An evaluation of four selected approaches to teaching high school biology
by William Altz Lewis
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Montana State University
© Copyright by William Altz Lewis (1965)
Abstract:
The belief that there are significant differences, in terms of final student achievement, as measured by a
standardized high school biology achievement test, among the three B.S.C.S. versions of teaching high
school biology and the traditional approach to teaching high school biology, led to this investigation.
An examination of the literature concerning the teaching of biology revealed a need for improved
courses of study and teaching techniques to help overcome the difficulties often encountered by pupils
studying biology.
The study was conducted over a 36 week period. The investigation included five teachers and 510
students. In teaching their classes, the instructors followed the particular approach to teaching high
school biology to which they had been assigned. The pupils were tested at the beginning of the course
to measure final achievement in the improvement of the students' ability in biological concepts. The
results indicate there was no statistically significant difference in the final achievement among students
who studied biology according to the three B.S.C.S. approaches to teaching high school biology or the
traditional approach to teaching high school biology.
The following conclusions concerning the teaching of biology were made on the basis of the review of
literature and the findings of this study: (1) there is a need for improved teaching techniques in the field
of biology; (2) the three B.S.C.S. versions of teaching high school biology represent an effort to
improve high school biology teaching; (3) the belief that final achievement in biology, as measured by
a standardized high school biology achievement test, is different among the four selected approaches to
teaching high school biology, has no statistical justification; (4) the traditional approach to teaching
high school biology still has its place in the high school biology program; and (5) final student
achievement, as a result of following the three B.S.C.S. versions of teaching high school biology, does
not represent a significant improvement over the traditional approach to teaching high school biology. AN EVALUATION OF FOUR SELECTED APPROACHES
TO TEACHING HIGH SCHOOL BIOLOGY
By .
WILLIAM AV LEWIS
A thesis submitted to the Graduate Faculty in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the degree
of
DOCTOR OF EDUCATION
Approved:
Gjpdlrman, Examining Committee
/
Dean,' College of Graduate Studies
MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY
Ho z e m a n , Montana,
December,
1965
ill
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The assistance of m a n y persons and the services of m a n y
institutions are typically needed in a project such as this.
The-writer would like to thank sincerely those w h o '
gave him support.
particular few.
Special commendation is reserved for a
These would include Dr. John 0. P i c ton, who
directed the study and provided valuable assistance of a tech­
nical and personal nature;
Dr. M e l v i n M o n s o n ; Dr. Harold Wat-
I i n g ; Dr. Milford Franks, who helped in the continuity and con­
text;; and Mr. Albert S u v a k , who was responsible for the programs
and services of the 1620 computer used in the computations In
the study.
The w r iter is e s p e cially indebted to the administration
and biology departments of A u stin High School, Austin, M i n n e ­
sota, and Rochester High School, Rochester, Minnesota, for the
help given during the course of this experiment.
In particular, he would like to thank his wife and f a m ­
ily who endured m a n y sacrifices and gave m u c h support and en­
couragement during the entire program.
W.. A. L
iv
TABLE OE CONTENTS
Chapter
I.
II.
III.
Page
I N T R O D U C T I O N.........................................
I
Statement of the P r o b l e m ...........................
P r o c e d u r e s ...........................................
Limitations .........................................
Definitions . . . . .
..............................
6
7
8
8
BIOLOGICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICAN SECONDARY
SCHOOLS P ROM 1890 TO P R E S E N T ....................
Biological Education, 1890-1900 : . ................
The Beginning of General Biology, 1900-1910 . . .
The Changing Science Curriculum, 1910-1920. . . .
A Period of Curriculum Refinement, 1920-1930. . .
A Period of Questioning, 1930-1940. ...............
Biology in General Education, 1940-1950 .........
The Crisis in Science Education and a
Reappraisal, 1950 to P r e s e n t ....................
Summary . . . . . . .
..............................
14
16
21
24
27
29
THE BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES CURRICULUM S T U D Y .........
38
Origin and Purposes of the Biological Sciences
Curriculum S t u d y ..................................
39
The High School Biology. Program ................
Different Approaches to H i g h School Biology . .
IV.
11
32
36
40
40
The Three V e r s i o n s ..................................
41
Sim i l a r i t i e s .......................................
D i f f e r e n c e s ........... .. . .....................
41
44
Differences Between B.S.C.S. and Traditional
Biology Textbooks . ..............................
S u m m a r y ..............................................
45
47
E X P E R I M E N T A L 'DESIGN AND INVESTIGATIONAL
P R O C E D U R E S ..............' .........................
48
Selection and Content of Materials Included
in the S t u d y ......... ............................. ■
48
Determination of the Time Required for Com­
pletion of the S t u d y . ............................
50
V
Ohapter
Page
Selection and Assignment of Teachers to the
Various A p p r o a c h e s ............................
50
Selection and Assignment of Students to the
Various A p p r o a c h e s ..............'.................
Teaching Procedures ....................
. . . . .
Criteria Used in Initial Comparison of Groups . .
Comparison of Traditional G r o u p s ............
I.Q ................................................
Pre-test S c o r e ...........................
Final Grade-9 S c i e n c e ........................
S e x ...........................................
A g e .................... -.......... ...............
Grade in S c h o o l ......... • .......................
Measurement of Final Achievement in Biology
54
58
61
62
64
64
...
65
Initial T e s t ....................................
.
Final T e s t . ..........................................
Difference S c o r e ..............................
66
Comparison of Final Achievement in Biology.
51
52
53
. . .
66
66
67
Statement of the H y p o t h e s e s .................
67
Statistical Technique Used in Testing
H y p o t h e s i s ................................ .. . .
68
Summary
V.
. '....................................
6
EFFECT OF FOUR SELECTED APPROACHES TO TEACHING
HIGH SCHOOL BIOLOGY ON FINAL STUDENT A CHIEVE­
MENT IN B I O L O G Y ..............................
71
Significant Difference in Final Achievement
among the F o u r Selected A p p r o a c h e s ..........
72
Post-test Scores.
Difference Scores
. ......... . . . . . . . . .
......... . . . . . . . . . .
75
74
S u m m a r y ...................................
VI.
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
.. . . .
Summary .................................................
C o n c l u s i o n s .................................
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ................................
7676
7
78
vi
Chapter
Page
LITERATURE' CONSULTED .................................
80
A P P E N D I X .......................................
85
Appendix A:
Biology Achievement Examination
for Secondary S c h o o l s , Form 4. . .'............
86
Appendix B.
87
T a b l e s .................................
vii
LIST OF TABLES
Table
1.
2.
3.
-4.
,5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1
Page
Analysis of Variance for the M ean K Q . ' s
of the B.S.C.S. Blue, Green, and Yellow
Groups and the Traditional Groups ................
59
Analysis of Variance for the M ean Pre-test
Scores of the B.S.G.S. Blue, Green, and
Yell o w Groups and the Traditional .Groups.........
60
Analysis of Variance for M e a n Final
Grades-9 Science, of the B.S.C.S. Blue,
Green, and Yellow Groups and the
Traditional G r o u p s ..................................
61
Analysis of Variance for the M ean Post-test
Scores of the B.S.C.S. Blue, Green, and
Yellow Groups
and the Traditional Groups
. . . .
73
Analysis of Variance for the Mea n Difference
Scores of the B.S.C.S. Blue, Green, and Y e l ­
low Groups and the Traditional Groups ...........
74
Student Number, I . Q . , Pre-test Score, Post-test
Score, Difference Score, Final Grade-9 Science,
and Sex for 91 Students.of the B.S.C.S. Blue
Version Biology Group . . . . .....................
88
Student Number, I.Q., Pre-test -Score, Post-test
Score, Difference Score, Final Grade-9 Science,
and Sex for 111 Students of the B.S.C.S. Green
Version Biology Group .......................
91
Student Number, I . Q . , Pre-test Score, Post-test
Score, Difference Score, Final Grade-9 Science,
and Sex for 113 Students of the B.S.C.S. Y e l ­
low Version Group ..................................
94
Student Number, I . Q . , Pre-test Score, Post-test
Score, Difference Score, Final Grade-9 Science,
and Sex for 82 Students of the Austin Traditional •
G r o u p .................
97
viii
Table
10. ' Student Number, I . Q . , Pre-test Score, Post-test
Score, Difference Score, Final G-rade-9 Science,
and Sex for 113 Students of the Rochester Tradi?
tional Group . . . . . . . . . . .
..............
Page
100
ix
ABSTRACT
The b e l i e f that there are significant differences, in
terms of final student achievement, as measured by a stan­
dardized high school biology achievement .test, among the three
B.S.C.S. versions of teaching high school biology and the t r a ­
ditional approach to. teaching high school biology, led to this
investigation.
An examination of the literature concerning the
teaching of biology revealed a need for improved courses of
study and teaching techniques to help overcome the difficulties
often encountered by pupils studying biology.
The study was conducted over a 36 week period.
The i n ­
vestigation included five teachers and 510 students.
In teach­
ing their classes, the instructors followed the particular ap­
proach to teaching high school biology to which they had been
assigned.
The pupils were tested at the beginning of the course
to measure final achievement in the improvement of the students'
ability in biological concepts.
The results indicate there
was no statistically significant difference in the final achieve­
ment among students who studied biology according to the three
B.S.C.S. approaches to teaching h igh school biology or the t r a ­
ditional approach to teaching h igh school biology.
The following conclusions concerning the teaching of biology
were made on the basis of the review of literature and the f i n d ­
ings of this study:
(l) there is a need for improved teaching
techniques in the field of biology; (2) the three B.S.C.S. v e r ­
sions of teaching h igh school biology represent an effort to
improve high school biology teaching; "(3) the belief that final
achievement in biology, as measured by a standardized high school
biology achievement test, is different among the four selected
approaches to teaching high school biology, has no statistical
justification; (4) the traditional approach to teaching high
school biology still has its place in the high school biology
program; and (5) final student achievement, as a result of follow
ing the three B.S.C.S. versions of teaching h igh school biology,
does not represent a significant improvement over the traditional
approach to teaching h igh school biology.
'&
k
CHAPTER I
• r
INTRODUCTION
.The revolution through which we: are n o w living,
bringing-
even g r e a t e r 1changes; than the Industrial-Revolution and the
• i
.
•
•
.
Agricultural Revolution.did in the 17th, l8th, and 19th cen—
: i
'
turi'es, is- the Scientific Revolution,. The- revolution w h i c h
h a s 'a l r e a d y ushered In the- era of atomic power has been w i d e ­
ly heralded b y scientists as l i k e l y 'to bring us, in the' second
.i
half of this century, mor e momentous discoveries in the field
of biology than any of the- changes that have'remade the life of
mankind through the p h y s i c a l sciences' in the first half of t his
century;
Look at the:: progress of "biology during the- present cen­
tury,
Suppose one were- studying science In 1900,.
H o w much1
of the b i o l o g y wh i c h i s - In ^he1 m o d e r n h i g h school b iology
program wou l d be in the textbook?
Qf course,
there' h a d been
notable advances in bio l o g y in the 19th c e n t u r y r
the theory
of evolution;: the-development of the,, germ theory of disease;
the demonstration that living organisms always; arise;-,■ under:
present conditions, f rom other living organisms,
and not
spontaneously;: and the >story of the. W a y cells divide and' p r o ­
duce n e w cells: as the basis of the organization of plants,
and a n i m a l s ,
Yet by f a r - t h e greater part of the: important
things w e - k n o w ; about the? nature-of life were not dreamed of
then.
2
The textbook pf 1900
would have' nothing about genetics,
for M e ndalia n hered i t y was unrecognized,
genetics' did not r e a l l y start until 1900'.
and the- science of
Bio.chemistry had"
begun ihfit'S'modern sense only/three- years: before..
Eduard
F a r b e r vS^ classic studies on the nature- of the enzymes had
just begun.
No o n e - k n e w anything about hormones.
did not exist.
in 1900...
cradle.
Immunology-
N o - one k n e w anything about specific vitamins'
The- science of e x p e rimental embryology w a s - i n its-'
Pavlov^ was still' to do his classic studies in e x peri­
m e n t a l psychology showing conditional reflex' behavior.
B y 193P,- all of these p r e v i o u s l y m entioned scienceshad reached a; f a i r l y high level of development.
Three years?
before that, H e rman J. Muller^ and' Lewis J. Stadler5+ had
shown that mutations of genes-, can be induced— there had not
even been' a word for genes in 1 9 0 0 — -by means of x - r a y s , thus
placing in the hands of m a n the power to alter the agents of
heredity. *
2
F a r b e r $ Eduard", Nobel P r i z e : Winners In C h e m i s t r y , 1 901—
1 9 6 1 ,' 3^1 pp..
2Pavlov, Ivan Petrovich, Conditioned R e f l e x e s r An In ­
v estigation of the Physiological Activ i t y of the Cerebral Cortex, 4-30 p p .
^ M u l l e r , H e r m a n J., Studies in Genetics.*, 6l8 p p 1
,
^Stadler, L.. J . ; -''HStudle s iinC! Genetic s'Ln Agr o n o m v x J o u p n a l .
vol . 46, p. 1 0 9 s 1930.
3
Another 30" years,
and we are at I960...
During these
years; we have learned to induce gene m u t a t i o n s — c h e m i c a l l y
as well as: w ith high ener g y radiations.
Fredrick Sanger^
has mapped the entire- sequence of ?1 amino acids- in the in­
sulin molecule.
Quite a f e w other protein m olecules have now-
been so mapped or "fingerprinted."
M a n y n e w blood groups have b een discovered..
Because of
t h i s , we can avoid the-development of antibodies in the Rhnegative mother,
or prepare to save the-life of the child who
is born affected.
During these same years,
it was discovered that inverts--
brate animals as w ell as vertebrates have hormones.
field of invertebrate p h y s iology was begun.
A new
As a consequence,
the hormonal control of molting a n d metamorphosis in insects
was disclosed.
Antibiotics were discovered in -this same period:
cillin,
st r e p t o m y c i n , .aureomycin,
peni-,
and a host of others.
Along w ith the practical kinds of discoveries mentioned
has come a v e r y great increase in our insight into the kinds
of problems that face mankind b i o l ogically in the f u t u r e , an
understanding of race,
and of evolutionary problems that we
hope will enable us to act more w i s e l y in the f u t u r e , and
^Sanger, Fredrick, "A Method to Study Structure of Proteins," Chemical and Engineering B e w s . October, 1958, V o l . 3 6 :
p. 102.
b
still we experience the logarithmic effect in the increase of
scientific knowledge.
According to Dr. B entley Glass,^ if the
doubling time for the araont of scientific knowledge is 10
years,
than there is Si+ times as m u c h to •k n o w n o w as in 1 9 0 0 ;
by the year 2000,
there wil l be over 1000 times as m u c h to
know.
What will b i o l o g y be in the year 2000?
The biologists
of 1930 would not have dreamed of what we Icnow today, and the
writer does not profess to be able, to dream of what biologists
will k n o w 30 years f r o m now.
However,
a f e w possible direc­
tions in wh i c h our control over the forces of n a t u r e and the
nature of life m a y be projected.
We wil l p r o bably learn not only h o w to increase-- t h e
human life span, but h o w to m a i n t a i n the vigor' of mature life
into advanced years.
So f a r , we-have not' measuredly,
all, increased'the hu m a n life" span.
if at
It i-s" also possible- that"
b y 1990 biologists will have:- learned how.-to create -some sim­
ple forms of living organisms and that geneticists w ill have -1
l e a r n e d 't o replace: defective genes w i t h sound ones..
It is also possible to expect that before the next 30
years: are; finished, m a n wil l have-learned how'to conduct a rti­
ficial phot o s y n t h e s i s arid so w ill have'.- finally assured himself
^Glass:, Bentley, Taken from an a d d r e s s to participants
at the B.S.-C.S. 1960s briefing session for teachers in the'
B yS - C e-C.. 1 9 6 O — 196 I testing program.
. ■,
of an inexhaustible— and we hope p a l a t a b l e — food supply.
These conjectures m a y be wrong,
but this would seem to
be the general direction in w h i c h h i s t o r y is moving:-
a log­
arithmic increase of human power in the biological as well as
physical realm.
At no time in our h i s t o r y has there b een so m u c h i n t e r ­
est in improving course content and methods of teaching science
at all levels of the school system.
Never before has so m u c h
financial support been provided for curriculum experimentation,
n e w equipment and teaching materials,
and joint research p r o ­
jects of scientists and educators.
As a result of these coordinated efforts,
in 1959 the>
Education Committee of the American Institute of Biological
Sciences established the Biological Sciences Curriculum Study
(B.S.C.S.J to seek improvement of b iology education.
The first ma j o r focus of the Biological Sciences Curric­
u l u m Study has b e e n ^ o n high school bio l o g y and on the p r e p a r a ­
tion of general b i o l o g y courses for the typical tenth-grade
student.
Grobman? po i n t e d out that about half of the students
taking hig h school bi o l o g y never again take a nother science
course— they take no m ore hig h school science, and they do not
7 Gro b m a n , Arnold B . , Lecture, Biological Sciences Cur­
r i c u l u m Study, U n i v e r s i t y of Colorado, B o u l d e r , Colorado,
I960.
6
go to college.
This gives hig h school biology the added re-
sponsibility of interpreting our scientific society to these
students, and of preparing them for living in a civilization
which will be laced w ith revolu t i o n a r y scientific changes.
In v i e w of this and the staggering amount of biological
knowledge that has b e e n thrust u p o n us, we are s u d denly con­
fronted with the question of how, where,
and in w h a t ways
this knowledge should become a part of the high school curricu­
l um in biology.
The Biological Sciences Curriculum Study,
group has attempted to answer these questions by its develop­
men t and prepar a t i o n of three different versions of tenthgrade biology.
It was the; development of these' three;' versions:
and h o w they m a y best be used in the: high school biology p r o g r a m
that led to'this;- investigation.
