Whitetail and mule deer relationships in the Snowy Mountains of central Montana
by George Frank Kamps
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE in Fish and Wildlife Management
Montana State University
© Copyright by George Frank Kamps (1969)
Abstract:
A study was conducted during the summers of 1967 and 1968 as well as the winter of 1969 in the
foothill region on the north slopes of the Snowy Mountains in Central Montana to obtain quantitative
data on the food habits, range use, and interspecific relationships of whitetail and mule deer. The
vegetation of the study area was classified into five zones: agriculture, ponderosa pine,
hawthorn-aspen, grassland, and Douglas-fir. All types and subtypes except the willow type within the
zones were quantitatively described. Range use was determined largely from 3,274 whitetail and 3,777
mule deer observations along systematically traveled routes. Ninety-seven and 94 percent of the
summer and winter whitetail observations, respectively, were in the agriculture and hawthorn-aspen
zones. During late summer, 80 percent of all white-tail observations were in the agriculture types. The
ponderosa pine type was an important type for rest and escape during winter. The grassland and
Douglas-fir zones accounted for 63 and 83 percent of the summer and winter mule deer observations,
respectively. During winter, 91 percent of the mule deer observations were in grassland types. Food
habits of whitetail and mule deer were determined from the results of examinations of 190 feeding sites
taken during summer and winter and from the results of analyses of 48 rumen samples' obtained
throughout, the year. For whitetail deer, browse averaged 54, 41, 51, and 49 percent of the contents of
rumen samples for summer, fall, winter, and spring, respectively. It was the most important forage
class during all seasons except fall, when forbs constituted 46 percent of the,diet. Grass use, mostly
wheat, was greatest in winter when it averaged 27 percent of the total volume of rumen samples.
Alfalfa was the most important single food item averaging 20 percent of the yearly diet.
Browse averaged 57, 55, 63, and 24 percent of the total volume of rumen samples for mule deer during
summer, fall, winter, and spring, respectively. Forbs constituted the most important forage class in
spring averaging 62 percent of the contents of rumens. Grass use was unimportant during all seasons
except spring. Results of examination of feeding sites agreed closely with results of rumen analyses for
both species of deer. For the summers of 1967 and 1968, fawn:doe ratios of whitetail deer were 101
and 93 per 100, respectively. For mule deer for the same years the figures were 76 and 62. Overlap in
range use by the two species was hot considered important during winter. During summer common use
of range and food items occurred on some areas, but because food items used in common did not
appear to be limited in supply or deteriorating in production, competition probably did not occur.
Differences in areas preferred by the two species apparently enabled this range to support a larger
number of deer than would have been possible in the absence of one or the other. WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER RELATIONSHIPS IN THE SNOWY
MOUNTAINS OF CENTRAL MONTANA
by
GEORGE FRANK KAMPS
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial =
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
Fish and Wildlife Management
Approved:
H e A c ^ M a j o r Department
ovt_
Chairman, Examining Committed
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bozeman, Montana
June, 1969
ill
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
To the following, among others, the author wishes to express apprec­
iation for their contributions to this study:
Dr. Don C. Quimby, Montana
State University, who directed the study and aided in the preparation of
the manuscript; Mr. Thomas Mussehl, Montana Fish and Game Department, for
project planning; Mr. Jim Mitchell and Mr. Neil Martin, Montana Fish and
Game Department, for project guidance and field assistance; Mr. Kenneth
Greer, Montana Fish and Game Department, for assistance and use of facili­
ties in analyses of rumen contents $ Mr. Ed Furnish, Montana Fish and Game
Department, for use of the facilities at the Fish Hatchery, Lewistown;
Dr. W. E. Booth, Montana State University, for aid in identification of
plant specimens; Dr. Robert L. Eng and Dra Richard J. Graham, Montana,
State University, for critical reading of the manuscript; to the many
ranchers in the area for cooperation during the study; his wife, Gayle,
for assistance and encouragement.
The writer was employed by the Montana
Fish and Game Department under Federal Aid Projects N o . .W-98-R-8, No. W-98R-9, No. W-74-R-13, and No. W-74-R-14.
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
I.
II =
IIIo
>
H
V.
VI.
'VIIo
VIII =
IX=
XI =
XIIo
Page
PERCENT CANOPY COVERAGE AND FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF
PLANTS IN VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES AS DETERMINED
BY EXAMINATION OF 20 X 50 CENTIMETER PLOTS ........ . .......
10
PERCENT OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER OBSERVED ON EACH
VEGETATION TYPE DURING ROUTE OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969 ......
22
COVER TYPES LOCATED NEAREST TO OBSERVED DEER DURING THE
SUMMER OF 1968 AND THE WINTER OF 1969 ........... ......... .
24
YEARLY FOOD HABITS OF WHITETAIL DEER AS DETERMINED BY
EXAMINATION OF 94 FEEDING SITES AND ANALYSES OF 27
RUMEN SAMPLES . c o . = = . . . . . . . . . = . . . . . = = . . * . . = = . . = . . . . . . .
27
. = . . =
YEARLY FOOD HABITS OF MULE DEER AS DETERMINED BY
EXAMINATION OF 96 FEEDING SITES AND ANALYSES OF
21 RUMEN SAMPLES o===...=.....o . = = . . = . . . = = . = = . .#.=..m......
33
AVERAGE WEIGHTS RECORDED BY SEX AND AGE CLASS FOR
37 DEER FROM THE STUDY AREA ...............................
41
SEX AND AGE CLASSES OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER
POPULATIONS AS DETERMINED BY OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969 .......
42
MONTHLY CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA FROM UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER STATIONS
47
TAXA WITH LESS THAN 15 PERCENT FREQUENCY AND 2 PERCENT
CANOPY COVERAGE IN AT LEAST ONE TYPE OR SUBTYPE AS
DETERMINED BY EXAMINATION OF 20 X 50 CENTIMETER PLOTS .....
48
PERCENT OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER OBSERVED ON EACH VEGE­
TATION TYPE DURING MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969...
52
SPECIES UTILIZED AT LEVELS OF LESS THAN 0.5 PERCENT BY
WHITETAIL DEER, 1967— 1969 . . . . . . . . o . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = .
54
SPECIES UTILIZED AT LEVELS OF LESS THAN 0.5 PERCENT BY
MULE DEER, 1967— 1969 ...............o.....................*
56
V
TABLE OF CONTENTS
(continued)
Page
DOUGLAS-FIR'ZONE ....
Douglas-fir Type
19
19
Distribution and Range Use
21
21
WHITETAIL DEER
Summer „.„..
Winter .....
MULE DEER ......
Simmer .....
Winter .....
24
25
25
25
Food Habits .......
WHITE!AIL DEER
Summer ..
26
26
30
30
32
32
32
FaZZ...
Winter ..
Spring .
MULE DEER
Summer .
FaZZ ...
36
36
38
Winter .
Spring ....
. SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
Whitetail Deer .
Mule Deer ......
38
38
39
Weights, Productivity and Population Characteristics
WEIGHTS .......... .......................
PRODUCTIVITY AND POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
Interspecifie Relationships
LITERATURE CITED .................
40
40
43
o e o * Q o o e o o e c
58
is
vi
LIST OF TABLES
Table
I.
Ho
IIIo
Page
PERCENT CANOPY COVERAGE AND FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF
PLANTS IN VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES AS DETERMINED
BY EXAMINATION OF 20 X .50 CENTIMETER PLOTS ...... .
10
PERCENT OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER OBSERVED ON EACH
VEGETATION TYPE DURING ROUTE OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969 ......
22
COVER TYPES LOCATED NEAREST TO OBSERVED DEER DURING THE
SUMMER OF 1968 AND THE WINTER OF 1969
24
>
H
YEARLY FOOD HABITS OF WHITETAIL DEER AS DETERMINED BY
EXAMINATION OF 94 FEEDING SITES AND ANALYSES OF 27
RUMEN SAMPLES ooooooooo@o»@oo*oeooooo@o«oocooeo@oo#eooeooo. o 27
V.
YEARLY FOOD HABITS OF MULE DEER AS DETERMINED BY
EXAMINATION OF 96 FEEDING SITES AND ANALYSES OF
21 RUMEN SAMPLES oooooceoooeooooeo.oooooooeooooee'oe. oo’eoeoooo
33
AVERAGE WEIGHTS RECORDED BY SEX AND AGE CLASS FOR
37 DEER FROM THE STUDY AREA
41
SEX AND AGE CLASSES OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER
POPULATIONS AS DETERMINED BY OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969 ......
42
MONTHLY CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA FROM UNITED STATES
DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER STATIONS
47
TAXA WITH LESS THAN 15 PERCENT FREQUENCY AND 2 PERCENT
CANOPY COVERAGE IN AT LEAST ONE TYPE OR SUBTYPE AS
DETERMINED BY.EXAMINATION OF 20 X 50 CENTIMETER PLOTS .....
48
PERCENT OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER OBSERVED ON EACH VEGE­
TATION TYPE DURING MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969...
52
SPECIES UTILIZED AT LEVELS OF LESS THAN 0.5 PERCENT BY
WHITETAIL DEER, 19 67—1969 .... .....o.................■....
54
SPECIES UTILIZED AT LEVELS OF LESS THAN 0.5 PERCENT BY
MULE DEER, 19^)7—1969 ... ............. .■.......... .e........
56
vii.
VIII.
IXo
Xo
XIo
XIIo
XII
vii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.
2.
'
Study area showing vegetation types, observations routes
and distribution of deer....... ■............ ................ ..
Agriculture zone showing willow type along.Beaver Creek
in winter . ........... -........ ......................... .
Page
4
-15
3.
Benchland area showing the grassland type of the agriculture
zone with the ponderosa pine zone in the background .......... 15
4.
Hawthorn-aspen zone on Cottonwood Creek showing the cotton­
wood type in the foreground with the Agriculture type in
the center and the hawthorn-aspen.type in the background....... 18
5.
Common juniper subtype located in the grassland zone.........
18
6.
Grassland type of the grassland zone in the foreground and
the Douglas-fir zone in the background .............. .
20
viii
ABSTRACT
A study was conducted during the summers of 1967 and 1968 as well
as the winter of 1969 in the foothill region on the north slopes of the
Snowy Mountains in Central Montana to obtain quantitative data on the
food habits, range use, and interspecific relationships of whitetail
and mule deer. The vegetation of the study area was classified into
five zones: agriculture, ponderosa pine, hawthorn-aspen, grassland, and
Douglas-fir. All types and subtypes except the willow type within the
zones were quantitatively described.
Range use was determined largely
from 3,274 whitetail and 3,777 mule deer observations along systemati­
cally traveled routes. Ninety-seven and 94 percent of the summer and
winter whitetail observations, respectively, were in the agriculture
and hawthorn-aspen zones.
During late summer, 80 percent of all whitetail observations were in the agriculture types. The ponderosa.pine
type was an important type for rest and escape during winter.
The
grassland and Douglas-fir zones accounted for 63 and 83 percent of the
summer and winter mule deer observations, respectively.
During winter,
91 percent of the mule deer observations were in grassland types. Food
habits of whitetail and mule deer were determined from the results of
examinations of 190 feeding sites taken during summer and winter and
from the results of analyses of 48 rumen samples' obtained throughout,
the year. For whitetail deer, browse averaged 54, 41, 51, and 49■
percent of the contents of rumen samples for summer, fall, winter, and
spring, respectively.
It was the most important forage class during
all seasons except fall, when forbs constituted 46 percent of the,diet.
