Resources utilized by parent in child rearing and knowledge of infant development
by Billie Lynn Warford
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE
in Home Economics
Montana State University
© Copyright by Billie Lynn Warford (1977)
Abstract:
Parents knowledge of infant development and resources utilized were investigated in a sampling of
parents of preschool children in Bozeman, Montana. Respondents were 45 married couples age 20
through 45 with children enrolled in preschool programs in Bozeman. The survey instrument included
demographic information and a knowledge of infant development section.
Primary resources listed by mothers included instincts, followed by extended family, spouse, books,
and friends. Instincts were also listed by fathers as the primary resource followed by spouse, family,
books, and friends. Age of parents, level and area of education, preparation in child development, and
degree of parental confidence had no significant relationship to parents' knowledge. Mothers in general
had more knowledge of infant development, revealed more" preparation in child development, and
utilized more resources than fathers. STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO COPY
In p re se n tin g th is
th e s is in p a r t i a l f u lf illm e n t of th e r e q u ir e ­
m e n ts f o r a n a d v a n c e d d e g r e e a t M ontana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , I a g r e e t h a t
t h e L i b r a r y s h a l l make i t f r e e l y a v a i l a b l e f o r i n s p e c t i o n .
I fu rth e r
a g r e e t h a t p e r m i s s i o n f o r e x t e n s i v e c o p y in g o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r
s c h o l a r l y p u r p o s e s may b e g r a n t e d by my m a j o r p r o f e s s o r , o r , i n h i s
a b s e n c e , by t h e D i r e c t o r o f L i b r a r i e s .
c o p y in g o r p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s
th esis
a ll o w e d , w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n p e r m i s s i o n .
S ig n a tu re
D a te
0^6
/ '
'
I t i s u n d e r s t o o d t h a t any
f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be
RESOURCES UTILIZED BY PARENT IN CHILD REARING
AND KNOWLEDGE OF INFANT DEVELOPMENT
by
i
BILLIE LYNN WARFORD
A t h e s i s su b m itte d in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t
o f th e re q u ire m e n ts f o r th e d eg ree .
of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Home E c onom ics
A pproved:
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozem an, M ontana
J u n e , 1977
JLii
' ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
F o r h e r c o n t i n u a l s u p p o r t and e n c o u r a g e m e n t , I am i n d e b t e d t o
my C om m ittee C h a irm a n , Ms. B . B e t h i n e B i g e j .
S p e c ia l th an k s a re
e x t e n d e d t o D r.. M a r j o r i e B . R e i s e r , D i r e c t o r o f Home E c o n o m ic s , D r.
S t e p h e n Chapman, and M r s . V e s t A n d e r s o n f o r t h e i r h e l p f u l a s s i s t a n c e
on t h e G r a d u a t e C o m m itte e .
S p e c i a l t h a n k s go t o Wayne f o r h i s c o n t i n u a l p a t i e n c e ,
su p p o rt,
and e n c o u r a g e m e n t and f o r t h e s k i i n g w eekends t o e a s e t h e s t r a i n .
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page
LIST OF TABLES......................................................................
vi
LIST OF FIGURES...................................................................
v ii
ABSTRACT....................................................................................
v iii
CHAPTER
I
II
Ill
INTRODUCTION..........................................................
I
P r o b l e m ......................................................................
3
Q u e s t i o n s ........................................... .....................
4
D e f i n i t i o n s ...........................................................
5
L i m i t a t i o n s .......................................'....................
5
REVIEW OF LITERATURE......................................
7
I m p o r t a n c e o f I n f a n c y ....................................
7
P a r e n t h o o d ................. .............................................
9
R e s o u r c e s Used By P a r e n t s ........................ .
14
METHODOLOGY............................................................
18
P o p u l a t i o n ............................................................
18
I n s t r u m e n t ..............................................................
IV
V
M ethod o f C o l l e c t i n g D a t a .................
22
A n a l y s i s o f D a t a . ..............................................
22
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION..................................
24
D e s c r i p t i o n o f S a m p le ....................................
2.4
E x a m i n a t i o n o f D a t a .........................................
27
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
44
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS ( c o n t i n u e d )
Page
Summary............................................................................................................. '
44
C o n c l u s i o n s ................
46
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s ..................................................
48
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY................................................................................................
50
APPENDIX......................................
55
vi
• LIST OF TABLES •
T able
I.
■ '
Page
D e s c r i p t i o n o f S a m p le ................................................................... I .
25
v ii
LIST OF FIGURES
F ig u re
Page
1.
P r im a r y R e s o u r c e s o f P a r e n t s
..........................................................
2.
Secondary R e so u rce s o f P a r e n ts
.....................................................
31
3.
Books on C h i l d R e a r i n g Used by P a r e n t s ..................................
33
4 . __ L e v e l and A re a o f E d u c a t i o n and Mean S c o r e s on
K now ledge o f I n f a n t D e v e lo p m e n t ...........................' ......................
5.
6.
30
37 ,
P r e p a r a t i o n i n C h i l d D e v e lo p m e n t and Mean S c o r e s on
Know ledge o f I n f a n t D e v e l o p m e n t . . . .............................................
39
P r im a r y R e s o u r c e s U t i l i z e d by P a r e n t s and Mean ,S c o r e s
on Knowledge o f I n f a n t D e v e lo p m e n t.................. Y........................
40
v iii
ABSTRACT
P a r e n t s know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t and r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d
w ere i n v e s t i g a t e d i n a s a m p l in g o f p a r e n t s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n i n
Bozem an, M o n ta n a . R e s p o n d e n ts w ere 45 m a r r i e d c o u p l e s a g e 20 t h r o u g h
45 w i t h c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n p r e s c h o o l p ro g ra m s i n Bozem an, The
s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t i n c l u d e d d e m o g r a p h ic i n f o r m a t i o n and a know le d g e
o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t s e c t i o n .
P r i m a r y r e s o u r c e s l i s t e d by m o t h e r s i n c l u d e d i n s t i n c t s , f o l l o w e d
by e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , s p o u s e , b o o k s , and f r i e n d s .
I n s t i n c t s were a l s o
l i s t e d by f a t h e r s a s t h e p r i m a r y r e s o u r c e f o ll o w e d by s p o u s e , f a m i l y ,
b o o k s , and f r i e n d s . Age o f p a r e n t s , l e v e l and a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n ,
p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , and d e g r e e o f p a r e n t a l c o n f i d e n c e
h a d no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p . t o p a r e n t s ' k n o w le d g e . M o th e rs i n
g e n e r a l had m ore know le d g e o f i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t , r e v e a l e d more" p r e ­
p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , and u t i l i z e d more r e s o u r c e s t h a n
fath e rs. .
CHAPTER I
In tro d u c tio n
New r e s e a r c h p o i n t s t o t h e im p o r ta n c e , o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s
o f.life
f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d *
W ith m ore e m p h a s is b e in g
p l a c e d on t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e e a r l y y e a r s , t h e r o l e o f f h e p a r e n t s
t a k e s on i n c r e a s e d s i g n i f i c a n c e .
The jo b t h a t p a r e n t s do i n r a i s i n g
t h e i r c h i l d r e n w i l l h a v e more o f a n im p a c t on o u r s o c i e t y t h a n a n y .
o th er p ro fe s s io n .
T h i s y e a r s i x m i l l i o n A m e ric a n s w i l l t a k e t h e s t e p t h a t w i l l ,
s i g n i f i c a n t l y c h a n g e t h e i r own l i v e s and p r o f o u n d l y -change t h e
next g e n e ra tio n :
t h e y w i l l h a v e c h i l d r e n . How t h e y r a i s e
t h e s e c h i l d r e n w i l l h a v e a g r e a t e r im p a c t on A m e ric a n s o c i e t y
t h a n t h e way t h e y v o t e , t h e t e c h n o l o g i e s they, p r o d u c e , t h e w ars
t h e y wage o r t h e a r t t h e y c r e a t e .
And y e t , p e r h a p s n e v e r b e f o r e
i n U. S . h i s t o r y h a v e p a r e n t s f a c e d more c h o i c e s , f e l t more
p r e s s u r e s , o r s o u g h t more p r o f e s s i o n a l h e l p i n t h e r e a r i n g . o f
t h e i r c h i l d r e n (Newsweek. S e p te m b e r 1 975, p . 4 8 ) .
A m e ric an s o c i e t y p l a c e s t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n
on t e a c h e r s and p a r e n t s , w i t h t h e home p l a y i n g a more r e s p o n s i b l e r o l e
(H a w k in s, 1 9 7 2 ) .
life
T h i s o c c u r s b e c a u s e m o st o f t h e f i r s t f i v e y e a r s o f
i s s p e n t a t home.
As "M any o f t h e c h i l d ' s b e h a v i o r s , i n c l u d i n g
h i s p e r c e p t i o n s , s k i l l s , v a l u e s , and e v e n a t t i t u d e s a r e form ed b e f o r e
th e c h ild e v e r e n te rs sc h o o l" .
In f a c t:
M ost m e n t a l h e a l t h e f f o r t s t o change, t h e home e n v ir o n m e n t a r e
t o o l i t t l e and t o o l a t e . C h i l d r g u i d a n c e c l i n i c s , j u v e n i l e
c o u r t s , f a m i l y s e r v i c e c l i n i c s , an d o t h e r a g e n c i e s sp end v a s t
am ounts o f t i m e , m oney, and e n e r g y c o r r e c t i n g p r o b le m s t h a t
i n c o m p e t e n t p a r e n t s c r e a t e (H a w k in s, 1972, p . 3 0 ) .
S i n c e p r o b le m s w h ic h o c c u r a t t h e s c h o o l l e v e l h a v e t h e i r f o u n d ­
a t i o n s e a r l i e r i n t h e c h i l d ' s d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e tim e b e tw e e n b i r t h and
/
2
and t h r e e y e a r s o f a g e i s c r u c i a l
(W h ite , 1975; G o rd o n ,
1975).
I n t h i s b r i e f s p a n o f t im e how t h e m o t h e r o r p r i m a r y c a r e t a k e r .
i n t e r a c t s w i t h t h e c h i l d c a n do m ore t o i n f l u e n c e t h e c h i l d ' s
c o m p e te n c e i n l a t e r l i f e t h a n a t a n y o t h e r t im e b e f o r e o r a f t e r .
■Yet nobody w a rn s h e r o f t h e d a n g e r s o f t h i s p e r i o d , n o r . o f i t s
p r o m i s e . She m akes h e r d a i l y d e c i s i o n s p u r e l y on I n s t i n c t ,
b e c a u s e u n t i l r e c e n t l y e v e n t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l s w ere unaw are o f
■ i t ( P in e s , 1975, p. 88) .
"
F o u n d a t i o n s f o r t h e i d e a t h a t i n f a n c y - ,'i s c r u c i a l f o r d e v e lo p m e n t
w e re l a i d b a c k i n 1 7 6 2 , when. J e a n R o u s s e a u recommended . ,t h a t - e d u c a t i o n
b e g in in th e c r a d l e .
New r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t i n t h e n e x t t e n y e a r s
..
.
.
•
we may s e e t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f t e r m s s u c h a s 'p r e s c h o o l * and t h e r e c o g ­
n i t i o n t h a t le a rn in g b e g in s a t b i r t h
(G ordon, 1975, p . 6 ) .
I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e S tu d y
M a r r i a g e u s e d t o be r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e i n o u r s o c i e t y ; b u t t h e
c h a n g e s w h ic h a r e now o c c u r r i n g a r e d’e e p l y a f f e c t i n g t h e f a m i l y s y s te m
(S w e rd lo ff,
1975).
Women a r e ■s e e k i n g
and n o n -fa m ily r o l e s .
more autonom y i n b o t h f a m i l y
There i s d e c re a s e d fre q u en cy o f i n t e r - g e n e r r
a t i o n a l fam ily , r e l a t i o n s a s m o st new ly-w ed c o u p l e s l i v e a p a r t from
p a r e n t a l ,homes.
T his te n d s t o c o n tr i b u te e i t h e r t o i s o l a t i o n of th e
new p a r e n t s from t h e i r c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s o f c h i l d t r a i n i n g , o r t o
t h e i r e x p o s u r e t o d i f f e r e n t ways o f c h i l d r e a r i n g w h ic h p r e s e n t a
c h a l l e n g e t o them (B rim , 1 959, p . 1 7 ) .
W here t h e n do new p a r e n t s s e e k h e l p w i t h c h i l d r e a r i n g I
Do new
p a r e n t s s t i l l r e l y on t h e know le d g e o r a d v i c e o f t h e i r own p a r e n t s , o r
do t h e y t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e w id e v a r i e t y o f a v a i l a b l e community
3
r e s o u r c e s , s u c h a s p a r e n t i n g c l a s s e s s p o n s o r e d by a p u b l i c a g e n c y ,,
p ro fe s s io n a ls in th e f i e l d o r h e a lth a g e n cie s, or l e c t u r e s :
A ls o
w i d e l y a v a i l a b l e a r e t h e enorm ous num ber o f c h i l d r e a r i n g b o o k s .
M i l l i o n s o f c o p i e s o f S p o c k 's Baby a n d C h i l d C are h a v e been. s o l d .
O t h e r c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t p r o f e s s i o n a l s h a v e w r i t t e n , b e s t s e l l e r s
(G in o tt,
H g & Ames, 1 9 5 5 ) .
. Need o f t h e S t u d y ' .
Even w i t h so many a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s , a u t h o r i t i e s b e l i e v e t h a t '
p a re n ts to day a re n o t p rep ared f o r p a r e n t in g .
A m e ric an s o c i e t y p l a c e s
m ore r e s t r i c t i o n s on d r i v i n g a c a r t h a n r a i s i n g a c h i l d .
The v a s t
m a j o r i t y o f e d u c a t e d women i n t h i s c o u n t r y do n o t know th e. r a m i f i c a t i o n s
of c h ild re a rin g
( P i n e s , 1 9 7 5 , p . 88) .
U n t i l we know t h e ways i n w h ic h p a r e n t s p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r
pa r e n t h o o d - -whe r e t h e y t u r n t o f i n d h e l p i n r a i s i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n - w h ic h r e s o u r c e s a r e u s e d , and how o f t e n , a s w e l l a s t h e l e v e l o f
p a r e n t i n g k n o w le d g e , we c a n n o t u s e o u r r e s o u r c e s w i s e l y .
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P ro b le m
I t i s im p o rta n t th e r e f o r e to i d e n t i f y re so u rc e s p a re n ts u t i l i z e
when t h e y n e e d h e l p r a i s i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n a s w e l l a s t o o b t a i n a
m e a s u r e o f p a r e n t s ' k n o w le d g e o f i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t .
The f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s w e re m ade:
I.
P a r e n t s u t i l i z e r e s o u r c e s when t h e y need h e l p i n r a i s i n g
th e ir c h ild re n .
- 4 2.
I n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t f o l l o w s a s e q u e n t i a l d e v e l o p m e n t a l p a t t e r n
w h ic h c a n be u t i l i z e d
f o r m easu rin g p a r e n t s ' k n o w led g e.
Q u e s t i o n s t o be A nsw ered
T h is s tu d y w i l l a tte m p t to answ er th e fo llo w in g q u e s tio n s :
1.
What r e s o u r c e s a r e p a r e n t s u t i l i z i n g t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n
on r a i s i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n ?
a.
I s th e e x te n d e d fa m ily im p o rta n t?
b.
How w i d e l y u s e d a r e community r e s o u r c e s ?
c.
Are b o o k s on c h i l d r e a r i n g a n i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f ■
in fo rm a tio n ?
2.
d.
A re m o t h e r s and f a t h e r s u t i l i z i n g t h e same r e s o u r c e s ?
e.
W hich r e s o u r c e s a r e m ore p r im a r y o r s e c o n d a r y ?
What i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n p a r e n t s know ledge o f i n f a n t
d e v e lo p m e n t and t h e i r
a.
le v e l of e d u c a tio n .
■
b.
a re a o f e d u c a tio n
c.
p r e v i o u s p r e p a r a t i o n i n C h i l d D e v e lo p m e n t
d.
age
e.
number o f c h i l d r e n
f.
deg ree o f p a r e n t a l co n fid en ce
.
.'1
■
g.
3.
.
.
.
a g e c o n s i d e r e d c r u c i a l f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l ,developm ent'
How do m o t h e r s com pare w i t h f a t h e r s in. k n o w le d g e o f i n f a n t
d e v e lo p m e n t? .
.' ' •
5
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
Many o f t h e t e r m s u s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s p a p e r h a v e a w ide v a r i e t y
o f in te rp re ta tio n s.
F o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s p a p e r , t h e f o l l o w i n g te rm s
w ere o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d :
I n f a n c y was l i m i t e d t o t h e p e r i o d o f t i m e from b i r t h u n t i l two y e a r s o f
age.