Statement of" the' Pro b l e m
It:, wasv. the;: p r o b l e m of this: study to evaluate- t h e achieve­
ment of the- students being taught u n d e r ’ each o f the- three- v e r ­
sions. of bio l o g y as'developed-by.the- Biological Sciences Curric­
u l u m Study -group:,, plus; those: students; using the- traditional
texts ■and" m a t e r i a l s ..
The hypothesis
.
to be." tested"; was-1 that- there are* d i f ­
ferences? i n terms of final student, achievement, asymeasured’
b y a. standardized h i g h school b i o l o g y achievement test, among
the.; three B..S..C...S., versions of teaching high school biology
'
.
7
and the traditional approach to- teaching h i g h school biology.
Procedures
A h examination of" the; li t e r a t u r e ’relating to the p r o b — .
Iem of thev .study was: made' to-..determine i1..
The; development-of .'biological education In Ameri c a n
secondary schools from 1890 to present.-
2o„. The. b a c k g r o u n d e m p h a s e s : ,
and aims of B.S.G.-S.,
biology..
3 0-
The findings of other investigators’
, as- related' to the
pr o b l e m of this study.
In order, to ’ obtain data, for.” testing the. hypothesis', it
was.> necessary, to enlist the add" of teachers' of two-semester’
courses in hig h school biology.
The assignment:of teachers; to.
either the" B i o l o g i c a l Sciences Curriculum Study or traditional
approaches; to teaching b i o l o g y was; according to the w a y theassignments'were; mad e b y the;- school o f f i c i a l in charge -of such
scheduling ...
Since it w a s - assumed' that" those teachers involved in the
study were: competent a n d :capable1: of handling their own subject
and' r e l a t e d 1materials-,■ no- restrictions', were; put u p o n individual
teachers: as; to;teaching procedures', except.that t hey were' ex ­
pected to f o l l o w the. curriculum for a n y of the- versions: that
they m a y have b e e n assigned to teach.
I n ,o r d b r ■to: o b t a i n in formation to be u s e d i n evaluating
s t u d e n t .a c h i e v e m e n t , a\standardized bio l o g y achievement test
8
was selected.
The test selected for this purpose was. .the’
"Biology Achievement Examination' for S econdary Schools, Form
if. "8
.This test was. administered to all pupils participating
in the study on the- first d a y of the class, and again on the
last day of the' class*.
The. results- w e r e v t h e n examined'statis­
tically to d e t e rmine-the'validity of the hypothesis.
limitations'
Several limitations.in this i n v estigation should benoted.
The- experimental p o r t i o n of this.study was-limited' to
a- period of 36 weeks, or two semesters.
The students; u t i l i z e d in this study were; those who were
t1
duly enrolled as hig h school students-in h i g h school b i o l o g y
courses, at A u s t i n High School, Austin, Minnesota,
High School, Rochester, Minnesota,
and Rochester
and for w h o m records- were-
available.
Definitions
Since- constant reference is. mad e to the Biological
Scien c e s 1 Curriculum Study g r o u p , h e n c eforth in this study,
this
group; wil l be referred to a s -B.S.C.S.
^Whittinger, B. R., Bio l o g y Achievement E x amination for
Secondary Schools r; .Form 4, h p p v
9
It has already been indicated' that the Biological Sci- .
ences Curriculum Study Steering Committee elected to prepare
three different versions of tenth-grade biology.
In order not
to convey any idea of preferred" s e q u e n c e c o l o r s were picked as
titles-.
Henceforth in this study, w h e n reference is: made to
the Blue Version,
it will be assumed that its emphasis is- on
the-molecular level of life, its origin, and .evolution.
When-
reference is made, to the Y e l l o w Version, it w i l l be assumed"
that the emphasis is on the cellular-level as: the basis of or­
ganization.
E i k e w i d e , w h e n reference is made to the Green Ver- •
sion, it will be understood that the- emphasis is on an ecologi­
cal approach.
The term "traditional biology" is used in comparison of
B.S.C.S.- bio l o g y in this study..
succeeding pages,
As it is used here,
and in
it would refer to a biology p r o g r a m which
places greatest emphasis on the organ-tissue, level,
and rela­
tively less emphasis on the levels as emphasized b y the B.S.C.S.
Blue,
Green, and Y e l l o w Versions.
In this experiment,
frequent u s e is made of the terms
curriculum and cour s e of study.
Hen c e f o r t h in this study, they
will be use d synonymously.
In order to e stablish an explicit, if arbitrary, founda­
tion for the rest of the study, the r e v i e w of literature was
devoted to examining the development of biological educa­
tion in Ameri c a n secondary schools f r o m 1890 to present,
10
followed "by the "background, e m p h a s i s , and aims of the B eS 0C 0S.
group and it's eventual writing o f the- three major' versions- of
high school biology p r o g r a m s : t h e
Blue,
Green,
and Y e l l o w e-
Chapter.'I* is devoted" to an explanation of the experimental
design and investigational procedure, w h i l e 'the succeeding •
chapters", 5" and 6:, present reviews: of the-- i n vestigation to
evaluate-' the -achievement scores of the, students= being taught
under each o f 't h e ■three versions of b iology as developed by
the-B .3.Co,S o group, plus: those-students: using the traditional
texts' and materials.
A" r e v i e w of biological education in A m e r i c a n secondaryschools from 1890 t e present w i l l be- p r e s e n t e d next:-
chapter :ii
BIOLOGICAL EDUC A T I O N ITT AMERICAN S E C O N D A R Y
SCHOOLS' 1 8 9 0 ’TO" PRESENT".'
A' concern about' the- nature ■of biological education in
. American secondary schools has been the cause- of m u c h debate"
in the twentieth century..
As' science -and" t e c h nology have b e e n
d i s t i n g u i s h i n g ■characteristics: of our- culture: and i n c r e asingly
important in the: solution of t h e >p r o b l e m s basic to' our- social,
economic,
and p o litical welfare-, the nature: of an education ap— -
prop r i a t e for a science-oriented: society has: become' less- clear.
T. K e i t h Glennan-* s '
•comments about the-, course- of scientific de- =
velopment illustrates one aspect of 't h e ■pro b l e m of scienceteaching:In science, particularly, the tendency mor e and"
more has- b e e n to: p e n e t r a t e farth e r - a n d farther -into- cho­
sen subjects: until specialists- dig themselves out of
sight, out of hearing, and out of unders t a n d i n g of what
other- scientists; are- doing in their own and neighboring
fields., And, if thi s state of affairs is- alarming, even,
more alarming is the growing cleavage; b e t w e e n science
and scientists--as: a. w h o l e and" the great: mass: of h u m anity •'
in other callings-. ^
In v i e w of this communication problem,
the curriculum
maker-has the r e s p o n sibility for sifting through the accumula­
ted research in- b i o l o g y to retrieve;, by means of certain phil'
1
osophical criteria, ideas; and achievements; in a. quantity to
occupy about 1 7 5 hours of i n s t r u c t i o n — the d u r a t i o n of an a v ­
erage hig h school course.
^ G l e n n a n , T. Keith, "New Order of Technological Cha l ­
lenge ,"' Vital S p e e c h e s , Y o l . 3 6 , p. 23.7«
12:
Committe:esv of 'scientists- and' educators" have' been a t :.
work for; ■over7 a: hal f c e n t u r y to develop?; better instruction in
science.,.
They have: recognized: t h e d e s i r a b i l i t y of course a:
suitable f o r the- n o n — specialist,, the n o n - c o l l e g e oriented', the
e v e r y d a y citizen, who' finds himself in a world" where" h e cannot'
escape, the- need" t e understand 'something of" the- nature of sci­
ence..
They have' also' seen the; p r o b l e m of -p roviding a n a d d e d
intellectual stimulus-in the sciences?, for; those" who p lan t e
continue their -educ a t i o n beyond high; school, and who- m a y or7m a y
n o t b e considering science as?- a- c a r e e r .
The- structure- o f "high,
school courses*— purposes:, content, and' methods*— n e e dfed to- ac­
complish these, ends? has;, bee n the' cause" of m u c h educational
f e r m e n t ..
Curriculum problems: are persistent and d e m a n d a: con?--
tlnuous cycle of appraisal, research,
a n d development.
This
search of literature? reviews- t h e development, of b i o l o g y teach­
ing in the. schools'of America, for? the period 1890 to present.
Committee; reports? were: used" to tr a c e the h i s t o r y o f m o d ­
ern b i o l o g y teaching because- these statements' u s u a l l y d e s c r i b e
the rationale?for p r o p o s e d changes:.,The investigator" de c i d e d 1 to discuss the committee r e ­
ports i n 'a ch r o n o l o g i c a l sequence and to g r o u p them by. ten-y e a r peri o d s - w i t h a s ummary for? each decade.
logic? to this; arrangement..
There is? some'
The? conditions' i n f l u e n c i n g ’Ameri--.
can life and- in turn educational practice- since 1890 have"
brought about a series of. "crises." 'in secondary school educa­
tion..
The? growth of:' sciende and technology has b een a ma j o r
13.
factor in creating these1 tensions.
These peaks of concern ■
about the curr i c u l m in schools' and the contributing factors
become more relevant w h e n the committee reports- are presented
in the order of their development.
At the risk of over-simplification,
the-events 1 wh i c h have •
in some w a y influenced education in the- sciences f o r 1 the peri o d
covered b y this review, 1890 to present, m a y be d escribed as:
f o l l o w s : 1 (I)" the closing of the frontier and the-beginning
of an u r b a n industrial society;
C S T the growth of the scientif­
ic professions and major contributions to scientific theory, at
the turn of the century;
(3 T the acceleration of scientific a n d ’
technological developments catalyzed b y the first World War;
( W
the development of the industrial research laboratory, u n ­
known in 1900;
( 5 T the rise of a u t o mation and the economic de­
p r e s s i o n .of the thirties;
(6T W o r l d W a r II and the birth of the
“atomic a g e ;“ ( 7 T the engineering a n d ‘scientific achievements
w h i c h are symbolized b y the "space age;"
(8)" the systematizing
of researc h and development and the "explosion" in scientific
knowledge .which are characteristic of the decade 1950-1960; and
(9) j u p o n entering the sixties,-, w e r f i n d that the measure- of com­
petitive- p o w e r 11in the- m o d e r n world has; become; a; country's in ­
v e n t o r y of scientific and technical manpower.
ulatively,
In turn a n d cum­
these) events; and others have -led' to curriculum o b s o ­
lescence, but a t 1 t h e same; time; suggest direction for: redevelop-men.t V
lb
Thi s ’search o f 'literature-,
then, attempts: to summarize
a n d 'relate w ork wh i c h has; been done; in biological teaching: in
America.
The- first' decade, 18'90—1 9 0 0 is presented' next®
Biological Education, 1.890-1900
In the-period between 1 8 9 0 — 1900, A m e r i c a n s e c o n d a r y
education underwent., serious questioning relative"-to i t s properfunctioning and purpose*,
Increasing enrollment's- and' a' d i v e r s i t y
of interests' of pupil's entering h igh school caused hig h school
administrators; to consider, a b r o a d e r - curriculum than o n e cen­
tered" exclusively on college: p r e p a r a t i o n . . Previous 'to- I 89 O
n e a r l y everyone who v/as; graduated: fro m h i g h school continued
his; education in a- college or university..^;
industrialization and urbanization,
With the onset of
the demands for a high
school education increased but the percent of students aspir­
ing to a c o l l e g e •educ a t i o n decreased.
A'new e r a in secondary education and high school biology
teaching opened in 1893 with the report of the National Educa­
tion Association’s Committee on Secondary School Studies, also
known as the Committee of Ten.3
Charles W. Eliot, President of
Harvard University, and a former professor of chemistry at the
'
^ B e s s y 5 Charles E., "Science and C u l t u r e , ”" Addresses
a n d "Procee d i n g s ;, National E d u c a t i o n Association, Washington,
D. C.., 1896s V o l . 35'!" ppv. 93.9-9^2.-
^National Education.Association, U.S. Bureau of" Educa­
tion, 18933. Henort of "the: Committee;:on Secondary School Studiesiy Report, of t h e Committee- of Ten, Washington, DoC.,.
Hassachusetts-; Institute of Technology, had' been the' general
chairman f o r ’ this" committee'.
Its; function was; -to- investigate
the- whole" field of s e c o n d a r y education as= conducted in privateacademies and public hig h s c h o o l s ..
history,
botany,
Subcommittees: on natural
zoology, and ph y s i o l o g y were- established' to-
study the-- teaching of these subjects' in grades’ one through
twelve-..
The- Committee1-of Ten r e c o g n i z e d that the’ secondary
schools' in thei United States^ t a k e n as;' a whole-, do. not exist;' on­
ly for t h e purpose- o f ’preparing-boys- and girls; ■for- college", but
rather" that'the1?-school science curriculum intended for national
use must, therefore-, be-made-for. those-: pupil's- w h o s e formal edu­
cation- terminates.; w i t h the- high school.
T h e c ommittee conclud­
ed its -mee t i n g w i t h the; following resolution on the- scienceprogram for hig h school's, that, "at least o n e f o u r t h of the time
of the. hig h schools' should be? d e v o t e d ’ to n a t u r e 1'-studies, and
that this; amount' of p r e p a r at i o n s h o u l d be a-;,requirement for
entrance; to; college..
A' science--: committee;-, under the chairmanship- of E. H.- Hall
of Harvard,, and sponsored b y the national. E d u c a t i o n Association-,
issued a. statement in 1.8'98' reacting- to t h e reports; of the sci' .
ence -committees-: established'by the. Committee? of Tfen.. The com­
mittee's r e a ction t o the1 teaching of h i g h school science wasthat courses; "should" be: designed i n the? interest of the: high'
lfI b i d . , p. 111-.
% a i l , E. H.., and Committee-, “M e m o r a n d u m Concerning R e ­
port-'of Committee:- o f "Sixty - Addresses:’and P r o c e e d i n g s . Ration-al Educati o n Association, 1 8 9 8 ,.. Vol.
pp.' 96^-96?«
16'
school pupil, without reference to w h e t h e r 1 the-pupil td.ll enter
college- or n o t . ,r"
' Ihei' decade- from 1890^1900 lias:'“been characterized b y
G.. ¥. Hunter^ as the- great period of the laboratory manual in
biology..
L a b o ratory w o r k I n all the. s c i e n c e s w a s 1seen as 1 an
ideal procedure- f o r j the- training and exercising of' the- faculties'
of the- mi n d devoted to observation, will power-, and memory:
This "mental discipline"'" theory of learning was. rejected by
most p s y c h o l o g i s t s soon after the-turn of.' the century..
ever
How­
as 'late- a s 1I960' t h e e x c u s e f o r 1bio l o g y l a b o ratory w o r k in
a surprising number of secondary school curriculum s t u d i e s and
textbooks w a s 1still that of "mental discipline."r"
A 'final distinguishing characteristic of the 1890— 1900
period in biological educ a t i o n w a s a shift a w a y from a natural
history ap p roach to courses; of b o t a n y and zoology, w i t h t h e 1
major emphasis", u p o n morphology.
The 1900-1910 d e c a d e i s p r e ­
sented next:...
The- Beginning of General Biology, 190 0 — 1910
A l t h o u g h a. f e w h i g h school courses, w e re-taught u n d e r
the t i t l e of bio l o g y bef o r e - 1900,
they were -not organized"
around a biological theme, nor d i d 1they present an integrated,
picture- o f the biological sciences.
Th the- p e r i o d fro m 1900 to
^ H u n t e r , G. W . , Chairman, "Report on Committee on Se c o n­
dary School S'cience -of" thev-Hational A s s o c i a t i o n f o r •Research in
Science T e a c h i n g ," Science E d u c a t i o n . 1938, Vol. 22":1 pp. 223-233.
17
1910 various' local and national committees gave thought to a
unified biology course.
It was' assumed that biology for the
citizen and biology for the potential specialist should be dif­
ferent in character and content.
In 1905 the Biology Committee of the Central Association
of Science' and Mathematics Teachers presented the following
recommendations for. the teaching of high school biology.
I..
There should be a full year of botany or zoology
rather than a half year of each subject.
2.
The work in biology should be -preceded by an "ele­
mentary science""to familiarize the student with
laboratory methods and to provide:1a basic know­
ledge of chemistry and physics.
■3»
The: course should meet .six' periods per week with"
double periods for laboratory or field work.
I+.- Botany and .zoology should be acceptable to colleges
7
as entrance requirements.'
The Mew York Board of Regents developed a course in
general biology as early as; 1899»
George ¥. Hunter,^ then a
New York City high school biology teacher, in 1907 published
a textbook called Elements of Biology, which attempted to
"place the topics as suggested by the regents’ syllabus into a"
^"Report of the Committee on Biology-,,rrSchool Science
and Mathematics. 190!?, V o l . !?: pp. 50-52.
^Hunter, George W . , Science Teaching at Junior and
Senior High School Levels. 552 pp..
18
connected form.
The American Society of Zoologists^ in 1906 m ade r e c o m ­
mendations for improving the teaching of zoology in the high
schools.
The society was of the opinion that "zoology should
have a place in general education"" and should be studied in
hig h school since so m a n y students do not continue into college.
In 1906, E. G. Dexter^O studied the impact of the report
of the Committee of Ten (1893.') on. the teaching: of" biology In
high school 0 . Her felt'that'little was: achieved b y they report
even though' if: had" been well advertised-' and:' had" h a d ther widest
readingO-. Her also; found that b i o l o g y teachers; reacted" against ther
morphological approach suggested as; desirable1 b y the committee.
'
BI. R., Lihville., reflecting on the teaching of biology in
the-high schools:?from l 890 .-l.900 m a d e this'observations!!
T h e teachers of m o r phological b i o l o g y In the schools
b r o ught w i t h them f rom the:- colleges; certain ideas' of meth'od.
