38 108
20
297 4.70
64 140
24.29
19.95
7.03
7.01
90 224
86
917 8.79
168 390
68 180
15.16 . 14.69
15.34
6.69
9.4
0.535 42 535 6.05
0.515 30 358 5.22
195.53
260.07 216.72
230.21
6.68
326.53
1.31
'6
11.4
0.495 26 350 4.90
76 194
19-24
6.33
322.67
1.29
Fe
7
13.4
0.5 54 265 4-80
116 272
14.29
6.91
371.80
1.49
Fe
8
15.4
0.58 18 355 4.59
66 214
22.8
6.77
291.85
1.17
Fe
9
17.4
0.61
154
22.37
6.86
235.02
0.94
Fe
10
19.4
50 138
27.86
6.96
221.54
0.89
Fe
11
21.4
0.61 16 269 4.55
0.62 12 203 4.08
58 164
21.25
7.07
200.35
0.80
Fe
12
23.4
0.64 28 415 5.48
70 172
15.88
6.79
485.46
1.94
Fe
13
25.4
0.67 14 266 4.38
48 126
15.92
6.91
288.96
1.16
Fe
14
27.4
0,7 .14 290 4.52
42 124
12.14
7.07
183.97
Fe
15
29.4
0.73 14 282 4.34
38 112
Flc
I'
1.22
0.03
He
2
3.22
0.085
He
3
5.22
0.11
He
4
7.22
0.075
He
5
9.22
0.03
He
6
11.22
-0.01
He
7
13.22
-0.05
He
8
15.22
-0.09
He
9
17.22
-0.13
He
10
19.22
-0.06
-2
75 .3.27
22
72
7.75
168.77
0.68
He
11
21.22
0.02
2
69 3.41
22
82
-2
49 2.64
22
68
9.38
8.25
7.9
135.43
0.54
12
23.22
0.1
2
75 3.31
22
84
2
60 2.65
18
68
10
7.06
7:96
He
22 305 4.31
62
8
185 4.06
36
96
14.51
9.44
8.81
7.08
7.26
7.88
299.56
119.81
1.04
0.92
0.74
1 6 7 .6 0
61.47
1.20
0.48
T
Q
DIST
He
13
25.22
Pb
Zn A s2
Cu2
86 3.52
22
88
6
156 5.70
98 3.71
26
92
8
107 3.31
30
0.34 14 212 4.15
44 144
28
144 3.95
80 194
ELEV As
0.175
-2
0.255
4
Cu
Fe
Fe2 Pb2 Zn2
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
pH 2
ECI
9.38
21.25
7.72
7.76
126.06
87.51
0.50
88
20.06
15.38
7.79
7.76
148.98
102.10
0.60
78 166
11.75
5.25
7.22
7.63
167.73
110.43
0.67
122.93
89.59
184.40 142.72
0.49
46 142
EC2 SALl
He
14
27.22
He
15
29.22
He
16
31.22
0.42 16 216 4.10
42 128
30
149 3.69
5.76
3.5
7.31
7.61
He
17
33.22
40 130
32
208 4.11
86 194
5.24
6.44
6.56
7.44
292 5.36
6.45
4.63
7.31
7.42
167.73
150.02
0.67
262 4.67.
2 4 6 414
58 122
5.25
7.56
7.29
7.46
157.31
132.31
0.63
He
18
35.22
0.5 18 231 4.16
0.585 26 279 4.84
186
92
He
19
37.22
0.64 2 4 256 4.27
54 156
22
He 20
39.22
0.62 60 346 4.92
168 432
He 21
41.22
0.6 46 2 6 7 4.76
122 276
He 22
43.22
0.58 48 283 4.98
He
45.22
0.56 14 181
23
6 161
12 171
66
7.27
9.95
68
173 4.44
164 332
8.51
106 182 118
280 5.20
270 452
150.02
7.25
7.58
273.99
130.23
1.10
12.74
17.62
7.2
7.24
202.58
111.62
0.81
21.24
23.06
7.33
7.45
195.34
95.09
0.78
159.17 139.53
148.83 112.66
0.60
14
125 3.53
36 102
3.57
30
96
14
168 3.71
30
86
7.06
4.13
7.36
7.61
3.86
36 108
2
170 3.83
28
84
8.25
5.88
7.39
7.49
He 24
47.22
0.58
He 25
49.22
0.58
He 26
51.22
0.58
6 140 3.76
24
84
10
176 4.24
36
90
24.25
15.38
7.42
7.39
He 27
53.22
0.58
6 126 3.39
28
82
6
149 3.93
34
88
12.38
7.69
7.39
7.6
2 170 3.74
10 157 3.73
28
34
84
2
225 4.16
36
98
13.63
13
7.52
90
10
241
4.47
36 102
14.19
11.25
30 104
14
212 4.20
34 100
20.63
38 102
8
48 114
30
Hd.