P a r e n t s w ere l i m i t e d t o m a r r i e d c o u p l e s , r e s i d i n g t o g e t h e r , w i t h a t
l e a s t one p r e s c h o o l a g e d c h i l d e n r o l l e d i n a day c a r e c e n t e r o r p r e ­
s c h o o l i n Bozem an, M o n ta n a .
P r e s c h o o l c h i l d i s g e n e r a l l y d e f i n e d a s a c h i l d b e tw e e n t h e a g e s o f
tw o t h r o u g h f i v e y e a r s o f a g e .
I n Bozeman, Montana f i v e y e a r o l d s
a re e l i g i b l e to a tte n d k in d e rg a rd e n .
The te r m p r e s c h o o l c h i l d i n t h i s ■
p a p e r r e f e r s t o c h i l d r e n a g e d two t h r o u g h f o u r y e a r s o f a g e .
Day C a re P ro g ra m s f a l l i n t o two m a in t y p e s :
d a y c a r e hom e.
th e day c a re c e n te r or
B o th t h e s e f a c i l i t i e s a r e l i c e n s e d t o c a r e f o r c h i l d r e n
w h i l e t h e m o t h e r o r f a t h e r a r e u n a b l e t o do s o d u r i n g t h e . d a y .
The
te r m d a y c a r e p ro g ra m r e f e r s t o b o t h t y p e s o f day c a r e s i t u a t i o n s .
P r e s c h o o l was u s e d t o r e f e r t o a n y p ro g ra m w h ic h p r o v i d e s a v a r i e t y
o f e x p e r i e n c e s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d aged t h r e e to fiv e . '
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S tu d y
The p a r e n t s i n v o l v e d i n t h i s s t u d y w ere m a r r i e d c o u p l e s r e s i d i n g
t o g e t h e r w i t h c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n a p r e s c h o o l o r d a y c a r e pro g ra m i n
6
Bozeman, M o n ta n a .
T h e s e p a r e n t s may n o t b e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f s i n g l e
p a r e n t s o r t h o s e p a r e n t s who d i d n o t v o l u n t e e r t o p a r t i c i p a t e .
■The sa m p le was r e s t r i c t e d t o 45 c o u p l e s b e c a u s e o f t im e and
money l i m i t a t i o n s ..
w h i c h m ig h t b e m ade.
The s m a l l sa m p le s i z e w i l l l i m i t a n y c o n c l u s i o n s
CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The i m p o r t a n c e o f
p a r e n t s and t h e r o l e t h e y p l a y i n r a i s i n g
t h e i r c h i l d r e n i s c r u c i a l f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d .
T h is
r e v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e c o v e r s r e s e a r c h i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t r e l a t e d t o
thfese a r e a s :
1.
I n f a n c y , t h e p e r i o d o f t im e from b i r t h t o t h r e e y e a r s o f age
2.
E n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e s on t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a c h i l d
3.
P a r e n t s , th e p rim a ry t e a c h e r s o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n , c o n t r o l l i n g th e s e ■
e n v iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s
4.
P ro g ra m s aim ed a t p r e p a r a t i o n f o r p a r e n t h o o d
5.
P a r e n t s u t i l i z i n g r e s o u r c e s t o h e l p them i n r a i s i n g ■t h e i r
c h ild re n
Im p o rta n c e o f I n fa n c y
Few w ould d i s s e n t from t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t i n f a n c y i s t h e m o st
c r i t i c a l p e r i o d o f human d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e p e r i o d i n w hich t h e
b a s i c fra m ew o rk f o r l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n t i s e s t a b l i s h e d . D e s p i t e
t h i s , i t i s o n l y r e c e n t l y t h a t we h a v e b e e n a b l e t o i n v e s t i g a t e
w hat g o e s on d u r i n g i n f a n c y (Bower, 1977, p . v i i i ) .
The c r i t i c a l n a t u r e o f d e v e lo p m e n t d u r i n g i n f a n c y h a s b e e n s u p ­
p o r t e d by t h e work o f B u r t o n W h it e .
As a r e s u l t o f e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h
i n t o t h e l i v e s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n , W h i t e came t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n .
t h a t by t h e a g e o f t h r e e m o st o f a c h i l d ' s p o t e n t i a l h a s b e e n d e v e l o p e d ,
and t h a t t h e p e r i o d o f e i g h t t o e i g h t e e n m onths seems t o b e t h e c r i t i c a l
l e a r n i n g t im e i n a c h i l d ' s
B o w e r 's
life .
(1977) i n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f t h e p e r i o d o f i n f a n c y w ere a i d e d
8
by t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f new t e c h n i q u e s and showed t h a t t h e new born i n f a n t
was a n e x t r e m e l y c o m p e te n t s o c i a l ,
l e a r n i n g , and p e r c e i v i n g o r g a n i s m .
"The n e w b o r n 's a b i l i t y t o l e a r n i s s o a s t o n i s h i n g t h a t i t w ould need
o n ly th e s l i g h t e s t exposure
I earn ed "
(p. 1 7 ).
( t o a s t i m u l i ) f o r an y c o n n e c t i o n t o b e
Newborn i n f a n t s a r e c a p a b l e o f g r a s p i n g an o b j e c t ,
i m i t a t i n g o t h e r p e o p l e , and r e c o g n i z i n g t h e i r m o t h e r s , a c c o r d i n g t o
B ow er, and t h i s i s c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o e a r l i e r r e s e a r c h c o n c e r n i n g t h e
a b i l i t i e s o f new born i n f a n t s . .
The c r i t i c a l n a t u r e o f i n f a n c y i s s y n t h e s i z e d by G ordon (1975)
as fo llo w s:
1.
The i n f a n t i s a f a r more c a p a b l e b e i n g i n t e r m s o f a b i l i t y
t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e o u t s i d e w o r ld t h a n was t h o u g h t a d e c a d e a g o .
2.
The i n f a n t i n f l u e n c e s h i s e n v i r o n m e n t , and t h e d e v e lo p m e n t
o f h i s c a p a b i l i t i e s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e r e s p o n s e s h i s e n v ir o n m e n t
m akes t o him .
3.
I n fa n ts su rv iv e in a v a rie ty of careta k in g s it u a ti o n s - - th e
l i m i t s o f good c a r e t a k i n g a r e n o t y e t known.
4.
A l t h o u g h e a r l y d e p r i v a t i o n may b e r e v e r s i b l e , t h e i n f a n t
p e r i o d i s a c r u c i a l one f o r s e t t i n g t h e s t a g e f o r a d e q u a t e g ro w th
b o t h p h y s i c a l l y an d p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y .
" T h e r e f o r e , w h a t we know
s h o u l d b e a p p l i e d now , e v e n w h i l e we c o n t i n u e t o d e v e l o p o u r
k n o w le d g e " ( p . 3 ) .
9
P a ren th o o d
P a r e n t s a r e th e ' p rim a ry t e a c h e r s o f . t h e i r c h i l d r e n and p a r e n t s
l a r g e l y c o n tr o l th e e n v iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s t h a t in f lu e n c e th e c h i l d 's
d e v e lo p m e n t
( P ic k a r t & F a rg o , 1971).
W h ile t h i s r e f l e c t s t h e c u r r e n t
v i e w , t h e r e was a t i m e when p a r e n t s w ere t o l d t h e r e was l i t t l e
con­
n e c t i o n b e tw e e n d e v e lo p m e n t and l e a r n i n g :
I f y o u w ere a p a r e n t y o u w ere s u p p o s e d t o buy ( G e s e l l ( 1 9 4 1 ) ,
w h ic h was t h e s t a n d a r d ' b i b I e 1. I f you had a t w o - y e a r o l d you
t u r n e d t o t h e r i g h t p a g e i n G e s e l l an d c h e c k e d o u t y o u r c h i l d .
I f he o r s h e was b e h a v i n g l i k e a t w o - y e a r o l d , you s i g h e d w i t h ,
r e l i e f ; i f t h e c h i l d was b e h a v i n g l i k e a o n e - y e a r o l d , you
. l o c k e d t h e c h i l d i n t h e b a c k ro o m . B u t you d i d n o t do a n y t h i n g
a b o u t i t (G o rd o n , 1 9 7 5 , p . 1 7 3 ) .
I m p o r t a n c e o f E n v iro n m e n t
Today t h e p a r e n t s ' r o l e a s a n e n v i r o n m e n t a l i n f l u e n c e on t h e i r
c h i l d ' s d e v e lo p m e n t i s s i g n i f i c a n t , s i n c e p a r e n t s " a r e an d c r e a t e t h e
m a j o r p o r t i o n o f t h e g ro w in g c h i l d ' s E n v ir o n m e n t" ( P i c h a r t & F a r g o ,
1971).
D u r i n g t h e 1 9 6 0 ' s r e s e a r c h c o n d u c t e d by Hunt (1961) and Bloom .■
(1964) s u p p o r t e d t h e v ie w t h a t a c h i l d ' s d e v e lo p m e n t i s p r o f o u n d l y
i n f l u e n c e d by h i s e n v i r o n m e n t .
B o th t h e o r i e s s t r e n g t h e n e d t h e b e l i e f
t h a t t h e p e r i o d o f e a r l y c h i l d h o o d i s a t im e when t h e e n v ir o n m e n t c a n
h a v e a l a r g e e f f e c t on t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f a p e r s o n .
I t is. im p o r ta n t, t h e r e f o r e , t h a t p a r e n t s have a n u n d e rs ta n d in g of
t h e way c h i l d r e n grow i n o r d e r t o be a b l e t o s t r u c t u r e a s s t i m u l a t i n g
an e n v iro n m en t a s p o s s i b l e
(C o n n e y , 1 9 7 4 ) .
H g & Ames (1962) u r g e
'i
>
10
p a r e n t s t o l e a r n a l l t h e y c a n a b o u t c h i l d b e h a v i o r t o e n a b l e them t o
u s e t h e i r k n o w le d g e t o " p r o v i d e t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e n v i r o n m e n t f o r t h e
c h ild " (p. 12).
T h i s i s f u r t h e r e m p h a s iz e d by t h r e e r e c e n t s t u d i e s .
K i l b r i d e , J o h n s o n , and S t r e i s s g u t h 1s (1971) s t u d y o f t h i r t y two f u l l - t e r m
tw o-w eek o l d i n f a n t s and t h e i r m o th e r s showed t h a t
m o t h e r s ' k n o w le d g e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r v e r b a l i n t e r ­
a c ti o n w ith t h e i r i n f a n t s .
appeared.
S ig n ific a n t so c ia l c la ss d iffe re n c e s
S ev en ty p e r c e n t o f th e m id d l e - c la s s m o th e rs th o u g h t t h e i r
i n f a n t s c o u l d s e e and l e a r n a t b i r t h , b u t o n l y 24 p e r c e n t o f t h e l o w e r c l a s s m o t h e r s b e l i e v e d t h e i r i n f a n t s c o u l d do s o .
The am ount o f v e r b a l
i n t e r a c t i o n b e tw e e n m o t h e r s and t h e i r i n f a n t s seemed t o be r e l a t e d t o
.
m a t e r n a l b e l i e f s a b o u t t h e way i n f a n t s s e e and l e a r n .
I n S e e g m i l l e r a n d K i n g 's
(1975) i n v e s t i g a t i o n , i n f a n t s s c o r i n g
h i g h e r on t h e B a y le y M e n ta l S c a l e a t 22 m o n th s o f a g e had m o th e r s who
w ere m ore h i g h l y i n v o l v e d w i t h t h e i r c h i l d ' s a c h i e v e m e n t .
T hese
m o t h e r s w ere m ore k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t an d w ere g e n ­
e r a l l y m ore a b l e t o m e e t and t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e n e e d s o f t h e c h i l d
(L ile y , 1969).
E l a r d o , B r a d l e y , and C a l d w e l l (1 9 7 5 ) o b s e r v e d a num ber o f
c h i l d r e n s i x m o n th s o l d and l a t e r when t h e y w ere t h r e e t e s t e d them
u sin g th e S ta n fo rd B in e t I n te l li g e n c e T e s t.
They r e p o r t e d many ways
i n w h ic h w h a t t h e y saw i n t h e home a t s i x m onths o f a g e c o u l d be
r e l a t e d to th e p erfo rm an ce o f th e c h i l d r e n a t th re e y e a rs of a g e .
11
Need f o r P r e p a r a t i o n
G iv e n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e p a r e n t a l r o l e i n e a r l y c h i l d h o o d ,
i t i s i r o n i c t h a t s o few p a r e n t s a r e p r o p e r l y p r e p a r e d f o r
. p a r e n t h o o d . . .O ur s o c i e t y d o e s n o t e d u c a t e i t s c i t i z e n s t o .
a ssum e t h e p a r e n t a l r o l e ( W h ite , 1975, p . 5 ) .
L e M a s t e r s (1 9 7 0 ) c i t e s a v a r i e t y o f p r o b le m s f a c e d by p a r e n t s
i n . m odern A m erica and s t a t e s t h a t p o o r p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h e p a r e n t h o o d
r o l e m a g n i f i e s t h e p r o b le m .
He f u r t h e r c h a r g e s t h a t m a l e s i n p a r t i ­
c u la r a re not a d e q u a te ly p rep ared fo r t h e i r r o le s as f a t h e r s ,
"G irls
h a v e d o l l s a n d b u g g i e s , l a t e r , home e c o n o m ic s and c h i l d , d e v e lo p m e n t ;
w om en's m a g a z in e s f e a t u r e a r t i c l e s on c h i l d r e a r i n g , m e n 's m a g a z in e s
f e a t u r e s p o r t s and g i r l s i n s c a n t y o u t f i t s "
(p . 1 4 5 ) .
B e n so n (1 9 6 7 ).
a r g u e s t h a t m o t h e r s may r e c e i v e s o c i a l i z a t i o n f o r t h e m o t h e r r o l e b u t
t h i s s o c i a l i z a t i o n i s n o t e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e t r a i n i n g and know ledge
th e y w i l l need t o perform t h e i r d u t i e s .
A u t h o r i t i e s s u g g e st th e b i r t h of th e f i r s t baby i s a c r i s i s f o r
m any c o u p l e s
( L e M a s t e f s , 1957; D y e r , 1965;. J a c c o b y , 1 9 6 9 ) .
T h is t r a n s
i t i o n t o p a r e n t h o o d i s made d i f f i c u l t f o r b o t h m o t h e r s an d f a t h e r s by
a la c k o f g u i d e l in e s to s u c c e s s f u l p a re n th o o d (R o ssi,
1968).
However,
r e s e a r c h e r s s u g g e st p r e p a r a ti o n f o r p aren th o o d can be an e f f e c t i v e
m eans f o r l e s s e n i n g t h e c r i s i s w h ic h o f t e n a c c o m p a n ie s p a r e n t h o o d and
s h o u l d b e e m p h a s iz e d f o r a l l c o u p l e s c o n t e m p l a t i n g h a y in g c h i l d r e n •
( D y e r , 1963; L e M a s t e r s , 1 9 5 7 ) .
M ethods f o r Im provem ent
The a c c u m u l a t i n g e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t p a r e n t s h a v e g r e a t
12
i n f l u e n c e upon t h e b e h a v i o r o f t h e i r c h i l d r e n , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e i r
i n t e l l e c t u a l an d a c a d e m ic a c h i e v e m e n t , and t h a t p r o g ra m s w h ic h
te a c h p a re n ts s k i l l s in e d u c atin g t h e i r c h ild re n a re e f f e c ti v e ■
s u p p le m e n ts o r a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r p r e s c h o o l e d u c a t i o n - ( S c h a f e r ,
1972, p . 2 2 7 ).
C om bining t h e new r e s e a r c h w h ic h p o i n t s t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
' f i r s t few y e a r s o f l i f e and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t p a r e n t s a r e t h e p rim e
e d u c a to rs o f th e c h ild d u rin g t h i s
t i m e , new p ro g ra m s h a v e em erged
■around t h e c o u n t r y i n a n e f f o r t t o p r e p a r e p a r e n t s f o r t h e s e r e s p o n s ­
ib ilitie s.
B ro o k lin e E a r ly E d u c a tio n P r o j e c t .
P ro je c t
b a b ie s.
The B r o o k l i n e E a r l y E d u c a t i o n
(BEEP) i s a p u b l i c a l l y o p e r a t e d p ro g ra m aim ed a t p a r e n t s w i t h
A l l f a m i l i e s l i v i n g i n t h e B o s t o n s u b u rb o f B r o o k l i n e were
i n v i t e d t o j o i n i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t w h ic h p r o v i d e s a n i n t e n s i v e s e r i e s o f
■I
■’
:
m e d i c a l and p s y c h o l o g i c a l e x a m i n a t i o n s d e v i s e d t o d e t e c t a n y p r o b le m s
i n th e c h il d a t key p e r io d s o f d e v e lo p m en ti
A t e a c h e r v i s i t s t h e home
on a r e g u l a r b a s i s and w orks w i t h t h e p a r e n t s t o t e a c h them, how t o
resp o n d t o t h e i r c h i l d r e n 's n eeds a c c o r d in g t o t h e i r d e v e lo p m en ta l
sta g e ..