P o s s i b l y the/ lecture system never: took strong hol d in
the- schools, but' the laboratory -method'- of the; college w i t h m u c h ■o f ' its; paraphernalia, did'.. The consequence of this
was. that-,thousands-; of u n t r a i n e d p u p i l s w e r e r e q u i r e d to cut,
section, examine-, a n d d r a w the parts; of d e a d bodies of u n ­
k n o w n and/unheard o f animals' a n d plants; a n d later to? repro-duce •in examination w hat they remembered, o f t h e fact's; they
had' seen.,
z
This;: mechanical and' impractical approach to: teachinghigh? school bi o l o g y reflected'; the- 1 8 9 0 — 19.00 decade:*
^Bigelow, Mo. A.., "Colleger Entrance.-. C p tlon in Z o o l o g y , "
School Science: and' Mathematics'; 1.906",. V o l . 6r: pp".. 63-66..
!^Dexter,. El G . , "Ten Tears;*" Influence- o f the-- Reports -o f
the;; Committee' o f Ten.
The School ■Reviews 1906",. V o l . I A-:, p.S^-.
! ! E i n v i l l e , H., R.., "Old" and H e w Ideals -in B i o l o g y Teaching,"''
S c h o o l Science- a n d 'Mathematics;. 1910', V o l . !Cr. pp.. 210— 216..
19
The decline-' in e n rollments1 In human physiology,, the gen­
eral dislike- of the course by students,
and the difficulties1 ex­
perienced' in teaching it; were'- popular: topics of discussion at
association meetings- of science teachers: bet w e e n 1900 ' and 1910.
In 1 9 0 7 ', the Central A s sociation of Science and M a t h e m a ­
tics- Teachers;, appointed" a co m m i t t e e "to p r e p a r e 1a- statement' of a 1
biological, creed that mi g h t serve- as- a" guide- in -the; developmentof biology c o u r s e s . "
TO
The" comm i t teer published, its--delibera­
tions in 1909.'.
The;- committee- thought that biological subjects1 were' p e ­
culiarly fitted" for general education p u r p o s e s 1because of the
"light they- t h r o w on the- study of life.
Accordingly, b i o l ­
ogy courses: i n .high school were seen as; having general and cultural values= for all students.
The Central Assoc i a t i o n of Science and Mathematics.
Teachers: I n 1910. issued a/ committee report- d e s c r i b e d as:
- taking"stock of our p h i l osophy of using the: sciences: and mathematics
as: a; means- of education.
The- committee a g r e e d that the- g e n ­
eral purpose of hig h school education must always- be- allowed" to
-^Caldwell
0 o. W., "A. Consideration of the Principles
That Shoul d Determine the Course in Biology in the Secondary
Schools." School Science' and M a t h e m a t i c s . 1909» V o l . 9"" P P ®
2^ 1- 2^70
1 3 I b i d . . p. 19.
"
^ G a l l o w a y , T. W . , Chairman, "Report of the Committee on
Fundamentals: of the- Central Assoc i a t i o n of Science-,and M a t h e m a ­
tics- T e a c h e r s ."" School Science and M a t h e m a t i c s 1. 1910', Vol.. IOs
p p . 801-8 0 3 .
•
20
condition the special'purposes of the s c i e n c e s »
The decline of the special biological sciences was both
heralded and c o n d e m n e d e
Some writers'felt a-combination course
would' force bio l o g y teachers to focus on the important ideas
about living things, and others thought .that a course of this'
nature could only be superficial.
This decade from 1900-191(7 might well be summed up-: In
the following significant developments- in b i o l o g y teachingsI.
A/ growing commitment to a single course of"gen.eral biology in the hig h school, integrating m a ­
terial.':' from botany,
2.
zoology, and h u m a n p h y s i o l o g y »
An awareness of the "average" student w h o will n o t ■
■ continue into college and the d e s i r ability of dev e l bping for him a m ore practical
(applied or eco- .
n o m i c T type of biology course.
3.
The appearance of the first high school textbooks
on biology intended to. replace the separate texts
"of botany,
If.
zoology, and h u m a n physiology.
The attempt to orient bio l o g y teaching toward bio(
'
l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s , ideas-, and interrelationships.
5»
More emphasis on the "scientific m e t h o d " and the
"practical"objectives for biology teaching.
6.
The^ brea k d o w n of the "mental disciplined'’ theory in
learning w i t h more-' importance: attached1 to capital­
izing- on student interests/and experience.
21
7•
The- failure of human ph y s i o l o g y to- become estab­
lished a s -a ■s e p a r a t e 1course in the curriculum.
■ The- period from 191 0 — 1920 is presented next.
The Changing Science Curriculum, 1910-1920
A" major' development in the- science- curriculum between
1910 and 1920'was:: the introduction of general science into theninth grade.
The:: first courses: in general science were a com­
pendia of several sciences:'
astronomy,
physiology-hygiene, physiography,
geology, meteorology,, chemistry, physics', botany,
and zoology..
It was expected' that the- course- would provide-a
more adequate- p r e p a r a t i o n for tenth grade b i o l o g y and an orien­
tation to all the science offerings: in the' h igh school.
It w a s -
also hoped' that students’ taking general science- would' be stim­
ulated' to elect further courses in science-..
The course content of general science was-concentrated
in the physical sciences-..
Whatever was. given In the biological •
fields- was:-usually repeated in the: bio l o g y course itself, aduplication w h i c h still persists'.
Several significant committee reports: were developed
during the 1910-1920'period.
The- first was the report of the
Committee -of Nine-^ on the A r t i c ulation of Hig h School and
■ ^ICi'ngsley, Clarence D.., Chairman, “Report of the Commit­
tee.- of Nine: -on the Articulation of High School and College-,,,r"
Addresses and Proceedings. National Education Association, 1911,
Vol.. 4 - 9 pp:.. 559-567O-.
\
22'
College- o f the Fational Education Association in 1911.
A™
recommendation was:" made- that high schools: require- every student'
to complete' two subject majors- of three credits each and oneminor-of two credits.
possible- majorsv
Science-was designated as one of the
This- recommendation further established’
science as: a part of the- secondary school curriculum and
strengthened the- position o f biology.
The: Committee on a Unified ELgh School Science C o u r s e ^
in 1915' submitted a report.
With the many changes: in the high ■
school program taking place-, the committee- felt: that much moreexperimentation should occur before- a- final statement about
the "unification of scienceS f vWas-developed.
In 1913? the -Committee: on Natural Sciences- o f the Nation­
al Education Association appointed’ ten high school teachers,
three university profess or s-, three, normal school instructors,
and one physician to study the high school biology curriculum.
After seven meetings the objectives- for the teaching of biol­
ogy were given as follow:
1.
To train the pupil in observation and reasoning.
2.
To acquaint each pupil with his environment and the
common forms of plant" and' animal life, together- with
structure function, and care: of his own body; biologi­
cal principles would' be; derived from this study.
-^Caldwell, 0. W., Chairman, "Report of the Central As­
sociation of Science and Mathematics Teachers-:. Committee' oh a
Unified High School Science- C o u r s e . School Science and Math- .
ematicsy 1 9 1 % V o l . 1 %-: ppv 3 ^ - 3 M .
237
3 O-
To - show' the.' pupil M s
place in nature, M s
share of
respo n s i b i l i t y in the present and" future of human
society.
It was strongly recommended b y the Committee on Natural
Sciences; of the National E ducation Association,
that a concept
of hu m a n welfare underlie all e l e m entary i n struction in s c i e n c e .
It w a s .further suggested that the principles' of h u m a n re p r o ­
duction should' form a p art of" the course, but that i n struction
in sex" hygiene should not be compulsory..
theme for the course was h u m a n biology..
The r e commended
Thus the- wor k i n bot--
any and zoology should be- correlated w i t h m a n and show h o w he
m a y use his biological knowledge.
A: final report of t h i s decade w h i c h was; to have consid­
erable influence on the teaching of science was published b y
the commission on the R e o r g a nization of Seco n d a r y E d u c a t i o n in
1918.
to b e s
The- commission defined the a i m s of, secondary education
health, command of fundamental processes, w o r t h y hom e
membership, vocation,
citizenshipj w o r t h y use of leisure, and
ethical c h a r a c t e r . I t ' w a s
e x p ected that all courses in sec­
ondary school w o u l d contribute to the r e alization of these sev­
en Cardinal Principles of S econdary Education.
^ P e a b o d y , J. E., C h a i r m a n , "Preliminary Report of the.
B i o l o g y Subcommittee on the R e o r g a nization of Seco n d a r y E d u c a ­
tion, ""School Science and Mathematics, 191f), V o l . 1 5 V pp. ^4-53
^ T h e Commission on the R eorganization of Secondary
Education, Cardinal Principles of Secondary E d u c a t i o n . B u i . ,
1918, 32pp. D e p t . of Interior, B u r e a u of Education, Washing­
ton, D. C.
z
The commission members- recommended the following central
ideas for a course in biology:
1.
M a intenance of organisms- and life of species.
2.
Interrelationships b etween different organisms and
groups of organisms.
3.
Dependence and interrelation of living things- w i t h
the physical world.^
The developments in bio l o g y teaching from 1910-1920 r e ­
flect suggestions made b y earlier committees and a rethinking
of the basic issues.
.A'., general bio l o g y course, in point of
v i e w at least, was felt to be the best w a y to present the bio­
logical sciences in the hig h school.
The p e r i o d from 1920-1930
is pres e n t e d next.
A' Period of Curriculum Refinement, 1920-1930
-The- decade following the close of World War I was a time
in which b i o l o g y curriculum make r s attempted to implement the
education theory developed earlier.
The influence of the Com­
m i s s i o n on the R e o r g a nization of Secondary E d u c a t i o n 20 and the
work of the r e l a t e d Committee- on the: Reorganization, of S c i e n c e 2**'
•*-9 I b l d V .. p v 23'.
20 I b l d .,. p., 23.:..
21 C a l d w e l l ,■ 0». W . . Chairman,; "Reorganization of Science:
In Secondary Schools'-,, "C o m m i s s i o n ,o n .Reorganization.' o f S e c o n ­
dary- EducatrIon. 19.20,,, Bul.,. 26:- 62: pp:.-,, Dpt.- of Interior',.Washington, D„ C.-
25
is:-" seen throughout the-- 1920-1930' p e r i o d T h e s e - reports:- i m ­
m e d i a t e l y ■stimulated local communities:: ter re-examine- their’
biology curriculums-in l i g h t o f the-Cardinal Principles- of Sec­
ondary Education,
as: defined by the Commission on: the- R e o r g a n ­
ization of Secondary- Education. ^2"
I n 1923:-, sc- committee- under.- the--chairmanships o f 'GeorgeW 0 H u n t e r ^ of K h o x College-, reported." on a - n e w biology course
for.’ the 1 State- of Illinois-.
The- Illinois- group- was- concerned
w i t h the- objectives: of the: Committee- on. the Reorg a n i z a t i o n of
o jiy
Science*
M u c h concern was: expressed, however-,- about the
kind of curriculum materials" p r e p a r e d b y the research biologistsand" their failure-' to- consider- the Interests:' a n d needs of t h e
adolescent*.
In I92rf-'j t h e Committee- for R e o r g anization of the B i o l o g­
ical Sciences: of" the- Cleveland' Biology Teachers.;- C l u b ^ r e p o r t ­
ed: on a - n e w curriculum for:-biology teaching*.
T h e Cleveland
committee- a c c e p t e d the- p h i l o s o p h y of the: Commission on
22-The- Commission, on the- R e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f Secondary E d u­
cation, op*, c i t . ,. p ».. 2 5 ;,
^ H u n t e r , G. W., "Re p o r t of the. Committee on a. Ohe-Year'
Fundamental Course- of B i o l o g i c a l Science,."' School S c i e n c e ,and
Mathematics", 1923:, V o l 0. 23"::' P P - 6 56-66W
2lfCaIdWQll, op*- Cit0,, p*, 2^.
. \
2 :5pershi'ng, E 0, C 0,, "Report o f the Committee- on R eorgan­
ization o f the: B i o l o g i c a l Sciences- A p p o i n t e d b y the Cleveland
Biology Teachersv Club*-"" School. Science a n d M a t h e m a t i c s - 192%,
V o l . 2 %r: ppo- 2 % l - 2 % 0,
26:
Reorganiza t i o n of S econdary E d u c a t i o n
in developing both the
tenth and twelfth grade- courses'.
■ In 1928„
of Sciencej
the- American A s sociation for the Advancement
through Itsr special Committee on S cience Education,
published' a report,
"On the-Place of Science In E d u c a t i o n . "^7
After reviewing developments' in science and the impact of
science on m a n ’s; life.-, the conclusion was reached that:
"Science instruction In school and out n e e d s ’b e tter organ!za'
1
tion,. more- effective; cooperation to make- even the- health k n o w ­
ledge available: fu n c t i o n more- completely In the lives of peopie genera l l y . "
28
The m o v ement to "humanize""Vthe■ s t u d y of’ biology, w h i c h
h a d been gaining m o m e n t u m for several decades-, was- b y n o w ar
generally accepted point'- of v i e w f o r curriculum makers.
The
report of the American Assoc i a t i o n f o r the Advancement' o f
S c i e n c e ^ in 1 9 2 8 ' lent;- f u r t h e r support in this, direction.
I
The e fforts to: develop." a "'standard"1 course in bio l o g y
were-not apparent fro m the- committee reports: of this: decade'.
^Caldwell,
op. c i t ., p., 24-.
^ 7 "On the.- Place- of Science in E d u c a t i o n , "" A" report p r e ­
sented to- the Council of the A m e rican A s s o c i a t i o n for the A d ­
vancement of Science at"the Second Nashville- Meeting, December,
1927s b y the Special Cdmmittee of Science in Education, School
Science and M a t h e m a t i c s . 1928 ', V o l » 28 V
pp> 64-0-664-.
2 8 Ibid., p. 2 6 .
2 ^ I b i d . , p. 2 6 .
^
27
There- were- surveys' and studies- to find the- common elements- of
b i o logy courses- and to identify the basic principles of biology
This; was;- also the; period of the standardized' test w h i ch:in
turn demanded f a irly u n i f o r m courses- o f study if the- tests- were
to be v a l i d .
The 1920-1930 period in biological education was- not an
exciting one fro m the standpoint of "new developments:.
But the
enrollment in hig h school bio l o g y continued to m u s h r o o m and
the course became i n c r easingly prominent in the secondary
school curriculum.
The decade from 1930-194-0 i s presented"
next.
A Period of Questioning, 193.0— 1940
The depression years- in A m e r i c a p r o d u c e d the- usual
questioning of educational p r a c t i c e s that characterizes a- time
of economic and social crisis.
The teaching of science was- ex­
tensively examined b y a number of influential organizations as"
well as; b y the federal government.
’ The 1930*s r e presented a time in education w hen a t t e n ­
tion was focused u p o n the individual student and his personal,
social, and economic welfare.
H e a l t h information and consum­
ership. l o o m e d large in the b i o l o g y curriculum.
The biology committee of th#I-"North Central A s s o c i a t i o n
of Colleges; and Secondary Schools submitted two reports in
28
1931? one a general report on the teaching of b i o l o g y ^ and an
investigation on the time need e d to teach"particular.units.
Members: of the committee' expressed the- opinion that one's: k n o w ­
ledge1 of science' was1
"'serviceable in l i f e only if it was' ac­
quired' or retained' in the for m of pr i n c i p l e s or generalizations.
In 1932 ?• a Program for Teaching was' developed" by a
committee un d e r the chairmanship) of Si Ra l p h Powers and spon­
sored1 by t h e National Society f o r the Study of Education.,
M o r e attention v a s r g i v e n to the establishment of a-point of
v i e w on science,teaching,
riculum theory,
the: p s y c h o l o g y of learning, and' cur­
than can be- found" in committee reports to this
time..
In 1932.', the Progressive- E d ucation Association,
its commission on S e condary School Curriculum,
through
established"the
Committee- on the Function of Science in General Education.
The primary concern of the committee was, the contributionsscience could m a k e to the educ a t i o n of young people and there­
fore the special subject fields w ere not considered.,
SOpownihg, Elliot". R.,, tfThe Teaching of B i o l o g y , tf North
Central Association Quarterly's 1931, V o l . 5>" pp., 395-393.
3!Downing, E., R., "Teaching D h i t s in Biology-— An Investi­
gation," No r t h Central A s s o c i a t i o n Quarterly. 1931? V o l . 5'i~
PR. ^53-^70.
3 ^Power", S. R.., "1
A P r o g r a m f o r Teaching Science."' The
Thirty— first Yearbook of" the- National So c i e t y for t h e S t u d y o f .
E d u c a t i o n , Part I, 1932? 3 6 ^ PP".
29
The committees reporting in this decade took serious
note of the past developments in science teaching,
examined
current practices, and then sought to develop a consistent
theory of education in science.
F o r the first time, a science
curriculum committee was cognizant of learning theory as a
factor in curriculum planning.
These curriculum groups w ere more influenced by the con­
temporary American scene and the gr o w i n g importance of science
and technology than were the committees in previous decades.
How these factors should be represented in the science curric­
ulum of the.high school was widely debated.
Essentially each
committee felt that science was imperative in the education of
young people for their intelligent understanding of the present
society.
This approach differed from that u sed by earlier com­
mittees in which emphasis was more upo n what is significant in
terms of subject or discipline.
The 1940-1950 decade is p r e ­
sented next.
Biology in General Education, 1940-1950
In the decade 1940-1950, World War II and the birth of
the "atomic age" raised questions about the purposes of sec­
ondary school education as a whole and science teaching in
particular.
The movements in science education which began
in the thirties were temporarily overshadowed by course ad­
justments made to meet
"war-time emergencies."
Biology
.
30'
teaching-was:-not p a r t i c u l a r l y a f f ected b y these developments,
although there was: a- tendency to place- more emphasis' on h y ­
giene-, food,: and d i s e a s e 1.
In 19^0 5 a r s p e c i a l ,committee on the A m e r i c a n Council on
Education's issued' a- report on Mi a t the-H i g h Schools Ought to
Teach.
The:- central r ecommendation called for a p r o g r a m of
general education suitable for all students w i t h some provi—
sion.for specialized training ...