I
1.31
0.175
Hd
2
3.31
0.475
Hd
3
5.31
0.67
Hd
4
7.31
-2 184 3.99
0.62 12 230 4.15
Hd
5
9.31
0.59 10 224 4.04
Hd
6
11.31
0.59
Hd
7
13.31
Hd
8
Hd
0.60
8.75
32 106
3.77
0.74
0.64
164.34 160.20
160.20 130.23
0.66
7.74
183.61
148.54
0.73
7.3
7.61
254.79
127.91
1.02
14.19
7.39
7.62
14.75
17.75
7.36
7.59
0.81
48 120
17.75
14.25
7.15
7.66
265.10 125.85
165.04
204.24 156.79
0.64
1.06
98
18
2 3 8 4.35
203 3.91
10 236 4.13
42 122
22
192 3.57
62 154
28.16
26.13
7.43
7.68
239.31
136.16
0.96
0.575
10 232 4.12
42 106
6
145 3.30
40 100
25.44
16.06
7.41
7.71
15.31
0.55
10 225 3.75
38 104
18.19
7.51
286.76 126.88
210.43
0.84
9
17.31
0.575
4 240 4.12
108
20.5
7.03
529.17
2.12
Hd
10
19.31
0.475 24 321
5.04
46 156
19.56
6.46
402.29
1.61
Hd
Hd
11
21.31
64 162
19.38
5.51
504.41
2.02
12
23.31
0.413 30 390 5.98
0.213 52 452 9.18
112 182
23.33
3.75
836.57
3.21
Hd
13
25.31
0.2 58 346 5.85
144 114
18.88
4.12
289.86
1.16
Hd 30
27.31
18 171 4.18
42 104
17.69
7.23
281.61
1.13
0.275
42
203.21
0.82
1.15
Pb
Zn As2
ECI
EC2 SALI
3.08
20
72
13.63
7.21
193.93
0.78
8 143 3.56
24
88
14.75
7.34
289.86
1.16
0 10 149 3.62
36
98
32
167 4.09
94 182
11.67
10.63
7.5
7.66
173.30 128.18
0,69
36
96
18
183 3.95
42 110
11.81
33.75
7.51
7.53
182.53
108.70
0.73
0.925 20 158 3.59
42 104
16
238 4.46
48 106
26.63
20.13
7.24
7.29
189.71
135.36
0.76
0.885
14 180 3.82
42 104
20
185 3.98
46 108
1.69
2.25
7.22
7.3
159.97
110.75
0.64
0.863
14 204 4.10
48 116
28
170 3.74
64 158
4
13.56
7.3
7.58
223.55
142.54
0.89
54 110
28
138 3.36
. 74 166
14.13
12.07
0.83 20 214 4.08
0.813
6 202 3.89
54 122
44
134 3.50
100 234
7.37
4.63
7.36
7.52
181.51
126.13
0.73
8
14.07
0.788 12 179 3.74
46 114
26
111
3.15
72 182
11.75
13
7.35
7.65
168.87
136.12
0.68
He
9
16.07
0.763 22 167 3.38
50 118
4
92 3.19
40 104
21.88
13
7.62
7.82
175.01
146.35
0.70
He
10
18.07
52 124
10.43
6.43
7.52
7.6
163.75
142.26
0.66
He
11
20.07
0.74 20 143 3.21
6 59 2.87
0.713
He
12
22.07
0.638 28 133 2.98
62 178
He
13
24.07
0.488 32 278 5.75
78 132
He
14
26.07
0.55 58 316 7.35
He
15
28.07
100 124
He
16
30.07
0.638 48 338 4.80
0.613 24 315 5.39
He
17
32.07
0.5 18 187 3.88
44 100
He
18
34.07
0.513
14 160 3.45
38
94
Hf
I
0.91
0.725
8 146 3.46
32
82
18
154 4.07
34 106
7.06
8.81
Hf
2
2.91
0.738
12 180 3.96
40 100
30
108 3.62
82 214
6.44
9.44
Hf