BEEP h a s c l e a r l y b u i l t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f a t o t a l l y new t y p e
o f p u b l i c s c h o o l s y s te m f o r b a b i e s and young c h i l d r e n -a sy ste m
i n w h ic h p a r e n t s do t h e a c t u a l t e a c h i n g , b u t r e c e i v e e x t r a ­
o r d i n a r y t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t : m a s s e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n , home v i s i t s ,
t r a i n i n g , c o n s u lta n ts , books, to y s , h ig h ly s p e c i f ic t e s t s of
t h e b a b y ' s p h y s i c a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l and e m o t i o n a l s t a t e , o c c a s i o n a l
c h i l d c a r e , r e f e r r a l s and s t r o n g a d v o c a c y w h e n e v e r n e c e s s a r y .
N o t h i n g l i k e i t h a s e v e r b e e n t r i e d b e f o r e ( P i n e s , 1975, p . 8 8 ) .
,
. O th er P ro g ram s.
.
T o l e d o , Ohio h a s a p a r e n t - i n f a n t e n r i c h m e n t
p ro g ra m f o r women b e tw e e n t w e lv e and n i n e t e e n .
I t s 1 g o a l i s to h e lp
13
t h e s e young women a ssum e t h e i r r o l e a s p a r e n t and e d u c a t o r o f t h e
c h i l d , p r o v i d e n e c e s s a r y p a r e n t i n g s k i l l s , and h e l p t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e
(Wagner, 1 9 7 6 ) .
fa m ily
A n o t h e r p i l o t p ro g ra m i n Des M o in e s , Iowa f o c u s e s on t h e u s e o f
s c h o o ls a s a hub o f com m unity a c t i v i t i e s .
I t o ffe rs parent tra in in g
p r o g r a m s , d i s c u s s i o n g r o u p s ^ and o t h e r p ro g ra m s a s a p a r t o f t h e p u b - '
I i c s c h o o l s a n d comm unity c o l l e g e s y s t e m , e n c o u r a g i n g community
s u p p o rt f o r fam ily l i f e p ro g ra m s.
■
I n a d d i t i o n t o p r o g r a m s o f f e r e d by s c h o o l s and c o l l e g e s , o t h e r
com m unity o r g a n i z a t i o n s o f f e r c l a s s e s f o r p a r e n t s .
These in c lu d e th e
A m e ric a n N a t i o n a l Red C r o s s , h o s p i t a l s t h a t o f f e r i n s t r u c t i o n s t o
e x p e c ta n t m o th e rs t o h e lp d e v e lo p s k i l l s t o c a re f o r th e i n f a n t ,
P u b l i c H e a l t h D e p a r t m e n t s , c h u r c h e s w h ic h o f f e r c l a s s e s i n p a r e n t i n g
s k i l l s , and p e d i a t r i c i a n s who g i v e a d v i c e c o n c e r n i n g t h e s o c i a l and
em o tio n a l h e a lt h o f th e c h ild
(S p o c k , 1 9 7 4 ) .
E d u c a tio n o f P a ren th o o d P r o j e c t
(E PP).
S u p p o r t e d by t h e O f f i c e
o f C h i l d D ev e lo p m e n t i n HEW and t h e N a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e o f M e n ta l
H e a lth .
The p u r p o s e o f t h e p r o j e c t was t o a s s i s t i n t h e d e s i g n and
\
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p a r e n t h o o d e d u c a t i o n c u r r i c u l a by l o c a l s c h o o l
sy ste m s.
The a p p r o a c h o f t h i s p ro g ra m v a r i e s from t h e o t h e r p ro g ra m s
m e n t i o n e d i n t h a t i t i s aim ed a t c h i l d r e n and y o u t h r a t h e r t h a n p a r e n t s
The E x p l o r i n g C h ild h o o d P rogram i s a h o u t g r o w t h o f EPP.
o p erated , i t
N a tio n a lly
f o c u s e s on h e l p i n g h i g h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s v ie w c h i l d h o o d
14 -
and a d o l e s c e n c e a s a n i m p o r t a n t tim e f o r b e com ing a p e r s o n .
Its* a im
i s t o p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s t o become a w a re o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e f a m i l y
and t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s o f p a r e n t s
(S c h a e f e r, 1972).
R e s o u r c e s Used by P a r e n t s
T r a d i t i o n a l s u p p o rts f o r p a r e n t in g a r e c h a n g in g :
P a r e n t s do n o t h a v e t h e s u p p o r t t h a t was once g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e .
The e x t e n d e d f a m i l y i s r a r e i n c o n te m p o r a r y s o c i e t y , and w i t h i t s '
d e m is e t h e new p a r e n t l o s t t h e wisdom and d a i l y s u p p o r t o f o l d e r
f a m i l y m em b e rs. The i n c r e a s e d m o b i l i t y and new. h o u s i n g p a t t e r n s
o f A m e ric a n f a m i l i e s h a v e a l l t o o o f t e n d e p r i v e d t h e f a m i l y o f
a v a r i e t y o f comm unity a c t i v i t i e s t h a t s u p p o r t e d p a r e n t i n g and
. f a m i l y l i f e ( Z i g l e r , 1975., p . 4 1 ) .
T h e s e c h a n g e s w h ic h a r e o c c u r r i n g i n A m e ric an S o c i e t y a r e a f f e c t ­
i n g p a r e n t s an d t h e r e s o u r c e s t o w h ic h t h e y can t u r n when t h e y need
h e lp or in fo rm a tio n in r e a r in g t h e i r c h ild r e n .
In stin c ts
W h e th e r o r h o t t h e r e i s a n i n n a t e i n s t i n c t f o r p a r e n t i n g i s a n
o n g o i n g a r g u m e n t among r e s e a r c h e r s .
Some r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h e r e
m a y .w e ll be an i n h e r i t e d p o t e n t i a l f o r p a r e n t i n g
Spock a d v i s e s :
(B a ra sh , 1977).
D r.
" T r u s t y o u r s e l f ... .You know more t h a n y o u t h i n k you
d o " (1 9 6 8 , p . 3) and c o n t i n u a l l y u r g e s p a r e n t s t o t r u s t t h e i r common
sense.
He c o n c l u d e s "w h a t good m o t h e r s and f a t h e r s i n s t i n c t i v e l y
f e e l l i k e . d o i n g f o r t h e i r baby i s u s u a l l y b e s t a f t e r a l l "
(p. 5 ) .
D r s . S a l k (196.9) and Dodson (1 9 7 1 ) a l s o f a v o r t h e u s e o f i n s t i n c t
over e x te r n a l re so u rc e s f o r p a re n ts .
t r u s t , t h e i r h e a r t s above th e o r y .
The l a t t e r a d v i s e s p a r e n t s t o
I n a n u n s u r e s i t u a t i o n , . " s c i e n c e may
15
t e l l y o u one t h i n g , b u t y o u r h e a r t t e l l s you a n o t h e r — t r u s t y o u r own
h e a r t ” (p . 232).
Love seem s more i m p o r t a n t t h a n s c i e n t i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n
B o th Dodson and S a l k a g r e e t h a t a f t e r a l l i s s a i d and, done i n s t i n c t i v e
p a r e n t a l f e e l i n g i s t h e m o st t r u s t w o r t h y g u i d e .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , D r s . G i n o t t (1 9 7 1 ) and G ordon (1970) b e l i e v e
t h a t l o v e i s n o t e n o u g h an d i n s t i n c t i s i n s u f f i c i e n t .
need s k i l l s ..
Good p a r e n t s
.
Love w h ic h i s n o t c o m m unicated o r w h ic h i s c o m m u n ic a ted ,
i n h a r m f u l w a y s , w i l l n o t be e f f e c t i v e and may b e c o u n t e r p r o d u c t i v e .
T h e r e f o r e , p a r e n t s n e e d t o l e a r n s k i l l s i n c o m m u n ic a tio n .
D r. G in o tt
d o e s n o t b e l i e v e t h a t common s e n s e and i n s t i n c t s a r e t o b e t r u s t e d
o v e r k n o w le d g e and s k i l l s .
S k i n n e r r e f l e c t s an e x tr e m e p o s i t i o n , p r e ­
f e r r i n g t o t u r n t h e t a s k o f c h i l d r a i s i n g o v e r t o s p e c i a l i s t s , and
b e l i e v e s t h a t a n o r d i n a r y p a r e n t c a n n o t do a good j o b .(L e S h a n , 1970,
Po 1 0 ) .
C a l l a h a n ' (1 9 7 3 ) d o e s n o t t h i n k t h e r e i s any i n n a t e p a r e n t a l
in stin c t,
o r any common s e n s e o r e v e n a n y . h e a r t w h ic h h a s n o t . b e e n
so c ia lly lea rn ed :
A l s o , u n f o r t u n a t e l y , p a r e n t a l i n s t i n c t , common s e n s e , and h e a r t
c a n a l l be w ro n g . P a r t i c u l a r l y when a c u l t u r e s u c h a s ourfe i s
u n d e r g o i n g r a p i d c h a n g e an d i s s o u n s a t i s f a c t o r y t o many o f i t s
m em bers. We may n e e d c h a n g e i n c h i l d r e a r i n g p r a c t i c e s when
p a s t i n s t i n c t s and common s e n s e e n d o r s e d p h y s i c a l p u n i s h m e n t,
r a c i s m , s o c i a l i n j u s t i c e , a g g r e s s i o n , and a p a t h y .
F a m ily b r e a k ­
down, a l c o h o l i s m , d r u g u s e , an d c h i l d a b u s e i n c r e a s e may b e
t e l l i n g us s o m e t h in g a b o u t t h e s t a t e o f o u r h e a r t s . When t h i n g s
a r e f a l l i n g a p a r t o r c h a n g i n g , a n d p a r e n t s a r e r e a d i n g h o w -to
b o o k s b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s e a r c h i n g f o r a b e t t e r way, r e l y i n g on a
c o n c e p t o f common s e n s e w i l l n o t d o . . . I would r a t h e r p a r e n t s
t r u s t t h e i r h e a d and t h e r e b y b e opati t o new i n f o r m a t i o n and
16
b e t t e r ways o f d o i n g t h i n g s
(p . 73).
E x te n d e d F a m ily
L e M a s te rs
(1 9 7 0 ) s e e s t h e s w i t c h from a p r i m a r i l y r u r a l t o a
p r i m a r i l y u r b a n s o c i e t y a s a s o u r c e o f many p r o b le m s f o r t o d a y ' s
fam ily .
I t reduces th e a s s is ta n c e
from t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y . : I n
a d d i t i o n , m o b i l i t y h a s f o r c e d a d e c l i n e i n l a r g e f a m i l y u n i t s and
in d u stria liz a tio n ,
i n w h a t e v e r form i t d e v e l o p s , i s s e e n by some a s
u n d e r m i n in g t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y s y s te m
(B e n so n , 1 9 6 8 ) .
S in c e th e
n u c l e a r f a m i l y i s much m ore i n d e p e n d e n t from t h e k i n g r o u p , t h r e e
d e v e lo p m e n t s i n p a r t i c u l a r have b e e n n o t e d :
o f th e e x te n d e d fa m ily have been a l t e r e d ; 2 )
I)
th e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s
o th e r s o c ia l ag en cies
h a v e em erged t o h a n d l e v a r i o u s m a t t e r s f o r m e r l y h a n d l e d by t h e e x t e n d e d
f a m i l y ; and 3)
t h e n u c l e a r fam ily , h a s .become t h e f o c a l p o i n t f o r b o t h
e x p r e s s i v e and i n s t r u m e n t a l f a m i l y i n t e r a c t i o n
(Bdgnson, 1 9 6 8 , p . 8 5 ) .
R e s e a r c h e r s h a v e c a l l e d t h e a s s i s t a n c e and c o m m u n ic a tio n b e tw e e n
p a r e n t s an d g r a n d p a r e n t s t h e " l i f e l i n e
(Sussm an & B u r c h i n a l , 1 962, p . 2 4 ) .
o f t h e m odern k i n n e tw o r k "
R e s e a r c h showed t h a t t h e n u c l e a r
f a m i l y s t i l l p l a y s a n i m p o r t a n t r o l e , a l t h o u g h i n m o d i f i e d fo rm .
S er­
v i c e s i n c l u d e c a r e o f c h i l d r e n , a d v i c e g i v i n g , c o u n s e l i n g , and c o o p e r ­
a tin g w ith s o c ia l a g e n c ie s.
S o cial a c t i v i t i e s are p r in c ip a l fu n ctio n s
o f t h e k i n f a m i l y n e tw o r k (S u ssm a n , 1953; Sussman & B u r c h i n a l , 1963;
Babchuk, 1 965).
Q u a r a n t e l l i ' s 1960 s t u d y o f d i s a s t e r v i c t i m s r e p o r t e d t h e
17
e x t e n d e d f a m i l y w a s . u s e d m o st o f t e n a s a s o u r c e o f h e l p .
He c o n c lu d e d
t h a t t h e e x t e n d e d f a m i l y was p r o t e c t i v e and s u p p o r t i v e a n d t h a t t h e
k in group i s th e p r e f e r r e d ,
s o u g h t , an d m a j o r s o u r c e o f s h o r t and lo n g
r u n h e l p i n t im e o f c r i s i s .
Books ■
.
M i l l i o n s o f h o w - to p a r e n t books a r e s o l d e a c h y e a r in . A m e ric a .
P a r e n t s a r e f e e l i n g o v e r-w h e lm e d an d i n a d e q u a t e :
I n t h e i r d i s t r u s t o f t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e s , m ore and more
p a r e n t s a r e t u r n i n g t o e x p e r t s f o r a d v i c e . The m a r k e t f o r
h o w - t o p a r e n t b o o k s i s h o o p in g w i t h new t r e a t i e s , on " F a t h e r
P ow er" and "The M yth o f t h e H y p e r - A c t i v e C h i l d " j o i n i n g t h e
m ore t r a d i t i o n a l works o f D r. Spock (Newsweek, S e p t . 1975,
p. 4 8).
Books a r e a n e f f e c t i v e way t o r e a c h p a r e n t s .
R e a d e r s o f h o w -to
p a r e n t b o o k s may n o t b e a b l e t o f i n d t h e i r way t h r o u g h t h e works o f
F r u e d , M o n te s s o r i , G e s e l l , P i a g e t , o r many o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s .
i n g m a n u a ls h e l p t o d i s s e m i n a t e . i m p o r ta n t , i d e a s "
"P aren t
( C a l l a h a n , 1973,
p . 66) .
The phenomenon o f h o w - to p a r e n t b o o k s r e f l e c t s one i m p o r t a n t
a s p e c t o f A m e ric an s o c i e t y :
a t y p i c a l l y A m erican d e s i r e ; t o dp b e t t e r -
t h e d e s i r e t o do b e t t e r t h a n one h a s b e e n d o i n g , b e t t e r t h a h t h e n e i g h
b o r and k i n f o l k , o r b e t t e r t h a n h i s own p a r e n t s .
I t i s no s u r p r i s e t h a t a g u i d e b o o k s u c h a s D r . S p o c k 1s book
on b a b y and c h i l d c a f e c o n t i n u a l l y n u dges t h e B i b l e on t h e
b e s t - s e l l e r l i s t s - , f o r m ore p a r e n t s t h a n e v e r h a v e t h e f a i t h .
They b e l i e v e t h a t p a r e n t i n g c a n b e im p ro v e d , s h o u l d be Im p r o v e d ,
and w i l l b e im p ro v e d w i t h in f o r m e d p a r e n t s ( C a l l a h a n , 1973,
p. 65).
CHAPTER I I I .
• PROCEDURES
The p ro b le m o f t h i s s t u d y was t o i d e n t i f y t h o s e . r e s o u r c e s
u t i l i z e d by p a r e n t s f o r r e a r i n g c h i l d r e n a s . w e l l a s u n d e r s t a n d i n g
e x t e n t o f p a r e n t ' s ' know ledge a b o u t t h e i r d e v e l o p m e n t .
P o p u la tio n
\
•
'
■
-
P a r e n t s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n l i v i n g i n Bozeman, M ontana w ere
s e le c te d as th e p o p u la tio n f o r t h is s tu d y .
S in ce p a r e n ts w ith c h il d r e n
e n r o l l e d i n p r e s c h o o l o r d a y c a r e p ro g ra m s i n t h e c i t y w e r e : I )
ib le ;
2)
A ccess­
would i n g e n e r a l b e young and m ig h t r e l y on some t y p e o f
r e s o u r c e s ; and 3)
l i v e w i t h i n a two m i l e r a d i u s o f Bozem an, t h e y w e re
■
s e l e c t e d a s t h e s a m p le .
r
.