In 19^2, a c o m m i t t e e S ^ v/ith ■represen t a t i v e s from seven­
teen scientific and" science)teaching societies" m e t to- develop
" a phi l o s o p h y or: point of V i e w tfr"f o r 1 Instruction In secondaryschool science-..
The;-: committee throughout, its report gave."
strong support; to the. social f u n c t i o n of s cience and t h e impor­
tance" of providing the k i n d of e ducation that wil l help in ­
dividuals'- live e f f e c t i v e l y in a . s c i e ntifically oriented w o r l d „
In 19^2,
the- Cbmm i t t e e on the Teaching of Bio l o g y of. the
Un i o n of A m e r i c a n Biological S o c i e t i e s ^ p u b l i s h e d the- results
of a-- questionnaire" s u r v e y on h i g h school b i o l o g y teaching i n
the- U n ited States.
T h e major: purpose of the study -was: to as­
certain the status: of biology instruction, in high- s c h o o l s .■ A
^ A m e r i c a n Council on Education, 1940', M i a t the Hig h
Schools Ought to- T e a c h , 36 P P »
3 ^lTeal, M a t h a n AC., C h a i r m a n , Science Teaching for- Better
Blvlng— A" P h i l o s o p h y or -Point of V i e w , The .A m e r i c a n Council o f
Science Teachers'.,' 1942:, National E d u c a t i o n Association.
^ B i d d l e , O'., Editor, The Teaching of B i o l o g y In Second­
a r y School s - of the U n i t e d " States', Union, of A m e r i c a n .Biologi­
cal Societies-, 194-2, 76' pp«
31
conclusion of the- committee was that there Is a t e n d e n c y ""to
teach b i o l o g y not as: a science, •but
hobbies,
or
Ca)" as: a-way to pleasing'
Cb)'as a series of p ractical t e c h n o l o g i e s ."'3^
Tlie Educational Policies- Commission of the National E d u ­
cation Ass o c iations7 in 1 9 W
is sued a r e p o r t »
resented three years of study.
The report r e p ­
It was-suggested that a consid­
erable part of the tenth grade course, should b e . d e v o t e d to the
r o l e of science in h u m a n progress:,
In general,
all of the committees of this- d e c a d e agreed
that science h a d become imperative in the education of the A m e r ­
ican youth.
There w a s a consensus that all young people should
h a v e some k n o w l e d g e of science as a social force and that this'
wo u l d demand k n o w i n g something of the nature of the scientific
enterprise.
The general b i o l o g y course -continued to gai n enrollment
throughout the' 19^0-1950 decade,.
N e a r l y all the h i g h schools
in America were offering the c o u r s e , and in 1950,
2 1 , 7 ^ of all
high school students were enrolled in a bio l o g y class.
Several
of the curriculum committees during this p e r i o d n o t e d the- gr o w ­
ing enrollment in b i o l o g y and .pointed out that it w a s the h i g h
school bio l o g y t e a chers who m u s t n o w assume the r e s p o n sibility of
conveying to ,the' majority- of yo u t h m o s t of what they will learn
5 6 I b l d v ,. pv. 3.0» 37Educatfanal Policies Commission, 19%,, E d u c a t i o n For
All Americ a n ".Toutiiy.. 421. ppv,
,
•
3:2
about the' nature- o f 'science,, since- for- m a n y h i g h school students
b i o l o g y •would, be- a: terminal science' course=,
The: p e r i o d from
I95’
0" to- the: pr e s e n t is’ presented', next'=.
The; Crisis' In Science' Education:'
And'av R e appraisal 5 1950 to Present
The: decade-from 1950-1960" has" bee n described' as 'one' of
"confusion and: crisis"" in. science education=,
Dosensv of state
and" national' committees; have: published' statements about; needed"
improvements: in s e c o n d a r y school science teaching=
The:' Second
Session of." the: E i g h t y —Fifth:Congress- of the U n i t e d States;
r e c o r d e d 1600' pages: o f t e s t i m o n y In: twenty-two: days; o n the:
question of "science? a n d e d u c a t i o n for: national, d e f e n s e * . A h
understanding •o f 'science was;, becoming Imperative.' in the e d u ­
cation of all' people=.
yet; evolved=.
Thevnature:- o f this, e ducation h a d not'
The: biological, fields' since- m i d - c e n t u r y had:'
taken on n e w vigor=
Hewrr e s e a r c h tools; and te c h n i q u e s h a d
advanced discoveries’
/ f a s t e r ■than anticipated-=.
The: first major: effort to- r e v i e w the. teaching of b i o l o g y
in A m e r i c a n -s e c o n d a r y schools: during the; 1 9 5 O— I960 decade: w a s
carried out at:, the: Southeastern". Conference o n B i o l o g y Teaching"
h e l d during the.-, summer" of 1 9 5 % ^
Six- biological scientists
^BreukeIman-, J=, and' A r m a c o s t ,. R=.,, Cochairmen, "Re­
p o r t of" the. Sou t h e a s t e r n C o n f e r e n c e on. B i o l o g y Teaching,;"'Bie
American B i o l o g y - Teachers 1955, Vol.=.- I?" Cl.) :: pp.=
55®
3±
p r e p a r e d -written summary statements: on ■how." their s p e c i a l fields"
could- and- should contribute t e the' training o f biology- teachers'.
From these:-papers:, m o s t of the; resource material for" the devel­
opment of the 1 hig h school curriculum and the t e a c h e r training
programs/were: formulated.
F u r t h e r m o r e , c o n f e r e n c e 1r e p r esenta—
tives: were- o f the: opinion that b iology courses' should b e de ­
signed" to meet: the- needs" and interests; of individual student's®
Course; objectives, should' be both general and" local in charac­
ter, embracing-the-principles: of" biology-with local applica­
tions:..
The;- Forth Central C o n f erence on B i o l o g y T e a c h i n g ^ was
h e l d in 1 9 5 5 ’at: C h e y b o y g a n , Michigan.
T h e w o r k of this commit­
tee/ was: similar- to- that' o f the: Sbutheastern C o n f e r e n c e on B i o l — o gy T e a c h i n g ,^
h e l d 'in 195%»
The-conferees, r e c o gnized that -
local, conditions: must' influence, w h a t can be; d o n e i n the- s t u d y ■
of biology.
In: 1 9 5 % ; the D i v ision of B iology and A g r i c u l t u r e F a —
tional A c a d e m y of Sciences,--Fational R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l , ^ es­
tablished" a C o m m i t t e e on Educational Policies:,., to consider
S-^Apniacost, R.,, and" K l i n g e , P-V, "Report of the F a r t h
Central Co n f e r e n c e on Bio l o g y T e a c h i n g , The- A m e rican Biology
Teacher j) 1956, V o l . l 8 (I) r pp-. i-i— 72:.
^ B r e u l c e l m a n and A r m a c o s t, o n . c i t . , p^ 3 2
^ C o n f e r e n c e on Biological Education, M a r c h 10, 1953 ’.5
Fational A c a d e m y of Sciences,— Fational R e s e a r c h C o u n c i l ,
Cmimeo)' D i v i s i o n of Biology and Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
3%
problems: o f 'biological, education,
i:t was; felt that'major chang­
es' were n e e d e d 'in biological education at" all levels'and f o r both general and professional education.
Pressures'were being brought, to- bear, b y var i o u s com­
mittees', f o r " a rethinking o f 'the goals of education in the/
sciencesv
The plea, was: for E quality,11'-"'excellence, w or "rigor"'
in high school science courses".
Precise' definitions of what"
those attributes'- m e a n t for," the - curriculum in science were l a c k ­
ing.' .
‘
The- f i r s t hig h school science- course to be reorganized
during the 1950-1960' period' was- physics', followed next by chem­
istry.
Ttiet curriculum committees: sought to remove m u c h of the-
descriptive aspect of the courses, add more " s c i e n c e ,
the number and update concepts in the- courses.
reduce
ITew l a b o r a t o r y
experiments: w e r e - devised" t h a t were more;, i n -terms, of the n a t u r e
of science.-.
The b i o l o g y curriculum committees deve l o p e d their
courses' f o r the typical tenth grader.
Their efforts were to-
develop, a more integrated course-built around an interpreta­
tive-, theme •, such as,ecology,
evolution, and ener g y e x c h a n g e .
Teaching units on "radiation biology"' and "Space biology"" w e r e '
■
added to textbooks and courses of study.
tion had a renewed emphasis.
in m a n y schools.
C o n s e rvation educa­
Advanced" bio l o g y became- pop u l a r ■
Frequently this m e a n t us i n g a college b i o l ­
o g y textbook in h i g h s c h o o l . -
35
Hie- n e e d to improve la b o r a t o r y w ork r e c eived m u c h at­
tention,
M ost of the recommendations- were for a more experi­
m e n t a l approach to the study of ’ biology,.
The 1 9 6 O— I 970 decadb' b e g a n w i t h a series, of n e w b i o l o g y
courses'3 l a b o r a t o r y experiments and teaching resources.
The problems;'and" issues' of b i o l o g y teaching at: this timeare extensive, p o s s i b l y m o r e so than a" decade or' two- ago,.
This"
does h ot m e a n that: th e r e h a s b een a lack of progress in b i o ­
logical education, but simply that the: conditions in o u r cul­
ture, biology, and education have- c h a n g e d r a d i c a l l y i n recent
years.
T h i s i s not the' w o r l d of the 1 9 4 0 *s or- even t h e 1 9 5 0 tS y
w e should" n o t -expect that, the: a n s w e r s to the1p r o b l e m s o f the"
past decade- are e n t irely pertinent today,.
The objectives and
curriculum for b i o l o g y teaching in the- sixties; m a y be q u i t e
o u t - d a t e d by 1970; p r o g r e s s in biological thinking and discov-'
ery will make- sections- of present courses- of small educative;
value
3. they m a y even be- m i s l eading in another:- decade,.
During the school year. 1960-1961,
over 14,000 students
in H O ' hig h schools: were; experimenting with: a. n e w biologycourse; d e v e l o p e d b y t h e Biological Sciences- C u r r iculum Study.
Some;- preli m i n a r y w o r k was;" under w a y to. study the- place- o f
b i o l o g y in; the? curriculum from the-' first- grade through highschool.
36'
Sizfflinary
. Therev is. no.- real w a y to judge- the' extent to w h i c h
b i o l o g y curriculum committees wer e effective in bringing about
changes in either the- content or conduct of bio l o g y courses*
One would find it difficult to date or to-' place, i n sequencethe committee efforts' of the past i f t h e y w e r e not identified
b y y e a r of publi c a t i o n or membership.
Yet,
there h a v e been
changes; In biology t e a c h i n g S o m e t i m e s the- suggestions of sc
specific committee-did" not' bear- fruit until a half centurylater.
As-: examination is m a d e of the- various: committee reports,
it m a y be- n o t e d that several basic changes have- r e s u l t e d in
b i o logy curricuiums' due to the-influence of these reports. ■ I n
the; early years- t h e committees stressed a t t e n t i o n to basic
biological principles;.this w a s followed b y a shift emphasiz­
ing the personal hygiene era of biology.
A g a i n the committee,
influence was: felt and t h e course of s t u d y swung b ack again toemphasizing basic biological techniques^
During this entire.' p e r ­
iod' ther.e; seemed- to b e m o r e and more.- attention gi v e n to e c o l o g y
and its importance in the. teaching of high school biology.
Constant attempt m ust be m a d e to seek bett e r definitions;
for the-meaning of e basic e d ucation in t h e biological sciences.
All that is k n o w n for certain Is t h a t •the answers: are- not f o u n d
in the past, a l t hough there are s i g n a l s w h i c h m a y p r o v e " u s e f u l »
37
Hie p rogram of the Biological Sciences' Curriculum S t u d y
o f the Amer i c a n Institute of Biological Sciences x-ras- designed
to overcome- the m a j o r i t y of the inadequacies', of previous com­
mittees.
The' Biological Sciences. Curriculum S t u d y will he p r e ­
sented next*
'’
'
CPH P TEH'. Ill
THE' BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES' CURRICULUM S T U D T
It'was-not until 1950-1960^ that' educators and scien­
tists’-.alike: "became' fully aware that the existing curriculum i m
science w a s inadequate- for a r a p i d l y changing society and' inad­
equate for conveying an underst a n d i n g of current science.
It
O
was because, o f 'this a n d similar considerations
that the' Biol o g­
ical Sciences Curriculum St u d y B i o l o g y P r o g r a m came into being.
B.S. C.S.. bio l o g y i s the: result of an effort by the A m e r ­
ican Institute of Biological Sciences
(A.I 0B 0S". T to improve
biological science education b y establishing the B i o l o g i c a l ■
Sciences Cu r r iculum Study in'1959*
These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , along w i t h p r e v i o u s efforts t o w a r d
curriculum reform,3 led the B.S.C.S.
Steering Committee' t o 'de ­
cid e to prepare- materials-- for a -general b i o l o g y course for- the
average hig h school student*
Three- phases pert i n e n t to an e x ­
planation of the B.S.C.S; b i o l o g y p r o g r a m ares-
ClT origin and
purposes of t h e Biological Sciences Curriculum Study,
three versions,
and
C3); differences among B.S.C.S.
tional biology textbooks.
(2)" the
and tradi­
.These t h r e e phases-', are- p r e s e n t e d in
t h e following sections.
-See:- Chapter II, pp. 32-33 •
, 2g.ee Chapter- II, pp.- 11-36'.
^S&e- Chapter II, pp*. 11-3.6.
39
Origin and Purposes of the Biological
S ciences-Curriculum Study
.In 1 9 5 5 j the American Institute of Biological Sciences
(A0I 0B aS 8)', a".professional society representing 85,000 biol­
ogists, began discussions of plans to improve biological edu­
cation at all levels.
The B 8S 0C 0S 8 was organized in the fall
of 1958 by the E d u c a t i o n Committee of the A m e rican Institute
of Biological Sciences,
Major financial support has come from
the National Science Foundation,
Additional grants to support
the international aspects of the p r o g r a m have b e e n given b y the"
Rockefeller Foundation,
'
The function of the B 0S 0C 8S 0 as stated in the original
proposal to the National Science Foundation w a s -a s - f o l l o w s r
To evaluate- the- content of" p r e s e n t bi o l o g y course:,
offerings",, to- determine what, biological knowledge- can
and should be- learned' at each level, and to recommend'
how: this:- latter -goal can be: achieved;,.
The' policy-making bod y f o r t h e B 8S 8-C0S 0- is: a Steering:
Committee composed" of 2 7 7members:, including resea r c h biolo­
gist s", hig h sehool b i o l o g y teachers., science supervisors,
edu­
cation specialists;, med i c a l specialists.,;, agricultural educator-,
and. u n i v e r s i t y administrators^
H 8- Bentley Glass-of Johns. H o p ­
kins: U n i v er s i t y was:'chosen ■chairman of" the Steering Committee,and Arnold H 8, G r o b m a n .of " the- H h i v e r s l t y o f Colorado' was: ap­
p o i n t e d director*.
40
The - Hig h School Biology P r o g r a m .
TIie B. 8.0.8», commit­
tee decided to focus its a ttention at the- s e c o n d a r y school ley-el.
In about 8 0 $ o f -the- A m e rican high s c h o o l s s the- first
course- in b i o l o g y is offered" in'the- tenth grade.-
A s maller1
proportion offer it in n i n t h grade, and a f e w h i g h schools- of­
fer ■the first course: in b i o l o g y in the eleventh or twelfthgrades'..
The- B.S'.C.B.. Steering Committee- decided early that, ftw o u l d design- a:, course- appropriate for general education in
biology, rather than to; attempt, to- design a m o r e sophisticated
course for- a select minority.
Grobman"5" s u m m a r i z e d reasons for:
/
c h o o s i n g ■t h e tenth grade, as; the- level of focus." of the- B e-S01C 0-S.
materials; as; follows-:
I n tenth grade biology, for- the student who does .
not go on. to college:, the-, b i o l o g y is;- the- l a s t chancein the. classroom t o prepare these- students', who; com­
prise- over- hal f of our ■adult population, for- the rapid'
changes- in scientific knowledge: and: the concepts t h e y
will face in their ■lifetimes e. It must be- a course that-'.
mos t tenth grade students can handle, and' at. the- sametime prove challenging to the-above -average student.
For these- reasons-, the committee thought it undesirableto- limit the -cour s e ,to a: single design.Different Accroaches To-High School B i o l o g y .
The com­
mittee; rec o gnized that:a valid course in b i o l o g y could be- d e ­
veloped' fro m several points.- of'view®
For- e x a m p l e , courses'
could be- organized w h i c h r epresent a l l o f the- l e v e l s of .bio— •
logical c o m p l e x i t y :
b
the: mole c u l a r ’ level, the- cellular level.
'Grobman, oc> fit.., p-.. 6.
tissue" a n d 'o r g a n 'Ievel,
tion, the community,
the individual organism,
the p o pula­
and the' w o r l d of living things-,.
A' biology
course at" any one:' of" these- leve l s could be e q u a l l y effective/.
Ihe- committee h a s carefully a voided1 a n y ‘statement or action
which, even by implication, might cause a n y o n e to i n f e r that
there -is' a1
, "best""' approach to. teaching biology,
o r that a p a r ­
ticular- emphasis: is. n e c e s s a r i l y mo s t appropriate; f o r all situ­
ations.
Recognizing that a valid" course- in b i o l o g y could be de—
veloped fro m several points' of view,
the. B.S.C.S.
committee, de— -
cided to develop- three different v e r s i o n s of teaching high
■school biology...
A: discussion o f t h e s e three versions.' i s p r e ­
sented" next,.
The- Three-Versions;.
S i m i l a r i t i e s The; task of preparing, p r e l i m i n a r y exper­
imental materials- for;" a h igh school bio l o g y course was-- assigned
to: three- writing teams who' m e t for the First Summer Writing
Conference at' the U n i v e r s i t y of Colorado in 196 'CV
The m a t e r i ­
als prepared-' by each of the- three- teams; utilized" a. different
approach'to the- high school bio l o g y course.