3
4.91
3.71
54 140
14.69
7.46
Hf
4
6.91
0.6 24 178 3.86
50 114
15.81
7.17
Hf
5
8.91
Hf
6
7
10.91
12.91
98 2.86
0.568 10 176 3.57
0.338 14 240 4.58
T
Q
DIST
ELEV As
Hd 31
29.31
0.35
Hd 32
31.31
-0.05
He
I
' 0.07
He
2
2.07
0.963
He
3
4.07
He
4
6.07
He
5
8.07
He
6
10.07
He
7
He
Hf
Cu
2 101
10 137 3.44
0.68 20 161
0.6
Fe
2
26
128
Cu2
Fe2 Pb2 Zn2
66
-
88
66 116
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
7.33
181.15
0.72
6.17
7.05
383.80
1.54
6.09
4.36
541.41
2.17
5.81
3.83
329.55
1.32
4.08
26 1143 5.44
70 256
2.31
316.25
1.26
12
50 110
6.94
1.06
6.65
7.19
286.57 131.00
1.15
10.56
4.69
7.12
7.41
231.30 177.06
191.39
0.93
7.55
7.68
168.21
0.67
7.34
7.61
181
3.79
6.44
7.37
144 3.49
50 134
7.06
7.63
7.22
8
30 104
33.83
25
6.96
48
20
150 3.43
195 4.01
46 120
33.23
11.25
7.08
8
14.91
0.413
18 229 4.44
50 130
Hf
9
16.91
0.455 20 329 5.19
58 152
0.80
7.16
16
Hf
200.99
5.31
30
86
42 106
128
pH2
-
47.78
6.85
34.24
5.86
105.01
146.80 120.30
. 173.31
0.77
0.59
0.69
196.76
0.79
134.57 107.04
177.39 112.14
7.36 ■ 165.42 204.47
195.22
0.54
0.71
7.05
7.02
246.59
0.66
0.78
0.99
T
ELEV As
Cu
Fe
Pb
Zn A s2
Cu2
Fe2
Pb2 Zn2
%CL1
%CL2
Q
DIST
Hf
10
18.91
0.468 72 280 8.86
190 128
660.67
2.64
Hf
11
20.91 . 0.588 36 343 8.15
94 108
76
212 7.61
186 118
14.5
8.52
4.04
3.36
509.63 401.74
2.04
Hf
12
22.91
0.65 36 668 5.68
90 214
52
436 3.96
112 598
5.09
7
5.19
6.62
229.13
128.43
0.92
Hf 4 3
24.91
0.24 14
8
97 2.99
8.25
8.25
7.01
7.31
240.43
166.45
0.96
Hf
14
26.91
0.4
8 130 3 .7 2
42 104
Hf
15
28.91
0.48
36
Ia
I
1.06
0.25
8 120 3.41
2 40 3.59
Ia
2
3.06
0.468
Ia
3
5.06
Ia
4
7.06
Ia
5
9.06
Ia
6
Ia
82 3.24
28
88
19.5
32
86
pH I
pH 2
3.88
ECI
EC2 SALI
10.01
7.43
304.13
1.22
98
12.9
7.25
482.91
1.93
16
66
5.88
7.5
493.94
1.98
58 3.43
26
76
2
107 4.01
26
78
10.63
10.63
6.9
375.72
1.50
0.44 12 113 3.60
0.425 14 117 3.44
28
86
14
184 3.83
34
92
36.75
26.63
6.78
34
96
31.3
6.31
8 107 3.10
40
96
16.5
6.93
851.63
3.25
11.06 . ' 0.4 18 177 3.77
42 110
. 20.69
6.71
885.69
3.36
7
13.06
40
98
26.4
6.38
1608.07
5.52
Ia
8
15.06
0.34 14
88
3.03
54 128
35.47
7.08
9 7 6 .8 7
3.63
Ia
9
17.06
0.32 20
58 2 .7 6
54 124
29.01
6.51
1217.33
4.35
Ia
10
19.06
0.29 20
52 140
21.35
6.49
1530.92
5.29
Ia
11
21.06
0.29 18
66 2.85
47 2.87
52 142
23.16
6.41
1545.95
Ia
12
23.06
0.29 28