:
I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g f a t h e r s was p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e
th ere is
l i t t l e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w hat f a t h e r s know a b o u t c h i l d d e v e l o p ­
m ent o r t h e r e s o u r c e s t h e y e m p lo y .
B o th p a r e n t s w ere a s k e d t o com plete. .
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e so c o m p a r is o n s c o u l d b e made b e tw e e n m o t h e r s and
fath e rs.
A lis t
o f l o c a l p r e s c h o o l s an d l i c e n s e d da y c a r e p ro g ra m s
s e c u r e d from t h e D i r e c t o r o f t h e Community C o o r d i n a t e d C h i l d C are S e r ­
v i c e s showed 10 p ro g ra m s i n w h ic h a t o t a l o f 329 c h i l d r e n w ere e n r o l l e d .
A lth o u g h , a n a t t e m p t was made t o c o n t a c t e a c h pro g ra m d i r e c t o r , two w ere
u n a v a ila b le .
Of t h o s e t h a t rem a in e d ., one r e f u s e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e , and
a n o t h e r was deemed i n a p p r o p r i a t e due t o l i m i t e d e n r o l l m e n t .
D irec to rs
o f s i x p ro g ra m s a g r e e d t o h e l p g a t h e r d a t a e x p l a i n i n g t h e s t u d y and
19
d istrib u tin g
l e t t e r s , t o p a r e n t s a t t h e i r c e n t e r s , i n v i t i n g them t o
p a r t i c i p a t e in th e stu d y .
P a r e n t s w ere a s k e d t o s i g n t h e i r nam e,
a d d r e s s , an d phone and r e t u r n t h e form t o t h e i r c e n t e r i f t h e y were
w illin g to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e stu d y .
p a rtic ip a te
in th e stu d y
They c o u ld t h e n b e c o n t a c t e d t o
(A p pendix A ) .
E n r o l l e d i n t h e s e s i x p r o g ra m s w e re 184 c h i l d r e n , o r .55% o f
t h o s e known t o be r e g i s t e r e d i n p r e s c h o o l o r da y c a r e p ro g ra m s i n
Bozeman, M o n ta n a .
In stru m en t
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e s i g n e d t o o b t a i n a m e a s u r e o f p a r e n t ’ s ■
know ledge o f c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t w i t h p a r t i c u l a r e m p h a s is on i n f a n t
d e v e lo p m en t.
A l t h o u g h s e v e r a l s c a l e s w ere a v a i l a b l e .( B a y le y , 1969;
U z i g i r i s & H u n t , 1975; G e s e l l & H g ,
1949; C r a t t y , 1 9 7 0 ; C a p l a n , 1970;
S t o n e & C h u r c h , 1973) e a c h was g e a r e d f o r u s e by c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t
p r o fe s s io n a ls r a th e r than p a re n ts .
B e h a v i o r a l m i l e s t o n e s o r la n d m a rk s c o n s i d e r e d t o b e t h e m ost
s i g n i f i c a n t d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d o f b i r t h t o two y e a r s o f a g e and w hich
c o u ld b e . e a s i l y r e c o g n i z e d by p a r e n t s w ere s e l e c t e d f o r u s e . , T hese
i n c l u d e d i te m s o f p h y s i c a l , s o c i a l ,
d e v e lo p m en t.
l a n g u a g e , i n t e l l e c t u a l , and g e n e r a l
A t o t a l o f 48. i t e m s composed t h e f i r s t
p e rm itted a f i l l - i n
listin g .
They
r e s p o n s e m odel s o t h a t p a r e n t s w ould s u p p l y t h e
c o r r e c t a g e a t w h ic h t h i s b e h a v i o r n o r m a lly , o c c u r r e d .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was t h e n p r e s e n t e d t o a p a n e l o f c h i l d d e v e l o p ­
20
m ent p r o f e s s i o n a l s t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e s e i te m s w e r e : I )
d e v e l o p m e n t a l s e q u e n c e ; 2)
im p o r ta n t t o p a r e n t s ; 3)
im p o rta n t in
a c c u r a t e ; and 4)
exp ressed c le a r ly .
F o l l o w i n g t h i s e v a u l a t i o n , m in o r c h a n g e s w ere made c o n c e r n i n g t h e
l e n g t h o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t and t h e t y p e o f r e s p o n s e .
was r e d u c e d t o 40 and t h e f i l l - i n
The num ber o f i t e m s
r e s p o n s e was c h a n g e d t o t a b u l a r
c o l u m n s , a l t h o u g h a g e a t w h ic h t h e b e h a v i o r o c c u r r e d was s t i l l r e q u i r e d .
In o rd e r to g a th e r in fo rm a tio n w ith re g a rd to th e re s p o n d e n t's
b a c k g r o u n d , a g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n s e c t i o n was d e v i s e d .
I t in clu d ed
s e x , a g e , l e v e l and a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n , num ber o f c h i l d r e n , r e s o u r c e s
u t i l i z e d , b o o k s u s e d , d e g r e e o f p a r e n t a l c o n f i d e n c e , an d a g e c o n s i d e r e d
•C ru cial f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t.
To f u r t h e r r e f i n e t h e i n s t r u m e n t , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was c o m p le te d
by 10 m a r r i e d c o u p l e s whose c h i l d r e n w e re e n r o l l e d i n t h e MSU Day
C a re P r o g ra m , Bozeman, M o n ta n a .
A f t e r p a r e n t s c o m p le te d t h e q u e s t i o n ­
n a i r e t h e y w ere a s k e d :
1)
Were t h e d i r e c t i o n s c l e a r ?
2)
Was t h e form a r r a n g e d s o t h a t i t was e a s y t o c o m p l e te ?
3)
Was t h e l a n g u a g e e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d ?
4)
How d i d you f e e l a b o u t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e q u e s t e d ?
. A l l r e s p o n d e n t s c o m p le te d t h e g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n s e c t i o n and
felt
t h e i n f o r m a t i o n was p e r t i n e n t .
S i x f a t h e r s and t h r e e m o th e r s
r e f u s e d t o c o m p l e te t h e know le d g e s e c t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t b e c a u s e t h e
-
2 1 .-
I a n g u a g e was t o o s p e c i a l i z e d and t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e s p o n s e was t h r e a t ­
e n in g
The i n s t r u m e n t was a g a i n r e v i s e d .
To r e d u c e t h e t h r e a t e n i n g
r e s p o n s e a L i k e r t - t y p e s c a l e o f A g r e e , D i s a g r e e , o r U n d e c id e d was s u b ­
s titu te d
f o r t h e a g e a t w h ic h t h e b e h a v i o r o c c u r r e d .
The s t a t e m e n t s
c o n t a i n e d t h e a g e a t w h ic h t h e b e h a v i o r . s h o u l d o c c u r and p a r e n t s were
to respond w h eth er th ey a g reed w ith th e age s u p p lie d in th e s ta te m e n t.
I n s t r u m e n t V a l i d i t y . To d e t e r m i n e i f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was m e a s ­
u r i n g know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t , t h e r e v i s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e was
a d m i n i s t e r e d t o 20 s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n a b e g i n n i n g l e v e l C h i l d D e v e l o p ­
m e n t c l a s s w h ic h had j u s t c o m p l e te d a u n i t on i n f a n t , d e v e l o p m e n t ;
S t u d e n t s c o r e s r a n g e d from 22 t o 35 b u t o f a p o s s i b l e s c o r e o f 40 .
R e lia b ility .
To m e a s u r e t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t t h e
s c o r e s o f t h e C h i l d D ev e lo p m e n t s t u d e n t s w ere t e s t e d u s i n g S p l i t - H a l v e s
R e lia b ility .
ia b ility
U s in g t h e Spearm an-B row n f o r m u la
(Tuckman, 1972) a r e l ­
o f .8 0 was f o u n d .
Ite m A n a l y s i s .
An i t e m a n a l y s i s was c a l c u l a t e d u s i n g t h e s c o r e s
o f t h e C h i l d D e v e lo p m e n t s t u d e n t s .
I t e m s w i t h a d i f f i c u l t y in d e x
b e tw e e n .3 3 and .67 w ere r e t a i n e d a s b e i n g a d e q u a t e l y d i f f i c u l t .
i te m s w i t h ah i n d e x b e lo w .3 3 w ere r e w o r d e d .
F ive
I te m s w i t h a h i n d e x o f
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a b o v e .6 0 w ere r e t a i n e d a s b e i n g a d e q u a t e l y d i s c r i m r
in a tin g .
F i v e i t e m s w ere e l i m i n a t e d
(Tuckman, 1 9 7 2 ) .
The f i n a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e had two s e c t i o n s , t h e g e n e r a l b a c k g ro u n d
22
i n f o r m a t i o n s e c t i o n a b o u t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s and a s e c o n d s e c t i o n w hich
c o n t a i n e d 35 i te m s on i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t
(A ppendix B ) .
M ethod o f C o l l e c t i n g D ata
The m o st e f f e c t i v e m eans f o r d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was
d e t e r m i n e d t o be t h e U. S . m a i l .
P a r e n t s who had i n d i c a t e d a d e s i r e
t o p a r t i c i p a t e w ere c o n t a c t e d e i t h e r i n p e r s o n o r by p h o n e .
M a r r ie d
c o u p l e s r e s i d i n g t o g e t h e r and l i v i n g w i t h i n a two m i l e r a d i u s Ofy B ozem an,
M ontana w e re m a i l e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s .
A t o t a l o f 60 p a i r s o f q u e s t i o n ­
n a i r e s was m a i l e d .
To m o t i v a t e p a r t i c i p a n t s t o r e t u r n q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , i n t h e i n i t i a l
phone c o n t a c t p a r e n t s w e re t o l d t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e s t u d y arid e n c o u r a g e d
t o c o m p l e te a n d r e t u r n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e q u i c k l y .
In c lu d e d w ith each
p a i r o f q u e s t i o n n a i r e s was a c o v e r l e t t e r w h ic h e x p l a i n e d t h e s t u d y ,
s t r e s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c o m p l e t i n g th e m , and w here t o r e t u r n th em .
I f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e was n o t r e t u r n e d , t h e p a r e n t s w ere rem irided a t t h e i r
c e n te r w ith a w r i tt e n n o t e .
P a r e n t s w e re a l s o i n s t r u c t e d how t o o b t a i n
a s e c o n d i n s t r u m e n t i f f o r some r e a s o n t h e f i r s t one was l o s t .
A n a l y s i s o f D ata
•
.
’
i
•
•
I t e m s on t h e k n o w ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t s e c t i o n were s c o r e d
■
so t h a t h ig h e r s c o r e s r e f l e c t e d a h ig h e r, l e v e l o f k now ledge.
Each
c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e r e c e i v e d one p o i n t m ak in g t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e s c o r e
35.
I f t h e r e s p o n s e was m arked U n d e c id e d , i t was m a r k e d ' z e r o end c o n ­
sid e re d in c o r r e c t.
Means and v a r i a n c e s were e s t i m a t e d f o r e a c h r e s p o n d e n t .
w ere s t r a t i f i e d
a c c o r d i n g to . t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
t h e background in f o r m a tio n :
Data
in clu d ed as p a r t of
- s e x , a g e , number o f c h i l d r e n , l e v e l and
■area o f e d u c a t i o n , r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d ^ d e g r e e o f p a r e n t a l c o n f i d e n c e ,
and age c o n s i d e r e d c r u c i a l f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p m e n t .
Means and
v a r i a n c e s w ere e s t i m a t e d f o r e a c h s t r a t u m .
Mean c o m p a r is o n s w ere made u s i n g a s t a n d a r d t - t e s t .
s i g n i f i c a n c e was assum ed a t p . 0 5 o r l e s s .
S ta tistic a l
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e r e s o u r c e s p a r e n t s
u t i l i z e when t h e y n e e d h e l p i n r a i s i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n and t o o b t a i n
a m e a s u r e o f p a r e n t s ' know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t .
D e s c r i p t i o n o f Sample
A t o t a l of. 171 p a r e n t s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n w e re i n v i t e d t o
p a r t i c i p a te in th e s tu d y .
Of t h e 55 c o u p l e s who c o n f i r m e d t h e i r d e s i r e
t o p a r t i c i p a t e , 45 c o u p l e s
(887=) a c t u a l l y c o m p le te d and r e t u r n e d ■t h e
survey.
:•
The 45 c o u p l e s who p a r t i c i p a t e d i n t h e s t u d y w ere p r e d o m i n a n t l y
c o lle g e edu cated
(70%).
The sam ple l e a n e d t o w a rd y o u n g e r a d u l t s ,
w i t h t h e m e d ia n age b e i n g i n t h e 3 0 -3 5 a g e g r o u p .
The a g e s r a n g e d
from 20 t o 45 w i t h f a t h e r s b e i n g s l i g h t l y o l d e r t h a n m o t h e r s .
There
a p p e a r s t o b e a t r e n d to w a rd s m a l l e r f a m i l i e s i n t h e e d u c a t e d s e g m e n ts
of our s o c ie ty
(Scanzoni & S c a n z o n i, 1976).
T h i s s t u d y w ould t e n d
to a g ree w ith t h i s tre n d as n e a rly t h r e e - f o u r th s of th e resp o n d en ts
h a v e one o r two c h i l d r e n and o n l y o n e - f o u r t h h a v e t h r e e d r m ore c h i l ­
d r e n (T ab le I ) . .
Over 93% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s h a d some e d u c a t i o n b e y o n d h i g h
sch o o l.
Only f o u r m o th e r s and two f a t h e r s d i d n o t h a v e some c o l l e g e .
More f a t h e r s had d e g r e e s a b o v e t h e B a c h e l o r ' s t h a n d i d m o t h e r s .
Of
t h e m o t h e r s , 51% had a B a c h e l o r ' s D e g r e e , 117= h a d a M a s t e r ' s . D e g r e e .
F o r t h e f a t h e r s , 267= had a B a c h e l o r ' s , 137= a M a s t e r ' s a n d 387= l i s t e d
25
V a ria b le
Age
20 -25
26 -30
3 1 -35
3 6 -40
41 -45
L e v e l o f E d u ca tio n
H ig h S c h o o l
A tten d ed C o lle g e
B a c h e lo r D egree
M aster D egree
Above M a ste r 's
TABLE I
D e s c r i p t i o n o f S am p le
M other
F ath er
N
I
8
14
20
3
45
1 7 .8
3 1 .1
4 4 .4
6 .7
0 .0
1 0 0 .0
4
13
23
5
0
45
8 .9
2 8 .9
5 1 .1
1 1 .1
- M
1 0 0 .0
_o_
Area o f E d u ca tio n
N u r sin g /M ed icin e
E d u ca tio n
B u sin ess
S o c ia l S c ie n c e
S cie n c e /E n g in e e r in g
A g ricu ltu re
8
2 8 .6
16
5 7 .2
2
7 .1
2
7 .1
0
0 .0
0
_M
28
1 0 0 .0
P r e p a r a tio n in C h ild D evelop m en t
9
H igh S c h o o l C la s s
1 4 .8
29
C o lle g e C la ss
4 7 .5
8
N u r sin g /M ed icin e
1 3 .1
8
1 3 .1
C om m u n ity C l a s s
No P r e p a r a t io n
7
1K 5
61*
1 0 0 .0
N um ber o f C h ild r e n
C o u p les
One C h i l d
14
3 1 .2
Two C h ild r e n
20
4 4 .4
T h r e e o r M ore
11
2 4 .4
45
1 0 0 .0
D egree o f P a r e n ta l C o n fid en ce
10
2 2 .3
V ery C o n fid en t
20
U su a lly C o n fid en t
4 4 .4
3 3 .3
S o m etim es U n sure
15
45
1 0 0 .0
C r u c ia l A ge o f I n t e l l e c t u a l D evelop m en t
6 8 .9
B ir th -3 Y ears
31
8 .9
3-5 Y ears
4
2
4 .4
O ver 5 Y ears
8
1 7 .8
E very Year
1 0 0 .0
45
*
S even m oth ers re p o r te d m u ltip le p r e p a r a tio n
M other
N
F ath er
7.
5
10
22
6
2
45
1 1 .1
2 2 .2
4 8 .9
1 3 .4
4 .4
1 0 0 .0
2
8
12
6
1 2 __
45
4 .4
1 7 .8
2 6 .7
1 3 .3
3 7 .8
1 0 0 .0
4
4
8
4
7
4
31
1 2 .9
1 2 .9
2 5 .8
1 2 .9
2 2 .6
1 2 .9
1 0 0 .0
0
12
4
I
28
45
0 .0
2 6 .7
8 .9
2 .2
6 2 .2
1 0 0 .0
18
19
8
45
4 0 .0
4 2 .2
1 7 .8
1 0 0 .0
13
23
3
2 8 .9
5 1 .1
6 .7
45
1 0 0 .0
IM
26
t h e m s e l v e s a s h a v in g e d u c a t i o n a b o v e t h e M a s t e r ' s
had d e g r e e s b e yond t h e M a s t e r ' s D e g r e e .
le v e l.