Grass use, mostly wheat, was greatest in winter when it averaged 27 per­
cent .of the total volume of rumen:samples. . Alfalfa was the most im­
portant single food item averaging 20 percent of the.yearly diet.
Browse averaged 57, 55, 63, and 24 percent of the total volume of rumen
samples for mule deer during summer, fall, winter, and spring, respec­
tively. Forbs constituted the most important forage class in spring
averaging 62 percent of the contents of rumens. Grass use was unim­
portant during all seasons except spring. ■ Results of examination of
feeding sites agreed closely with results of rumen analyses for both
species of deer. For the summers of 1967 and 1968, fawn:doe ratios of*
whitetail deer were 101 and 93 per 100, respectively. For mule deer
for the same years the figures were 76 and 62. Overlap in range use
by the two species was hot considered important,during winter.
During
summer common use of range and food items occurred on some areas, but
because food items used in common did not appear to be limited in sup­
ply or deteriorating in production, competition probably did not occur.
Differences in areas preferred by the 'two species apparently enabled
this range to support.a larger number of deer than would have been
possible in the absence of one or the other.
INTRODUCTION
The Snowy Mountains of central Montana are one of several loca­
tions in the state where whitetail deer (.Odoooilsus vivginianus) now
commonly occur in areas previously inhabited mainly by mule deer (Odoooileus hemionus) .
This range extension by whitetail deer appears to
have had a deteriorating effect on some mule deer populations with a
corresponding increase in whitetail numbers.
In many areas the two
species now occupy the same ranges during all or part of the year.
Intensive studies on range use and food habits of mule deer have
been carried out in several areas of Montana.
Included are those of
Wilkins (1957) in. the Bridger Mountains, Lovaas (1958) in the Little
Belt Mountains, and Mackie (1965) in the Missouri River Breaks.
lar studies on whitetail deer are few.
Simi­
Allen (1968) studied whitetail
deer on the Missouri River bottoms in central Montana.
Schallenberger
(1966) considered whitetail deer during an investigation of several big
game species in the Sun River area, west-central Montana.
Management
in areas where whitetail and mule deer ranges overlap has been hindered
primarily because of lack of data on interrelationships existing be­
tween the two.
Martinka (1968) studied habitat relationships of white-
tail and mule deer in northern Montana.
Since no intensive work has
been done in the Snowy Mountains, information for management of either
species is generally lacking.
This study's main objectives were to determine food habits, range
use and interspecific relationships of the whitetail and mule deer pop­
ulations inhabiting the north slopes of the Snowy Mountains.
Full time
-2-
field studies were conducted during the summers of 1967 and 1968 as well
as the winter of 1969.
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA
The Snowy Mountains, located 10 miles south of Lewistown, form a
south-eastward extending range approximately 30 miles long and 15 miles
wide.
Elevations range from about 4,300 feet in the foothill area up
to 8,533 feet.
Many deep canyons extend from the edge into the central
part of the mountains.
Reeves (1931) described the area as consisting
entirely of sedimentary rocks that have been arched upward in a huge
elliptical dome.
The rocks range in age from pre-Cambrium to Recent.
Madison limestone is the main surface rock.
The study area (Figure I), consisting of approximately 120 square
miles on the north slopes of the Snowy Mountains, was mainly in the
foothill region between 4,300 and 6,100 feet elevation.
vation was gradual in all but the uppermost part.
Rise in ele­
Cottonwood Creek,
Beaver Creek, and Rock Creek were the principle drainages.
These
streams were characterized by wide drainage basins separated by grassy
or timbered ridges in the upper part and flat broad benches a t .lower
elevations.
Most.of the study area was accessible by vehicle.
Only
about six square miles was publicly owned; this was mainly administered
by the U. S. Forest Service,
Climatological data (Appendix, Table VIII) were obtained from each
of two weather stations; temperatures from the Lewistown Airport weather
station and precipitation from a station 10 miles south of Lewistown
located on the study area at an elevation of 4,900 feet.
The average
temperatures of 62.5°F and 57.9°F for June-September, 1967 and 1968 were
— 4—
LEGEND
DO UG LAS
F IR
G R A SS L A N D
S c a le in M ile s
cm
H A W T H O R N -A S P E N
ZO N E
PONDEROSA
ZO N E
A G R IC U L T U R E
Figure I.
ZO N E
ZONE
RO UTE
I
ROUTE
2
P IN E
ZO NE
Study area showing vegetation types, observation routes and
distribution of deer. Each symbol for distribution repre­
sents I percent of the total deer observed for one season.
Observations constituting less than I percent of the total
deer within one square mile were not included.
-5-
1.7°F above and 2.8°F below normal, respectively.
Precipitation of 16.87
and 13.50 inches for these same.periods was 6.23 and 2.86 inches above
normal.
During the winter of 1969, the average temperatures of 2.3°F,
17.8°F, and 24.I0F for January, February, and March were 17.9°F, 4.7°F,
and 4.6°F below normal, respectively.
Monthly precipitation totals of
2.20, .59,- and .21 inches for the same 3 months were. 1.12 inches above
and .67 and .85 inches below normal; respectively.
Although precipita-.
tion for. the 3-month period was only .4 inches below normal, reports
from local people were that snow accumulations were considerably below
normal; especially at higher elevations.
Following strong southwest
winds, which began at the end of January, most.ridges were partially
or completely bare during the remainder of the winter period.
METHODS
Vegetation
To aid in determining range use relationships between whitetail and
mule deer, the vegetation of the study area was classified into five
zones with types and subtypes within the zones =
All types and subtypes
were quantitatively or qualitatively studied to determine their vege­
tation composition.
A method described by Daubenmiye (1959) was used
on all but the agriculture and willow types.
Species composition and
canopy coverage of vegetation shorter than 3 feet were recorded for
each of ten, twenty, or forty 20 x 50 centimeter plots.placed at 10foot intervals along each of 37 transects in representative stands.
Transects were evaluated at various times so that both early and latematuring plants would be included. . Plants were collected and identi­
fied to aid in recognition of plants in the field.
Identification of
all specimens was verified by Dr. W. E. Booth of Montana State Univer­
sity.
The average diameter breast high (d. b. h.) and density of trees
in the aspen, cottonwood, pine, and fir types were determined by the
point-centered quarter method (Cottam and Curtis 1956).
For each type,
160 trees were measured. . Intercept of shrubs over 3 feet high was
measured along 800 feet of line transect to determine occurrence.in
the cottonwood type.
Nomenclature of plants followed Booth (1950) and
Booth and Wright (1966).
— 7—
Distribution of Deer
F o u r .observation routes, extending through all vegetation zones,
types, and subtypes, were selected on the study area (Figure I).
Ob­
servations of deer, with the aid of a.pair of 7 x 35 binoculars and a
spotting scope, were made weekly during early morning and late evening
along each of the observation routes from a four-wheel drive vehicle or
snowmobile.
These observations were referred to as route observations
while those made at other times were termed miscellaneous observations.
For each deer observation, the following were recorded: locatibn by
vegetation zone, type, and subtype; species; sex and age class; time;
and geographic location.
Vegetation types, which had shrubs or trees
over 4 feet in height; wefe considered secure cover.for deer and were
designated cover types.
During, the, summer of 1968 and the winter of
1969j the cover type nearest each observed deer was recorded.
Food Habits
Food habits were determined from feeding site examinations and
rumen analyses.
Feeding sites were examined immediately after being
vacated by the feeding animal.
Use of a twig or leaf of a browse
plant, a stem or leaf of a forb, or one "bite" of a grass or grasslike
plant constituted one instance of use.
During the summer, the vege­
tation within each of ten 20 x 50 centimeter plots spaced at 5-foot
intervals was evaluated according to species composition and canopy
coverage at each feeding site.
To evaluate food preferences, the
— 8— .
relative abundance of each plant as determined by percent canopy cover­
age.was compared with its relative importance in the diet as determined
by percent frequency of use in relation to other plants.at feeding
sites.
.A quart rumen sample from each of 48 deer was analyzed using a
technique similar to that of Cole■(1956) and others.
The distribution
of the samples was two for each specids per month except for October
with one and December with none for mule deer as well as February,
April, and November for whitetail deer when the samples were three,
five, and one, respectively.
Twenty-two of the samples were collected
by the area biologist from December-April of 1966 and 1967.
mainder were taken during my study.
The re­
The aggregate percentage method
(Martin et al. 1946) was used in tabulation of data for feeding sites
and rumen samples by season. .
Weights, Productivity and Population Characteristics
Sex, age, and whole and hog-dressed weights were determined from
37 deer taken from the study area.
taken during pregnancy was recorded.
The number of embryos in females
Productivity and population char­
acteristics were determined from classification of observed deer.
RESULTS
Vegetation
AGRICULTURE ZONE
The agriculture zone, occurring between 4,300 and 4,600 feet, occu­
pied approximately 22,000 acres and included five vegetation types
(Figure I).
AgvioultuTe Type.
This was an extensive type occupying most of the
bottomland areas adjacent to the creeks as well as the broad flat benches
between drainage basins.
Grain, mainly barley (Hovdeum spp.) and wheat
(Tvitloum aest-ivim) was grown on the drier bench lands while hay crops,
usually alfalfa (Medloago sativa) mixed with brome (Bromus -spp.) or
timothy (Phleum pvatense), were most important on the more mesic
bottomlands.
Cottonwood Type.
This type which occurred only along the bottom­
lands of Cottonwood Creek, was dominated by narrowleaf cottonwood
(Populus angustifolia).
inches d. b. h.
Most.trees were mature or old, averaging 12.5
The sparse density of ,186 trees per acre allowed a
tall understory of shrubs to persist.
Percent line intercept for shrubs
over 3 feet tall was as follows: red dogwood (Covnus stolonifera), 20;
western serviceberry (Amelanohiev alnifolia), 9; and chokecherry (Prunus
vivginiana), 8.
Although not included in sampled stands, willow (Salix
spp.) commonly occurred in very sparse cottonwood stands.
Character­
istic short shrubs were red dogwood, rose (Rosa spp.) and snowberry
(SymphorioaTpos spp.) (Table I).
Cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeokia laoiniata)
TABLE I.
PERCENT CANOPY COVERAGE AND FREQUENCY OF OCCURRENCE OF PLANTS IN VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES AS DETERMINED BY EXAMINATION OF
20 X 50 CENTIMETER PLOTS.
VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES
Ponderosa
Pine
4(40)2/
Plants!^
Aspen
4(40)
Hawthorn
4(40)
Mesic
Grassland
4(40)
Xeric
Grassland
4(40)
Douglasfir
4(40)
Cottonwood
4(40)
SHRUBS:
Amelanahier alnifolia
Berberis repens
C o m u s stolonifera
Juniperus
cormunis
Juniperus horizontalis
Potentilla frutioosa
Prunus virginiana
R o s a spp.
S a l i x spp.
Spiraea betulifolia
S y m p h o r i a a r p o s spp.
3/19-3/
A/
tr/tr—
tr/tr
-
5/43
tr/tr
3/17
5/48
tr/tr
3/23
tr/15
7/47
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
3/24
-
tr/tr
2/tr
tr/tr
2/tr
-
4/19
tr/tr
5/39
-
-
tr/tr
5/27
-
3/14
3/23
-
—
6/44
tr/tr
8/71
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
2/tr
3/28
3/19
tr/tr
tr/tr
2/31
tr/15
—
tr/46
tr/17
tr/tr
2/tr
2/27
tr/tr
3/35
4/32
4/54
tr/tr
tr/tr
13/62
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
8/33
2/tr
5/40
3/17
GrasslandCommon
Willow
Juniper
5(10)
.