54 126
Ib
I
0.45
0.025
95 2.85
6 128 3.89
Ib
2
2.45
0.168 28 329 4.85
56 144
27.13
6.53
Ib
3
4.45
0.13 26 262 4.37
64 144
42.82
6.51
1255.00
4.47
Ib
4
6.45
74 170
32.5
6.34
1330.00
4.69
Ib
5
8.45
0.113 28 156 3.83
0.113 34
79 3.01
66
146
35.64
7.13
5.52
Ib
6
10.45
0.113 3 4
66
68
4.77
Ib
7
12.45
0-113 28
Ib
8
14.45
Ib
9
16.45
0.9 26
0.075 24
39 2.63
33 2.45
Ib
10
18.45
0.08 32
Ib
11
20.45
0.08 _28
0.42
0.375
4
18 109 3.26
31
2.77
2.47
56 2.61
37 2.57
36
94
-
7.3
706.35 31 6.60
1776.39
6.89
8
211
4.54
32
96
20
27.13
6.22
2.82
6.03
5,34
0.70
7 1230.00 243.00
6.93 1220.00 303.00
4.39
4.36
315,00 473.00
1.26
150.00 219.00
0.60
156
42.72
7
76 192
34.82
7.01
570.00
2.28
60 168
36.96
201.00
0.80
168
19.65
6.89
6.42
1260.00
4.48
70 164
22.93
23.44
7.05
212.00
0.85
6.52
'982.00
3.65
64
70 168
Fe
Pb
Zn A s2
12 112 4.51 .
28
84
14
143 5.14
32
34
98
14
233 4.75
40
T
Q
DIST
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Ic
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
Id
I
1.3
ELEV As
0.35
2
3.3
0.605
3
5.3
0.588
4
7.3
0.568
5
9.3
0.525 2 2
6
11.3
7
Cu
8 151
3.81
Cu2
18 236 4.83
46 120
4.43
52 160
34 _ 631
0.475 36 285 6.96
90
64
13.3
0.413 40 317 6 .2 4
96 112
8
15.3
0.4 44 303 6.27
9
17.3
0.388 32
10
19.3
0.33 2 6
11
21.3
0.3 48 273 6.56
12
23.3
13
331
Fe2
PbZ Zn 2
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
88
15.94
17.75
6.78
98
19.75
15.94
6.96
16.63
7.31
ECI
EC2 SALI
663.27
2.65
616.18 331.63
2.46
6.55
786.50
3.06
96 190
24.75
18.47
6.37
. 979.87
3.64
82
20.69
17.75
4.5
282.54
1.13
3 1 .7 8
6.06
801.53
3.10
96 118
19.5
5.85
881.68
3.35
150
25.31
6.43
1578.01
5.43
80 1 7 0
28.2
6.4
1277.44
4.53
90
23.3
5.77
636.22
2.54
0.225 36 278 4.92
96 112
55.58
5.27
25.3
0.225 44 305 6.85
116 132
17.69
4:55
14
27.3
0.225 3 6
68 2.81
86 192
28.93
6.76 '
15
29.3
0.225 3 6
50 2.94
90 214
21.16
6.57
I
0.12
2
2.12
0.998 2 2
3
4.12
4
121
2.96
127 3.44
68
100
86
5.89
pH2
315 8.95
120
82
26
237 5.42
215 4.36
52 120
40
284 5.56
42 112
17.63
6.12
0.97 16 170 3.74
0.955 2 2 160 3.88
72 114
5
8.12
0.888 18 136 3.61
64 102
' 6
10.12
0.775 .12
142 3.51
56
7
12.12
0.69 12 124 3.22
32
8
14.12
9
0.4
4 104 3.70
30
98
22.44
19.44
6.77
6.89
100 138
21.19
16.5
7.17
7.89
66
349.00
1.40
1164.97
4.19
1285.90
4.56
551.52 404.05
667.53 336.22
2.21
7.41