The three approach­
es were designated-the " B l u e - , " G r e e n , " and "Yellow"'" v e r s ions-^
^Blue- Version is Biological S c i e n c e , M olecules to Man;
Green V e r s i o n is. High School B i o l o g y , B S C S . Green V e r s i o n ;
Y e l l o w V e r s i o n is Biological S c i e n c e r Ah Inquiry Into L i f e .
'42
These experimental' materials were tested in I 9 6 O-I 9 6 I by
118 teachers with 14,000 ,students in experimental centers lo­
cated in various sections of the country in both urban and r u ­
ral s c h o o l s „
The comments of teachers and students were o b t a i n ­
ed on a systematic basis throughout the year and were use d in
p r e p a r i n g a third and final re-writing of the textbooks.
Alt hough the three versions of'B.S.C.S. High School Bi- .
ology differ, in the emphasis placed on the various levels of
biological o r g a n i z a t i o n , they possess in common nine themes
which serve, as u n i f y i n g t h r e a d s :
1.
Change of.living things t h r o u g h .t i m e - e v o l u t i o n .
2.
. D iversity of type a n d unity of pattern of living
■t h i n g s .
3.
Genetic continuity of life.
.
4.
Biological roots of behavior.
5.
Complimentarity of structure and function.
6.
Complimentarity of organisms' and e n v i r o n m e n t .
7.
Regulation and homeostasis:
the maintenance
. of life i n . t h e 5face of c h a n g e ..
8. , Science as i n q u i r y .
9.
History of biological concepts. ■
The first seven themes define the content of"the B.S.C.S.
courses;
the last.two convey the logical structures of each
course. ■ The specific content of each version differs,
w h i c h e v e r course the, pupil studies,
but
he will be developing an
ti".
understanding of" the s'ame u n i fying themes:.The three, versions" are' s i m i l a r as- to purpose-.
The-
B . S eC . S ei c o m m i t t e e - w a s - o f 't h e opinion that a'- secondary school
course in b i o l o g y s h o u l d sconcepts: of" biology,
inquiry, and
Cl); present-' the m o s t significant'
(2)" focus; on the nature of scientific
(3'.)" p r o v i d e the student with a coherent picture
of contemporary biology...
T h e approaches;.-are-- also alike in that the writers' o f
all three- v e r s i o n s have-: attempted" "to present materials- and" r e ­
lated concepts; In s u c h ’
- a.-way as:, to develop- t h o s e attitudes, and
skills- whi c h are' regarded" as. basic objectives; of American- p u b ­
lic education
T h e t h r e e versions a r e alike in that the l a b —
oratory.materials, have; bee n d e s i g n e d t o r e p r e s e n t and. reveal
t he structure: of "modern biology,; the--state;■of" its knowledge.,
its. objectives:, and" its; methods..
-In all three- versions,
consid­
erable emphasis;has. b een p l a c e d on thei l a b o r a t o r y "activities.
Although- the l a b o r a t o r y exercises; have been' selected to r eflect
both the i n v e s t i g a t o r y and illustrative- f u n c t i o n of labo r a ­
tory work,, g r e a t e r ■emphasis h a s been p l aced on real experiments
and open-ended problems;.'
Finally,
t h e y are: a l i k e in that t h e y
represent. attempts-., to prepare-materials that- are- i n t e r e s t i n g ,
u s e f u l , and challenging to students a s well as to teachers.
^Ther- Commission on: the- R e o r g anization of Secondary E d u ­
cation, op:. C i t a,.- p v 23"..
(
Differences',
After sc consideration of ways in w h i c h .
the" three- versions of B,S;C,.S0. h i g h school b i o l o g y are alike:,
the question.frequently a r i s e s :: h o w are-the- t h r e e versionsdifferent?"
Theimajor- differences'.- among-';the? .BeS,G'«,S,. versions
are the levels; on which, each places; its. emphases.
The Green
Version^ places" greatest emphasis on t h e community" and w o r l d
b i o m e 1 levels;
the Y e l l o w Version® on the cellular level, w i t h
high emphasis-on the- molecular, level also; and the Blue Ver­
sion^ on the--" molecular:'- l e v e l , with hig h e m p hasis on the cellu­
lar,.
This" does not- m e a n that: the Green Version om i t s p hysiol­
ogy and biochemistry; nor- does: it. m e a n that eco l o g y h a s been
left out of the B l u e a n d Y e l l o w Versions*
bala n c e d r epresentation of biology.
E a c h ver s i o n is a"
T h e Green V e r s i o n ap­
proaches. the- study, of b i o l o g y from the world community level,
then moves through ever-decreasing units' to the molecularlevel.
The Blue V ersion approaches the study from the m o l e c ­
ular- level and m o v e s through ever-increasing u n i t s to the:
w o r l d community.
T h e Y e l l o w Ve r s i o n approaches- b i o l o g y o n
the c e l l u l a r level,
then moves- d o w n w a r d to.the molecular-
level and upward' to -the world c ommunity level.
/7The Green Version, op. p i t , , p, iAL.
o
•
The-Yellow Version, on, ci't, , p, iAL.
^The: B l u e Version, pp.
c i t ., p, lH .
All- three
•
BeS.CoS.. versions- differ' from the. traditional texts, which
place greatest emphasis on the organ-tissue level,
and r e l a ­
tively- less emphasis on other levels'.-
Differences' Between B 0S 0C eS', and Traditional
Biology Textbooks;
One of the questions mos t frequently asked concerning
B.S.C.S.. i s h o w
does B eS l C eS'., Hig h School B i o l o g y differ
from traditional b i o l o g y courses?
Briefly, B'.S'.C.S, differs"
in several ways.
1.
-
It is the product of the cooperative- efforts of
teams composed of research biologists,- high school biologyteachers, and other educational experts.
2.
It is constructed on a- basis of up - t o - d a t e ideas'
and concepts in the field of biology.
'
■It is not simply a
revision of old concepts and ways- of thinking.
' 3»
It places' considerably mo r e emphasis on la b o r a t o r y
work than do traditional courses.
Moreover,
greater stress is
placed on exercises of an investigative nature w h i c h Introduce
the student to science'as- a process of inquiry-rather than as
the traditional Illustrative-type of l a b o ratory exercises.
S o m e of the ways; the- approach to in q u i r y m a y be characterized
are as f o l l o w s : ' (I)'/ nWe do not,, know,
(2)" "We have b e e n "
unable to discover h o w this happens," ,and CS-) 'nThe- evidence
46
about this is c ontradictory.n"'
4.
Although the B.S.C.S. v e r s i o n s differ in the em­
phasis 'placed on the various levels' of biological organization,,
they possess' in common nine themes w h i c h serve as unifying
threads.^0
5.
The treatment in the B.S.C.S. materials of certain
traditionally taboo areas such as'' reproduction and evolution
is straightforward and to the point.
The writers have recog­
n i z e d these for w h a t they are, essential p i e c e s in the p a t ­
tern that represents the present state of our- biological k n o w ­
ledge.
As such,
they form two u n i fying themes
(genetic con­
tinuity and evolution)' and are w o v e n throughout all three
versions.
6»
The n e w teaching material,, invitations: to inquiry,
is designed to show h o w knowledge, arises in biology- and h o w
-.
1
it m a y be i n t e r p r e t e d and u s e d to provide specific experience
in the m a n y phases of inquiry.
E a c h invitation to inquiry
reveals: something about the natu r e of science a s -well as-add­
ing to o n e * s underst a n d i n g of b i o l o g y . Such factors as these fit together to form a contrast­
ing picture between the B.S.C.S. materials and traditional
biology materials.
^See
'
_
p. 42.
•^Schwab, Jose p h J.,
a u i r y , pp. 108-109»
The Teaching of Science As En-
11
hr?
Sunnnary
The B.S.C^S". texts' represent a re-established c o m u n i cation among the m a j o r groups involved in education.
Teachers"
have come from the schools? educators have- come fro m colleges
and universities;
scientists have come from their laboratories;
the three groups together have begun to learn h o w to c o m u n i - ■
cate a n d collaborate in producing better materials for our
schools.
■ These three groups have attempted to select the best
and most significant materials in bi o l o g y for the purpose of
public education.
They have tried to d e velop;these m a t e r i a l s
in forms: that: would" best- contribute." to the; attitudes: a n d skills
w h i c h are: the- objectives: of A m e r i c a n public, education..
They
have; tried" to- reflect the: structure: of." b i o l o g y as: that" science:
n o w ; exists-, and- they have:' tried" to: produce- these.material's; in
a w a y that" will, make- them useful., to- t h e -b i o l o g y teachers' o f the"
American schools,. .
The. e x p e r i m e n t a l design a n d investigational procedures
in this: study will' b e presented, next*
/
c h a p t e r : rv
EXPERIMEHTAi: D E S I G H AND IHVES TIGATIOHAE PROCEDURES'
The" pur.p-o.se'- o f this: i n v estigation was'" to determine
w h e t h e r 1 there- are;: differences-,; in terms: of f i n a l student
achievement,; as;; measured' b y a.' standardised’ h i g h school biol­
ogy a c h i e v e m e n t test;, among ■the:- t h r e e B*.S.C.S e. versions of
teaching hig h school b i o l o g y a n d the- traditional approach to
teaching high school biology.
The: following items- were.- con­
sidered' in designing the- experiment: a n d In conducting ^the- i n ­
vestigation;-
(I)"" selection and" content o f m a t e r i a l s included
in the- study,
(2)" determination of the time r e q u i r e d for- com­
pletion o f the- study,
(3)' selection and- assignment- o f the teach­
ers to the- various; versions,
(*£)"! selection and assignment of"
students t o - t h e various versions,. ( 5 T teaching -procedures'-,C6) criteria- u s e d in initial, comparison of groups, and (7) m e a s ­
u r e m e n t a n d 1 comparison of final achievement in biology.
These;- seven, items/ are presented- in t h e following-- sec­
tions,.
Selection- a n d Content, of Materials;'.
I n c l u d e d in the;; S t u d y
The. principal criterion- to be/ me-f in the -sele c t i o n and .
content: of." the>- study -materials;' was/ that" t h e s e m a t e r i a l s should
/
I
h9'
f b l l b w gener.ally- accepted" principles:-o:f learning ^
that is,
they should z:: proceed, from the:- Iaiown to- ■the; unkno.-wn
provide
opportuniti'esr for- successful' I e a r n i h g 5, requir.er the active^ p a r ­
ticipation o f the -pupils', and provide- opportunities: for: t h e
self - d i s c ov e r y 1of 'principles'..The? OTi t e r - feelsr that t h e B.S.C.8. Blue,
Green, and
Y e l l o v versions.: and the. traditional approach -to the.-: teaching
of hig h school b i o l o g y as; u s e d 'In this; study m e e t these- h a s ­
sle .principles: of learning-.2 ’ However,
the-basic biological
emphasis: of the B eS eC eS e. Blue, Green, and Yellovr versions^ as
contrasted’ to the. traditional^ approach to t h e .teaching of
h i g h .school b i o l o g y d'o-j In themselves, result In- t h e u s e of"
different: Materials' In the respective- approaches...
As: a re­
sult,, the determining factor as: to ther selection a n d content,
of the- materials: to b e u s e d In the study was: that: o f the- p a r ­
t i c u l a r approach t e the teaching of high-school bio l o g y w h i c h
was:? followed!
AA.discussion o f the. d e t ermination of" the time- required
to. complete- the- study follows*.
^ H I l g a r d j lE 0. R e... Theories- o f 'L e a r n i n g . p.pe, 48^-4-87«
■ 2 I b l d e., p„. 49*3 See- C h a p t e r III, pp. 41-43!
^f-See? Chapter -IIX,- p! 45*
50’
Determ i n a t i o n o f t h e Time R e q u i r e d
For-Completion o f the -S t u d y
A'."n e c e s s a r y part: o f the-■planning o f the s t u d y required
a determination of' the- duration, o f the" tirae: required for" its;'
completion.
S i n c e the B . S . C . S . .versions, and the tradition­
al approach to teaching of hig h school b i o l o g y are designed"
and' structured so’ they m a y be completed1 In. one7 school year-,
it was;- decided that', the study should be-' o f one school y e a r .
duration,
a p e r i o d o f two semesters or1 36 ''weeks-.
In order"
to determine' if there; are' d i f f e r e n c e s , in terms, of final stu­
dent achievement,
a s / m e a s u r e d b y .a'standardized high school
biology achievement test, among" the three-B . S.,.C.,S., versions;
of teaching h i g h school b i o l o g y and the- traditional, approach
to teaching h igh school biology, it was; ne c e s s a r y to securethe. a i d of several teachers- who- would teach the B.S.C.S. v e r ­
sions and the traditional approach according to the prescribed
curriculum of each.
This section is" p resented next.
S election and Assignment of Teachers;
to1 the -Various .Approaches-
To obta i n data, to evaluate; the achievement scores of
the students, being taught under the B.S.C.S;.. Blue", Green, and
Y e l l o w version, p l u s those-using the traditional texts, and
materials:, it: was:, n e c e s s a r y to enlist the aid of teachers'- of .
3'6-week o r t w o - s e m e s t e r ■b i o l o g y courses.
.
51
T h e assignment o f teachers to either the Bi S’.C. S'. B T u e 5
G r e e n 5 Yellovr5 or- traditional approaches- to teaching bi o l o g y
was-, according to the v/ay the assignments-v/ere m ade by school
officials in charge o f ’ such scheduling..
These teachers were
experienced teachers w i t h a m e a n of 13'»7 years of teaching
high school b iology classes.
ing experience wasr 9— 20' y e a r s .
gree.
The range of their total teach­
Each teacher held a Master rs- de
The five participating teachers taught a total of 510
students in 25 classes of hig h school biology.
period for.' e a c h group was- 60 minutes,
The class-
and the classes;- met five
days a week, for 36 weeks.
Each of the five teachers', along wit h school officials
responsible for scheduling of pupils- and assignment of teach­
ers to courses, was- contacted ahead of time and all readily,
agreed to parti c i p a t e - i n the study.
The assignment of students to the va r i o u s versions w ill
be presented' next.
'
,
Sele c t i o n and Assignment of Stude n t s
To the Various Approaches
The assignment of students, to' the. various sections and
approaches; to teaching-high school biology, as: u s e d in this:
study, was; according to the; vzay pupils;' were; a s s i g n e d to the-
52'
different teachers.
. The- pupil's: o f the teacher who was; assigned
to teach the B.S.G.S.. BIue- Version were- taught according to theB.So.C.S®, Blue ■Ver s i o n approach.
The- pupils o f the t e a c h e r who
w a s assigned' to teach the B. S .C .S .. Green Ver s i o n w e r e - taught"
according to -t h e B 6S e-Ce-S», Green V e r s i o n approach, a n d similar­
l y with the B eS eiC eS*. Y e l l o w Version and traditional approaches..
In this way, it. was: felt that r a n d o m assignment o f students to
different teachers;--and a p p r oaches to teaching h i g h school "biol­
o gy was; achieved..
The question o f teaching p r o c edures used' b y
the participating teachers of the- four ■s e l e c t e d ’approaches- to
teaching high school biology is- reported next..
Teaching Procedures:
Since.-it was: assumed that those teachers i n v olved i n
t h i s study w ere-competent and capable of handling their- own
subject and related" materials, no restrictions were p u t upon: individual teachers; asr to teaching p r o c e d u r e s except tha t they
were- expected to f o l l o w the: curriculum for- a n y of the approach­
es. w h i c h they m a y h a v e been a s s i g n e d to: t e a c h .
A", discussion o f the w a y in w h i c h the groups were - i n i t i a l­
ly- compared w ill be presented" next*
'Criteria: Used" In Initial Comparison of Groups.
Tb' determine the effect, on final achievement, in bio l o g y
of each of the four-selected' a p p r o a c h e s to teaching high school
b i o l o g y 9 i t ' w a s ,n e c e s s a r y to i n i t i a l l y compare each of t h e fivegroups to ascertain the extent,to w h i c h they w e r e similar.
The
h e r e i n designated' term total groups- refers; to the three B . S eC 0S e
versions, of teaching h i g h school b i o l o g y and the traditional
approach to teaching h i g h school biology.
statistical comparison of'the total groups,
were.- f o l l o w e d „
To facilitate theseveral procedures:
All p ertinent d a t a on each student participat—
ing in the study w a s - k e y punched i n t o individual IBM" cards,.
It was" then possible b y means'- of I B H m a c h i n e s-- to group;:'and
■
sort'-the cards on the basis o f a n y o f the-- information con—
I
t ained on the-cards,
In addition,
the use of k e y —p u n c h e d I B M
card's made', it possible to further: process., them in the IBM
1620 computers.
. The--, c o m p u ter-calculated the- following d a t a : f o r each of
the total groups:
Tow
M e a n IoQo
2o-, M e a n pre-test' score,,
3».
M e a n post-test score.
%.
M e a n difference s c o r e (post-test minus, pre-test)'.
M e a n final grade-— 9 science.
Furthermore., the- services- and programs' o f the IBM' !'620
c o m p u t e r w e r e - u t i l i z e d In calculating the. F— score ratios re — suiting from the single classification analysis: o f variance-
Fprogram aa applied' to the- experimental data" "based on total
groups-.
The- choice of statistical techniques: used' to test
the. experimental data was: d e t e r m i n e d after -several confer­
ence's: wi t h three fac u l t y members of M o n t a n a State- Un i v e rsity.^
Since two of." t h e five, groups were taught b y the tradi­
tional approach, one-group fro m t h e Aust i n H igh School, Austin,
Minnesota,, and the-other-group-from t h e R ochester'High School,
Rochester-, M i n n e s o t a , ' i t was" d e c i d e d that" i f it could be demon­
strated statistically that no significant, difference existed
between these two groups,
treated" as- one- g r o u p .
then they could b e -combined and
T h e - criteria u s e d in the initial com­
parison of' the-groups w a s as. f o l l o w s :"
s c o r e ; (3)" final grade— 9' science,
(6) g r a d e placement in school.