-
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
8/30
~
12/47
tr/tr
3/26
-
X
GrasslandCreeping
Juniper
4(20)
-
—
29/51
10/49
tr/tr
-
2/38
tr/tr
3/58
tr/tr
2/16
tr/tr
tr/tr
6/38
tr/tr
tr/tr
3/50
tr/tr
3/24
tr/tr
3/30
-
FORES:
Achillea millefolium
Agoseris glauca
Agrimonia striata
Alyssun alyssoides
Anemone multifida
Antennaria parvifolia
Arenaria congesta
Arnica cordifolia
Artemisia frigida
Artemisia ludoviaiana
Aster falaatus
Aster foliaceus
A s t e r spp.
Cerastium arvense
-
3/30
tr/tr
-
-
2/tr
7/30
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
-
4/34
tr/tr
-
~
-
-
X
X
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
5/51
TABLE I.
(CONTINUED)
VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES
Ponderosa
Pine
4(40)
Plants
Cirsium arvense
-
C i r s i t m spp.
Clematis pseudoalpina
tr/tr
Collomia linearis
Comandra umbellata
Cynoglosstm officinale
Erigeron caespitosus
tr/tr
Erigeron speciosus
Fragaria virginiana
-
-
2/19
-
tr/tr
Gaillardia aristata
-
Galium aparine
-
Galium boreale
Geranitm viscossissimum
tr/tr
-
Aspen
4(40)
-
2/tr
Hawthorn
4(40)
-
tr/tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
12/57
-
tr/tr
3/47
-
2/16
2/25
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
-
7/51
tr/19
-
Hedysarum sulphuresaens
-
-
-
Helianthus
-
-
-
Heracleum
nuttallii
lanatm
Linum perenne
-
tr/tr
-
-
-
L i t h o s p e r r m m r u d e r ale
-
Monarda fistulosa
Osmorhiza longistylis
_
Phlox albomarginata
-
-
P h lox hoodii
-
-
Potentilla gracilis
Ranunculus aariformis
-
-
Rudbeckia
laainiata
Sanicula marilandica
T a r a x a c m officinale
T h a l i a t r m oeeidentale
Themopsis
rhombifolia
5/43
tr/tr
tr/tr
11/69
4/27
-
-
-
4/36
6/54
2/28
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
-
-
-
2/16
9/55
-
tr/tr
3/22
-
2/15
6/37
tr/19
-
Mesic
Grassland
4(40)
-
tr/tr
~
tr/17
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
4/21
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
5/40
9/42
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
5/29
-
Xeric
Grassland
4(40)
-
tr/tr
-
tr/21
-
4/21
tr/tr
-
6/16
-
Douglasfir
4(40)
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
2/24
-
tr/19
X
-
-
-
-
tr/tr
-
-
-
tr/tr
-
X
-
tr/tr
-
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
tr/40
tr/tr
-
-
-
-
-
4/74
3/22
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
tr/tr
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
3/20
tr/17
2/19
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
4/23
4/32
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
tr/tr
-
-
4/19
3/27
-
tr/tr
-
5/24
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
GrasslandCreeping
Juniper
4(20)
-
-
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
-
tr/15
tr/tr
tr/tr
3/41
3/21
tr/tr
Cottonwood
4(40)
Grassland"
Common
Willow Juniper
5(10)
-
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
tr/31
-
6/29
-
tr/21
-
tr/tr
-
tr/29
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2/28
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
tr/tr
2/20
tr/tr
-
' ./tr
22/57
3/19
3/32
tr/tr
-
X
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
TABLE I.
(CONTINUED).
VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES
Ponderosa
Pine
4(40)
P lants
Aspen
4(40)
Hawthorn
4(40)
latifolia
-
-
-
Viaia americana
-
-
-
•Typha
Viola canadensis
Unidentified Forbs
GRASS AND GRASSLIKE:
tr/tr
tr/tr
16/74
tr/tr
20/87
tr/tr
^ Agropyron smithii
-
-
-
y Agropyron s p i a a t m
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
*/ A g r o p y r o n spp.
Agrostis diegoensis
Bromus marginatus
Carex nebraskensis
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
-
C a r e x spp.
-
3/20
-
Danthonia o a l i f o m i a a
Festuaa idahoensis
-
-
-
-
-
-
Festuaa soabrella
-
-
-
Koeleria cristata
-
-
-
^ Phleum pretense
Vy P o a spp.
Stipa oomata
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
Unidentified Grasses
tr/tr
OTHER:
Bare Ground
Lichens and Mosses
Litter
tr/tr
tr/tr
92/100
Mesic
Grassland
4(40)
-
tr/19
Xeric
Grassland
4(40)
-
tr/tr
-
2/15
tr/tr
4/39
tr/tr
-
4/39
4/42
3/17
7/49
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
5/55
3/21
4/33
—
tr/16
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
26/72
3/20
tr/tr
31/86
tr/tr
tr/tr
10/47
2/39
4/30
14/89
-
X
-
-
2/28
-
tr/16
7/34
-
-
3/20
tr/15
—
12/82
51/99
-
Cottonwood
4(40)
GrasslandCommon
Willow Juniper
5(10)
-
-
12/91
tr/tr
4/47
2/18
tr/tr
tr/22
12/52
Douglasfir
4(40)
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
-
4/30
-
-
4/32
-
-
tr/tr
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
2/33
6/44
X
X
-
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
-
-
tr/tr
-
-
tr/17
-
-
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr
83/100
12/42
—
34/99
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
-
4/34
3/20
tr/tr
6/52
7/42
-
GrasslandCreeping
Juniper
4(20)
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
-
tr/tr
10/82
-
3/40
-
8/59
-
4/51
tr/tr
2/tr
-
3/42
tr/tr
tr/16
8/28
12/47
tr/16
8/61
3/69
I/ Includes only taxa with more than 2 percent canopy coverage or 15 percent frequency in at least one type or subtype.
included in Appendix Table IX.
27 Nunber of stands with ntmber of plots per stand in parenthesis.
3/ Canopy coverage (percent of area covered by vegetation)/average frequency (percent occurrence among plots).
ZV "tr" indicates a value of less than 2 percent canopy coverage or 15 percent frequency.
5/ Species present but no quantitative data available.
Other are
-13-
was the most frequently occurring forb.
Dominant grasses were blue-
grasses (,Poa spp„} and thingrass (Agvostis diegoensis) .
Willow Type.
Dense stands of willow ranging in width from 50 to
200 feet occurred commonly along Beaver Creek and occasionally along
Rock Creek (Figure 2).
Heights of plants did not exceed 15 feet.
Al­
though several species of willow occurred, Bebb willow (Salix bebbiana)
was the m o s t .common.
Two forbs, cow-parsnip (Hevaoleim lanatvm) and
cutleaf coneflower, frequently occurred in sparse stands of willow.
Bluegrasses and Nebraska sedge (Cavex nebvaskensis) were also present.
Hawthorn Type.
Dense stands of hawthorn commonly occurred along
the bottoms and other.mesic sites of secondary drainages.
Hawthorn,
also occurred on the slopes adjacent to willow and cottonwood types on
the main streams.
Yellow hawthorn (Crataegus ohrysophyta) and black
hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii) were present, but the former had the
greatest occurrence.
Characteristic forbs were Canada violet (Viola
canadensis), longstyle sweetroot (Osmorhiza longistylis), bedstraw
(Galium aparine) , and common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) .
Bluegrasses were the only common grasses.
Grassland Type. ■ This type occurred quite extensively throughout
the agriculture zone (Figure 2).
Mesic sites, which tended to occur
on the bottomlands, differed considerably in their vegetation composi­
tion from xeric sites, which dominated the ridges.
Rose, snowberry and
shrubby cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa) were the characteristic shrubs
-14-
occurrlng on meslc sites.
A wide variety of forbs was present includ­
ing sticky geranium {Geranium viscossissimvm), yarrow (Aahillea mills- ■
folium), northern bedstraw {Galium boreale), and horsemint {Monarch,
fistulosd) .
Bluegrasses were extremely abundant with timothy occurring
less commonlyo
cinquefoil.
Dominant shrubs on xeric sites were rose and shrubby
Gaillardia {Gaillardia aristata), asters {Aster spp.) and
tufted fleabane {Erigeron caespitosus) were the characteristic forbs.
Important grasses were junegrass {Koeleria cristata) and wheatgrasses
{Agropyron spp.).
PONDEEOSA PINE ZONE
This zone, occupying about 9,000 acres, formed a discontinuous belt
of timber between the agriculture and hawthorn-aspen zones (Figure I).
Because of its continuous.canopy, ponderosa.pine was considered the only
type within this zone.
Ponderosa Pine Type,
This type occurred mainly on ridges, benches,
and south and west slopes of small drainage basins (Figure 3).
Al­
though ponderosa pine {Pinus- ponderosa) was the dominant tree; some
areas at higher elevations were interspersed with Douglas-fIr {Pseudotsuga taxi folia),
inches.
Average d. b. h. of ponderosa pine trees was 8.2
Dense stands, averaging 857 trees per acre, resulted in sparse
understory vegetation.
White spiraea {Spiraea betulifolia) and Oregon
grape {Berberis repens) were the characteristic shrubs.
Frequently oc­
curring forbs were longstyle sweetroot and arnica {Arnica cordifolia)c .
-15-
Figure 2.
Agriculture zone showing willow type along Beaver Creek in
winter.
Figure 3.
Benchland area showing the grassland type of the agriculture
zone with the ponderosa pine zone in the background.
-16-
Grasses were relatively unimportant ^
HAWTHORN-ASPEN ZONE
This zone, the largest in the study area comprising about 26,000
acres, occurred between 4,800 and.5,400 feet.
Four types were de­
scribed within this zone,
HaWthoTn-Aspen Type.
The hawthorn-aspen type, usually consisting
of quaking aspen (Populus tvemuloides) with a tall understory of haw­
thorn, occurred on almost all sites except dry ridge tops (Figure 4).
Frequently pure stands of aspen or hawthorn occurred.
were very dense consisting of 1,148 trees per acre.
averaging 3.9 inches d. b. h.
Aspen stands
Trees were small
Understory vegetation in this type con­
sisted of a combination of those species which occurred in pure stands
of hawthorn or aspen.
Rose, snowberry and Oregon grape were the most
frequently occurring short shrubs.
Common forbs included Canada violet,
longstyle sweetroot; common dandelion and houndstongue (.CynogZossun
officinale).
Bluegrasses were the only abundant grasses.
Cottonwood Type.
This type was an extension of the cottonwood
type from the agriculture zone and was similar to that type (Figure 4).
Agnioulticpe Type.
Agricultural crops were grown mainly along the
creek bottoms and adjacent slopes (Figure 4).
Crops were similar to
those of the agriculture zone, however proportionately more hay and
less grain were grown.
GnassZand Type.
Vegetation in this type was comparable to that
-17of the same type in the agriculture zone, although shrubby cinquefoil
occurred more frequently.
More mesic sites were also present.
GRASSLAND ZONE
Extensive areas of grassland occurred in the southwestern part of
the study area with smaller areas in the south-central p a r t ■(Figure I).
The grassland zone occurred at approximately the same elevations as the
hawthorn-aspen zone to the east and north and appeared to replace it.
The absence of major streams probably explains the occurrence of grass­
land vegetation rather than hawthorn.and aspen.
The zone covered about,
13,000 acres and was bordered by the Douglas-fir zone at higher
elevations.
Types and subtypes were described.
Grassland Type.
of the grassland zone.
Open rolling grassland occupied the greater part
Except for the addition of the subtypes de­
scribed below, vegetation in this type was similar to that of the grass­
land types mentioned earlier.