No. m o th e r s
T h is f in d in g i s co n g ru en t
w i t h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l s e x r o l e s o f o u r s o c i e t y , w hich e x p e c t s men t o
a c h i e v e a h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l t h a n women ( S w e r d o l f f , 1 9 7 5 ).
The m a j o r i t y o f m o th e r s p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h i s s t u d y
(18%) had
some p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , e i t h e r a h i g h s c h o o l c l a s s
c o lle g e c la s s
in n u rsin g
(48%), comm unity c l a s s e s
(13%)
(15%)
(13%), o r s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g
F a th e rs d id n o t r e v e a l p re p a r a tio n to t h i s e x te n t.
Only 27% o f t h e f a t h e r s had a c l a s s i n c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , .9% h a d .
s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g i n m e d i c i n e , and o n l y one f a t h e r r e p o r t e d h a v in g
b e e n i n any comm unity c l a s s . Only 12% o f t h e m o th e r s r e p o r t e d no
p r e p a r a t i o n , i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t w h i l e 62% o f t h e f a t h e r s had n o n e .
T h is i s a g a in a r e f l e c t i o n of th e t r a d i t i o n a l p a tte r n s in our s o c ie ty .
Women h a v e b e e n r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c h i l d r e a r i n g w h i l e men h a v e b e e n .
r e s p o n s i b le f o r m on etary s u p p o rt
(S w e rd o lff , 1975).
Women have f e l t
th e n e c e s s i t y o f p r e p a r in g th em se lv e s f o r r a i s i n g c h il d r e n as ev id en ced
by t h e l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f women i n t h i s s a m p le who h a d some p r e ­
p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t .
P a re n ts resp o n d in g to t h i s su rv ey r e p o r te d v a rio u s a re a s of
e d u c a tio n .
M o th e rs r e s p o n d i n g w ere e d u c a t e d i n f i e l d s c o n s i d e r e d t o
b e t r a d i t i o n a l l y w o m e n 's:
e d u c a tio n
(58%). and n u r s i n g
(29%)..
Only
two m o t h e r s r e p o r t e d h a v i n g d e g r e e s i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e an d two i n b u s ­
in ess.
F a th e rs a ls o re p re s e n te d a re a s co n sid e red t r a d i t i o n a l l y m a le :
27 -
25% h a v i n g d e g r e e s i n b u s i n e s s , 23% s c i e n c e and e n g i n e e r i n g .
Four
f a t h e r s r e p o r t e d h a v in g d e g r e e s i n t h e a r e a s o f e d u c a t i o n , s o c i a l
s c i e n c e , a g r i c u l t u r e an d m e d i c i n e .
The m a j o r i t y o f p a r e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e were
u s u a lly c o n fid e n t in t h e i r a b i l i t i e s
as p a r e n t s .
F a t h e r s w e re m ore
c o n f i d e n t t h a n m o t h e r s , w i t h o n l y 14% b e i n g som e tim e s u n s u r e o f th e m ­
se lv e s.
Of t h e m o t h e r s , 22% w ere v e r y c o n f i d e n t i n t h e i r a b i l i t i e s
and 44% w e re u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t .
N e a r l y o n e - t h i r d o f t h e m o th e r s
r e p o r te d b e in g unsure o f th e m s e lv e s .
F a t h e r s w ere m ore c o n f i d e n t i n
t h e i r a b i l i t i e s and 44% w ere u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t .
t h e m o th e r s r e p o r t e d b e i n g u n s u r e o f t h e m s e l v e s .
N e a rly o n e - t h i r d of
F a t h e r s w ere more
c o n f i d e n t t h a n m o t h e r s , w i t h 42% b e i n g v e r y c o n f i d e n t and 44% u s u a l l y ,
c o n fid e n t.
No m o t h e r s o r f a t h e r s i n t h i s s a m p le r e p o r t e d t h e m s e l v e s
a s u n s u r e - - t h i s was a v e r y c o n f i d e n t g r o u p o f p a r e n t s .
P a r e n t s w e re a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e w hat a g e t h e y c o n s i d e r e d m o st
c r u c i a l i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d .
More m o th e r s
t h a n f a t h e r s s a i d t h a t t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s o f l i f e w e re t h e m ost
im p o rta n t.
a n t.
More f a t h e r s s a i d t h e p r e s c h o o l y e a r s w e re t h e m o st i m p o r t
E i g h t m o t h e r s and s i x f a t h e r s e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t e v e r y
y e a r was i m p o r t a n t .
Only two m o t h e r s and t h r e e f a t h e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
t h e y e a r s a f t e r f i v e w ere t h e m o st c r u c i a l i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p
m ent o f t h e c h i l d .
_ 28
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s o f Sam ple
The 1970 U. S . C e n su s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e w ere 1020 f a m i l i e s
w i t h h u s b a n d and w i f e h a v i n g c h i l d r e n u n d h r s i x y e a r s o f a g e i n
Bozeman.
At t h a t tim e t h e r e w ere o n l y 107 c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n p r e ­
s c h o o l p ro g ra m s i n Bozeman.
The num ber o f, p r e s c h o o l s h a s i n c r e a s e d
s u b s t a n t i a l l y s i n c e 1970 and t h e r e a r e now 329 s p a c e s f o r c h i l d r e n i n '
p r e s c h o o l p ro g ra m s i n Bozem an.
T h i s s a m p le r e p r e s e n t s 13.7% o f t h o s e
p a r e n t s known t o h a v e c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n p r e s c h o o l p r o g r a m s .
I n 1 970, 22% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n Bozeman was b e tw e e n t h e a g e s
of 20-24.
Seven y e a r s l a t e r t h i s a g e g ro u p would b e i n 2 7 -3 1 age
r a n g e w h ic h i s h e a v i l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s sa m p le by 31% o f t h e m o t h e r s
and 22% o f t h e f a t h e r s .
I n Bozeman t h e m e d ia n num ber o f y e a r s o f S c h o o l i n g c o m p le te d f o r
m a le s o v e r 25 i s
1 3 . 6 , f o r f e m a l e s 25 and o v e r 1 2 . 9 .
I n t h i s s a m p le ,
f a t h e r s h a d a m e d ia n o f 1 6 .7 y e a r s w h i l e m o th e r s had a m e d ia n o f 15
y ears.
B o th t h e s e g r o u p s e x c e e d t h e a v e r a g e num ber o f y e a r s o f s c h o o l ­
in g and a r e n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e p o p u l a t io n as a w h o le .
E x a m i n a t i o n o f D a ta
S c o rin g
A t o t a l s c o r e on knowl d e g e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t was c a l c u l a t e d
f o r each resp o n d e n t.
H i g h e r s c o r e s r e f l e c t e d more know le d g e o f i n f a n t
d e v e l o p m e n t , w i t h 35 b e i n g t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e p o s s i b l e .
D a ta were
s t r a t i f i e d a c c o r d i n g t o i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d on t h e g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n
29
sectio n :
m o th e r o r f a t h e r , a g e o f p a r e n t s , l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n , a r e a
o f e d u c a tio n , p r e p a r a ti o n in c h il d d ev e lo p m en t, r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d ,
d e g r e e o f p a r e n t a l c o n f i d e n c e , and a g e c o n s i d e r e d c r u c i a l f o r i n t e l l ­
e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d .
P rim a ry R eso u rces
P r im a r y r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d by p a r e n t s i n c h i l d r e a r i n g were
shown by q u e s t i o n s l i k e , "When you n e e d h e l p o r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
r a i s i n g y o u r c h i l d r e n , w h e re do you go f i r s t ? "
f i n d t h a t b o t h m o th e r s
in stin c ts
(40%) and f a t h e r s
in c h ild re a rin g
I t was s u r p r i s i n g t o
(46%) r e l y h e a v i l y on t h e i r
(F ig u re I ) .
S pock ( 1 9 6 9 ) , Dodson ( 1 9 7 1 ) , and Le Shan (1970) a l l a d v i s e
pa r e n t s ',to r e l y on t h e m s e l v e s and do w hat comes n a t u r a l l y i n c h i l d
re a rin g .
A p p a r e n t l y p a r e n t s i n t h i s s a m p le f e e l c o n f i d e n t i n t h e i r
a b i l i t i e s a s p a r e n t s and t h a t t h e i r i n s t i n c t s p r o v i d e a b a s i s f o r
ra is in g th e ir c h ild re n .
S e v e ra l p a r e n ts in d ic a te d t h a t th ey r e l i e d
c o m p l e t e l y on t h e i r i n s t i n c t s and d i d n o t f e e l t h e n e e d t o s e e k a d d i ­
tio n a l h e lp .
Perhaps th e a d v ic e of th e
'e x p e r ts ' fo r p a re n ts to t r u s t
t h e m s e l v e s i s b e i n g h e e d e d by a l a r g e num ber o f p a r e n t s ,
F o r m o th e r s t h e n e x t m o st w i d e l y u s e d r e s o u r c e was t h e e x te n d e d
f a m i l y (24%).
Only f o u r f a t h e r s u s e d t h i s a s a p r i m a r y r e s o u r c e .
F a t h e r s r e l i e d m ore on t h e i r w iv e s f o r h e l p
on h u s b a n d s
(13%).
(27%) t h a n m o th e r s r e l i e d
T h i s i s c o n g r u e n t W ith t h e f i n d i n g t h a t t h e m a j o r ­
i t y o f m o t h e r s had some p r e v i o u s p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t
30 -
s u g g e s t i n g f a t h e r s t e n d t o r e l y m ore on m o t h e r s .
F a t h e r s who had n o t
r e c e i v e d a good d e a l o f p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t w ere n o t
r e l i e d on a s a p r im a r y r e s o u r c e by many m o t h e r s .
Books w ere u s e d by more m o th e r s
ary re s o u rc e s .
(157=) t h a n f a t h e r s
(97=) a s p r i m ­
F r i e n d s w ere r a r e l y u s e d a s a p r i m a r y r e s o u r c e by e i t h e r
m others o r f a t h e r s
(77= e a c h ) .
No m o th e r s r e p o r t e d u s i n g a d o c t o r a s a
p r i m a r y r e s o u r c e , b u t one f a t h e r who was a l s o a p h y s i c i a n l i s t e d one
d o c to r
(F ig u re I) .
MOTHERS
F ig u re I .
FATHERS
P r im a r y r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d by p a r e n t s i n c h i l d r e a r i n g .
S e c o n d a ry R e s o u r c e s
S e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e s o f p a r e n t s w ere i d e n t i f i e d b y , " I f y o u r f i r s t
c h o i c e i s n o t a v a i l a b l e , w hich r e s o u r c e do you go t o n e x t ? "
e r a l , m o th e r s u s e d more r e s o u r c e s t h a n d i d f a t h e r s .
In gen­
S e v e r a l m o th e r s
31
and f a t h e r s
i n d i c a t e d more t h a n one s e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e , m aking p e r ­
c e n ta g e e s ti m a t e s of p a r e n ts i m p r a c t i c a l .
Numbers o f p a r e n t s u s i n g
e a c h r e s o u r c e a s s e c o n d a r y w i l l be r e p o r t e d .
fath e rs
(11) r e p o r t e d u s i n g a d o c t o r
S e v e ra l m o th ers
(23) and
as a secondary r e s o u r c e , m en tio n ­
i n g t h a t t h i s was g e n e r a l l y i n t h e c a s e o f a m e d i c a l p r o b le m .
The
e x t e n d e d f a m i l y was a m ore v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e f o r 21 m o th e r s t h a n f o r
fiv e fa th e rs
(F ig u re 2 ) .
R esource
F rie n d s
D octor
Books
In stin c ts
E x te n d e d
F a m ily
P reschool
Teacher
F ig u re 2.
S e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d by p a r e n t s i n c h i l d r e a r i n g .
32
The c h i l d ' s p r e s c h o o l t e a c h e r was a v a l u a b l e r e s o u r c e f o r f i v e
m o th e r s and two f a t h e r s .
Books w ere u s e d by t w e n ty m o t h e r s and tw e lv e
fath e rs.
B ooks.
To d i s c o v e r w h ic h books a r e f r e q u e n t l y u s e d by p a r e n t s ,
t h e y w ere a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e on e s t h e y had r e a d o r u s e d .
Baby and C h i l d C a re was r e a d by m ore m o t h e r s
an y o t h e r b o o k .
(17) t h a n
A lm o st h a l f t h e f a t h e r s who r e p o r t e d r e a d i n g books
l i s t e d S p o c k 1s b o o k .
or fa th e rs
(29) and f a t h e r s
D r. S p o c k 1s
No o t h e r b o o k was r e a d by n e a r l y a s many m o th e r s
(F ig u re 3 ) .
G i n o t t V s B e tw e e n P a r e n t and C h i l d was s e c o n d m o st p o p u l a r w i t h
m o t h e r s and was r e a d by f i v e f a t h e r s .
H g & Ames was t h i r d m o st p o p ­
u l a r w i t h n i n e m o th e r s and t h r e e f a t h e r s ,
f o l l o w e d by a w ide v a r i e t y
of o th e r books.
t
A l t h o u g h p a r e n t s i n t h i s s a m p le a r e a h i g h l y e d u c a t e d g ro u p on
t h e w h o l e , o n l y a s m a l l num ber o f m o t h e r s
ary re s o u rc e .
reso u rce.
N e a r l y h a l f t h e m o th e r s
(7) u s e d b o o k s a s a p r i m ­
(23) u s e d b o o k s a s a s e c o n d a r y
F a t h e r s u s e f e w e r books t h a n m o t h e r s , w i t h o n l y f o u r f a t h e r s
u s i n g b o o k s a s a p r i m a r y r e s o u r c e , an d 12 u s i n g them a s a s e c o n d a r y
reso u rce.
The m a j o r i t y o f f a t h e r s i n t h i s s t u d y h a v e n o t u s e d books
as a so u rc e o f in fo r m a tio n ab o u t r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n , b u t f o r m o th e rs, books
a r e an i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n .
T his i s co n g ru e n t w ith th e
f i n d i n g t h a t more m o t h e r s t h a n f a t h e r s p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r p a r e n t -
33
Number o f
M others
F ath ers
Books
Baby and C h i l d C are - Spoc
B etw een P a r e n t and C h i l d
G in o tt
C h i l d B e h a v i o r - I l g & Ames
B e t t e r Homes and G a rd e n Ba
Book
How t o P a r e n t - Dobson
F i r s t T h re e Y e a rs o f L i f e
W h ite
C h ild re n th e C h a lle n g e
D re ik u rs
How t o R a i s e a Human B e in g
Salk
B ib le
P aren t E f fe c tiv e n e s s T ra in in g
G ordon
The M agic Y e a r s - F r a i b e r g
How t o F a t h e r - Dobson
G row ing C h i l d S e r i e s
F ig u re 3.
Books on c h i l d r e a r i n g f r e q u e n t l y u sed by p a r e n t s
34
hood.
D i f f e r e n c e s B e tw e en M o th ers and F a t h e r s
A ll m o th ers sc o re d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h e r th an a l l f a t h e r s i n d i c a t ­
i n g t h e y w ere m ore k n o w le d g e a b le a b o u t i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t t h a n f a t h e r s .
The mean s c o r e f o r a l l m o t h e r s was 2 8 .0 7 and f o r a l l f a t h e r s 2 5 .1 8 .
M o th e r s had m ore p r e p a r a t i o n and t r a i n i n g i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t th o u g h
f a t h e r s had a h i g h e r l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n .
M o th e rs u s e d m ore r e s o u r c e s
th an f a t h e r s .
The d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n m o t h e r s and f a t h e r s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t
w ith in a l l groups.
To d e t e r m i n e a r e a s w here v a r i a t i o n s o c c u r r e d i t
was n e c e s s a r y t o e x a m in e r e s p o n s e s by s t r a t u m .
Level of E d u c a tio n .
Mean s c o r e s o f m o th e r s and f a t h e r s a s r e l a t e d
t o l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n made l i t t l e
d e v e lo p m e n t f o r m o t h e r s .
d i f f e r e n c e on know le d g e o f i n f a n t
Mean s c o r e s f o r m o th e r s w i t h o u t a c o l l e g e
d e g r e e w ere s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n f o r m o t h e r s w i t h a B a c h e l o r ' s D e g r e e .
M o th e rs w i t h a M a s t e r ' s D e g re e s c o r e d h i g h e s t b u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s
w e re n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
Only f o u r m o t h e r s had no c o l l e g e and 13 m o th e r s
w i t h o u t a d e g r e e had some c o l l e g e .
little
L e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n a p p e a r s t o make
d i f f e r e n c e b u t t h e r e i s a l a c k o f p eo p le w ith a h ig h sch o o l
e d u c a t i o n o r b e lo w t o be s u r e o f t h e e f f e c t o f a d d i t i o n a l s t u d y .
m o th e r s w i t h a c o l l e g e e d u c a t i o n ,
For
l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n made l i t t l e d i f ­
feren ce .