Cl)'' I* Q.,
(4)" sex,
(2)’pre-test
C F ' age, and
The statistical comparison,
o f the- two- traditional groups will be. presented first, follow­
ed b y a- discussion of each of the s i x pr e v i o u s l y m e ntioned
criteria- as- related to all the approaches-..
Comparison o f " t h e ■traditional g r o u p s .
Since the tradi­
tional groups u s e d in this study were, from two d i f f e r e n t
schools- and t h e pupils .taught b y two different, teachers-, it was
nec e s s a r y to determine- i f 'the-pupils f rom t h e .two traditional
groups could be-pooled: to form o n e composite, group.
It was
^Picton, J ohn 0.., Assistant Professor, E d u c a t i o n S u v a k ,
Albert, Assistant Professor, Testing a n d C o u n s e l i n g ; Quesenberry, Charles P!i>, A s s o c i a t e Professor, Mathematics'; Mo n t a n a
State University, Personal Interviews, August, 1964.-
55
decided' to use-, the t-test statistic0 to test the null hypothesis
of no difference between the means:.
This statistic would be
u s e d to test the following crit e r i a ; - ( I ) iI eQ".* (2)'pre-test
score, and (3)"' final grade— 9 science.
I..
Tb be.: able to test the null hypothesis' of no signifi­
cant. difference between the m e a n I eQ;.1s of the two traditional
groups? us i n g the t-test,
it w a s - first n e c e s s a r y to determine
if the two sample variances could be pooled.
u s e d to determine If this was p o s s i b l e 0
The F-test^ w a s
Ah F ratio of I »28 w a s
calculated for the sample variances.
The n u mber of degrees of
freedom, b a s e d on the larger variance
(greater m e a n square)", and
the smaller v a r i a n c e s (lesser m e a n square)"^ y i e l d e d a critical
6 D o v m i e , N. M e , and Heath, R.'. W., Basic Statistical M e t h ods ? P —
—
>
~
•
=2
bDSr
where
t = t score
x-^ = m e a n of the l a r g e r of the two groups.
X g r=Inean of the smaller of the two groups.
Sy- = standard' error- of the difference b e t w e e n two m e a n s ,
^7See •A p p e n d i x
Tables 9 and 10.
^Downie and Heath,
op. p i t . , pp. 123-139
; 2
F=
■ q, 2
D 2: ■
Where
bI =• the larger of the two sample variances,.
2^2 = the smaller of the two sample variances.
?6
valued of df =
1 .65 at the 0.01 level of significance.
Since
the derived value of F (1 .2 8 )'was less than the critical.value
(1.65), it.was: assumed that there was no significant difference
between the variances and that the samples could be pooled.
A. t-test score of 2.02 was c a l c u l a t e d .
The number of
degrees of f r e e d o m ^ to test the significance of this score
was computed.
In this case, a d f value of 193' was determined.
The critical v a l u e d of 193 df at the 0.01 level of significance
was 2.576, for the two-tailed test.
H e n c e , ■the null hypo t h ­
esis of no significant difference between the means was accepted
Since it was- determined that there were no significant
differences between the variances or the means of the I eQ 0 tS
of the two traditional groups,
the two groups wer e treated as
a single group.
2.
A'.pre-test score was determined b y the use of a stan­
dardized h igh school bio l o g y achievement examination.
The au—
T p"
thor; of this;: examination, was; Dr-.,. B.B... Whittinger,
Universityof Minnesota1,, and' edited b y Dr.. Walter.' Cook, Dean, Col l e g e of
9Downle:_ and'1Heath,, o n . cit . ,. pp\ 272^273»
^ 0 D o w n i e and Heath,. op> c i t .,.. p., 1351
df = CH1 -f N 2T - 2:
where;
d f = degrees:;, of: freedom;
N^ - n u m b e r of cases; in thev l a r g e r sample.
N 2 = number': o f cases, i n the/ smaller: sample-..
^^Downie^and* H e a t h , or. c i t pv 26,5.12Whittihger:^ on., c i t ..... p v 8'..
•■
57
Education, Un i v e r s i t y of Minnesota.
The examination was- admin­
istered on the first d a y of classes to all students participat­
ing in the study.
Ah F - r a t i o ^ ' w a s determined to see i f it was possible
to pool the variances of the two traditional groups on the
basis of pre-test scores.
determined..
Ther calculated F-ratio of 1. 19'w a s
Based' on 193 d e g r e e s of freedom,
the null hy p o t h e­
sis of" no- -significant, difference- bet w e e n the -two v a r i a n c e s was'
accepted and the v a r i a n c e s were'pooled'-..
A." t— test" s c o r e d o f 2*12 was- determined'.
degrees of freedom,
Based on 193
a- critical v a l u e d of 2*57^ at the 0.01
level of significance f o r ther t w o - t a i l e d test w a s determined.
Hence:, the. null' hypothesis of no significant difference be ­
tween the:, m e a n s was-accepted.
Since it was; determined that;
there w e r e no significant d i f f e r e n c e s between the variances
o r the means; of the pre-test, scores; of the- two- t r a d i t i o n a l '
groups', the.- two g r o u p s were; treated as a' single group.
'
3®-
The' final" grades f r o m 9— science': for -those- students
of’ t h e traditional g r o u p s participating I n the s.tudy w e r e 'ob ­
tained" from the counselors'
Student files.
A h F - r a t i o ^ w a s ; computed- to see if it; was:-possible to
pool the. variances of the two; traditional groups;:on the: ba s i s
‘*
1
1^Downie- and Heath, op. -c i t . p .
^^Downie and Heath",,
op
*
272— 276.
citv, p. 135°
^-^Dovjnie and Heath, o p * cit*,. p» 272-276.
1^Downie. and Heath, o p * cit... p.. 272-276.
28T
of final grades- from'9-science.
1.33’ was: determined.
The calculated F-ratio of
Based' o n 193 degrees' of freedom,
the'
nul l hypothesis: of no significant di f f e r e n c e 1 between the twovariances was: accepted- and the1 variances were- p o o l e d e
t-score%7 of 1.4-8 was; determined.
A
Based on 193 degrees' o f
freedom, a. critical v a l u e r ^ of 2 . 57<3:- a t the 0.01 level of significance-, for- the two-tailed test, w a s determined.
1
A t this
level of significance- the null hypothesis- of no:- significant
difference bet w e e n the- means: was:- accepted.
Since it was; determined, that there were no significant
differences: bet w e e n the variances; or- the means o f the- final
grades: f r o m 9 - science-- f o r the: two- traditional groups,
the- two-
groups- w e r e 1 t r e a t e d as a. single1 group-.
O n the- basis of the- t-test results; w h i c h indicated no
significant differences; in the means, o f the I»Q. s c o r e s , thepre-test scores, and the final grades'- from 9-science,
the two
traditional groups; were- c o m b i n e d and h e n c e f o r t h treated' as one traditional group-in the- remaining statistical analysis of thestudy.
IVQ.
To demonstrate- that no s i g n i f i c a n t difference- e x ­
isted, initially, among-the m e a n I.Q".1s; of the: students p a r t i c i p a ­
ting in the- B..S..G.,Se. B l u e , Green,
and Y e l l o w v e r sions o f b i o l o g y
and- those students; in the traditional biology program,
^ D o w n i e - and Heath, op. p i t . , p. 265’.
- ^ D o w n i e and Heath, op. p i t . , p. 265.
^Downie-; and Heath, pp. p i t . , p. 158-16?.
the s i n g l e ^
classification analysis- of variance statistical technique was
I
selected.
'
B y this method, it is possible to make one set of cal­
culations on the m e a n Io-Q'. Ss of the four groups and thus deter­
mine If an y significant differences exist among them.
In order to be able to reject the null hypothesis
(Hq )
on the basis of" a single, classification analysis of variance, .
an F - test score o f a p a r t i c u l a r m a gnitude Is.required.
Tha
■size of the F - test score is a function of the number of total
groups inv olved In the study, a n d "also t h e n u m b e r 1 of students
comprising the total group..
F o r the purposes of this; investi­
g ation an F - tes t score of 8 * ^
o r greater, b a s e d on f o u r groups
and 510 students, w o u l d I n d i c a t e that' the differences f o u n d w e r e '
n o t attributable to chance at the 0 . 0 5 level-of significance.
See Table I, pag e 59»
:
TABLE I.
ANALYSIS''OF VARIANCE' FOR...THE'MEAN I eQ1 S O F THE." .
B.S.C.S. BLUE",- GREEN, AND Y E L L O W GROUPS A N D ■.THE:TRADITIONAL
GROUP
Source, of V a r i a t i o n
"Between"" g r oups’
"Within"' groups
Total
df
Sum of
Squares.
. 3
164.7
506 • 64848.2
Mean
••
Square
$4.9
1 2 8 .2
o42
509
2^Downie and Heath,
F - test .
Score
op.
c i t .,. p., 272.
60
The F-test score for the data presented"in Table I
was; ^-2', n o t large- enough to p e r m i t rejection of." the-- null h y ­
pothesis' of no significant difference among the-mean I eQ . rs; of
the B e-SeCoS.,, B l u e ?• Green, and T e l l o w groups: and the.- traditional"
group-.
Therefore,
if- was; assumed that; no -signi f i c a n t differ­
ence existed" among the.- four- groups', based on I .Q,.,
Pre -test s n o r e .
In o r d e r to- determine if"a n y s ignifi­
cant: .d i f f e r e n c e existed", initially,
among; the.- m e a n pre-test"
scores' of 'the students participating in the- B.S.C.So.
Blue:,
Green, and" Tellow:. versions;- of b i o l o g y and" those:' student's; in. the
T r a d i t i o n a l •b iology program,
the-single-." classification analysis"
of. v a r i a n c e statistical t e c h n i q u e was." used.
60
.
S e e Table 2, p a g e
TABLE" 2.
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE: FOR: THE" M E A N P R E - T E S T SCORES' O F
B o S eCo-S.. BLUE", GREEN, . AND Y E L L O W GROUPS' AND THE" TRADITIONAL
GROUP".
'
Source o f Vari a t i o n
df
irB e t w e e n tr"group s
ttW i t h i n tt"-groups
3
^06
Total
^09
-
Sum of"
Squares
291.9
3.
6 82 %. I
Mean
Square
F-test:
Score
97.3
72.8
1 .3 3 ;
/■
61
Based on the four- groups and 5 1 0 students, an F - t e s t .
score 1 of I «>33 was:' determined for* the data p resented in Table 2»
■Since the derived value of F (I«33) was less than the critical
(2 .6 2 )5
value
at the 0 .O f level of s i g n i f i c a n c e , ■It was not
,
large.enough to reject the null hypothesis of no significant
difference among the means and it was: assumed that no signifi­
cant difference existed among the four- groups based on. p r e ­
test scores. .
Final grade-9 s c i e n c e .
I n "order to determine' if any
significant difference existed,
initially,
among the m e a n
final grades- for: 9 -science of the students ’participating in
the B eS eC eS 0 B l u e , G r e e n , and Y e l l o w versions of biology and
those students in the Traditional biology program,
the single
classification analysis, of" variance: statistical t echnique w a s
used...
See:. Table 3-,. pages 61«,
■
TABLE" 3V A N A LYSIS’'OF "VARIANCE": F O K MEAN" FINAL GRADE-9' SCIENCE
O F T H E : B e.s.C»S.. BLUE,. GREEN, A N D Y E L L O W GROUPS." AND THE"
TRADITIONAL GROUPS..
Sourcef of" Variation.: '
'"Between"" groups: trVfithinu'"g r o u p s
Total ■
Gf
3. ‘
506
509
• Sun of
Squares
,
35 8 , 3
Mean Square
F— t e s t .
Score
..,.I
V- .7
»18
■
.
62/.
" Based'- on':four groups' and 5X0 students', an F-score- o f
.-1 8 " wars calculated' for' the- data/ presented' in Tables 3-«
Si n c e
the1'derived; value-- o f 'F'' (118)' was." less:" than t h e critical value
(8».5^) ? at. the’0 1 0 5 'level of significance, it. was:'not larger
enough: to- reject the- null: hypothesis, o f ’no>- significant' differ­
ence:- among the/ means; and i t was. assumed that nor s i gnificant
difference'- existed among the- four: groups based" on final:
g r a d e s for:' 9 science,-.
Sex-.
Asva1: further: statistical check to determine" the"
initial, similarity of the four;.-groups:, i t w a s d e c i d e d to' u s e
tile.- chi. squarei- test of significance- in r e g a r d to t h e criteria
of sex.
T h i s statistic" is4
: a: u s eful one: in: research because
21Dovjnia and- H e a t h 3 o p . c i t . , pp-.. 1^7-15$"
’2
rEadl
^k);
(if
This: formula: avoids, the- computation o f the: expected:'
frequencies;-vjhen u s e d VJith a; 2x2": contingency table.
Ebchester:
Austin
male- ■
a;
b;
k
female:
C-
d ■
X-
m"
n
■
vrliere;3C2 = chi-square
IC= total, n u m b e r o f 'frequencies;
a -=:number: o f observed frequencies:;b’i= n u m b e r o f o b s e r v e d frequencies ■
c--number' of observed" frequencies
d = n u m b e r o f o b s e r v e d frequencies.- ■
. k = total, o f rows- an and' b . I" = total o f r OVJrS" c and d:
- m : = total of" columns' a. and" c
n = total o f columns: b. a n d d
-
63':
no particular: assumptions" have-to be- m ade about the- shape' o f
the- distribution of" the frequencies being tested.
The- null
hypothesis; as: u s e d w i t h the; chi— square- statistic and related'
t o the- experimental data: was;'that the distribution: of" m a l e and"
female- students: involved’ in the experiment did- not: differ- from
what:.' w o u l d be expected" b y chance ^
iT 2x2’. c o n t i n g e n c y table-was; first drawn, b a s e d o n onl y
the- two traditional b i o l o g y groups;- as; taught at Rochester- H i g h
School, Rochester.’,. Minnesota,
Minnesota.
and 'A h s t i n .Hig h School, Austin,
A chi-square: value of 2V57' was calculated^
Since
this; was. a 2x2; table.-, one- degree- of "freedom resulted in a crit­
ical value- of 3
a t the- 0 .,O^ level of significance.
There­
fore-, it was; assumed- that no s i g n i f i c a n t difference existed i n
the- distribution, of."male- and female students: b e t w e e n the- two1'
traditional g r o u p s .■
square,
On the basis', o f the: first test o'f c h i -
t h e 1male- a n d female s t u dents in the- two; traditional
groups: were; combined" into o n e traditional g r o uppof"mal e and
female- students.
The- chi-square- statistic was: again u s e d to test the sexdistribution b a s ed'on the total n u m b e r o f m a l e and' female- stu­
dents: i n -each o f the B . S 0C eS. Blue,
and the traditional g r o u p .
Green, a n d Y e l l o w groups -
A:'Bxj* o r eight-celled contingency
table;-was:.-.-established. ■ Al chi-square" value- of 3 »1^3. was calcu­
lated.
B a s e d on a: 2x)t c o n t i n g e n c y table, three; degrees o f
f r e edom r e s u l t e d in a- critical v a l u e of 7«8 l 5 at. t h e O eO ^ l e v e l
o f significance..
Therefore, it vras- not possible-to reject the
null hypothesis of no significant difference in the distribu- ■
tion of male and female students among the four' groups.
Age.
Ah examination of t h e ■records" o f 'the 510 students"
participating in the s t u d y fro m Atistin H i g h School and R o c h e s ­
t er Hig h School revealed that o f t h i s number,
of "age.
Out o f the remaining 55 students,
o f age and 4 were 17' years." o f a g e .
5*5 w e r e ’1 5 ye a rs
5l were 1 6 y e a r s
However^
since the biol­
ogy progr a m s of A u s t i n H i g h School and R o c h e s t e r H i g h School
were designed for t h e tenth grade student, it i s n o t"surpris­
ing that the age range was concentrated in-the 15-16' year- age
group.
As:: a:result, it was: obvious b y i n s p e c t i o n of the’ data
that ,there:were-no -significant d i f f e r e n c e s - i n ■student ages: among'
the” four’ groups'.
Grade in school".
The:: approaches to teaching h i g h school
biology, as: ■used" in ■this-study, ^
cal. tenth g r a d e student.
the- study,, W y
were "'designed' for: the’ typ i ­
Of the. 510 students participating i n
were-. classified and duly e n r olled as tenth grade
students', a n d the- remaining; '2:5"XTere.':classified"' and .'."enrolled as
e l e v e n t h grade: students:*
•As.-af result, i t was., obvious' b y in ­
spection o f t h e data that t h e r e w e r e n o significant differences'
in g r a d e placement'of the students::among the four' groups.
22See- C h a p t e r III, p p > 35-%-«
6%
The measurement of final' achievement- in biology is p r e ­
sented next.
’
Measurement'- of Final. Achievement in' Biology*
Tb determine: the-effect on final achievement in b i o l o g y
of each of the four selected' approaches to teaching high school
b i o l o g y ? it was n e c e s s a r y to select a. test which, wo u l d be ap
p r o p r i a t e 1'to a nalyze1 achievement in biology.
The- test selected
should b e valid and r e l i a b l e . A: published test was p r e f e r r e d over: a teacher-made test because- of the good d e sign and high
reliability' of most p u b l i s h e d tests.
The test selected for this purpose was." the "Biology
Achievement. E x a m i n a t i o n for Seco n d a r y Schools,
For m
This
examination was originated by Dr. B. R. W h i t t i n g e r , U n i v e r s i t y
High School, U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota,
and edited b y Dr. Waiter
Cook, Dean, College of Education, University of.Minnesota.
It
was originally p r e pared for use in the Minn e s o t a State Board
Achievement Examinations.Programs and is p ublished by the U n i ­
v e r s i t y of Minnesota'.?^
Well standardized over the years it
^The-. ,rv a l i d i t y of a test m a y be defined as1 the extent to.
which the test measures w h a t it is presumed to measure.