Areas located adjacent to the Douglas-fir
zone differed somewhat with bluebunch fescue (.Festuca Idahoensis) and
rough fescue (Festuea seabrella) commonly occurring.
The grassland-
creeping juniper subtype occurred in the southwestern part of the study
area where ridges were dominated by scattered mats of creeping juniper
(Juniperus horizontalis).
Shrubby cinquefoil was the only other fre­
quently occurring shrub on this subtype.
Associated forbs were white
sweetvetch (Hedysarum sulphureseens) , clematis (Clematis pseudoalpina) ,
and field chickweed (CeraStium arvense). Wheatgrasses and Idaho fescue
— 18—
I
Figure 4.
Hawthorn-aspen zone on Cottonwood Creek showing the cottonwood
type in the foreground with the agriculture type in the center
and the hawthorn-aspen type in the background.
-19-
were the characteristic grasses.
A grassland-common juniper subtype
(Figure 5), usually associated with shallow soil and rocky areas, oc­
curred mainly on south and west facing slopes.
The only abundant shrub
other than common juniper (,Juniperus eormunis) was shrubby cinquefoil.
Leafybract aster (Aster fotiaeeus) and northern bedstraw were important
forbs, with common grasses being bluegrasses and timothy.
Hawthorn-Aspen Type*
This type had very limited distribution oc­
curring only in a few mesic drainage basins.
Its vegetation was similar
to that of the hawthorn-aspen type described earlier.
DOUGLAS-FIR ZONE
This zone formed an almost complete belt of timber across the
southern boundary of the study area above 5,800 feet elevation.
comprised about 5,000 acres.
It
Only the Bouglas-fir type was included
within this zone (Figure 6) .
Douglas-fir Type.
The dense overstory of Douglas-fir occasionally
included scattered trees of limber pine (Pinus flexilis), lodgepole pine
(Pinus oontorta) and Engelmann spruce (Pioea engelmanni).
At lower ele­
vations of the Douglas-fir type, an ecotone existed where ponderosa pine
was commonly found with Douglas-fir.
trees was 7.7 inches.
Average d. b. h. of Douglas-fir
Density was 480 trees per acre.
and Oregon grape were the most common understory shrubs.
White spiraea
Longstyle
sweetrobt and Virginiana strawberry (Fragaria virginiana) were
frequently occurring forbs.
Grasses were relatively unimportant.
-20-
Figure 6.
Grassland type of the grassland zone in the foreground and
the Douglas-fir zone in the background.
-21-
Distribution and Range Use
A total of 6,608 whitetail and 5,452 mule deer observations were
recorded during 134 route and 137 miscellaneous observation trips.
Dis­
tribution and range use were determined primarily from route observa­
tions.
Observations of deer indicated their distribution during feeding
periods, while recording of the cover type nearest the observed deer
tended to show their distribution during rest periods.
Observations for
the two summers were combined, since no major differences in distribution
were noted.
WHITETAIL DEER
Summer?'
Ninety-seven percent of the whitetail deer observed during
route observations were in the agriculture and hawthorn-aspen zones
(Table II).
Bottomland types with deciduous vegetation appeared to be
preferred, probably because their mesic conditions resulted in abundant
vegetation.
Heavy use of the agriculture type and hay subtype within
each of the zones was noted.
Observations in the agriculture types in­
creased to a high of 80 percent of all deer seen in late summer.
coincided with- a decrease in use of the hawthorn-aspen type.
This
Miscel­
laneous observations (Appendix, Table X) showed similar results to
route observations.
Allen (1968) reported heavy use of alfalfa and
meadow types during the summer on Missouri River bottoms.
Cover types
most frequently recorded during 1968 were hawthorn-aspen and hawthorn(Table III).
TABLE II.
PERCENT OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER OBSERVED ON EACH VEGETATION TYPE DURING ROUTE OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969
Vegetation Types
A g r ic u ltu r e Z one:
Agriculture Type
Hay Subtype
Grain Subtype
Cottonwood Type
Willow Type
Hawthorn Type
Grassland Type
6/21-7/20
W T /MD
14/91/
%/tr2/
tr/tr
tr/tr/2/5
tr/2
SUMMER 1967-1968
7/21-8/20
8/21-9/15
W T /MD
W T /MD
6/21-9/15
WT/MD
January
WT/MD
WINTER 1969
February
March
WT/MD
WT/MD
Jan.-Mar.
WT/MD
27/5
22/1
24/2
-/tr
tr/tr/1/3
3/tr
31/13
22/9
22/10
-/tr/tr/2/3
6/tr
25/9
19/4
20/5
tr/tr
tr/tr/1/3
4/1
55/21/7/14/-/-/“
-/34/-
89/1
32/5/27/-/“
-/“
I/55/1
89/35/4/31/-/“
-/2/52/-
85/tr
32/5/27/-/-/I/52/tr
tr/tr/-
tr/tr
tr/tr
1/tr
1/tr
14/14/-
5/2
5/2
4/4/-
6/tr
6/tr
31/7
10/4
2/-/”
-/”
-/“
20/3
6/19
-/tr
-/-/-/-/6/18
7/15
-/tr
-/-/-/-/7/15
9/16
1/1
tr/-/-/-/8/15
-/61
-/61
-/76
-/76
-/83
-/83
-/76
-/76
P o n d e ro sa P in e Z one:
Ponderosa Pine Type
2/tr
2/tr
H a w th o r n -A s p e n Z o n e :
Hawthorn-Aspen Type
Cottonwood Type
Agriculture Type
Hay Subtype
Grain Subtype
Grassland Type
78/36
36/25
3/27/3
18/1
10/12/7
71/28
33/18
2/tr
31/4
24/4
3/5/6
69/23
8/10
tr/58/7
49/4
5/2/6
72/27
22/17
2/tr
43/5
37/3
6/5/6
5/46
1/40
„.
*2/
1/57
-/46
tr/59
tr/49
2/55
tr/46
*
*
*
-/19
-/5
-/14
-/11
*
*
*
*
-/10
1/9
-/9
-/-
-/51
-/“
-/47
-/“
-/43
-/“
G r a s s la n d Z one:
Grassland Type
Grassland-Common
Juniper Subtype
Grass Iand-Creeping
Juniper Subtype
Hawthorn-Aspen Type
4/6
tr/11
TABLE II.
(CONTINUED).
Vegetation Types
D o u g la s - f ir Z one:
Douglas-fir Type
T o ta l D eer O b s e rv a tio n s
1 9 6 7 - 1969
1968
6/21-7/20
W T /MD
-/9
-/9
4 1 4 /4 0 3
2 2 5 /2 4 0
SUMMER 1967-1968
7/21-8/20
8/21-9/15
W T /MD
W T /MD
-/10
-/10
4 9 3 /5 6 7
1 7 6 /3 1 8
6/21-9/15
W T /MD
-/5
-/5
-/8
-/8
7 9 9 /5 7 6
5 0 1 /3 8 5
I ,7 0 5 /1 ,5 4 6
9 0 2 /9 4 3
January
W T /MD
-/31
-/31
1 8 4 /3 5 0
WINTER 1969
February
March
W T /MD
W T /MD
-/3
-/3
9 1 0 /1 ,0 3 3
Jan.-Mar.
W T /MD
-/2
-/2
-/7
-/7
4 7 5 /8 4 8
1 ,5 6 9 / 2 ,2 3 1
I/ Percent of totals 1967-1969 for whitetail deer/percent of totals 1967-1969 for mule deer except for hay and grain subtypes in summer
when percentages were based on totals for 1968 only.
2/ "tr" indicates less than 1.0 percent.
3/ Not considered as a subtype.
I
K>
Yj
-24-
TABLE III.
COVER TYPES LOCATED NEAREST TO OBSERVED DEER DURING THE
SUMMER OF 1968 AND THE WINTER OF 1969,
Cover Types
SUMMER 1968
Route
Misc.
Obs.
Obs.
WT/MD
WT/MD
WINTER 1969
Route
Misc.
Obs.
0b s ,
WT/MD
WT/MD
Hawthorn
Ponderosa pine
Douglas-fir
Cottonwood
Willow
Hawthorn-aspen
16/16 I/
11/2
-/29
10/tr
6/tr
57/53
2/2
2/8
91/10
-/34
4/tr/2/54
95/19
-/8
tr/tr/1/65
Total
Deer Observations
902/943
.11/18
10/4
tr/22 2/
10/2
12/tr
56/53
953/658
I ,569/2,231
1,657/551
I/ Sixteen percent of 902 whitetail deer observations/16 percent of 943
mule deer observations,.
2/ "tr" indicates less than 1,0 percent.
WrLnteT.
Eighty-five percent.of the deer .were observed in the agri­
culture zone, indicating a movement from the hawthorn^aspen zone, which
was the zone of greatest use in summer.
as late as January.
Some.of this movement occurred
During early January when snow accumulations were
light, considerable numbers of whitetail deer were observed in the haw­
thorn-aspen zone.
As snow became deeper and crusted, several areas of
concentration became evident in the agriculture zone (Figure I), partic­
ularly in the agriculture type and on wind-blown ridges and south and
west exposures of the grassland type.
subtype during February and March.
Heavy use was made of the grain
These findings are in contrast to
-25-
those of Martinka (1968) in the Bear Paw Mountains of northern Montana
where whitetail deer utilized mainly aspen and shrub types during a
winter when snow depths were comparable to those of my study.
Although
only 6 percent of the deer were observed in the ponderosa pine type,
over 90 percent appeared to use this type for rest and escape as indi­
cated by observations of cover types.
Apparently this heavy use was
related to two factors; its evergreen vegetative character which pro­
vided secure cover, and light snow accumulation because of its
distribution on ridges and south and west slopes.
MULE DEER
SvmmeT.
Mule deer were located throughout the study area, but
most observations were in the grassland zone (Table II).
The grass­
land type within this zone accounted for 46 percent of the observed
deer during this season.
This area was probably preferred because of
an abundance of forbs and short shrubs, especially rose.
Use of the
hawthorn-aspen zone was greatest in early summer and decreased there­
after.
Only slight use was made of the agriculture types.
Hawthorn-
aspen and Douglas-fir were the most commonly recorded cover types.
WinteT.
Most of the deer were also observed in the grassland
zone during this season.
Use of this zone increased during the winter
to a high of 83 percent in March, a period when 98 percent of all deer
were observed in grassland types.
Large concentrations of mule deer
were observed in the grassland-creeping juniper subtype during February
and March.
These concentrations coincided with the distribution of
creeping juniper, which was the most important food item during winter
(Table V).
Considerable use was made of the Douglas-fir type during
January, before snow accumulations forced movement onto the lower,
wind-blown ridges.
Although some mule deer apparently moved onto the
study area from higher elevations, I believe that a large proportion
of the deer which wintered on the study area also summered there.
My
data on use of cover types may not be entirely applicable during this
season, since grassland areas appeared to be used for both feeding
and resting.
Food Habits
M I T E T AIL DEER
Simmer.
Results of feeding site examinations for the summers of
1967 and 1968 were combined.
Browse, forbs, and grasses averaged 29,
65, and 5 percent, respectively of.the diet at 50 feeding sites (Table
IV).
Browse plants receiving greatest use were rose and western ser-
viceberry.
Alfalfa was the most important food item averaging 37 per­
cent of the diet.
It was used most extensively during late summer.
The short growing season resulted in the second crop of alfalfa not
maturing but reaching a height of 6 to 12 inches, a stage of growth
which appeared to be preferred by whitetail deer.
grass utilized.
Barley was the main
The seed heads were taken in late summer when ripe.
Results of rumen sample analyses generally agreed with results at
TABLE IV.