A B a c h e l o r ' s D e g re e had a n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on f a t h e r ' s mean s c o r e
35
due t o t h e w ide r a n g e o f s c o r e s , and f e l l o u t s i d e t h e 95% l i m i t s o f
a ll fa th e rs.
F a t h e r s w i t h o u t a c o l l e g e d e g r e e had a n o v e r a l l , mean
s c o re s l i g h t l y h ig h e r th a n f a t h e r s w ith a B a c h e lo r ’s o r f a t h e r s w ith '
a M aster s o r a b o v e i
Only t e n f a t h e r s d i d n o t h a v e a c o l l e g e d e g r e e
s o t h e n u m b e r . r e p r e s e n t e d by t h i s g r o u p i s s m a l l . ' F o r f a t h e r s w i t h a
c o lle g e e d u c a tio n ,
l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n had no •s i g t i i f I e a n c e V x
.
'
'
v
,
-
'
.
.
.'■■■
- V
'
..
■
"
When c o m p a rin g m o t h e r s t o f a t h e r s some s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
w ere r e v e a l e d .
Mean s c o re 's • ,o f a l l m o t h e r s w i t h a B a c h e l o r ' s D egree
d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from s c o r e s o f f a t h e r s w i t h a B a c h e l o r ' s a t
p .0 5 l e v e l o r l e s s .
M o th e r s w i t h a M a s t e r s D e g re e s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y
h i g h e r t h a n f a t h e r s w i t h a M a s t e r ' s D e g re e o r a b o v e .
,
M o th e r s w i t h o u t a c o l l e g e d e g r e e d i d riot d i f f e r - ,
• *
sig n ific a n tly
from f a t h e r s w i t h o u t a c o l l e g e d e g r e e o f from f a t h e r s w i t h a M a s t e r ' s
d e g re e o r a b o v e , b u t th ey d id d i f f e r
s i g n i f i c a n t l y from f a t h e r s w i t h
.
a B a c h e lo r 's .
M o th e rs w i t h a M a s t e r ' s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from
fath e rs a t a l l le v e ls .
T h is m ig h t i n d i c a t e t h a t f o r m o th e r s , in c r e a s i n g
e d u c a t i o n may d i f f e r e n t i a t e them from f a t h e r s .
have l i t t l e
'
e f f e c t on f a t h e r ' s s c o r e s .
Any c o n c l u s i o n s , h o w e v e r, a r e
l i m i t e d due t o t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l y b i a s e d s a m p l e .
A rea o f E d u c a t i o n .
w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
E d u c a t i o n seemed t o
■ '
Mean s c o r e s o f p a r e n t s an d a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n
M o th e rs w i t h a. d e g r e e i n n u r s i n g s c o r e d h i g h e r
on k n o w le d g e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t t h a n m o th e r s w i t h d e g r e e s i n e d u c a ­
tio n .
Only two m o t h e r s h a d d e g r e e s i n s o c i a l s c i e n c e and t h e i r mean
36
s c o r e was 32 b u t t h e s e may n o t be r e f l e c t i v e o f o t h e r m o t h e r s ( F i g u r e
4).
F a t h e r s w i t h d e g r e e s i n a g r i c u l t u r e , m e d i c i n e , and s c i e n c e and
e n g in e e rin g sc o re d h ig h e s t w h ile f a t h e r s w ith d e g re e s in e d u c a tio n ,
b u s i n e s s and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s c o r e d l o w e r .
None o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s
w ere s i g n i f i c a n t .
When c o m p a rin g f a t h e r s t o m o t h e r s some s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s
w ere r e v e a l e d .
M o th e rs w i t h d e g r e e s i n n u r s i n g and s o c i a l s c i e n c e s
d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y from f a t h e r s w i t h d e g r e e s i n b u s i n e s s and s o c i a l
sc ie n c e.
How ever, t h e s e f i n d i n g s m u st be t a k e n c a u t i o u s l y due t o t h e
s m a l l num ber o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n e a c h o f t h e s e a r e a s .
A rea o f e d u c a t i o n seems t o h a v e l i t t l e
a f f e c t on know ledge o f
i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t , b u t m o th e r s and f a t h e r s w i t h d e g r e e s i n m e d i c in e
o r n u r s i n g s c o r e d s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n p a r e n t s from o t h e r a r e a s o f
e d u c a tio n .
Some e m p h a s is i s p l a c e d on i n f a n t
and c h i l d g r o w th and
d e v e lo p m e n t i n t h e m e d i c a l f i e l d s o t h i s may a c c o u n t f o r t h e s l i g h t l y
h ig h er sc o re s.
P r e p a r a t i o n i n C h ild D evelopm ent.
M o th e rs w i t h n o p r e v i o u s p r e ­
p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t s c o r e d lo w e r t h a n t h e mean s c o r e f o r a l l
m o th e rs.
M o th e r s w i t h a c l a s s i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n
m o t h e r s w i t h no p r e p a r a t i o n .
M o th e r s w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g o r
comm unity c l a s s e s s c o r e d h i g h e s t b u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w e re n o t s i g n i ­
fic a n t .
M ean
A ll
F ig u re 4 .
No
B .A .
M .A .
M.A.+
N u rsin g
E d u c a tio n B u s in e ss
D e g re e
M e d ic in e
L e v e l a n d a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n and mean s c o r e on know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t
38
F a t h e r s w i t h no p r e v i o u s p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t s c o r e d
lo w e r t h a n an y o t h e r g r o u p .
F a t h e r s w i t h a c l a s s i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t
s c o r e d somewhat h i g h e r t h a n f a t h e r s w i t h no p r e p a r a t i o n , b u t f a t h e r s
w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n any g r o u p o f f a t h e r s .
F a t h e r s w i t h no p r e p a r a t i o n d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from a l l
f a t h e r s , b u t th e d i f f e r e n c e ap proached s i g n i f i c a n c e
( t - 1 . 7 2 , 32) and
may be m e a n i n g f u l .
When c o m p a rin g m o t h e r s t o f a t h e r s , m o th e r s w i t h no p r e p a r a t i o n
i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y from f a t h e r s a t any
lev e l.
I n o t h e r w o r d s , m o th e r s who h a d no p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e l o p ­
m ent s c o r e d more s i m i l a r t o f a t h e r s , who s c o r e d lo w e r t h a n o t h e r g r o u p s
of m o th e rs.
P e r h a p s t h e p r e p a r a t i o n m o t h e r s have had i n c h i l d d e v e l o p ­
ment d o e s make a s i g n i f i c a n t im p a c t on t h e i r know ledge o f i n f a n t
d e v elo p m en t.
The m a j o r i t y o f f a t h e r s h a v e had no p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d
d e v e lo p m e n t and t h e i r lo w e r s c o r e s r e f l e c t t h e i r i n a d e q u a t e p r e p a r a t i o n .
F a t h e r s w i t h no p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t d i f f e r e d s i g n i ­
f i c a n t l y from m o th e r s w i t h a c l a s s i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t a t p .0 5 o r l e s s ,
a n d from m o t h e r s w i t h s p e c i a l i z e d t r a i n i n g a t p .05 o r l e s s .
d iff e re n c e s a re h ig h ly s i g n i f i c a n t .
T hese
P r e p a r a ti o n in c h il d d e v e lo p m en t,
w h e th e r th ro u g h c l a s s e s o r s p e c i a l t r a i n i n g p la y s an im p o r ta n t p a r t in
t h e know le d g e p a r e n t s h a v e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t .
P re p a ra tio n in c h ild
d e v e lo p m e n t a p p e a r s t o tie m ore i m p o r t a n t t h a n l e v e l o r a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n
i n t h e know ledge p a r e n t s h a v e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t .
The m a j o r i t y o f
39
-
m o t h e r s i n t h i s s t u d y have had some p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t
and t h e i r s c o r e s a r e h i g h e r t h a n m o th e r s o r f a t h e r s who have had no
p re p a ra tio n .
P r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t i s i m p o r t a n t i n t h e
know ledge p a r e n t s have o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t
(F ig u re 5 ) .
Mean S c o r e
B
30
29
M o th e rs
F ath ers
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
A ll m o th e rs
No p r e C h ild dev .
S p e c ia l
A ll fa th e rs
p a ra tio n
c la ss
tra in in g
P r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t and mean s c o r e s on know ledge
o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t .
F ig u re 5.
P a r e n t s know ledge and p r im a r y r e s o u r c e s .
No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e -
e n c e s w ere r e v e a l e d b e tw e e n p a r e n t a l know ledge and r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d
(F ig u re 6 ) .
I t was s p e c u l a t e d t h a t p a r e n t s who u s e d b o o k s m ig h t have
more know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t .
re su lts.
T h i s was n o t s u p p o r t e d by t h e
M o th e rs who u s e d i n s t i n c t s a s t h e i r p r im a r y r e s o u r c e s c o r e d
s l i g h t l y h i g h e r t h a n a l l m o t h e r s , b u t n e a r l y th e same a s m o th e r s who
40
used books o r e x te n d e d fa m ily .
F a t h e r s who u s e d t h e e x te n d e d f a m i l y s c o r e d lo w e r t h a n any g ro u p
o f f a t h e r s , b u t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were found b e tw e e n any g r o u p .
R e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d by p a r e n t s d i d n o t seem t o be r e l a t e d
t o t h e i r know­
led g e o f i n f a n t d e v elo p m en t.
Mean S c o r e s
M o th e rs
F ath ers
F i g u r e 6.
P r i m a r y r e s o u r c e and mean s c o r e s on know ledge o f i n f a n t
d e v e lo p m en t.
Age o f P a r e n t s and Knowldege o f I n f a n t D e v e lo p m e n t.
When com­
p a r i n g age o f p a r e n t t o s c o r e on know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t no
r e l a t i o n s h i p was fo u n d f o r m o t h e r s o r f a t h e r s . One r e a s o n f o r t h i s
41
m ig h t be t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f m o t h e r s and f a t h e r s i n t h i s s t u d y w ere
v e r y s i m i l a r i n a g e , b e tw e e n 2 5 - 3 5 .
Had p a r e n t s u n d e r 20 and o v e r 40
b e e n r e p r e s e n t e d d i f f e r e n c e s may h a v e b e e n e v i d e n t .
Number o f C h i l d r e n .
M o th e rs w i t h one c h i l d s c o r e d lo w e r t h a n
m o t h e r s w i t h two c h i l d r e n , and s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y lo w e r t h a n m o th e r s
w ith th re e c h ild r e n .
F o r f a t h e r s t h e num ber o f c h i l d r e n d i d n o t p r o d u c e any s i g n i ­
f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e i r know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t a t any
le v e l.
M o th e r s w i t h t h r e e c h i l d r e n s c o r e d h i g h e s t o f a l l t h e m o th e r s
an d f a t h e r s .
T h i s m i g h t i n d i c a t e t h a t m o th e r s w i t h t h r e e o r more
c h i l d r e n h a v e g r e a t e r know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t .
a r e n o rm a lly th e p rim a ry c a r e t a k e r s o f i n f a n t s
S i n c e m o th e r s
r a i s i n g an in fa n t
may
b e m ore o f a l e a r n i n g e x p e r i e n c e f o r m o th e r s t h a n f o r f a t h e r s .
D e g re e o f P a r e n t a l C o n f i d e n c e .
I t h a s b e e n s t a t e d by D r. Spock
and o t h e r c h i l d c a r e e x p e r t s t h a t p a r e n t s w i t h m ore c o n f i d e n c e i n
t h e i r a b i l i t i e s a s p a r e n t s a r e g e n e r a l l y m ore e f f e c t i v e p a r e n t s .
It
was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t p a r e n t s who w e re u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t i n t h e i r
a b i l i t i e s a s p a r e n t s m ig h t b e m ore k n o w le d g e a b le a b o u t i n f a n t d e v e l o p ­
m en t.
The d a t a d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .
M o th e r s who were
v e r y c o n f i d e n t s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n m o t h e r s who w ere u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t
o r so m e tim e s u n s u r e , b u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
F a t h e r s who w ere v e r y c o n f i d e n t s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n f a t h e r s who w ere
42
u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t o r s o m e tim e s u n s u r e , b u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w e re n o t
s ig n ific a n t.
M o th e r s who w ere u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t d i f f e r e d from f a t h e r s who
w ere u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t a t p . 0 5 .
T h i s d i f f e r e n c e m u st t a k e i n t o c o n ­
s i d e r a t i o n t h e two f a t h e r s w i t h e x tr e m e s c o r e s o f f i v e who r a t e d th em ­
s e lv e s as u s u a ll y c o n fid e n t..
M o th e r s who w ere v e r y c o n f i d e n t d i d n o t
d i f f e r from f a t h e r s who w ere v e r y c o n f i d e n t o r from f a t h e r s who were
s m e t i m e s u n s u r e , b u t t h e y d i d d i f f e r from f a t h e r s who w ere u s u a l l y
s u re o f th em se lv e s a t p .0 5 .
C r u c i a l Age o f I n t e l l e c t u a l D e v e lo p m e n t.
I t was h y p o t h e s i z e d
t h a t t h o s e p a r e n t s who f e e l t h e i n f a n t y e a r s a r e t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t
f o r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d would b e m ore k n o w le d g e ­
a b le a b o u t i n f a n t d e v elo p m en t.
fath e rs
(31) t h a n
(13) s a i d t h a t t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s . o f l i f e w ere m o st c r u c i a l
f o r i n t e l l e c u t a l d e v elo p m en t.
m o th e rs
S i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore m o t h e r s
S i g n i f i c a n t l y more f a t h e r s
(21) t h a n
(4) s a i d t h e p r e s c h o o l y e a r s , a g e 3 - 5 , w ere m o st c r u c i a l .
Only,
t h r e e m o th e r s and two f a t h e r s b e l i e v e d t h e y e a r s o v e r s i x t o be m ost
im p o rta n t.
E i g h t m o t h e r s and s i x f a t h e r s e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t
e v e r y y e a r was e q u a l l y i m p o r t a n t i n t h e c h i l d ' s i n t e l l e c t u a l g r o w th .
M o th e r s who s a i d tlfe f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s and e v e r y y e a r t o be
.
m o s t c r u c i a l s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n m o th e r who s a i d 3 - 5 o r o v e r s i x were
m o st i m p o r t a n t , b u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
F a t h e r s who s a i d e v e r y y e a r was i m p o r t a n t s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n
-4 3
f a t h e r s who s a i d t h e f i r s t
c ru c ia l.
-
t h r e e y e a r s o r a g e s 3 -5 o r o v e r s i x were
F a t h e r s who b e l i e v e d t h e a g e s o v e r s i x
w ere m o s t , i m p o r t a n t
s c o r e d l o w e s t b u t t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s w ere n o t s i g n i f i c a n t .
T h e r e was no s t a t i s t i c a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e i d e a t h a t p a r e n t s
who s a i d t h e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s w ere c r u c i a l f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e l o p ­
m ent s c o r e d h i g h e r t h a n o t h e r p a r e n t s ; . B ut
s l i g h t l y over h a l f th e
m o t h e r s and o v e r o n e - f o u r t h o f t h e . f a t h e r s b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e i n f a n t
y ears,
from b i r t h t o a g e t h r e e , w ere m o st c r u c i a l f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l
d e v e lo p m e n t o f t h e c h i l d .
CHAPTER V
SUMMARY,' CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS
The t im e from b i r t h t o t h r e e y e a r s o f a g e i s a c r i t i c a l p e r i o d
in a c h ild 's
life .
How t h e p r im a r y c a r e t a k e r r e s p o n d s t o t h e c h i l d
and s t r u c t u r e s h i s / h e r e n v ir o n m e n t i s i m p o r t a n t t o l a t e r d e v e lo p m e n t
( W h ite , 1 9 7 5 ) .
P a r e n t i n g c a n be made e a s i e r and m ore s u c c e s s f u l b y p r e p a r a t i o n
f o r p a r e n t h o o d p ro g ra m s
( L e M a s t e r s , 1970)„
Many c h i l d r e a r i n g e x p e r t s
(S p o c k , 1969; D odson, 1970) recommend t h a t p a r e n t s r e l y oh t h e i r p a r e n t ­
al in stin c ts
in r a i s i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n , w h ile o th e r s
(G in o tt,
1971;
H g & Ames, 1955) recommend t h a t p a r e n t s become k n o w l e d g e a b l e and s k i l l ­
f u l i n ways o f s u c c e s s f u l p a r e n t i n g .
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o
d e t e r m i n e know ledge p a r e n t s h a v e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t and r e s o u r c e s
used.
A q u e s t i o n n a i r e was m a i l e d t o H O p a r e n t s o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n .
i n Bozem an, M o n ta n a .
c h a ra c te ris tic s
I n a d d i t i o n t o a d e m o g ra p h ic s e c t i o n c o n c e r n i n g
o f r e s p o n d e n t s , a m e a s u r e o f p a r e n t s 'k n o w l e d g e o f i n f a n t
d e v e lo p m e n t was o b t a i n e d .