The "re­
liability"' of a- test m a y be:1defined as the- extent- to which simi­
lar results are attained when' the., test is. given a number of times;
^ " W h l t t l n g e r , B. R . , Biology Achievement Examination for"
Secondary School'ss F o r m 4,: 4pp.
.
^ E d u c a t i o n a l Test Bureau, U n i v e r s i t y of Minnesota, M i n n ­
eapolis-, Minnesota.
.
66
'
has been in use as' a. b i o l o g y achievement test., it offers an ex­
tensive list of
validity and r e liability figures in support of"
the test.
Initial t e s t . ■ Tlie-- "Biology Achievement E x amination for
Secondary School, Form
it^
vzas’
> administered to the pupils of *
each of the four;- selected approaches-' to teaching h igh school
•
b i o l o g y , as -"used;-.In this study, on the first day of the
biology course.
These scores could then be.used for initial
comparison o f groups' and also as a means to d e t e r m i n e final
achievement.
Final tes t ;
In order to h a v e a basis f o r comparing the-
di f f e r e n c e in final achievement in b i o l o g y between the pupils
of the.' four- selected approaches to teaching biology,
it was;
necessary' to administer a--;test29':a t - t h e conclusion of the 3,6we e k course.
This w o u l d make-possible the-determination o f a
difference score.
-
D i f f e r e n c e ;s c o r e .
The- difference between the- initial
test score-.'.and the final test score wo u l d represent the a c h i e v e­
ment. or improvement score in b i o l o g y for' e ach pupil.
Because
f o u r selected approaches to teaching h i g h school bio l o g y were
included in this study,
this difference- score f o r each pupil
would r e p r e s e n t a-means; of comparing and evaluating the v
26 I b i d o .- p. -6 2 .
27Biittinger,
-
oe>
cit., p. 65.
^0See- Chapter- III, pp. 38-44.
2^WhIttinger.-, o^. c i t . , p.. 6^.
. 6?
effectiveness o f an particular' teaching approach to biology.
In
planning for the final evaluation of the- data which were ob­
tained from the- study, certain procedures were necessary,.
These1
procedures are presented next.
Comparison of Final Achievement in Biology
In order- to reach an objective decision on the- basis of
the- data collected in this; study as: to whether or not there are5differences, in terms of final student achievement, as meas­
ured by a standardized high school biology achievement test,
among the- three- B.S.C.S. versions of teaching high school
biology, certain procedures, were necessary prior- to the- actual
computation of the values of the statistical tests1
..
liminary procedures Involved:
The- pre­
Cl)1 statement of the hypotheses,
and (2) statistical technique used in testing hypotheses.
Statement of the hypotheses.
The. usual procedure- In es- .
tablishing the hypotheses to be tested in any statistical study
is. to formulate a null hypothesis CH0)' and .an alternate hypoth­
esis (H1 )1
,
T h e .null hypothesis (H0 )' was that there Is no sig­
nificant- difference, In terms, of final student achievement, as
measured by a standardized high school biology achievement"
test, among the three- B,S».C,S. versions of teaching high school
biology and the traditional approach to teaching high school
biology.
The alternate hypothesis CH1 ) ■was.11that there are sig­
nificant differences, in.terms: of final student achievement.
68
'
as measured by a standardized high school b i o l o g y achievement
test, among the three B eS eC eS e versions of teaching high school
biology and the traditional approach to teaching hig h school
biology.
Statistical technique u sed in testing h y p o t h e s e s .
The
choice of statistical technique for testing the hypotheses in
this investigation was- determined a f t e r several conferences
with three faculty members at M o n t a n a State University.
single- class i f i c a t i o n analysis, .of: v a r i a n c e ^ was" u s e d to- tes t
the hypothesis; that;, there, are-' differences,
in terms o f fi n a l
student' achievement, as. m e a s u r e d b y a standardized" hig h school
b i o l o g y test, among' the. t h r e e B 0B eC 08. v e r s i o n s of" teachinghigh; school b i o l o g y a n d the.- traditional a p p r o a c h to teaching:
high, school, biology.
This-hypothesis, w a s t e s t e d a t the- O 0O'5"'
level o f significance.
Summary
Te- determine- t h e effect o n final, a c h i e v e m e n t in b i o l o g y
o f each o f the. -four." selected approaches; to. teaching high school
biology, an: e x p e r i m e n t requiring .the cooperation o f b i o l o g y
teachers; and p u p i l s was:' designed a n d conducted,.
Five;-'- teachers.; participated: in the study.
o f teachers, to either; the-B cS 0C 0S, Blue,
The. assignment
Green, Yellow, o r tra­
ditional. approaches- to. teaching: biology was: mad'ev b y the- school
3:0See:; f ootnote: 5, p:» 5^'.
^^Dovmie- and" Heath,, o n , , cit,., p'0 57«
69
officials; in change o f 's u c h .s c h e d u l i n g ? and the- b i o l o g y pupils:
of each teacher:- were placed in the classes' to which' their teache r h a d been assigned.-
,Furthermore^ n o restrictions:-were"put-
upon: individual, teachers- a s to- teaching procedures', except that",
t h e y were- e x p e c t e d : to- f o l l o w the- curriculum of a n y approach '
which:- they were:- a s s i g n e d to t e a c h .
In. order.’ t o make: comparisons: o f the-, four -.groups', in­
formation concerning each' group: and" e a c h individual.' was" col­
lected.
.-Thev t-test: statistical technique- was-" used' to" initially"
compare= the two-traditional g r o u p s in three -areas;;p r e — test; score-, and: final', grad'e-9 science...
ItQ".,
I n eac h area.' there- .
was: no sign i f i c a n t difference' b e t w e e n the means."o f the- two
groups: at. the: O t O f level..
On t h e basis: o f this: information,
■the; two- traditional groups; were- combined and- treated "as. a singlev g r o u p v
A t this: point a single-classification analysis of
variance: statistic w a s use d : t o i nitially compare-:: the- p u p i l s ' o f
.
the. th r e e B e-S01C 01S,.,. v e r s i o n s o f teaching- high school b i o l o g y and"
the- traditional a p p r o a c h to; teaching •*hig h school biology.
The..-
areas- of' comparison w e r e r -I0 Q 0,,. pre^-test scores, and' f i n a l
grad"e.-9' science- . .In" each: a rea there1 was;- no- -significant: differ-"
ence "among the=-- means:-;, of. the- four: groups; at:', the= O 0O 5 'l e v e l .■
As: a'
further statistical check on. t h e initial similar!ty:'of the",
groups:,, a.; chi-square, test, was: used' to- compare: the; d i s t r i b u t i o n
of the male, and' f e m a l e s.tudents: participating - in. the study*.
2x2. te s t w a s "first used w i t h
A".
the two traditional groups a n d the
70re sul ting- c h i - s q u a r e r a t i o i n d i c a t e d no significant differenceat the Oo-O!? level..
The possible i n f l u e n c e of a g e a n d grade
placement of each of the students- participating in the studywas" examined..
Since- most of the students' w e r e enrolled' as'
tenth grade students' a n d were-: of. the- l^-year old a g e groups it
was'- obvious by i n s p ection of the- d ata that no- significant d i f ­
ference" existed" among the f o u r groups,
on these" two criteria. .
The statistical technique1 that w a s u s e d to test t h e
hypothesis that there were- significant differences,
of final student achievement,
in terms:
as- m e a s u r e d by a standardized"
high-school b i o l o g y a c h i e v e m e n t test, among t h e three B eS .0.8,
•
• . i
v e r s i o n s of teaching high'school b i o l o g y a n d the traditional
approach to teaching h i g h school biology, was'- t h e single classi­
fication analysis' of variance.
This--statistic w a s tested at
the 0 . 0 5 level.
The- effect of the various: versions on final studentachievement in biology' is; p r e s e n t e d next.
CHAPTER V
'EFFECT. OE FOUR.:.SELECTED APPROACHES TO TEACHING
H I G H SCHOOL B I O L O G Y O N FINAL S T U D E N T
A C HIEVEMENT I N B I O L O G Y '
Determining the effect on fi n a l student achievement in
b i o logy of four selected' approaches-1- to teaching high: school
b i o logy was" the purpose of this investigation.
Through the- use
of a standardized h i g h school b i o l o g y achievement examination^
administered on. the first day of the ■course and" again at the
end of 3 6 w e e k s , it was: possible; to determine- pr e - t e s t and p o s t ­
test scores of the.participating students in each of the four
selected approaches.
It has p r e v i o u s l y bee n established that
no significant, difference existed,
groups.
initially, among the four-
H e n c e , it is possible to statistically analyze the
achievement- scores o f the students in each of the four- groups
to test the h y p o t h e s i s that there were significant differences,
in terms of final student a c h i e v e m e n t , as measured" b y a- stand­
ardized hig h school b i o l o g y achievement test, among the three
B.S.G.S. versions; o f teaching: high- school biology,.
This in­
formation i s presented.1 in the; following- section,
^ W h i t t i n g e r 3 BV R., Biology A c h i e v e m e n t ;Examination, f o r
S e c o n d a r y Schools
Form
2IbidV, u, Tl,
•
.
.
72
Signin'cant' Differences' In Final Achievement:.
Among: the Four1Selected Approaches’
Te- determine: the- effect:, on final student: achievement: in
biology", It was-.1necessary to test for. a significant1 difference
in. final' achievement;: a m o n g 1the; four.-, selected approaches" toteaching high school biology.
The" tvze criteria;- to- be tested
for- significance Were-the: m e a n :post— test scores:: and the-meandifference; scores, of the total groups- among the-four selected
approaches to- teaching high school biology.
For- all. tests:-of significant difference in final achieve­
ment among the four- groups, the null hypothesis.,
(H0 )
was- t h a t
there-are-no'significant differences, In terms of final student
achievement,, as measured by a standardized high school biology
achievement" test, among: the- three- B.S.,C.,S.: versions; o f teachinghigh school biology and the.-, traditional:, approach': to- teaching
high school biology;-
The- alternate hypothesis::,- (%)',.was- that
there:, are-, significant: differences, in: terms," of final' student
achievement,.as: measured b y a standardized high: school biol­
ogy achievement test, among; the" three; B e-S^C'.,S:.r.versions-, o f
teaching high school, biology and the’-traditional approach: to;
.
teaching- high school biology*.
'
•
Forr all*"., tests: o f 'significant:,
difference In final achievement-among the. four- groups, the"
significance level was: set at 0 . 0 ^
■ \
73
:
Post - t e s t ;-s coresv
A" single-1classification analysis- of
variance^ test., based.' on the m e a n p ost-test scores of"the four"
groups; was;.'utilized.
See-'Table
page 73»
TABLE V. 'ANALYSIS O F ViffiIAlTGE FOR' THE MEAN' POST-TEST' SCORES
OF" THE" B.S.C.S. BLUE,- GREEN,. AND YELLOW GROUPS" AND THE"
TRADITIONAL.: GROUPS.
S o u r c e .o f V a r i a t i o n
nB e t w e e r ti" groups.
itW i t h i n lt groups
Total
df
Sum o f .
Squares'
3'.
506
Mean:.
Square
.529»br
7335G.9
F - test:
Score
176
1%.9
1.21
509'
Ah' F — tes:t" score ■o f I »21, based: on 510' students, in f our
Ii.
groups-.,, was. de t e r m i n e d ’
..
The n u m b e r of: degrees: of freedom-
y i e l d e d a: critical value -of 2 06 2 ... Since the. derived, value of
F Clo-21)‘ w a s less than the critical value
level of significance,
(2.62), at the 0 » 0 5
•
it w a s not l a r g e enough: tov reject the:
nul l hypothesis: o f no s i gnificant d i f f e r e n c e among t h e 'me a n s
and' it was- assumed that no significant difference-existed amongthe f o u r g r o u p s based on p o s t — test scores.
^ D o w n i e and Heath,
on., pit.., p.. 158-167.
ifDovjnie*'and' Heath,
op.
cit.,, pv l58-l6"y.
7bDif f erence- scores-.
A" single classification analysis- o f
v a r i a n c e ^ test, b a s e d on the m e a n difference scores; between ther
pre-test score'and the pos t — test score o f the-four- groups:, w a s
utilized.,
See-Table
page 74..
■TABLE"' 5.
ANALYSIS O F VARIANCE: FOR. THE' M E A N 1DI F F E R E N C E SCORES'
O F THE'. B .S.,C.,S... BLUE,, GREEN, AND Y E L L O W GROUPS AND THE' TRADI­
TIONAL. GROUPS...
Source of Variation
"Between"" groups1
"Within”'"g r o u p s
Total
df .
Mean
Square
Sum of
Squares
F— test"
Scorer
1H »9
56.^
125.9
' 28601.0
3
#6
:
#9
.
.74
Oh. the- basis;, of $10 students and four groups;, an F— test
score of *7^ was. determined.
The number- o f degrees of f reedom0
yielded an critical v a l u e d of 8„ F?+i
Since? the. derived value
F Co.?1+): was. I essnthan the critical value
level of significance,
of
Co..54);, at the O . O ^
it was’,not large enough' to reject the
null hypothesis' of no\ significant difference among the= means
and it was- as s u m e d that ho s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f erence existed among
the four groups based on difference scores.
^Downie and Heath, op,, p i t . , p*. 15)8-167.
^Downie' and Heath,
on.- pit..,,.p> 1?8-167.
^Downie- and Heath, on., city, p . .1?8-16?.
75"
Siunmary
The-data collected during- the-- investigation were' ana­
lyzed 'statistically to-determine-the effect of'" the-: f o u r - s a l e c—
ted approaches to teaching h i g h school b i o l o g y on final student
achievement in biology.
Tb test1 for- a significant d i f f e r e n c e in final, achieve­
m e n t among the- groups of the four selected a p p r o a c h e s a
single: classification analysis of v a r i a n c e statistical tech­
nique- revealed"' that no significant difference- e x i s t e d amongthe m e a n post-test- scores a n d the- m e a n d i f f e r e n c e scores of"'
the groups;- o f the -f o u r selected' approaches- to teaching high
school biology.
It- was: determined that there- were- no significant dif­
ferences, in terms of f i n a l student achievement,
as: measured'
by a standardized h igh school bi o l o g y a c h i e v e m e n t test, among
t h e - t h r e e B veS e-C6-S,, v e r sions of teaching high school biology
and' the traditional approach to teaching h i g h school biology.
A-, summary,
low.
conclusions- drawn, and. r e c ommendations f o l ­
CHAPTER "VT
STJMMAHT,.. CONCLUSIOHS
AND:'RECOMMENDATIONS'
The puP-po'se of this investigation was- to determine1 the:
effect, on final student achievement, of four' selected approach­
es to' teaching high school biology,
A" concern about the- nature
of science teaching h as been the cause of much debate in the
twentieth:, century and professional opinion was-- that the teach­
ing of' high school biology h a d not- been satisfactory fo r m a n y
years, and the need for improved teaching techniques- was-- apparent.
Consequently, the B.S..C.8e versions of teaching high school
b i ology were developed and m a d e available f o r all high schools.
The-belief1that:, there- are differences, in terms-of final
student achievement", as; measured" by a. standardized high school
biology achievement test, among the three- B eS eC eS e, versions;
o f teaching high school b i ol o g y and the traditional approach
to teaching high school biology, led to this investigation..
Summary
Ab examination o f the; literature concerning- the teaching
of high school b i o l o g y revealed a need for improved techniques
of teaching: to overcome- the difficulties; often encountered bypupils studying biology;
Following a. study o f the course content of the:- three
77
B 0S e-CeS., versions, a n d the'traditional approach to teaching highschool biology,
an investigation was- cond u c t e d in wh i c h a n u m ­
ber of teachers--, and' their: pupils cooperated.
In teaching their
classes, no restrictions were put u p o n individual teachers as
to teaching procedures', except that they were expected to fol­
l o w the- curriculum o f the approach to w h i c h they had" been as­
signed.
Pupils of the- four- selected approaches w e r e • test e d at
the beginning of the: 36 w e e k course -and again at, the conclusion
of the course.
The.- dat a obtained during the" investigation were exam­
ined statistically to determine- the- effect on final student
achievement in biology,
of the four-selected' approaches to
teaching h i g h s c h o o l .b i o l o g y I-
It w a s determined that there--- was
no significant d i f f e r e n c e , in terms- of final student a chieve­
ment,
asr me a s u r e d b y a standardized high school b i o l o g y achieve­
ment- test, among the three- B.S.C.S., versions of teaching hig h
school biology and" the traditional a p p roach-,to- teaching highschool biology.
i
Conclusions
The following conclusions concerning the teaching of
h i g h school b i o l o g y were made- on the b a s i s of. the r e v i e w of
literature.:1»
There-is-a n e e d for improved teaching techniques
in the- field of biology*
y~i
78
2«,
The three B fflS 0C.S', v e r s i o n s of teaching high school
b i o logy represent an effort to improve high school biology
teaching„
.On the. basis of the experimental findings of this" study}
subject to the 1assumption that the samples' were' indicative of
the characteristics of student p o p u l a t i o n 3 and subject to the
limitations' of the sensitivity of the tests employed,
the fol­
lowing conclusions' were made:
1.
The b e l i e f that final achievement in biology, as
m e a s u r e d by a - standardized high school biology achievement
test, i s different among the four selected approaches to teach­
ing high school biology, has no statistical justification.
2.
The- traditional a p p roach to teaching high school
b i o logy still has: its- place in the high school bio l o g y p r o ­
gram.
.3»
Final student achievement in biology,
as a result of
following the three B.S.C.S. versions of teaching h igh school
biology,
does not represent a significant improvement over the
traditional approach to teaching h i g h school b i o l o ’
gy.
Be commendations
The following observations and recommendations becameevident during the course of this i n vestigation and are pre"sented here to indicate areas of possible future research rel a­
tive to the teaching of biology.