373.58
1.49
12.88
7.17
619.35
2.48
12.88
7.2
781.56
3.04
98
10.5
6.5
1250.50
4.45
84
9.94
6.78
879.87
3.34
22 166 3.74
54 116
11.63
6.68
1000.80
3.70
16.12
0.59 20 208 3.97
58 126
12.28
6.69
1007.68
3.72
10
18.12
62 136
13
12
20.12
22.12
16.64
11.75
6.85
11
0.53 28 255 4 .2 6
0.49 40 483 5.95
0.47 12 206 3.04
7.63
3.5
13
24.12
14
26.12
0 ,6 6 8
80 168
54
40 106
56
529 6.65
540 6.92
114 290
124 274
6.6
7.48
6.92
7
2.67
764.85
2.99
2.49
3.06
1.87
0.425
2
38 2.70
18
62
8.75
6.84
622.30 385.38
453.21 202.52
7 8 6 .4 8
0.425
6
28 2.63
14
52
7
6.87
467.96
1.81
T
DIST
ELEV As
Cu
Fe
Pb
Zn As2
38
90
Cu2
Fe2 Pb2 Zn2
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
pH2
ECI
22 . 233 5.56
50
94
9.94
9.94
6.95
7.25
597.73
195.64
2.39
222 6.68
78
80
10.5
9.94
7.15
6.88
592.81
470.91
2.37
EC2 SALI
Ie
Q
I
0.75
0.325
Ie
2
2.75
1.225 22 214 5.22
58 106
Ie
3
4.75
1.338 36 286 6.70
88 104
11.06
7.08
569.22
2,28
Ie
4
6.75
84 168
10.5
7.74
319.51
1.28
Ie
5
8.75
1-3 36 255 5.38
1.288 22 232 4.54
60 148
9.31
7,69
347.03
1.39
Ie
6
10.75
1.268 20 213 4.60
58 120
13.56
7.15
700.95
2.80
Ie
7
12.75
1.888 24 257 4.88
70 168
14.69
7.3
639.02
2.56
Ie
8
14.75
4
82 3.30
34
94
2
70 3.79
28
82
17.63
11.19
6.54
7.5
9
16.75
6
36 3.08
16
58
-2
18 . 60
14.19
9.5
7.09
7.51
Ie
10
18.75
1,25
4
35 3.10
16
64
-2
36 3.20
32 3.02
780.58 328.36
526.94 314.59
3.04
Ie
1.238
1.268
16
58
15.94
11.75
7.02
7.37
11
20.75
1.35
2
31
3.23
18
64
8
31
12
62
14.13
12.94
6.72
6.99
426.67 311.64
150.55 151.53
1.71
Ie
0.60
Ie
12
1.35
6
28 2.96
42
64
13.56
6.18
124.15
0.50
Ie
13
22.75
24.75
1.35 • 6
25 3.26
18
68
8.88
6.05
55.72
0.22
8 130 4.03
36
3.16
Ra
I
1.81
0.3
6 117 3.49
26
84
14
154 3.93
30
88
Ra
2
3.81
0.7
6
91
3.20
22
76
8
146 3.80
26
86
Ra
3
5.81
0.72
4
99 3.39
26
80
Ra
4
7.81
0.62
-2
70 2.97
18
66
-2
118 3.61
26
Ra
5
9.81
0.42
Rb
I
1.28
0.18
8
77 3.08
20
76
12
152 3.70
38 108
Rb
2
3.28
0.28
8
84 3.13
22
78
6
140 3.81
Rb
3
5.28
0.23
2
89 3.24
24
76
6
145 .3.73
121
Rb
4
7.28
0.03
2
58 2.92
16
64
Rb
5
9.28
-0.3
6
50 2.68
18
60
8
Re
I
0.14
Re
2
2.14
Re
3
4
4.14
0.4
6.14
0.73
Re
11.25
7.34
7.47
183.97 115.58
0.74
14.63
7.35
7.45
220.57
0.88
18.19
4
0.6 24 125 3.90
14.75
82 ,15.25
2.11
7.32
124.25
188.79
0.76
20.56
7.09
7.21
201.31
125.22
0.81
12.88
12.88
7.48
7.42
1.01
36 100
16.38
16.38