YEARLY FOOD HABITS OF WHITETAIL DEER AS DETERMINED BY EXAMINATION OF 94 FEEDING SITES AND ANALYSES OF 27 RUMEN SAMPLES.
SUMMER
.6 rumens
FR/%
Plants?/
Amelcmohier alnifolia
ArotoataphyIos
Berberis
Comua
uva-urei
repens
stolonifera
Crataegus
ohrysophyta
Crataegus douglasii
C r a t a e g u s spp.
Juniperus o a m u n i s
Juniperus horizontalis
Pinus ponderoea
Populus tremuloides
Prunus
virginiana
Pseudotsuga taxifolia
R o s a spp.
Shepherdia canadensis
Spiraea betulifolia
S y m p h o r i o a r p o s spp.
Unidentified Browse
Total Browse
Achillea millefolium
Antennaria parvifolia
Arenaria congesta
Artemisia frigida
Artemisia ludovioiana
Aster faloatus
Aster foliaoeus
Aster integrifolius
A s t e r spp.
17/12$/
17/tr
50/4
17/3
50/2
—
83/22
17/tr
67/2
83/9
100/54
-
-
50 sites
(3.815)1/
diet/commd/
9/*1/
-/I
2/1
4/*
2/*
-/tr
-/*
tr/*
3/*
9/5
tr/tr
-/I
1/7
29/*
-/2
-/tr
-/I
-/tr
7/8
1/tr
“
FALL
5 r miens
FR/%
—
60/27
40/tr
—
40/6
20/tr
20/5
100/2
100/41
-
40/1
20/1
January
16 sites
(2,308)
% diet
9
11
tr
i
25
tr
ii
i
i
i
10
70
2
5
tr
i
tr
2
WINTER
March
February
13 sites
15 sites
(1,780)
(1,437)
% diet
% diet
4
I
18
“
I
-
SPRING
Jan.-Mar.
44 sites
(5,525)
% diet
10
5
7
25
9
47
tr
tr
i
15
tr
7
tr
i
tr
9
48
I
tr
18
3
2
2
I
4
2
10
I
“
I
I
I
9
3
I
I
tr
i
tr
7
5
2
12
4
-
Jan.-Mar.
7 r unens
FR/%
14/10
14/tr$'
57/2
43/16
9 r unens
FR/%
11/1
56/6
22/4
11/1
44/2
44/20
33/5
22/2
22/2
11/tr
22/tr
100/7
100/49
14/tr
71/18
30/2
30/1
14/tr
71/2
100/51
-
-
14/tr
-
22/tr
-
TABLE IV
(CONTINUED)
SUMMER
6 runens
FR/%
Plants
Bateamorrhiza eagittata
Ceraetium arvenee
Claytonia lanoeolata
Clematie linguetioifolia
Geranium riohardeonii
Geraniwi vieooeeieeimum
Helianthue nuttallii
Laotuca pulohella
Medioago lupulina
Medioago eativa
Monarda fietuloea
Phlox albomarginata
Sanicula marilandioa
Smilaoina etellata
Solidago canadensis
So l i d a g o g i g a n t ea
Taraxacum officinale
Thermopeie
rhombifolia
Tragopogon dubiue
Viola c anadensis
Unidentified Forbs
Total Forbs
50/2
67/15
17/3
17/tr
—
100/22
100/43
50 sites
(3,815)
diet/comm
tr/1
-/tr
2/1
1/1
3/3
2/4
1/tr
1/2
37/*
-/4
-/tr
2/5
1/tr
1/1
1/tr
3/*
-/tr
-/tr
1/3
I/*
65/*
FALL
5 rumens
FR/%
—
60/37
“
—
100/6
100/46
January
16 sites
(2,308)
% diet
I
I
“
I
2
tr
5
~
7
26
WINTER
March
Februaay
15 sites
13 sites
(1,780)
(1,437)
% diet
% diet
I
“
6
18
tr
i
2
~
3
57
I
I
13
I
-
2
37
SPRING
Jan.-Mar.
44 sites
(5,525)
% diet
Jan.-Mar.
tr
i
tr
2
tr
10
I
tr
tr
2
4
40
-
7 rumens
FR/%
9 rumens
FR/%
_
-
-
-
29/1
-
22/2
-
-
-
43/10
-
44/19
33/3
-
86/8
100/20
-
100/16
100/42
TABLE IV.
(CONTINUED).
Plants
6 rumens
FR/2
C a r e x spp.
Hordeien spp.
Phleun pratense
17/1
P o a spp.
Tritioien a e e t i v u n
Unidentified Grasses
T o ta l G ra s s e s and G r a s s lik e
Mushrooms
SUMMER________
FALL
50 sites
(3,815)
diet/coeam
5 rumens
FR/X
-/I
4/*
I/*
tr/*
83/2
-/tr
100/3
5/*
17/tr
____________________ WINTER_________________________________
January
March
Fdiruary
Jan.-Mar
Jan.-Mar
16 sites
13 sites
15 sites
44 sites
(2,308)
(1,780)
(1,437)
7 runens
(5,525)
FR/%
Z diet
Z diet
Z diet
Z diet
20/1
20/6
80/5
100/12
3
3
1
7
1
1
2
2
7
I
2
8
5
15
1
5
2
12
17
29/25
86/2
100/27
SPRING
9 runens
FR/%
89/9
89/9
43/2
XJ Instances of use.
2/ Includes only those plants which constituted at least 0.5 percent of the diet in at least one season or month. Others are included in
Appendix, Table XI.
XJ Mean aggregate percentage of total instances of use on all sites/percent of community on all sites as determined by canopy coverage.
4/ Percent frequency of use by r m e n s /mean aggregate percentage of total volumes of all rumens.
5/ Percent canopy coverage not determined.
6/ "tr" is less than 0.5 percent.
-30-
feeding sites 9 but use of browse was indicated to be greater by the
former.
This difference possibly was related to the difficulty of ob-.
taining feeding site data in predominantly browse types.
Browse con­
stituted 54 percent of all rumen samples and comprised from 19 to 88
percent of individual samples.
Rose and western serviceberry were
most important averaging 2 2 and 12 percent of the rumen contents, re­
spectively.
Although only one sample was taken from a deer on the hay
subtype, alfalfa occurred in four of six rumens and averaged 15 percent
of all samples.
Fall.
Browse averaged 41, forbs 46, and grasses 12 percent of five
rumen samples.
Oregon grape was the m o s t ,utilized browse plant.
It oc­
curred in 60 percent of the samples and comprised 96 percent of the
volume of one sample.
Quaking aspen and snowberry were the only other
browse plants receiving important use.
of the volume of rumen contents.
Alfalfa constituted 37 percent
Two samples taken from the hay sub-
types averaged 86 and 90 percent alfalfa.
Because of the small sample
size for fall, this probably caused forage class percentages to be
abnormally high for forbs and low for browse.
The three samples taken
from types other than the hay subtype averaged 67 percent browse.
About
one-half of the grass utilized consisted of seed heads of wheat.
W-inter*
Forage class percentages determined from the examination
of 44 feeding sites were 48, 40, and 12 for browse, forbs, and grasses,
respectively, indicating little change from summer or fall.
Ponderosa
-31-
pine was the most utilized browse plant comprising 15 percent of the
total instances of use.
Western Serviceberryj snowberry and choke-
cherry were other commonly used browse plants.
Two forbs, phlox (,Phtox
albomccrg-tnata) and fringed sagewort (Artemisia frigida), each received
considerable use during this season.
Wheat, which constituted 5 per­
cent of the diet, was the most important grass.
were the parts used.
Green leaves and stems
Monthly food habits varied considerably during
the winter.
This variation was mainly due to availability and weather
conditions.
During January, a month with very adverse weather condi­
tions and continuous snow cover of 12 to 18 inches, browse averaged 70
percent of the diet.
Considerable feeding was done in the ponderosa
pine type, and ponderosa pine made up 25 percent of the January diet.
During February, strong southwest winds and mild weather resulted in
most ridges and south and west exposures being free of snow.
Heavy
use of these exposed areas, which were characterized by grasses and
forbs, resulted in browse averaging only 25 percent of the total in­
stances of use.
commonly used.
On these areas snowberry and chokecherry were most
Fringed sagewort and phlox, which remained semi-succu­
lent during winter, together constituted 36 percent of the diet and
appeared to be preferred.
Frequent light snows during March restricted
the availability of forbs and resulted in an increase in use of browse,
especially western serviceberry.
Results of rumen analyses generally agreed with results of feeding
site examinations, but some important differences were noted.
Ponderosa
-32-
pine and hawthorn were the most utilized browse plants by rumen analy­
ses <= Most utilization of hawthorn was of dried leaves which were
probably picked up from the ground.
This could explain why it was not
encountered in feeding site examinations.
No detected use was made of
fringed sagewort or phlox, the two most important forbs as revealed by
feeding site examinations.
Wheat comprised IOU and 75 percent of
two samples and made up one-fourth of the volume of all samples.
Rumen
samples were collected 2 years prior to my study and differences noted
in food habits between feeding site examinations and rumen analyses
could have been due to differences in availability and weather conditions
Spring,
Browse, forbs, and grasses averaged 49, 42, and 9 percent,
respectively of nine rumen samples.
Ponderosa pine constituted 20 per­
cent of the diet, mainly because of two samples in which it comprised 84
and 87 percent of their respective total volumes.
percent, was the most important forb.
Alfalfa, averaging 19
Grasses constituted 32 percent
of two samples collected in May.
MULE DEER
Sumer,
Browse averaged 60, forbs'40,. and grasses less than I; per-,
cent of the instances of use at 53 feeding sites examined during- 1967 and
1968.
Rose averaged 38 percent.
It comprised only 12.percent of the
plant community (Table V) , indicating that it was a' preferred summer
browse plant in this area.
Yellow hawthorn and western serviceberry con-r
stituted 9 and 8 percent, respectively of the total instances of use..
•>
TABLE V.
YEARLY FOOD HABITS OF MULE DEER AS DETERMINED BY EXAMINATION OF 96 FEEDING SITES AND ANALYSES OF 21 RUMEN SAMPLES.
SUMMER
6 rumens
FR/%
2/
Plants-
53 sites
(4,535)1'
diet/comiriA'
FALL
3 rumens
FR/%
January
16 sites
(3,430)
% diet
WINTER
February
March
14 sites
13 sites
(1,685)
(1,565)
% diet
% diet
SPRING
Jan.-Mar.
43 sites
(6,680)
% diet
Jan.-Mar
33/1
-
6 rumens
FR/%
6 rumens
FR/%
BROWSE:
Aoev glabvum
Amelanohiev alnifolia
Avotostaphylos
uva-uvsi
Avtemisia tvidentata
Bevbevis vepens
Ceanothus velutinus
Cvataegus
ohvysophyta
Cvataegus douglasii
Cvataegus
spp.
Juniperus
communis
Junipevus
hovizontalis
Populus
Pvunus
tvemuloid.es
vivginiana
Pseudotsuga taxifolia
R o s a spp.
Shephevdia canadensis
Spiraea betulifolia
spp.
Unidentified Browse
Symphoviaavpos
T o t a l B ro w s e
FORBS:
Achillea millefolium
Alyssum alyssoides
Antennaria pavvifolia
A n t e n n a r i a spp.