R e s p o n s e s w ere r e c e i v e d from 45 c o u p l e s
q u e stio n n a ire s.
(88%) o f t h o s e r e c e i v i n g
The know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t s e c t i o n was s c o r e d
s o t h a t t h e h i g h e s t p o s s i b l e s c o r e was 3 5 .
A n a l y s i s was c o n f i n e d t o
d e s c r i p t i v e a n a l y s i s and t - t e s t s t o e s t a b l i s h s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
The t y p i c a l m o t h e r i n my s a m p le was b e tw e e n 31 and 3 5 , had two
c h i l d r e n , a B a c h e l o r ' s D e g r e e p r o b a b l y i n E d u c a t i o n o r n u r s i n g , had
- 45
-
a t t e n d e d a c o l l e g e c l a s s i n c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , was- u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t
i n h e r a b i l i t i e s a s a p a r e n t , and b e l i e v e d t h e p e r i o d o f b i r t h t o t h r e e
y e a r s o f a g e was c r u c i a l f o r t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f h e r c h i l d .
The t y p i c a l m o t h e r r e l i e d on i n s t i n c t s a s h e r p r i m a r y r e s o u r c e i n c h i l d re a rin g .
When s h e n e e d e d a d d i t i o n a l
h e lp o r in f o r m a tio n she used h e r
e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , f r i e n d s , d o c t o r , and bo o k s a s s e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e s .
She had p r o b a b l y r e a d one o r two b o o k s on c h i l d r e a r i n g .
In g e n e ra l,
s h e was f a i r l y . k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t , w i t h a mean
s c o r e o f 28 o u t o f a p o s s i b l e 3 5 .
Her a g e , l e v e l and a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n ,
d e g r e e o f p a r e n t a l c o n f i d e n c e , and r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d had n o s i g n i ­
f i c a n t im p a c t on h e r k n o w le d g e .
H ow ever, h e r c l a s s i n c h i l d d e v e l o p ­
m en t seemed t o i n c r e a s e h e r k n o w le d g e , a s d i d h a v in g t h r e e o r more
c h ild re n .
A t y p i c a l f a t h e r i n t h i s sa m p le was a ro u n d 35 y e a r s o f a g e , had
tw o c h i l d r e n , e d u c a t i o n a t t h e M a s t e r ' s l e v e l o r a b o v e , from a w ide
v a r i e t y o f f i e l d s , had no p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e l o p m e n t , was v e r y ,
o r u s u a l l y c o n f i d e n t i n h i s a b i l i t i e s a s a p a r e n t , and c o n s i d e r e d t h e
p r e s c h o o l y e a r s , a g e s t h r e e t o f i v e , t o be m ost c r u c i a l i n t h e i n t e l l ­
e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t o f h i s c h i l d .
The t y p i c a l f a t h e r r e l i e d on h i s
i n s t i n c t s i n p a r e n t i n g , a l t h o u g h h i s w i f e was a l s o a n i m p o r t a n t p r im ­
ary re s o u rc e .
I f he n e e d e d a d d i t i o n a l h e l p o r i n f o r m a t i o n i n r a i s i n g
h i s c h i l d r e n h e u s e d f r i e n d s , a d o c t o r , o r books a s s e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e .
He d i d n o t u s e a s many s e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e s a s h i s w i f e and had n o t r e a d
- 46
a s many b o o k s , a l t h o u g h he may h a v e r e a d D r. S pock.
I n g e n e r a l , t h e t y p i c a l f a t h e r was l e s s k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t
i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t t h a n h i s w i f e , w i t h a mean s c o r e o f 25 o u t o f a
p o s s ib le 35.
H is a g e , l e v e l and a r e a o f e d u c a t i o n , d e g r e e o f p a r e n t a l
c o n f i d e n c e , r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d , num ber o f c h i l d r e n , o r p r e p a r a t i o n i n
c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t had no e f f e c t on h i s k n o w le d g e .
I f h e had s p e c i a l ­
i z e d t r a i n i n g i n t h e m e d i c a l f i e l d he was s l i g h t l y m ore k n o w le d g e a b le
th an o th e r f a t h e r s .
C o n c lu sio n s
The s t u d y a n s w e re d t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s :
u tiliz in g
I.
A re p a r e n t s
r e s o u r c e s t o h e l p them i n r a i s i n g t h e i r c h i l d r e n ?
R e su lts
i n d i c a t e t h a t b o t h p a r e n t s t e n d t o r e l y h e a v i l y on t h e i r p a r e n t i n g
in stin c ts.
The m a j o r i t y o f m o th e r s i n d i c a t e d i n s t i n c t s a s t h e i r p r i m ­
a r y r e s o u r c e f o l l o w e d by e x t e n d e d f a m i l y , b o o k s , s p o u s e , and f r i e n d s .
M o th e r s t e n d e d t o u s e s e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e s f r e q u e n t l y w i t h e x te n d e d
f a m i l y , d o c t o r , f r i e n d s , b o o k s , and i n s t i n c t s l i s t e d a s i m p o r t a n t .
F a t h e r s t e n d e d t o r e l y on t h e i r i n s t i n c t s a s t h e i r p r im a r y r e s ­
o u r c e f o l l o w e d by s p o u s e , b o o k s , f a m i l y , .• and f r i e n d s .
Few er f a t h e r s
u s e d s e c o n d a r y r e s o u r c e s t h a n m o t h e r s and t h e s e w ere l i s t e d a s b o o k s ,
d o c t o r , i n s t i n c t s , and f r i e n d s .
The m a j o r i t y o f m o t h e r s had a t t e n d e d a c l a s s i n c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t
a t t h e c o l l e g e l e v e l , w h i l e t h e m a j o r i t y o f f a t h e r s r e p o r t e d no p r e ­
p a r a t i o n in c h i l d d e v e lo p m en t.
More m o t h e r s p r e p a r e d t h e m s e l v e s f o r
47
-
p a r e n t i n g t h a n f a t h e r s by a t t e n d i n g c l a s s e s o r p r o g r a m s .
2.
Only number o f c h i l d r e n and l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n showed a s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o know le d g e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t f o r m o t h e r s .
As l e v e l
o f e d u c a t i o n i n c r e a s e d , know ledge o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t a l s o i n c r e a s e d ,
a l t h o u g h t h i s was n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p .
The l e v e l o f e d u c ­
a t i o n f o r t h i s sa m p le was h i g h , and t h e r e w ere few r e s p o n d e n t s who had
n o t ha d an y c o l l e g e .
A l t h o u g h no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was f o u n d ,
f u r th e r re s e a rc h is needed.
M o th e rs w i t h t h r e e o r more c h i l d r e n s c o r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r
t h a n m o t h e r s w i t h one c h i l d , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t b e c a u s e m o t h e r s were m ore
i n v o l v e d w i t h c h i l d c a r e , t h e y w ere m ore a w a re o f d e v e l o p m e n t a l s t a g e s .
Number o f c h i l d r e n had no e f f e c t on f a t h e r s k n o w le d g e .
No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ere fo u n d t o e x i s t b e tw e e n a r e a o f
e d u c a t io n , age o f p a r e n t s , d e g re e o f p a r e n t a l c o n f id e n c e , p r e p a r a t i o n
i n c h i l d d ev e lo p m en t, r e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d , o r age c o n s id e r e d c r u c i a l
f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v elo p m en t.
The p a r e n t s i n t h i s
sam ple w ere s i m i l a r i n a g e , e d u c a t i o n a l b a c k ­
g r o u n d , d e g r e e o f c o n f i d e n c e , and amount, o f p r e p a r a t i o n i n c h i l d d e v e l o p ­
m en t.
Had t h e r e b e e n a w i d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f o t h e r g r o u p s i n t h i s
.
sa m p le o t h e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s may h a v e b e e n r e v e a l e d .
3.
The d a t a s u p p o r t s t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t m o th e r s a r e m ore k n o w le d g e a b le
t h a n f a t h e r s a b o u t i n f a n t d e v e l o p m e n t , and t h a t m o t h e r s p r e p a r e th em ­
s e l v e s m ore f o r t h e i r p a r e n t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
They, a r e c o n s e q u e n t l y
48
s i g n i f i c a n t l y m ore k n o w le d g e a b le a b o u t i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t t h a n f a t h e r s
'
R ecom m endations
To Im p ro v e T h i s S tu d y
S a m p lin g P r o c e d u r e s .
e d u c a tio n a lly s e l e c t group.
o b tain ed .
The sa m p le r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s
s t u d y Was an
T h i s may h a v e b i a s e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n
T h i s was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e o f t h e f a t h e r s a l m o s t h a l f of
whom ha d M a s t e r ' s d e g r e e s o r a b o v e .
P a r e n t s s u r v e y e d had c h i l d r e n e n r o l l e d i n a d a y c a r e o r p r e ­
s c h o o l p ro g ra m i n Bozem an, M o n ta n a .
th e ir a c c e ssib ility .
T h e s e p a r e n t s w e re c h o s e n due t o
P a re n ts w ith c h ild r e n e n ro lle d in p resch o o l p ro ­
gram s may be a w a re o f t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e e a r l y y e a r s and be more
k n o w l e d g e a b l e a b o u t c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t i n g e n e r a l .
Had o t h e r p a r e n t s
o f p r e s c h o o l c h i l d r e n b e e n c o n t a c t e d t h e sa m p le w ould h a v e b e e n more
re p re se n ta tiv e .
In stru m e n ta tio n .
The v a l i d i t y o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t was n o t f u l l y
s u b s t a n t i a t e d and b e a r s f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
i n s t r u m e n t may n e e d t o b e i n c r e a s e d .
The d i f f i c u l t y o f t h e
To e s t a b l i s h t h i s
i t would be
a d v is e a b le to a d m in is te r th e p r e s e n t q u e s tio n n a ir e t o p a r e n ts w ith
lo w e r l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n .
For O th er S tu d ie s
More s t u d i e s n e e d t o o c c u r t o d i s c o v e r a d d i t i o n a l ways p a r e n t s
p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s f o r p a r e n t h o o d and t h e i r p a r e n t a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
The f o l l o w i n g a r e s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h i s a r e a :
49
1)
Obtiain i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t c h i l d c a r e .
Which p a r e n t f o r e x a m p l e , i s
t h e p r i m a r y c a r e t a k e r o f t h e c h i l d , and how much tim e d o e s e a c h p a r e n t
spend i n c h i l d r e a r i n g a c t i v i t i e s .
2)
D e te r m in e why f a t h e r s a r e n o t p r e p a r i n g t h e m s e l v e s f o r t h e i r p a r e n t ­
hood r o l e .
W i l l t h i s c h a n g e a s c h a n g e s o c c u r i n t h e wom en's r o l e i n
our so c ie ty ?
3)
Expand t h e s c o p e o f t h e s t u d y t o s e e how t h e know le d g e p a r e n t s
have a f f e c t s t h e i r c h il d r e a r in g a t t i t u d e s ?
It
is p o s s ib le p a re n ts
h a v e know le d g e o f i n f a n t d e v e lo p m e n t b u t do n o t . p r a c t i c e what t h e y know.
.4)
Look a t p a r e n t s Who p r e f e r t o k e e p t h e i r young c h i l d r e n a t home and
com pare them t o p a r e n t s w i t h c h i l d r e n i n day c a r e s i t u a t i o n s .
5)
E xplore th e a re a of p r e p a r a ti o n f o r p a re n th o o d .
W hich pro g ra m s o r
o p p o r t u n i t i e s a r e m o st h e l p f u l t o p a r e n t s .
.6)
E xplore th e a re a o f i n s t i n c t s
in p a re n tin g - d e fin e i n s t i n c t s , t h e i r
s o u r c e s , and t h e i r i m p a c t on p a r e n t h o o d p r e p a r a t i o n .
7)
E x p l o r e t h e v a r i o u s books l i s t e d by p a r e n t s a s h e l p f u l .
th e s e p a r t i c u l a r books s e le c te d ?
8)
What i s
Why were
Why a r e p a r e n t s r e l y i n g on b o o k s ?
th e r o l e o f th e e x te n d e d fa m ily in p a r e n t in g ?
I s i t the
same f o r u r b a n and r u r a l f a m i l i e s ?
9)
E x p l o r e know le d g e and a t t i t u d e s o f s i n g l e p a r e n t s t o w a r d c h i l d -
re a rin g .
10.
E x p lo re th e a re a o f a d o p tiv e p a r e n t s .
These p a r e n t s chose p a r e n t ­
hood do t h e y p r e p a r e t h e m s e l v e s more f o r p a r e n t h o o d t h a n o t h e r p a r e n t s ?
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54
S ussm an, M. B . & B u r c h i n a I , L. K in F a m il y N etw ork: U n h e r a ld e d S t r u c ­
t u r e i n C u r r e n t C o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n s o f F a m ily F u n c t i o n i n g . M a r r ia g e
an d F a m ily L i v i n g , 1 962, 2 4 / 3 ) , 2 3 1 - 2 4 0 .
S w e r d l o f f , P e t e r , Human B e h a v io r-M e n and Women.
B o o k s , 1975.
New Y o rk :
T i m e - L if e -
T i g e r , L . , & S h e p h e r , J . . Women i n t h e K i b b u t z .
B r a c e , '& J o v a n o v i c h , 1975.
New Y o rk :
H a r c o u h t,
Tuchkman, B . W. C o n d u c tin g E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h .
B race, Jo v a n o v ic h , I n c .
1 972.
New Y o r k .
H arco u rt,
U z i g i r s , I . C . , & H u n t, J . M. A s s e s s m e n t i n I n f a n c y :
O rd in al S c a le s
of P s y c h o lo g ic a l D evelopm ent. U rb an a: U n i v e r s i t y o f I l l i n o i s ,
1975.
W a g n er, J .
Toward S t r e n g t h e n i n g t h e F a m i l y .
1 2 ( 1 ), 29-33.
W h i t e , B . L. The F i r s t T h r e e Y e a r s o f L j f e .
Jersey :
P r e n t i c e - H a l l , I n c . , 1975.
A m e ric an E d u c a t i o n . 1976,
Englewood C l i f f s , New
W h i t e , B . L . Human I n f a n t s :
E x p e r i e n c e and P s y c h o l o g i c a l D e v e lo p m e n t.
New Y o rk : P r e n t i c e - H a l l , 1971
Z i g l e r , E . On G row ing Up, L e a r n i n g and L o v i n g . A n nual E d i t i o n s
R e a d in g i n Human D e v e lo p m e n t 7 5 / 7 5 .
G u i l f o r d , C o n n .: The D u s k in
P u b lis h in g C o ., 1975, 4 1 -4 4 .
APPENDICES
APPENDIX A
LETTER OF INVITATION. TO PARTICI PARE IN STUDY
'
D ear P a r e n t s :
P a r e n t s t o d a y a r e . f a c e d w i t h many r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s i n r a i s i n g
th e ir c h ild re n .
T h e r e a r e many ' e x p e r t s ' on c h i l d r e a r i n g and many
o p i n i o n s on t h e way c h i l d r e n s h o u ld be r a i s e d .
T h e r e i s a l s o an
a b u n d a n t amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f c h i l d r e n .
As a. g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t a t M ontana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y I am p r e p a r i n g
a stu d y to lo o k a t a s p e c ts of p a r e n t i n g .
I have p r e p a r e d a s h o r t
q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o be f i l l e d o u t s e p a r a t e l y by t h e m o th e r and t h e f a t h e r .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e w i l l t a k e o n l y a b o u t t e n m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e .
It.
w i l l be a s k i n g s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n on c h i l d - r e a r i n g and a w a r e n e s s
p a r e n t s h a v e o f c h i l d d e v e lo p m e n t .
I f you and y o u r s p o u s e a r e w i l l i n g t o t a k e p a r t i n t h i s s u r v e y ,
p l e a s e c o m p le te t h e i n f o r m a t i o n b e lo w and r e t u r n t o t h e C e n t e r o r
N u r s e r y w h e re you p i c k e d up t h i s l e t t e r by W ednesday, December 8 .
I
w i l l c o n t a c t you by phone b e f o r e I s e n d you t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
Thank you
for
your
t im e and
su p p ort.
M ayb e i n
som e w ay we c a n
h e l p make t h e j o b o f p a r e n t i n g somewhat e a s i e r .
B i l l i e W a rfo rd
G rad u ate T each in g A s s i s t a n t
M ontana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
T e le p h o n e 58 7 -7 4 3 1
Y es,
No,
Name
A ddress
Phone
I w ou ld
57 -
lik e
to
take
part
in
th e
survey
I do n o t w i s h
to
tak e
part
in
the
survey
APPENDIX B - COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE
D ear P a r e n t s :
Thank you f o r y o u r w i l l i n g n e s s t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s ; , s t u d y t o
lo o k a t v a rio u s a s p e c t s o f p a r e n t in g .