7.4
7.4
251.40 133.89
223,46 169.52
0.89
26
94
24.75
18.97
7.33
7.31
219.61
153.17
0.88
3.61
26
82
11.88
15.38
7.38
7.27
174.33
118.91
0.70
77 2.72
20
68
9.5
11.25
6.97
6.75
357.73 473.62
1.43
183.40
0.73
52 134
8.88
7.02
0.41
Re
5
' 8.14
0.87
Re
6
10.14
0.87
18
90 3.21
22
<
76
12
94 3.38
24
76
13.56
11.75
7.19
7.12
263.01
8
74 3.07
20
74
4
55 2.86
18
64
12.02
7.13
7.15
6.89
221.69
8 121
28
92
16
204 4.05
36 108
20.07
8.88
7.27
7.11
3.65
185.42
1.05
121.93
270.06 114.88
0.89
1.08
Fe2 PbZ Zn2
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
PH2
50 3.09
24
68
22.38
22.38
7.16
7.25
390.99 188.44
1.56
35 2.99
14
54
18.18
16.5
7.16
7.27
192 4.22
52 140
14.13
13
7.46
7.41
320.45 H 70.30
232.00 134.00
0.93
8
106 3.69
32
92
16.62
12.44
7.27
7.3
50 130
32
99 3.50
70 196
12.94
13.56
7.44
7.43
312.00 158.00
202.00 132.00
0.81
3.31
28
96
12
115 3.58
48 134
14.69
13
7.36
7.43
94 3.35
28
86
30
227 4.60
56 152
15.88
15.94
7.2
7.15
252.00 143.00
239.00 139.00
0.96
2 100 3.25
22
80
4
96 3.03
22
82
11.81
10.06
6.77
6.41
267.00 281.00
1.07
6 101 3.47
-2
86 2.96
24
82
10
194 3.84
34
94
7.56
6.44
6.75
350.00
1.40
22
70
4
111
3.55
28
80
7
6.44
7.02
6.74
6
82 3.20
20
74
8
145 3.52
30
92
10.5
6.44
7.28
7.02
371.00 248.00
310.41 15,2.71'
1.24
0.85
4
96 3.39
26
80
14
195 4.25
34 102
11.06
12.88
7.18
6.65
0.038
2
38 2.86
14
60
0.23
-2
45 2.99
18
64
-2
40 2.84
14
60
8.25
5.31
7.16
4.09
0.313
6
18
60
4
46 3.03
20
66
10.63
10.63
7.35
4
6.09
0.525
-2
45 2.89
54 2.79
20
60
5.75
7.2
266.07
1.06
5
8.09
0.613
2
3.01
22
66
3.38
7.35
162.48
0.65
Re
6
10.09
0.605
-2
53 3.03
22
66
6.38
7.28
228.49
0.91
Re
7
12.09
0.59
-2
45 2.95
18
62
5.19
7.29
186.86
0.75
Re
8
14.09
0.58
2
59 3.08
20
68
Re
.9
16.09
0.513
2
52 2.92
20
64
Re
10
18.09
0.455
-2
Re
20.09
0.4
22.09
0.668
51 3.05
-2
78 3.17
4 110 3.37
18
24
Re
11
12
Re
13
24.09
0.755
2 104 3.29
0.755
18 180 4.01
T
Q
DIST
Re
7
Re
8
Rd
Pb
Zn As2
58 3.05
20
70
10
32 2.66
14
50
2
6
90 3.44
26
82
18
8
82 3.12
22
74
ELEV As
Cu
12.14
0.94
4
14.14
0.94
-2
I
1'.7
0.92
Rd
2
3.7
1.02
Rd
3
5.7
1.1
Rd
4
7.7
1.05
6
Rd
5
•9.7
0.89
14
Rd
6
11.7
0.6
Rd
7
13.7
0.4
Rd
8
15.7
0.41
Rd
9
17.7
0.43
Rd
10
19.7
0.67
Rd
11
21.7
0.85
Rd
12
23.7
0.85
Rd
13
25.7
Re
I
0.09
Re
2
2.09
Re
3
Re
Re
Re
14
26.09
Fe
18 135 3.63
91
61
Cu2
2.38
61
3.29
18
70