Avenaria oongesta
Iiz1A '
17/1
50/2
1 7 /2
5 0 /8
—
100/31
17/1
3 3 /2
100/10
1 0 0 /5 7
tr/*!/
67/tr
-
-/3
-/tr
-/i
-/tr
-/tr
8/*
-/tr
-/i
9/*
tr/*
-/tr
-/*
3 /*
-/*
38/12
2/1
-/tr
-/ii
6 0 /*
33/1
67/19
33/5
67/3
—
33/25
100/5
1 0 0 /5 5
-
_
_
5
2
10
6
41
5
4
I
tr
2
3
79
“
tr
10
2
-
I
62
5
I
tr
tr
19
47
I
tr
tr
5
80
3
I
4
5
I
23
30
tr
2
tr
tr
i
3
74
I
tr
i
tr
i
i
I
I
tr
tr
tr
i
5
42
I
-
33/1
33/6
33/4
33/4
17/tr
50/5
3 3 /3
67/1
“
17/11
67/40
33/6
67/5
1 0 0 /6 3
1 0 0 /2 4
-
50/3
33/5
-
TABLE V.
(CONTINUED)
FALL
SUMMER
6 rumens
FR/%
Plants
53 sites
(4,535)
diet/comm
3 rumens
FR/%
January
16 sites
(3,430)
% diet
WINTER
February
March
13 sites
14 sites
(1,685)
(1,565)
% diet
% diet
tr
i
i
tr
2
tr
-
I
I
tr
tr
4
tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Artemisia f m g i d a
-
-
-
-
-
Artemisia
-
-
2
I
tr
2
-
I
I
tr
tr
i
-
-
-
Balsamorrhiza sagittata
Besseya wyomingensis
-
Caloahortus gunnisoni
Cerastiwn arvense
-
Claytonia lanoeolata
Clematis Columbiana
-
Clematis hirsutissima
C l e m a t i s spp.
-
-/tr
-/i
7/6
tr/2
-/tr
l/tr
-/tr
-/tr
i/i
l/tr
17/2
-
ludovieiana
A s ter fatoatus
Aster foliaaeus
-
17/1
-
-
-
SPRING
Jan.-Mar.
43 sites
(6,680)
% diet
-
-
Jan.-Mar.
6 r utens
FR/%
6 rumens
FR/%
-
_
17/2
-
-
-
-
-
17/12
-
-
33/5
-
-
-
-
-
-
33/3
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
I
-
-
tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
17/2
-
-
3
-
i
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
17/tr
Cynoglossum officinale
Delphinium bicolor
Erigeron caespitosus
-
Erigeron speciosus
-
-/I
-/tr
-/tr
i/i
-
-12
-
tr
I
-
tr
-
_
5/3
-/tr
2/1
l/tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
50/11
50/1
Calium boreale
Geranium viscossissimwn
-
83/14
Gewn triflorum
Helianthus nuttallii
-
Heuchera aylindrica
-
-
Hymenoxys aaaulis
Lactuca pulchella
-
Lupinus
-
Medicago
sericeus
-
lupulina
Medieago saliva
Monarda fistulosa
Phlox albomarginata
3 3 /3
-
2/1
l/tr
-/I
4/*
-/5
-/tr
-
-
-
i
tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
83/6
-
-
tr
tr
-
-
tr
i
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
5
i
2
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
i
-
-
-
tr
9
tr
4
33/1
17/1
50/3
33/7
5
_
TABLE V.
(CONTINUED).
SUMMER
6 rumens
FR/%
Plants
•FALL
•53 sites
(4,535)
diet/comm
'3 rumens
FR/%
P o t e n t i l l a spp.
-
-
-
Rammaulus
-
-
-
glaberrimus
Sedum stenopetalum
S e n e c i o oanus
S o l i d a g o spp.
Tragopogon dubius
T r i f o l i u m spp.
Umbelliferae
Viola canadensis
Unidentified Forbs
Total Forbs
GRASSES:
P o a spp.
Unidentified Grasses
T o ta l
G rasses
January
16 sites
(3,430)
X diet
-
WINTER
February
March
13 sites
14 sites
(1,565)
(1,685)
% diet
% diet
-
SPRING
Jan.-Mar.
43 sites
(6,680)
% diet
Jan.-Mar.
-
-
-
I
tr
tr
-
-
I
tr
i
tr
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
33/2
6 rumens
FR/%
6 rumens
FR/%
-
33/2
17/1
50/2
-
-
17/1
-
-
-
-
-
4
I
I
~
-
100/20
1/1
2/2
—
-
-
-
-
100/16
4
3
2
3
100/17
100/16
100/42
40/*
100/40
20
35
17
23
1 0 0 /3 5
1 0 0 /6 2
-
tr/*
—
-
-
2
2
tr
2
100/2
100/14
2
2
2
100/2
100/14
-
17/2
17/tr
-
-/tr
2/1
-/I
-
-
-
-
33/14
33/4
2
tr
-
83/2
-
100/6
tr
2
8 3 /2
tr/*
1 0 0 /6
2
-
-
-
-
I/ Instances of use.
2/ Includes only those plants which constituted at least 0.5 percent of the diet in at least one season or month. Others are included in
Appendix, Table XII.
3/ Mean aggregate percentage of total instances of use on all sites/percent of community on all sites as determined by canopy coverage.
4/ Percent frequency of use by rumens/mean aggregate percentage of total volumes of all rumens.
5/ "tr" is less than 0.5 percent/* indicates percent canopy coverage was not determined.
— 36—
A wide variety of forbs was utilized with leafybract aster and sticky
geranium being the most important.
Alfalfa received only slight use,
mostly during late summer.
Forage class percentages determined from rumen samples agreed
closely with those from feeding sites.
Browse constituted 41 to 73
percent of individual samples averaging 57 percent of all rumen samples.
Rose occurred in all samples and comprised 31 percent of their contents.
Examination of rumens corroborated the data from feeding sites that
sticky geranium was an important summer forb. .
Fall.
food habits.
Three rumen' samples provided limited information on fall
Forage class usage was similar to summer with browse,
forbs, and grasses averaging 55, 40, and 6 percent, respectively.
Snowberry- and Oregon grape were important browse plants while rose did
not occur in any sample.
were commonly used forbs.
Common salsify (.Tragopogon dubius) and alfalfa
Grasses occurred in small amounts in all
samples.
Winter.
An increased use of browse was noted during this season
as compared to fall.
Browse, forbs, and grasses averaged 74, 23, and
2 percent, respectively of the instances of use a t .43 feeding sites.
Creeping and common juniper were the most utilized browse plants com­
prising 30 and 23 percent, respectively of the total instances of plant
use.
A wide variety of forbs was used, none of which individually con-,
stituted more than 4 percent of the diet.
Although monthly forage class
-37-
percentages were quite similar, use of individual plants varied con­
siderably.
January.
Common juniper constituted 41 percent of the diet during
During February and March, creeping juniper averaged 45
percent .of the instances of use.
This change in use of browse plants
was the result of a.shift in distribution from the higher Douglas-fir
type and common juniper subtype in January to the wind-blown ridges
of the creeping juniper subtype during the remainder of the winter.
This discussion of monthly variation in food habits applies only to
deer inhabiting the southwestern part of the study area.
deer were observed here during the winter.
Most of.the
For the mule deer occur­
ring on the rest of the study area, food habits appeared to change only
slightly during the winter.
Results of analyses of rumen samples agreed closely with results
of feeding site examinations.
Browse was the most important forage
class averaging 63 percent of the total volume of all samples.
As
with feeding site examinations, creeping and common juniper were the
most utilized browse plants.
Arrowleaf balsamroot {Balsamovvh'iza sagtt-
tata) constituted 1 2 percent of the diet, but occurred in only one
sample.
Lovaas (1958) working in the Little Belt Mountains of Montana
found that creeping juniper was the most important browse plant on the
prairie-type winter range while common juniper was most important on
the forested winter range.
-38- •
Spring.
During this season, browse decreased to its lowest season­
al use averaging 24 percent of six rumen samples while grasses averaged
14 percent and forbs 62 percent.
Big sagebrush (,Artemisia tridentata)
and Douglas-fir were the most utilized browse species.
Several forbs
receiving substantial use were sticky geranium, pussytoes (Antennaria
spp.) and roundleaf allumroot (Heuohera oylindrioa).
SUMMARY AUD DISCUSSION
Whitetail Deer.
Analyses of rumen contents indicated seasonal for-.
age class percentages fluctuated only slightly throughout the year.
Alfalfa was the most important plant comprising 20 percent of the yearly
diet.
Agricultural crops accounted for 29 percent of the year-long food.
The occurrence of agricultural crops in whitetail deer diets appears to
be quite common.
Korschgen (1962) reported that the statewide average
utilization of farm crops by whitetail deer in Missouri over an 8 -year
period amounted to 22.5 percent of the total food.
Browse species re­
ceiving important use during my study were ponderosa pine and Oregon
grape,
Allen (1968) found snowberry to be the most important browse
plant for whitetail deer on Missouri River bottoms.
Although snow-.
berry was readily available on my study area during all seasons, it
received only slight use, probably because of an abundance of more
desirable browse species.
Despite this difference, forage class
percentages were similar to those reported by Allen.
-39-
Mule Beev.
use.
Certain changes were noted in seasonal forage class
Browse use was greatest during winter, but decreased to its
lowest seasonal use in spring when both forbs and grass received
their greatest use.
Grass was unimportant during all other seasons.
Browse use increased in summer and was the most important forage
class during both summer and fall as well as in winter.
High use of
browse in summer is in contrast to findings of Lovaas (1958) in the
Little Belt Mountains, Wilkins (1957) in the Bridger Mountains, and
others where forbs were the most utilized forage class during summer.
Forage class percentages for the other three seasons agreed closely
with the studies mentioned.
High use of browse during my study ap­
peared to be.related to an abundance of a wide variety of browse
plants.
Nellis and Ross (1969) working on the National Bison Range
in western Montana found that following a reduction in mule deer
numbers, which made more browse available per deer, use of browse
increased.
Browse became the most important forage class during all
seasons except spring.
Although no quantitative data were obtained^ observations revealed
that creeping and common juniper received moderate to heavy use during
the winter.
Occurrence of many decadent juniper plants indicated that
both species apparently have been severely overbrowsed by deer in the
past.
— 40—
Weights, Productivity and Population Characteristics
WEIGHTS
Whole and hog-dressed weights were obtained from 37 deer taken from
the study area (Table VI).
Hog-dressed weights of 19 whitetail deer and
18 mule deer averaged 71 and 73 percent, respectively of their whole
weights.
This relationship can be used as a condition index (Hamerstrom
and Camburn 1950) but no quantitative data for Montana are available for
comparison.
Mackie (1964) recorded hog-dressed weights of -1,500 white-
tail deer and 2,500 mule deer from various locations of Montana from
1948-1963.
My hog-dressed weights for all sex and age classes averaged.
30 and 23 percent lower than Mackie's for whitetail and mule deer, re­
spectively.
Most of Mackie's weights were taken in the fall while my
weights were taken from January through September.
PRODUCTIVITI AND POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS
Sex and age ratios for whitetail.and mule deer are given in Table
VII.
Fawn:doe ratios obtained from August 21 to September 15 probably
best reflect productivity.
For whitetail deer, these were 101 and 93
fawns:100 females for 1967 and 1968, respectively.
the same years, the figures were 76 and 62.
For mule deer for
These ratios for mule deer
are somewhat lower than those reported by Robinette (1944) in Utah and
Nellis (1968) in Montana.
A fawn:adult ratio of 86 fawns:100 adults
for whitetail deer during the winter of 1969 appeared to be above
average when compared with the data of Gunvalson et at.
(1952), who
TABLE VI.
A V ERAGE WEIGHTS R E C O R D E D BY S EX A N D AGE CLASS FO R 37 D E E R F R O M THE STUDY AREA.