One i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t o f t h e
s t u d y i s t o lo o k a t m o t h e r s and f a t h e r s .
P l e a s e c o m p l e te t h e
q u e stio n n a ire s s e p a ra te ly .
I t i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s b e c o m p le te d and
re tu rn e d as q u ic k ly a s .p o s s i b le .
I n c a s e t h e e n c l o s e d e n v e lo p e
i s m i s p l a c e d , p l e a s e c a l l me a t 9 9 4 - 3 2 4 1 , o r m a i l t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e
to :
B i l l i e W a rfo rd
S c h o o l o f Home E conom ics
M ontana S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
Bozem an, M ontana 59715
the
Thank y o u f o r y o u r s u p p o r t and c o o p e r a t i o n .
r e s u lts o f the stu d y in th e sp r in g .
I
w ill
send you
S in c e re ly ,
B i l l i e W a rfo rd
G ra d u a te T eaching A s s i s t a n t
QUESTIONNAIRE
■■
•
PLEASE CHECK .ALL’ THE BLANKS NECESSARY FOR YOU TO ANSWER THE QUESTION
1.
To w h ic h g ro u p do you b e lo n g ?
_______ M o th e r
_______ F a t h e r
2.
What i s y o u r p r e s e n t age?
3.
Check t h e h i g h e s t l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n you h a v e a t t a i n e d .
High S c h o o l
_______ A t t e n d e d o r a t t e n d i n g c o l l e g e
■
C o l l e g e D e g re e
_______ M a s t e r ' s D e g re e
_______ Above M a s t e r ' s D e g re e
4.
I f you h a v e a c o l l e g e d e g r e e ,
5.
I f you h a v e had a c o u r s e i n C h i l d Growth and D e v e lo p m e n t, w hat t y p e
o f c o u r s e was i t ?
_______ High s c h o o l c l a s s
C o l l e g e c l a s s i n C h i l d D ev e lo p m e n t
■• ,
C o l l e g e c l a s s ', i n P a r e n t i n g
,
S p e c ia l
c la sse s
in
th e
in what a re a i s i t ?
co m m u n ity ,
sp e c ify
.
' P ro fe s s io n a l,tra in in g , sp ecify
_____ __ O t h e r , s p e c i f y _ _ _____ _
______ None o f t h e s e
6.
7.
8.
How m a n y c h i l d r e n
do you h ave?
What age and s e x a r e
■ Age
________
_______ Age
________
_______ Age ' _________
_______ Age
________
•
Age
________
your c h ild r e n
Sex
Sex
Sex
Sex
Sex
From t h e box a t t h e r i g h t , when you n e e d
h e lp or in fo rm a tio n about r a i s i n g your
c h i l d r e n , w h ic h do you go t o f i r s t ?
Y o u r .m o th e r
Your f a t h e r
O ther r e l a t i v e s ,
list
N e ig h b o r s
F rien d s
In stin c ts
Your d o c t o r
O ther h e a lt h a g e n c ie s
Books on C h ild R e a r in g
O th er, s p e c if y
- 60
I f th e f i r s t c h o ic e
w h ic h o n e do you go
P le a se
u se.
9.
list
in
order
is
to
not a v a ila b le ,
second?
any o th e r
o r you n eed m ore in f o r m a t io n ,
resources
from t h e
lis t
t h a t you
I f you r e a d b o o k s on c h i l d r e a r i n g , chefck any o f t h e books you
u s e d . P l e a s e r a n k them , w i t h I b e i n g t h e one u s e d m o s t .
D r . Spook, Baby and C h i l d C a re
_______ H g & Amesv C h i l d B e h a v i o r
_______ B e t t e r Homes & G a rd e n s, Baby Book
_______ G i n o t t , B etw een P a r e n t & C h i l d .
______ S a l k , How t o R a i s e a Human B e in g
: ' W h it e , The F i r s t T h r e e Y e r a s o f L i f e
O t h e r r e f e r e n c e s , t h a t w e re i m p o r t a n t t o y o u :
10.
As a p a r e n t , how c o n f i d e n t do you f e e l i n r a i s i n g y o u r c h i l d r e n ?
_______ _
________
• '■
■ ,
.
11.
.
V ery c o n f i d e n t
U su a lly c o n fid e n t
S o m etim es, u n s u r e o f m y s e l f
U s u a lly u nsu re o f m y se lf
N ever su re o f m y se lf
•'
'
.
■■
What a g e do you c o n s i d e r t h e m o st c r u c i a l i n t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l
• d ev elo p m en t o f
th e c h ild ?
R ead e a c h i t e m c a r e f u l l y and t h e n c i r c l e t h e A, . D, o r U t o i n d i c a t e
w h e t h e r you a g r e e , d i s a g r e e , o r a r e u n d e c i d e d a s t o how you f e e l a b o u t
th e sta te m e n t.
T h e r e ar.g. no r i g h t o r w rong a n s w e r s , p l e a s e answ er
a c c o r d i n g t o y o u r own f e e l i n g s .
A D U
I.'
Around t h e a g e o f 4 m o n th s a n i n f a n t c a n t u r n s id e w a y s
an d r o l l o v e r .
.
— 61 2 m onths o f a g e i n f a n t s b e g in to s m i l e .
A
D
U
2.
A
D
U
3.
N ew born i n f a n t s
ra n g e o f sounds
A
D
U
4.
E a r ly w a lk in g
A
D
U
5.
A 6 m onth o l d i n f a n t w i l l g r a s p a r a t t l e tirhen o f f e r e d and
w i l l t h e n gum i t o r f e e l i t w i t h t h e o t h e r h a n d .
A
D
U
6.
By 4 t o 5 m onths o f a g e an i n f a n t c a n d i s t i n g u i s h . t h e
m o t h e r s v o i c e fro m o t h e r v o i c e s .
A
D
U
7.
A round I y e a r o f a g e m o st i n f a n t s a r e a b l e t o w a lk h o l d i n g
o n to f u r n i t u r e .
A
D
U
8.
About 7 m o n th s o f age m o st i n f a n t s a r e a b l e t o s i t u n a i d e d .
A
D
U
9.
A newborn, i n f a n t i s a l r e a d y v e r y aw are o f t h e w o r ld
a r o u n d him and e x p l o r e s h i s w o r l d by gumming o b j e c t s he
b r i n g s to h i s m o u th .
A
D
U 10.
A D U
11.
.A r o u n d
is
a r e n o t d e a f , t h e y h a v e an im p r e s s iv e
th ey can h ea r.
a sig n
of
in te llig e n c e .
Around 5 m o n th s o f age many i n f a n t s a r e b e g i n n i n g t o d i s ­
c r i m i n a t e s t r a n g e r s and r e s p o n d w i t h a n x i e t y when p i c k e d
up by someone o t h e r t h a n a f a m i l y member.
C h i l d r e n u n d e r 1% y e a r s o f a g e do n o t r e q u i r e t h a t you
t a l k w i t h them f r e q u e n t l y .
T h i s becomes more i m p o r t a n t
when t h e y a r e c a p a b l e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g l a n g u a g e .
A
D
U 12.
Around 3% m o n th s o f a g e i n f a n t s e y e s come i n t o n e a r m atu re f o c tis .
A
D
U 13 .
By 8 m o n th s o f a g e i n f a n t s b e g i n t o d i s c r i m i n a t e sounds .
and r e s p o n d t o a few s e l e c t w o r d s , u s u a l l y d a d a , mama, o r
b y e-bye.
A
D
U 14.
P a re n ts a re th e m o s t' im p o rta n t te a c h e r a c h ild w i l l ever
have.
A
D
U 15 .
A new born i n f a n t w i l l o f t e n b e i n t e r e s t e d i n a r a t t l e .
A
D
U 16.
A 2 m onth o l d i n f a n t w i l l n o r m a l l y r e s p o n d
when p i c k e d up by a s t r a n g e r .
w ith a n x ie ty
62
A
D
U
17.
C h i l d r e n d e v e l o p a t i n d i v i d u a l r a t e / o f t e n so d i f f e r e n t
t h a t one may w a l k f i v e m o n th s e a r l i e r t h a n a n o t h e r , and
y e t b o t h may be c o n s i d e r e d , n o r m a l .
A
D
U
18.
An i n f a n t d o e s n o t h a v e a t r u e
6 m on th s.
A
D
U
19 .
An i n f a n t a r o u n d 10 m o n th s o f a g e knows t h e d i f f e r e n c e
b e tw e e n r i g h t and w rong and i s j u s t i r r i t a t i n g m o th e r
when he r e p e a t e d l y t u r n s t h e l i g h t s w i t c h o f f and o n .
A
D
U
20 .
D u r in g
A
D
U
21.
I t i s n o t u n t i l around 6 m onths o f
e y e s com e i n t o n e a r - m a t u r e . f o c u s .
A D U
22.
By 3% m o n th s an i n f a n t i s j u s t b e g i n n i n g t o r e c o g n i z e h i s
m o th e r.
A D U
23 .
A 4 m onth o l d i n f a n t c a n u s u a l l y s i t u n a i d e d .
A D U
24 .
I n f a n t s u s u a l l y s a y t h e i r f i r s t w o rd s somewhere a r o u n d 10 .
m o n th s.
A D U
25 .
An i n f a n t w i l l d e v e l o p a c c o r d i n g t o h i s own g ro w th r a t e
e v e n i f he i s n o t p r o v i d e d w i t h a f f e c t i o n a t e c a r e and
h a n d lin g .
th e
fir st
m onths o f
so c ia l
life ,
sm ile
in fa n ts
age
u n til
le a rn
th a t
about
very
little .
an in f a n t 's
A
D
U
26 .
In te llig e n c e
gence
'
A
D
U
27 .
E a r ly w a lk in g
A D
U
28 .
I n f a n t s d e v e lo p b e t t e r in a m o d e ra te ly e n r ic h e d e n v iro n ­
m ent t h a n i n a m a s s i v e l y e n r i c h e d e n v i r o n m e n t .
A
D
U
30 .
A p a r e n t w i t h h ig h s e l f - e s t e e m w i l l te n d to have c h i l d r e n
w ith h ig h s e lf - e s te e m .
A
D
U
31 .
I t i s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e an e n r i c h e d e n v ir o n m e n t
fo r in f a n ts under I y ear of age.
32 .
M oth ers
them .
A D U
tests
sh o u ld
is
of
in fa n ts
a sig n
ta lk
to
of
can p r e d ic t
a d u lt
in te lli­
in te llig e n c e .
th e ir
in f a n t s w h en ev er th e y h a n d le
-
63 -
A
D U
33 .
A new born i n f a n t c a n d i s t i n g u i s h i t s m o th e r from anyone
e lse .
A
D
U
34.
A 5 m onth o l d i n f a n t w i l l
w ith .
A
D
U
35.
In ord er to p r o v id e prop er a t t e n t io n to th e in fa n t i t i s
n e c e s s a r y f o r th e m o th er t o sp en d lo n g p e r i o d s o f tim e
each day d ev o ted to th e in f a n t .
.la u g h when t i c k l e d o r p l a y e d
MASTER DATA SHEET
Group
N
Mean S c o r e
A l l M o th e r s
45
2 8 .0 7
7 .4 7
A ll F a th e rs
45
2 5 .1 8
3 1 .5 6
A rea o f E d u c a t i o n
V a r ia n c e
..
M o th e r s w i t h d e g r e e i n N u r s in g
M o th e r s i n E d u c a t i o n
M o th e r s i n S o c i a l S c i e n c e
M o th e r s i n B u s i n e s s
F a t h e r s i n M e d ic i n e
F a th e r s in B u sin ess
F a th e r s in E n g in e e rin g S cien ce
F a th e r s i n E d u c a tio n
F a th e rs in A g ric u ltu re
F a t h e r s . i n S o c ia l S cien ce
8
15
2
2
'4
8
7
4
4
4 .
2 8 .0 5
2 6 .7 3
3 2 .0 0
2 8 .0 0
2 7 .2 5
2 4 .8 7
2 6 .7 1
2 4 .7 5
2 8 .2 5
1 8 .5 0
6 .8 5
.5.78
8 .0 0
1 8 .0 0
6 .2 5 .
10.41.
6 .2 4
1 1 0 .2 5
1 2 .2 5
9 3 .6 7
17:
22
5
8
12
23
19 '
2 8 .0 0
2 7 .6 8
2 9 .6 0
2 7 .0 5
2 2 .4 2
2 6 .1 7
2 6 .2 6
8 .1 2
7 .3 7
6 .0 8
4 .2 8
72..26
1 0 .2 4
1 2 .4 3
16
23
8
12 '
28
5
2 8 .3 8
2 8 .0 9
2 6 .0 0
2 5 .8 2
2 4 .1 3
2 7 .2 0
6 .1 2 .
7 .9 0
8 .5 7
9 .1 6
2 0 .1 5
. 4 .0 7
■ 2 8 .6 1
2 8 .5 7
2 7 .1 7
■ 2 6 .7 3
9 .4 3
1 .9 5
1 2 .1 7
6 .4 2
L evel o f E d u c a tio n
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
F ath ers
F a th ers
F ath ers
F ath ers
w i t h o u t C o l l e g e D e g re e
w ith B a c h e lo rs
w ith M a ste rs
w i t h o u t C o l l e g e D e g re e
w ith B a c h e lo rs
w ith M asters
w ith M a ste rs
P r e p a r a t i o n i n C h i l d D evelopm ent
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
F ath ers
F ath ers
F ath ers
w ith
w ith
w ith
w ith
w ith
w ith
S p e c ia l T ra in in g
C h ild
no P r e p a r a t i o n
C h i l d D evelopm ent
no P r e p a r a t i o n
S p e c ia l T ra in in g
R esources U t i li z e d
M other's
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
who
who
who
who
use
use
use
use
in stin c ts
books
spouse
fam ily
• 18
7
6
10
/.
.
65
MASTER DATA SHEET ( c o n t i n u e d )
Group
.____________________________ ________
R esources U tiliz e d
M o th e r s who
F a t h e r s who
F a t h e r s who
F a t h e r s who
F A t h e r s .who
F a t h e r s who
use
use
use
use
use
use
N_______M ean S c o r e
V a ria n ce
(c o n tin u e d )
frie n d s
in stin c ts
books '
spouse
fam ily
frien d s
, ' 3
19
4 .
13
5
6
2 7 .0 0
2 5 .8 4
2 5 .7 5
2 4 .9 3
2 3 .7 4
2 4 .0 6
' 4 .0 0
3 0 .1 4
2 0 .2 5
4 7 .0 8
. 3 5 .1 7
2 8 .7 2
12
. 20
9
12
20
9
2 6 .0 8
2 8 .2 0
2 9 .3 3
2 6 .0 0
2 4 .1 0
2 7 .3 3
1 0 .8 1
3 .4 3
1 1 .0 0
8 .9 1
7 .0 3
1 0 .0 0
2 8 .0 5
2 7 .6 0
2 8 .3 8
. 2 7 ,1 9
2 3 .8 3
2 5 .1 7
9 .6 1
6 .0 4
8 .4 2
9 .7 6
5 1 .0 6
17.37
dumber o f C h i l d r e n
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
F ath ers
F ath ers
F ath ers
w ith
w ith
w ith
w ith
w ith
w ith
I
2
3
I
2
3
c h ild
c h ild re n
c h ild re n
c h ild
c h ild re n
c h ild re n
D e g re e o f P a r e n t a l C o n f i d e n c e
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
F ath ers
F ath ers
F a th ers
v ery c o n fid e n t’
u s u a lly c o n fid e n t .
s o m e tim e s u n s u r e
v ery c o n fid e n t.
u s u a lly co n fid en t
s o m e tim e s u n s u r e
. 10
20
13
16
18 .
6
Age C o n s i d e r e d C r u c i a l f o r I n t e l l e c t u a l D e velopm ent
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
M o th e r s
F ath ers
F ath ers
F a th ers
F ath ers
who
who
who
who
who
who
who
who
fav o r
favor
favor
favor
favor
favor
favor
favor
0-3
3 -5
over 6
every y ear
0-3
3 -5
o v e r ,5
ev ery year
.
31
4
2
8
.’ 13
21
3
6
2 8 .1 9
2 7 .0 5
2 6 .0 0
■ 2 8 .0 5
2 6 .2 3
2 6 .0 5
2 0 .0 0
2 2 .0 0
7 .4 9
2 .6 4
4 .0 0
1 3 .1 4
9 .0 6
1 5 .0 4
1 1 5 .0 0
8 2 .0 0
3
1762
W232
cop. 2
W arfo rd , B i l l i e L
R e s o u r c e s u t i l i z e d "by
p a re n t in c h ild re a rin g
an d k n o w le d g e i n i n f a n t
d e v e lo p m e n t
DATE
ISSUED TO
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