4.56
1.28
1.25
1.01
1.48
0.80
290.44 169.59
7.46 . 212.24 168.58
0.85
6.73
7.19
1.39
1.16
272.16
1.09
7.17
230.52 211.23
236.62
0.92
7.33
7.2
11.31
7.18
7.3
230.52 230.52
290.78 145.39
5.75
7.33
17.19
5.75
66
EC2 SALl
348.33 234.55
199.04
7.32
8.13
2
ECl
7.13
4
87 3.21
24
74
24
76
84
12
132 3.46
28
88
27.81
15.94
28
82
16
204 4.27
40 106
17.19
8.94
7.15
7.08
38 102
14
210 4.16
38 102
12.44
6
7.17
7.2
308.95 203.95
200.92 115.10
0.95
0.92
1.16
1.24
0.80
T
Re
Q
15
DIST
28.09
ELEV As
0.71
Cu
Fe
6 113 3.43
Pb
Zn A s2
Cu2
28
82
252 4.72
20
Fe2
Pb2 Zn2
%CL1
%CL2
pH I
pH 2
46
122
27.5
29.63
7.19
6.79
90
6.95
7.14
ECI
0.74
7.22
7.21
260.49
109.04
1.04
7.25
307.94
109.04
Re
16
30.09
0.655
6
67 3.01
20
70
6
129 3.70
28
33.75
32.56
Re
17
32.09
0 .7 1 3
-2
77 3.13
22
72
6
61 2.91
16
62
32.56
28.5
Re
18
34.09
0.75
-2
67 2.93
18
66
2
40 2.78
8
52
21.25
7.07
Re
19
36.09
0.75
-2
74 3.09
22
76
11.75
7.26
247.36
Re
20
38.09
-2
60 2.88
20
66
11.75
7.2
295.83
Re
21
40.09
0.745
0.72
6
69 3.07
24
74
13.74
6.97
439.19
Re
22
42.09
0.67
6
77 3.21
30
90
16
94 3.35
42 110
Re
23
44.09
0.638 12
70 3.10
34
96
2
46 2.95
18
Re
24.
46.09
0.61
6
57 2.88
18
62
28
Re
25
48.09
0.613
8
68 2.96
36 100
22
107 3.56
116 3.74
165 4.17
Re
26
Re. 27
-
1.18
1.76
7.05
7.18
324.10 206.98
1.30
10.3
10.63
7.14
6.95
236.26
156.49
0.95
76 186 . 11.78
21.25
7.12
7.34
264.53
146.73
1.06
76 196
13
12.38
7.26
7.37
272.49
134.15
1.09
88 194
8.81
7.63
7.25
139.39
0.95
5.88
7.23
7.13
7.14
237.91
6.18
241.05
143.58
0.96
18.47
13.56
7.25
7.12
235.81
159.30
0.94
74
8
88 3.25
20
24
76
0.625
82
16
165 4.03
68 172
8
73 3.04
20
72
2
109 3.65
36
66 3.05
1.23
0.99
13.56
52.09
0.62 12
1.49
12.94
24
50.09
EC2 SALI
184.76 247.36
373.57 128.22
80
Re
28
54.09
0.638
Re
29
56.09
0.668 24 135 3.57
42
120
14.75
7.13
266.20
1.06
12 119 3.50
22
84
11.75
7.09
244.19
0.98
6 206 4.10
36
102
41.44
7:02
274.59
1.10
24
24
84
219.04 229.52
243.15
0.88
116.68
0.47
Re
30
58.09
0.625
Re
31
60.09
0.588
0.54 10 122 3.49
0.375 12
91 3.30
Re
32
62.09
Re
33
64.09
Rf
I
0.42
Rf
2
Rf
10
397 5.26
54 136
86
31.79
23
4
35 2.75
18
54
2.42
3
4.42
0.43
2
39 2.57
14
52
13
7.55
142.72
0.57
Rf
4
6.42
0.4
2
45 2.87
20
60
18.31
7.46
193.77
0.78
Rf
5
8.42
0.5
Rf
6
10.42
0.575
2
54 2.81
18
62
22.33
7.4
300.03
1.20
Rf
7
12.42
0.613
2
20.