1%
h
AGE CLASS
2*5
M
F
M
F
M
F
70
45
60
40
I
85
65
I
102
120
72
80
2
2
-
107
80
95
70
-
2
3
125
85
I
3^-5^
M
F
6% +
M
F
HO
75
I
-
Whitetail Deer:
J anuary-June
Whole Weight
Hog-dressed Weight
Sample Size
July-September
Whole Weight
Hog-dressed Weight
Sample Size
2
-
125
95
I
100
3
-
-
-
-
-
-
72
-
I
H
I
Mule Deer:
January-June
Whole Weight
115
Hog-dressed Weight 85
I
Sample Size
July-September
Whole Weight
Hog-dressed Weight
Sample Size
-P-
-
-
-
113
82
-
3
—
—
120
145
105
I
162
117
2
85
I
—
—
175
125
I
125
90
I
174
130
5
115
82
210
-
155
I
2
TABLE VII.
SEX AND AGE CLASSES OF WHITETAIL AND MULE DEER POPULATIONS AS DETERMINED BY OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969.
Time Period
August 21-September 15
1967
1968
June 21-September 15
1967
1968
1967-1968
J anuary-March, 19 69
Route I - Sumner
1967-1968
Route 2 - Summer
1967-1968
Route 3 - Simmer
.'.967-1968
Route 4 - Sumner
1967-1968
Females
W T /MD
_,
208/127—
334/258
584/424
859/693
1,443/1,117
2/
233/10271/386
226/44
83/126
Total
Adults
WT/MD
Fawns
WT/MD
Unclassified
WT/MD
Males:
100 Females
WT/MD
Fawns:
100 Females
WT/MD
91/104
90/135
299/231
424/393
210/96
311/159
109/42
115/60
44/82
27/52
101/76
93/62
70/42
73/42
234/348
216/421
450/769
-
818/772
1,075/1,114
1,893/1,886
398/723
450/188
482/294
932/482
334/515
259/115
298/193
557/308
2,503/1,644
40/82
25/61
31/69
72/44
56/42
65/43
“
55/24
45/26
49/25
86/71
72/25
305/127
162/42
74/39
31/25
70/41
53/33
55/345
126/731
41/94
77/89
76/37
43/20
86/29
312/73
163/24
183/19
38/66
61/55
52/33
66/82
149/208
48/46
25/16
79/65
57/37
32/22
ADULTS
Males
W T /MD
I/ Based on route and miscellaneous observations.
7J Based on route observations only.
54/143
Fawns:
100 Adults
WT/MD
-43-
found a fall statewide ratio of 70 fawns:100 females in Minnesota based
on hunting season statistics.
The fawn:adult ratios for both species
obtained during the winter are higher than those for the previous sum­
mer.
Hunting mortality may have been proportionally greater for adults
than for fawns.
Fawns as compared to adults were probably more
difficult to observe in summer than in winter.
All of six whitetail females taken from January-April were carry­
ing twins.
Examination of four mule deer females during the same
period revealed three with singles and one with triplets.
Xr
Of 37 deer collected from the study area 14 of the 19 whitetail
deer were. 2%g years old or younger while only 5 of the 18 mule deer
were 2 ^ or younger suggesting the whitetail population was composed
of younger animals.
The ratios,, of males to females obtained during the two summers
were 31 and 69 males:100 females for whitetail and mule deer, respec­
tively.
Route observations in summer revealed that a larger percentage
of males are found at higher elevations.than at lower elevations for
/
both species.
Mule deer at lower elevations were more productive
than those at higher elevations.
Interspecific Relationships
During the winter, 91 percent of the whitetail deer observations.
were in the agriculture and ponderosa pine zones while 83 percent of
the mule deer observations were in the grassland and Douglas-fir zones
-44-
(Table II).
The grassland type of the hawthorn-aspen zone was the only
area of apparent range overlap.
Mule deer were normally located at
higher elevations than whitetail deer within the grassland type (Figure
I), thus eliminating any substantial range overlap in winter.
During the summer, zones of greatest overlap in range use were the
hawthorn-aspen and agriculture zones.
Common use by the two sp,eCies was
most ,evident in the hawthorn-raspen type of the hawthorn-aspen zone,
where 22 and 17 percent, respectively of.the total whitetail and mule
deer observations were made.
As in winter, overlap in range use w a s .
probably not as pronounced as was indicated by the recording of o b - ■
servations by vegetative types because of differences in areal use
within the types.
Food habit's were reviewed to determine if common use was made of
any plants by both species occupying the same general areas.
Since
overlap in range use was not important in winter, competitive aspects
of food habits were not considered.
During summer several plants were
used by both whitetail and mule deer on the same areas.
Most important
among.these were rose, alfalfa, and western serviceberry.
Concerning
game-livestock competition relationships, Cole (1958) has stated four
conditions necessary for competition.
Besides common.use of range and
food items, he stated that the food items used in common must form an
important part of the diet of at least one of the animals and that as
a result of this combined use, the plants must be limited in supply
or deteriorating in production.
Relating these conditions to my study.
-45- •
rose.and alfalfa meet the first three conditions during summer; however
neither of the species appeared to be limited in supply nor deteriorat­
ing in production as a result of combined use.
Competition probably
did not occur during summer.
Spring and fall food habits showed no important overlap in use of
species during spring, but Oregon grape and alfalfa formed an important
part of the diet of both species during fall.
This is a season of
possible competition, but lack of range use data for this season
excludes any further conclusions.
The differences in areas preferred by the two species apparently
enabled this range to support a larger number of deer than would have
been possible in the absence of one or the other.
Whitetail deer pre­
ferred low elevations and agricultural areas while mule deer more
commonly occurred in the higher grassland and Douglas-fir types.
Dual
use of this range appeared to be a more efficient use under the condi­
tions ,afforded by populations levels during my study.
APPENDIX
TABLE VIII.
MONTHLY CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA FROM UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE WEATHER STATIONS.
Period
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
Year
23.3
3.1
29.0
6.5
24.0
-4.7
35.1
—6.1
47.6
-3.4
55.4
-2.1
66.4
.1
68.1
3.9
59.9
5.0
47.5
1.6
32.1
-.5
19.7
-6.4
42.2
-.5
1967 Average Temperature I/
Departure from Normal 2/
1.86
.80
1967 Precipitation Totals 3/
Departure from Normal 4/
1968 Average Temperature
Departure from Normal
21.1
.9
1.38
.30
1968 Precipitation Totals
Departure from Normal
1969 Average Temperature
Departure from Normal
2.3
-17.9
1969 Precipitation Totals
Departure from Normal
2.20
1.12
.73
-.33
31.7
9.2
.34
-.72
17.8
-4.7
.59
-.67
1.94
.58
36.9
8.2
.94
-.32
1.86
-.16
37.5
-3.7
2.13
.11
2.37
-1.55
45.9
-5.1
4.32
.40
7.93
3.60
54.7
-2.8
4.85
.52
2.06
.12
63.3
-3.0
1.95
.01
.87
-1.35
60.8
-3.4
3.90
1.68
6.01
3.86
52.8
— 2.1
2.80
.65
1.99
.74
44.7
-1.2
.50
-.75
1.12
-.19
32.2
-.4
1.54
.23
2.55
1.43
15.3
-10.8
.71
-.41
31.39
7.73
41.4
-1.3
25.36
1.70
24.1
-4.6
.21
-.85
I/ Temperatures in degrees Fahrenheit based on records from the United States Department of Commerce weather station at the Lewistown
Airport, Lewistown, Montana.
2/ Based on data from 1931-1960.
3V Precipitation in inches based on records from the United States Department of Commerce weather station 10 miles south of Lewistown,
Montana.
4/ Based on data from 1950-1968.
TABLE IX.
TAXA WITH LESS THAN 15 PERCENT FREQUENCY AND 2 PERCENT CANOPY COVERAGE IN AT LEAST ONE TYPE OR SUBTYPE AS DETERMINED BY
EXAMINATION OF 20 X 50 CENTIMETER PLOTS.
VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES
Ponderosa
Plnei /
4(40)— '
Taxa
Aspen
4(40)
Hawthorn
4(40)
Mesic
Grassland
4(40)
Xeric
Grassland
4(40)
-
-
-
-
Douglasfir
4(40)
Cottonwood
4(40)
GrasslandCommon
Juniper
5(10)
GrasslandCreeping
Juniper
4(20)
SHRUBS AND TREES:
Aratostaphyloe
uva-ursi
Crataegus chrysophyta
C r a t a e g u s d o u g lasii
Pinus ponderosa
Peeudotsuga taxifolia
Rites setosum
Shepherdia canadensis
~
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
-
Allium brevistylum
Allium textile
Anaphalis margaritaaeae
Apooynwi androsaemifolium
Arnica sororia
Artemisia aampestris
Astragalus missouriensis
A s t r a g a l u s spp.
Baisamorrhiza sagittata
Besseya wyomingensis
Bupleurwi amerioanum
Caloohortus gunnisoni
Campanula rotundifolia
Castilleja ousiokii
Cerastim
I
r
-P-
FORBS:
spp.
Chrysopsis villosa
Cirsium undulatum
Claytonia lanoeolata
Claytonia perfoliata
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
_
X
X
_
_
X
X
X
-
-
_
-
X
-
X
-
-
TABLE IX.
(CONTINUED).
VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES
Ponderosa
Pine
4(40)
Taxa
Clematis
Clematis
columbiana
hirsutissima
Collinsia parviflora
Conimitella williamsii
Delphinium bicolor
D i s p o n m trachy carp im
Drdba
spp.
Erigeron oohroleuous
E r i g e r o n spp.
Fritillaria pudioa
Geranium richardsonii
Geitn t r i f l o r u m
Helianthella uniflorus
Heuohera oylindrioa
Hieraoiitn a l b i f l o n m
Hymenoxys
X
X
X
■X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
Laotuoa pulohella
Lupinus serioeus
Medioago
lupulina
Medioago sativa
Mertensia oblongifolia
M u s i n e o n divarication
Myosotis
s y Ivatioa
Oxytropis serioea
Penstemon nitidus
Periderida gairdneri
Hawthorn
4(40)
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
aoaulis
Lactuca serriola
Liatris punctata
Lithophragma parviflora
Lomatiitn dissection
Lomatium simplex
Aspen
4(40)
X
-
X
-
GrasslandCommon
Juniper
5(10)
GrasslandCreeping
Juniper
4(20)
Mesic
Grassland
4(40)
Xeric
Grassland
4(40)
Douglasfir
4(40)
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
Cottonwood
4(40)
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
X
X
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
-
_
X
X
_
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
X
_
TABLE IX.
(CONTINUED) .
VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES
Ponderosa
Pine
4(40)
Taxa
Plantago major
Polygonum biatortoidea
-
Potentilla arguta
-
Potentilla hippianu
Prunella
vulgaris
Rubus idaeus
Rumex salicifolius
Sedum stenopetalum
Seneoio
aanus
Smilaoina stellata
Solidago canadensis
Solidago gigantea
Solidago missouriensis
Solidago rigida
Suertia perennis
Thlaspi glauoum
Tragopogon dubius
Trifoliun
longipes
Trifolium pratensis
T r i f o l i u n spp.
Viola adunoa
Viola praemorsa
Zygadenus elegans
X
Aspen
4(40)
X
Hawthorn
4(40)
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
-
-
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
X
-
Mesic
Grassland
4(40)
Xeric
Grassland
4(40)
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Douglasfir
4(40)
Cottonwood
4(40)
GrasslandCommon
Juniper
5(10)
GrasslandCreeping
Juniper
4(20)
X
-
-
X
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
-
X
TABLE IX.