64
16.5
0.69
8
14.42
0.538
2
26
68
20
7.48
7.47
171.89
Rf
69 3.06
62 3.05
231.28
0.93
Rf
9
16.42
0.55
2
56 2.95
24
64
18.88
7.57
226.07
0.90
10 .18.42
0.55
2
52 3.00
20
64
5.88
7.41
260.45
1.04
Rf
50
0.97
0 .3
0.475
-2
12
6.76
7
17.13
35 2.71
7.13
11.81
15.38
7.52
7.49
111.47
FeZ PbZ ZnZ
%CL1
Zn AsZ
59 3.06
22
70
10.5
60 3.18
70
9.38
59 3.08
28
24
70
2
55 2.77
20
0.775
2
53 2.69
30.42
0 .7 3 8
2
17
32.42
0.675
Rf
18
34.42
Rf
19
Rf
Q
DIST
Rf
11
20.42
0.575
2
Rf
12
22.42
0.613
2
Rf
13
24.42
0.66
2
Rf
14
26.42
0.7
Rf
15
28.42
Rf
16
Rf
ELEV As
Cu
Fe
Cu2
Pb
T
%CL2
pH I
pH 2
ECI
ECZ SALI
7.33
339.62
1.36
7.35
254.20
1.02
10.5
7.34
253.15
1.01
60
7
7.37
252.11
1.01
22
58
5.88
7.58
197.94
0.79
58 2.82
20
62
5.25
7.26
264.61
1.06
2
60 3.10
28
70
9.38
7.44
234.07
0.94
0.68
4
51
2.78
22
60
11.19
7.45
180.30
36.42
0.538
2
43 2.80
22
58
20
38.42
0.568
2
41
2.81
16
56
7.69
7.44
188.73
Rf
21
40.42
0.59
2
45 3.00
24
62
11.19
7.39
2 0 2 .4 4
Rf
22
42.42
0.675
4
16
23
44.42
0.75
2
18
60
62
-2
Rf
46 2.98
52 3.00
Rf
24
46.42
0.82
2
66 2.83
20
60
-2
Rf
25
48.42
0.825
4
53 2.76
18
56
18.31
7.33
203.49
0.81
Rf
26
50.42
0.83
2
55 2.87
22
58
18.31
7.19
221.42
0.89
Rf
27
52.42
0.82
2
50 2.79
20
58
18.88
7.23
207.71
0.83
Rf
28
54.42
4
51
2.61
20
52
20.06
7.28
288.90
1.16
Rf
29
56.42
0 .7 6 8
0.725
Rf
30
58.42
0.825
4
49 2.67
20
52
18.25
7.16
357.43
1.43
58
20.06
7.28
303.49
1.21
18.25
7.31
225.78
4
52 3.30
55 3.19
ZO
16
66
68
11.19
9.44
10.06
11.75
11.75
89 3.21
30
70
20.06
7.49
7.44
7.36
7.26
0.72
128.63
0.86
0.75
0.81
7.48
210.87
139.18
7.58
2 4 5 .6 7
233.02
142.34
7.37
18.88
215.09
0.84
0.98
0.93
Rf
31
60.42
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