(CONTINUED) .
VEGETATION TYPES AND SUBTYPES
fonderosa
Pine
4(40)
Taxa
Aspen
4(40)
Hawthorn
4(40)
Mesic
Grassland
4(40)
Xeric
Grassland
4(40)
Douglasfir
4(40)
-
Cottonwood
4(40)
GrasslandCommon
Juniper
5(10)
GrasslandCreeping
Juniper
4(20)
GRASSES:
-
X
-
-
-
Elymue glauoue
Heliototriohon hookeri
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
X
X
~
X
Bromue
inermie
Melioa epeotabilie
-
X
-
M e l i o a spp.
-
-
-
Oryzopeie aeperifolia
Sohizaohne purpuraeoene
X
-
-
Stipa oolunbiana
JL/ Number of stands with number of plots per stand in parenthesis.
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
-
X
-
X
-
-
X
-
-
TABLE X.
PERCENT OF WHITETAlL AND MULE DEER OBSERVED ON EACH VEGETATION TYPE DURING MISCELLANEOUS OBSERVATIONS, 1967-1969.
Vegetation Types
A g r ic u ltu r e Z one:
Agriculture Type
Hay Subtype
Grain Subtype
Cottonwood Type
Willow Type
Hawthorn Type
Grassland Type
6/21-7/20
W T /MD
14/51/
9/2
8/1 2/
tr/tr—
-/i/tr/l
4/2
SUMMER 1967-1968
7/21-8/20
8/21-9/15
W T /MD
W T /MD
18/4
17/1
24/-/2
tr/tr/-/-/i
l/tr
1/tr
January
W T /MD
18/8
16/5
20/8
-/tr/tr
-/1/tr
-/2
17/6
15/3
18/3
tr/tr
tr/tr
tr/tr/l
tr/2
46/16
24/14/10/-/-/3/3
20/13
82/4
14/2/12/-/-/-/69/4
97/27/2/25/-/-/-
68/-
80/5
20/4/15/-/-/tr/tr
59/4
tr/l
tr/l
2/1
2/1
31/4
31/4
12/12/-
tr/3
tr/3
12/2
12/2
81/53
36/34
2/tr
38/7
29/4
P o n d e ro s a P in e Z o n e :
Ponderosa Pine Type
4/1
4/1
H a w th o m - A s p e n Z o n e :
Hawthorn-Aspen Type
Cottonwood Type
Agriculture Type
Hay Subtype
Grain Subtype
Grassland Type
79/48
42/31
3/30/4
21/4
6/4/11
81/60
40/41
1/tr
33/6
23/3
81/49
28/28
3/46/10
41/5
V-
V-
V-
6/12
4/11
5/12
1/26
1/11
-,
-/29
-/26
tr/28
-/22
tr/27
tr/21
*
*
G ra s s la n d Z one:
Grassland Type
GrassIand-Coramon
Juniper Subtype
Grassland-creeping
Juniper SiiDtype
Hawthorn-Aspen Type
*1!
*
*
-/15
-/3
WINTER 1969
February
March
WT/MD
W T /MD
6/21-9/15
WT/MD
*
tr/5
-/tr/tr/-/5/14
3/22
-/-/-/-/-/“
3/22
8/19
3/5
-/tr/tr/-/4/13
-/51
-/51
-/82
-/82
-/76
-/76
-/75
-/75
*
-/-
-/-
-/-
-/-
*
-/-/-
-/30
-/-
-/36
-/-
-/26
-/-
tr/7
23/25
17/25
-/-
VV-
-/5/-
6/14
V-
dan.-Mar.
W T /MD
TABLE X.
(CONTINUED)
Vegetation Types
D o u g la s - f i r Z o n e :
Douglas-fir Type
T o ta l D eer O b s e rv a tio n s
1 9 6 7 -1 9 6 9
1968
6/21-7/20
H T /MD
SUMMER 1967-1968
7/21-8/20
8/21-9/15
W T /MD
WI/MD
tr/20
tr/20
-/6
-/6
3 1 2 /3 6 5
2 8 9 /1 9 8
6 3 8 /4 0 3
3 1 9 /2 2 7
-/13
-/13
6 7 4 /4 0 9
3 4 5 /2 3 3
6/21-9/15
W T /MD
January
W T /MD
tr/13
tr/13
-/4
-/4
1 ,6 7 7 /1 ,1 2 4
9 5 3 /6 5 8
3 2 0 /9 9
WINTER 1969
February
March
WT /MD
W T /MD
-/-/8 2 6 /3 1 3
5 1 1 /1 3 9
Jan.-Mar.
W T /MD
-/tr
-/tr
I ,6 5 7 /5 5 1
I/ Percent of totals 1967-1969 for whitetail deer/percent of totals 1967-1969 for mule deer except for hay and grain subtypes in simmer
when percentages were based on totals for 1968 only.
2/ "tr" indicates less than 1.0 percent.
V Not considered as a subtype.
Vn
V
T A B L E XI.
SPECIES UTILIZED AT LEVELS OF LESS TH A N 0.5 PERCENT BY W H I T E T A IL DEER,
SUMMER
Plants
50
sites
6
rumens
FALL
5
rumens
_ WINTER
44
7
sites
rumens
1967-1969.
SPRING
9
rumens
SHRUBS:
Acer g L a b m m
Eibes setosum
FORBS :
Antennaria spp.
Apooymim androsaemifolium
Artemisia campestris
Astragalus spp.
Besseya wyomingensis
Cirsiun spp.
Compositae
Cynoglossum officinale
Erigeron speoiosus
Galium boreale
Geum triflorum
Grindelia squarrosa
Heuohera oylindrioa
Hymenoxys aoaulis
Laotuca serriola
Lomatium dissectum
Lupinus serioeus
Phlox spp.
Plantago major
Rubus idaeus
Rudbeokia laoiniata
Solidago rigida
Solidago spp.
Steironema oiliatum
X
X
—
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
X
-
—
-
—
X
Vl
X
X
X
X
X
X
TABLE XI.
(CONTINUED).
SUMMER
Plants
Thaliatmm ocoidentale
Trifoliun spp.
Viaia amerioana
Viola praemorsa
50
sites
6
rumens
FALL
5
rumens
-
-
X
X
-
X
-
X
X
-
-
WINTER
44
7
sites
rumens
-
-
-
-
-
-
SPRING
9
rumens
X
-
-
GRASSES:
Bromus inemris
Bromus marginatus
-
—
I
Ul
Ul
I
TABLE XII.
SPECIES UTI L I Z E D AT LEVELS OF LESS T H A N 0.5 PER C E N T BY M U L E DEER,
Plants
SHRUBS AND TREES:
Pinus spp.
PotentilZa frutioosa
FORBS:
Agoseris glauoa
Apooynun androsaemifolium
Aster spp.
Clematis pseudoalpina
Collomia linearis
Compositae
GaillartCLia aristata
Geranium riohardsonii
Hedysarum sulphuresoens
Helianthella uniflorus
Laotuoa serriola
Lepidium ocarrpestre
Linum perenne
Lomatium simplex
Mertensia oblongifolia
Perideridia gairdneri
Polygonum bistortoides
Potentilla gracilis
Rubus idaeus
Smilaoina stellata
Solidago canadensis
Solidago gigantea
Swertia perennis
SUMMER
6
53
sites
rumens
FALL
3
rumens
WINTER
43
6
sites
rumens
1967-1969.
SPRING
6
rumens
X
-
X
-
X
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
-
X
X
X
X
X
—
-
X
-
X
-
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
-
X
-
TABLE XII.
(CONTINUED)
Plants
Taraxacum officinale
Thalictrum occidentale
Thermopsis rhombifolia
Trifolium longipes
Vicia americana
SUMMER
6
53
rumens
sites
X
X
X
X
—
X
—
X
FALL
3
rumens
-
WINTER
43
6
sites
rumens
-
-
-
-
-
-
—
—
—
—
-
-
-
-
-
X
-
-
-
SPRING
6
rumens
X
X
-
GRASSES AND GRASSLIKE:
Carex spp.
Phleum pratense
Mushrooms
Selaginella dens a
X
X
-
-
"
LITERATURE CITED
Allen, E. 0. 1968. Range use, foods, condition,.and■productivity of
white-tailed deer in Montana.
J. -Wildl. -Mgmt. 32(1):130-141.
Booth, W. E.
1950.. Flora of Montana. Part I, Conifers and monocots.
Research Foundation at Montana State Univ., Bozeman, M o n t . • 232 pp.
_____ , and J. C. Wright.
1966. Flora of Montana. Part II^
Dicotyledons. Montana State Univ., Bozeman, Mont.
305 pp.
Cole, G. F . 1956. The pronghorn antelope — its range use and food
habits in central Montana with special-Teference to .alfalfa.
Montana State Coll. Exp. Sta. Bull. 516.
63 pp.
_____ . 1958. Big game-livestock competition on Montana's mountain
rangelands. Mont. Wildl. April:24-30.
Cottam, G . , and J. T. Curtis.
1956. The use of distance measures in
phytosociological sampling. Ecology.
37:451-460,
Daubenmire, R. 1959. A canopy-coverage method of vegetational analysis.
Northwest Sci.
33:43-64.
Gunvalson, V. E. , A. B. Erickson., and D. W. Burcalow.
1952. Hunting
season statistics as an index to range conditions.and deer popula­
tion fluctuations in Minnesota.
J. Wildl. Mgmt. 16(2):121-131.
Hamerstrom, F. N., and F. L. Camburn.
1950. Weight relationships in
the George Reserve deer herd. Jour. Mamm. 31(1):5-17. ■
Korschgen, L. J. 1962. Foods of/Missouri deer, with some management
implications.
J. Wildl. Mgmt.
26(2):164-172.
Lovaas, A. L, 1958. Mule deer food habits and range use, Little BeltMountains, Montana. J. Wildl. Mgmt.
22(3):275-283. .
Mackie, R. J.
1964.
Montana deer weights.
Mont. Wildl.
Winter:9-14.
Martinj' A. C., R. H. Gensch, and C. P. Brown, ■ 1946. Alternative methods
in upland game bird' food analysis. .J. Wildl. Mgmt.
10(1):8-12.
Martinka, C. J. 1968. Habitat relationships of white-tailed and mule
deer in Northern Montana, J. Wildl, Mgmt.
32(3):558-565.
Nellis, C. H.
1968,
Range, Montana.
Productivity of mule deer on the National Bison
J. Wildl. Mgmt,
32(2):344-349.
-59_____ , and R. L. Ross.
1969.
Changes in mule deer food habits
associated with herd reduction. J. Wildl. Mgmt. 33(1):191-195.
Reeves, F . 1931. Geology of the Big Snowy Mountains, Montana.
GeoI. Surv., Prof. Paper 165:135-149.
Robinette, W. L . , and 0. A. Olsen.
of mule deer in central Utah.
156-161, .
U. S.
1944.
Studies of the productivity
Trans. N, Amer. Wildl. Conf. 9:
v
Schallenberger, A. D. 15)66. Food habits, range use and interspecific
relationships of bighorn sheep in the Sun River, area, West-central
Montana.
UnpxibI. thesis (M. S.) Montana State University, Bozeman.
44 pp.
U. S . Dept, of Commerce, Weather Bureau.
data, Montana.
1950-1969.
Climatological
Wilkins, B. T.
1957. Range use, food habits, and agricultural rela­
tionships of the mule deer, Bridger Mountains, Montana. J. Wild!.
Mgmt. 21(2):159-169.
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
,
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Kamps, George Frank
Whitetail and mule deer
relationships in the
Snowy Mountains of Mont.
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