79
Ih1 v i e w of" the- fact that; t h e concepts' studied' in' b i o l o g y
are: becoming i n c r easingly important' and because-’ the- methods- o f
teaching b i o l o g y have.not kept pace - w i t h other-advances:; m o r e
research is-needed" into methods of improving ■instruction ini
the- fundamental ideas"' studied in biology.
B i o l o g y teachers: need- to' re-evaluate ■their ovm. skillsin applying biological principle's- to- the teaching of biology.
Res e a r c h i s needed" to d e t e r m i n e the opt i m u m grade place-ment,. sequence-, and' nece s s a r y prerequisites:-, if any, which
will." lead’"most:, e f f i c i e n t l y to- an understanding o f the funda­
mental concepts; of biology...
Studies'; are- n e e d e d which w i l l identify the- specific abil­
ities- needed" for- success... i n working w i t h the- fundamental" con-cepts o f b i o l o g y and also- what; abilities, or." skills: can be im­
p r oved’"b y the; study o f biology.,;
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National Educ a t i o n Association, Washington, D. C 0 , '421 pp?
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Galloway, T 0, W.', "Report o f the Committee on Fundamentals' of
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M a t h e m a t i c s ,. 1910, V o l 0 IO.s 8 0 I- 8 1 3 .
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•
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APPESDIX;.
Appendix'•A"
B i b T o g y Achievement; E x a m i n a t i o n 1
for:;1Secondary1"Schools') Form h
)
Achievement Examinations for Secondary Schools
form
4
BSneHoDgy
D r .B. R. W
Tim e: I 1Z2 hrs.
-■
hittingerj A u th o r
S tu d en t’s S c o r e ....
U n iv e rs ity o f Minnesota H ig h School
P erfe ct S core 108
N A M E ......................................................................................... .................................................. ................................................................ ,.........
L ast N am e
F irs t
M iddle In itia l ‘
Age
G rad e
C i t y ( o r P . O. A d d r e s s ) .................................................... C o u n t y ................................... D is t N o ........... T i m e U sed ...
N a m e o f P a re n ts ................................................................................ A d d re s s ............... ■..................................... ......................................
'
To the student:' B e su re to fill out th e b lanks above. R ead directions carefully an d an sw er th e questions
on th is sheet: no oth er sh eet is needed ex cep t sc ra tch p ap er. If y o u cannot answ er a question, leave it and
go on to th e n e x t one. A nsw er as m an y as you can.
'
I. DIRECTIONS: W rite in each answer space the
letter of the test response.
1. T h e f r u it of a p la n t
(a) is sweet
(b) has much stored food
(c) contains the seeds
(d) consists of the
ovary .................................................................. I. (.:
2. A n im a ls h ave the same functions as
plants except fo r
' (a) respiration
(b) irritability
(c) re­
production
(d) excretion
(e) photosyn­
thesis ....................................................................
3. Id e n tic a l tw in s o rig in ate fro m
(a) two eggs fertilized by one sperm
(b) one egg fertilized by two sperms
(c) two eggs fertilized by two sperms
(d) one egg fertilized by one sperm..............
4. T h e essential organs of the flo w er are
(a) petals and pistils (b) sepals and corolla
(c) pistils, and stamens
(d) stamens and
calyx ....................................................................
5. G ro w th and re p a ir of h o d y tissues in ­
volves
(a) protein (b) fats (c) starch
(d) sugar ............................................................
6. T h e h u m an em bryo gets "its food
th ro u g h
(a) the placenta
(b) the uterine tube
(c) cell division
(d) the mother’s blood
stream directly ................................ :...............
2. (......)
3. (......... )'
4. (....... )
(b) are produced by
than viruses (d) are
than one of the above
..................................... 10. (.......)
11. G ird lin g is lik e ly to 'b e destructive to
a tree because ,
'
(a) the growing tissue is likely to be
squeezed (b) the conducting tissue may be,
destroyed
(c) the stem can not get air
(d ). the roots w ill be extruded by osmotic
pressure ............................................................... 11. (...... )
x .
12
Secretions of endocrine glands are re ­
fe rre d to as
(a) enzymes (b) lypmh '(c) toxins
(d) hormones
(e) anti-toxins ..................... 12. (...... )
13. R eference to an organism indicates
(a) anything made up of organs
(b) any­
thing consisting of organic matter
(c) any
living thing
(d) a systemic organization. .. 13. (.......)
5.,(....... )
14. A person w ith blood ty p e “O ” m ay give
blood to another person w ith blood typ e (a) A
(b) B
(c) AB
(d) more than
one of the above .............................................. 14. (....... )
6. (.......) ,
15. W h e n tw o b ro w n eyed parents have a
blue eyed child it p ro b ab ly indicates
(a) hybrid eye genes in one parent
(b) a
mutation
(c) hybrid eye genes in both
parents '(d) this result is impossible ....... 15. (....... )
7. W h e n th e h a b ita t of an organism
changes, th a t organism '
(a) usually increases in number
(b) be­
comes extinct there (c) usually must change
in structure or life habitat or become extinct
(d) usually is not affected (e) usually dies
in great numbers from disease........................
7. (......)
8. T h e po st-n atal p eriod
of greatest
g ro w th is
(a) the fetus (b) infancy (c) the embryo
(d) childhood
(e) adolescence ..................
S. (...... )
9. A bald-headed fa th e r and a straig h t
h a ire d m o th e r have c h ild ren w h o have
c u rly h a ir. S tra ig h t h a ir is a recessive
tra it. T h e e xp lan atio n fo r the child ren
h av in g c u rly h a ir is
(a) the mother carried genes for curly hair
which she passed on to her offspring
Cb) the father carried genes for curly hair
which he passed on to his offspring (c) both
the mother and the father carried genes for
curly hair (d) neither parent had an- influ­
ence in determining the type of hair in the
offspring .... ........................ .................................
)
10. B acteria
(a) need air to grow
toxins (c) are smaller
macroscopic (e) more
(f) none of the above
16. P rotein s are d iffe re n t fro m the other
' energy foods in th a t th e y contain
(a) nitrogen
(b) oxygen
(c) hydrogen
(d) carbon.......................................................... 16. (....... )
9. (.......)
17. T h e h isto ry of the p ay m e n t of bounties
fo r the destruction of ,predators in d i­
cates
(a) the results justified the outlay of neces­
sary funds (b) the destruction of the pred­
ators corrected the balance of nature (c) the
, predator program disrupted the balance of
nature
(d) the program provided a much
stronger game animal population .................. 17. (...... )
-18. P lan ts th a t g row each y e a r fro m , seeds
are
(a) biennials, (b) annuals
(c) spermatophytes
(d) perennials ................................... 18. (...... )
19. T h e unique co n trib u tio n legumes m ake
to the soil in w h ic h th e y are planted, is
(a) the fortifying of the calcium content
(b) the rich supply of humus - (c) the forti­
fication of nitrates by harboring nitrogen
fixers
(d) the production of a superior
mulch ................................................................. 19. (....... ) .
C opyright 1954, C . A. G regory C o ., 1720 E . 38th S t.,' In d ia n a p o lis, Ind. P rin te d in th e U. S. A.
■44., A b io lo g y class t r ie d to d e te r m in e th e
e ffe c tiv e n e s s o f t w o h a n d - lo tio n s . L o ­
t i o n “ A ” ' a n d l o t i o n “ B ” w e r e a p p lie d
to a r a n d o m ly s e le c te d g r o u p o f 50
r ig h t - h a n d e d p e o p le , a lt e r n a t in g th e
t w o lo tio n s b e tw e e n t h e t w o h a n d s o n
e a c h . s u b je c t w it h o u t th e s u b je c t’s
k n o w le d g e o f w h ic h l o t io n w a s p la c e d .
o n w h ic h h a n d .' O n e re c o m m e n d a tio n
w e c o u ld m a k e f o r t h is p la n w o u ld b e
58.
(a) earthworm
(b) amoeba
(c) fish
(d) hydra ........................ 58. (....)
59.
45.
T h e d o w n w a rd
. v a r io u s tim e s
'
c u r l in g
a
le a f
59. (...)
60. A d ise a se v e r y o f t e n a s s o c ia te d w i t h
h o o k w o r m , i n c o u n tr ie s w i t h h ig h p e r ­
c e n ta g e o f in f e c t io n , is
(a) .trichinosis (b) tuberculosis (c) ascafis .
(d) taenia ....... ... *.............
60. (........)
\
of
I f a m o t h causes d a m a g e b y c h e w in g ,
w e w o u ld b la m e i t o n th e
(a) adult (b) nymph '(c) larvae '
(d) pupae .......... ........... .
(a) place the same lotion on both hands’
(b) include a third classification of no lotion
or .false lotion on a third of the subjects
(cj place the lotions. A or B on the same.
hand, right or left (d) .mix the two lotions
together before applying .. ..... . . . . . 44.
■:
W e w o u ld e x p e c t t o f in d n o n e rv o u s
s y s te m i n t h e
at
- .
(a) reduces transpiration
(b) increases
photosynthesis (c) indicates-increase in os­
mosis (d) is due to rapid respiration... 45. (..-.)
46. T h e cam b iu m of a stem
(a) provides for. oxygen exchange; (b) in­
creases the diameter of a stem
(c) is the
principal conductor of fluids
(d) increases
the length of a stem...... i.................................... 46. (......)
47. T h e m a th e m a tic a l sex ra tio tends to be
(a) 3:1 (b) 2:1 (c) 2:2 (d) 8:10........... 47. (...... )
48. Evtergreens are p lants w h ic h
(a) do not drop their leaves (d) drop their
leaves in the fall
(c) drop their leaves in thfe spring (d) do not drop all leaves at the
same time............................................................ 48. (......)
49. T h e s ta rt of a you n g p la n t in a. seed is
■ (a) a cotyledon
(b) ah. hilum
(c) an
endosperm . (d) an em bryo............................ 49. (.......)
50. M onocot stems a re d iffe re n t fro m D ic o t
stems in th a t
(a) the vascular bundles are scattered in
the monocot
(b) the monocot stem has no
, support
(c) monocots have no vascular
' bundles
(d) dicot stems have no p it h ....... 50. (...... )
51. P o llin a tio n has occurred w h e n
(a) pollen has been transferred from flower
to flower - (b) the sperm cell unites with the
etrg cell
(c) pollen has been transferred
from stamen to pistil. (d) pollen has been
. transferred from pistil to stamen........:........... 51. (....... ).
52. T h e m a in devices of w a te r absorption
in the p la n t a re the
(a) stomata
(b) Ienticles
(c) cuticle
(d) root hairs ................................................... 52. (......)
53. In m itosis the chromosomes
(a) double in number (b) remain the same
in number
(c) triple in number
(d) are
reduced in h a l f .............................................. . 53. (......)
54. A disease associated w ith la c k of iodine
in th e d ie t is
(a) cancer (b) diabetes (c) simple goiter
(d) yellow fever (e) arterial sclerosis
54. (.......)
55. In diabetes th e excess sugar goes in to
th e u rin e . A doctor testing a u rin e
specim en fo r sugar w o u ld use
(a) iodine
(b) phenolphthalein ■ (c) Fehling’s solution (d) lime w a te r....................... 55.(........)
56. W h ic h of th e fo llo w in g contains a ll th e
rest?
(a) codeine
(b) opium
(c) morphine
(d) heroin ..................................
57. G eotropism is th e
(a) tendency of a plant to grow toward the ■.
sun
(b) study of geographical influence
(c) tendency of man to migrate
(d) ten­
dency of plant roots to respond to gravity .... 57. (.......)
fl DIRECTIONS: In each of the follow ing state­
ments, one term is not related to the others in the
_group. Select the letter of the m isfit and place it 'in
the answer space.
61. (a) mushroom '(b) wheat rust (c) dia­
toms . (d) bread mold
... ....... .. 61.'(..:.)
62. (a) mistletoe (b) lichen
(c) tubercular
bacillus ‘ (d) lilac mildew ....■
.— ... 6M - .....)
63. (a) spores
(c) budding .
(b) fission
(d) conjugation ...... ..:.. ... :..... 63, (:...)
64. (a) spider
(b) locust
(c) katydid
(d) cockroach ’
.____ __ _ . .... ... .
64. (....)
65. (a) garter snake
(b) painted turtle ’
.
(c) skink (d) tiger salamander, ....;.... 65. (...>-...)
66. (a) -respiration (b) osmosis (c). irritability (d) reproduction .... .......... 66. (...■-)
67. (a) pituitary
(b) thyroid
(c) salivary
(d) adrenal ... ......... .......... 67. (....)
68. (a) egg (b) pupa (c) larva (d) nymph 68. (....>
69. (a) Banting . (b) deVries
(c) Mendel
,
(d) Thomas Morgan...... .......... 69. (....)
70. (a) plumule (b) hypocotyl (c) cotyledon
(d) cambium ..... _.... ..... ...... 70. (....)
I l l DIRECTIONS: W rite in each answer space the
letter of tjie term that includes a ll the rest.
71. (a) sensory
(b) motory
(c) associative
(d) neuron
........ 71. (.... . )
.72. (a) insulin
(b) hormone
(c) thyroxin
(d) estrogen ...................... 72. ( .... . . . )
73. (a) enzyme
(b) pytalin
(c) pepsin
93. (
)
(d) trypsin
74. (a) protozoa
(b) bacillus
(c) microorganisms (d) bacteria..... ........ 74. (..... . . . )
75. (a) veins (b) leaf (c) midrib (d) petiole 75. (....
IV DIRECTIONS: Select the letter of the p h y lu m ’
which best fits each description and place i t in the
answer space after the description. Some phyla may
be used more than once, and some may not be used
at all:
,
PHYLA
A. Arthropods
B. Ghordates
C. Coelenterates
D. EchinodermsE. Flat worms
DESCRIPTIONS
76. Flower-Like animals ...
77. Soft bodied animals...
78. First jointed appendages..
79. Single celled animals...
80. Worms with one body
opening .. ,........
F. Mollusca
81. Have a dorsal nerve cord
56.
G.(.)Protozoa
82. Have a water vascular
system............
H. Porifera
83. First segmented bodies..
I. Round worms
84. First many celled animals
J. Segmented worms 85. Have a chitinous
extiskeleton- ...... ..
(....)
(. ...)
C-«-•«
(. ...)
(....)
(.....)
(.....)
(......-•)
(. -•)
(..
<
t
87
'
"X
Appendix;: BTables:
\
¥
88
TABLE 6. STUDENT NUMBER, I.Q., PRE-TEST SCORE, POST-TEST SCORE,
DIEPERENCE SCORE, FINAL GRADE-9 SCIENCE, AND SEX FOR 91 STUDENTS
OF THE B.S.C.S. BLUE VERSION BIOLOGY GROUP.
Student
Number
I.Q.
Pre-test
Score
I
2
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
59
33
39
3
4
5
6
7
8
•9
IO
11
12.
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
43
. 41
47
48
27
31
34
46
60
36
64
64
64
64
64
■ 40
34
40
40
65
43
39
29
43
■ 45
46
66
33
37
69
71 '
49
44
75
48
76
'
50 .
65
66
51
70
51
51
69
72
■ 50
50
72
77
-51 '
52
77
53
64
66
54
54 •
64
66
53
67
53
53
69
65
66
66
66
Post^test
Score
"
36
42
50
50
Difference . Final Grade
9 Science
Score
3
3
7
9
13
13
17
19
60
61
44
50
62
28
63
43
53
52
65
65
71
67
■ 64
53
17
7
13
18
25
25
58
67
60
63
65
' 65
70
62
64
66
70
67
68
72
66
72
67
66
74
74
68
28
28
.
35
10 ‘
. 13
21
27
26
16
21
22
12
13
15
19
17
18
21
14
19
13
12
21
21
15
2
2
I
2
3
I
I
I
3
2
2
3
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
3
3
4
3
4
2
3
2
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
.
Sex
M
M
F
M
M
F
F
F
M
F ■
M
F
F
M
F
F
F
M
F
F
M
F
F
F
F'
M
•F
F
M
F
F
F
F
F
M
F .
F
F
M
F
89
TABLE 6. (Continued)
Student
Number
I.Q.
Pre-test
Score
Post-test
Score
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53.
54
55
56
57
58
59
36
33
52
32
35
23
30
34
35
32
35
24
32
39
64
.39
49
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
36
37
39
42
42
42
43
44
44
44
46
46
48
48 '
48
48
48
48 '
48
49
49
51
51
53
53
53
53
53
54
54
55
55
55
55
55
56
56 .
56
56
38
33
41
36
■
43
39
41
47
30
34
42
54
52
23
31
28
32
40
45
42
42
47
47
39
34
51
40
61
48
56
51
54
57
48
46
33
46
21
42
36
47
38
53
50
52
29
48
34
47
' 34
41
66
•
43
47
58
50
45 61
63
80
36
61
51
65
-
Difference
Score
6 '■
12
7
14
15
3
7
I
2
6
■ 19
7
18
16
2
' 2
2
9
10
19
. I
9
•12
20
6
8
13
20
22
5
22
3
7
8
13
28
J
13
17
18
Final Grade
9 Science
I
0
I
2
2
I
■0
I
I
I
2
2
I '
2
I
I
I
I
I
3
2
2
2
I ■
3
2
2
2
■ I
- I
I
I
2■
2
2
3
2
3
3
3
Sex
F
M
F
M
M
M
M
F
M
M
M •
M
F
F
M
F
M
M
F
M
F
F
M
■M
F.
F
F
F
M
M F
M
F
F
F
F
M
M ■
F
F
go
TABLE 6. (Continued)
Student
Eumber
I.Q.
Pre-test
Score
Post-test
Score
Difference
Score
81
56
56
25
25
33
39
51
58
44
43
18
19
■5
7
22
I
82
83
84
85
86
87
' 88
89
90
91
26
26
26
28
29
30
32
39
36
21
26
33
28
28
.31
32
29
38
34
' 34
37
37
3
5
6
6
6
5
Pinal Grade
9 Science
2
2
I
0
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Sex
P
F
F
F
M
M
F
M
M
F
F
91
TABLE 7. STUDENT NUMBER, I.Q., PRE-TEST SCORE, POST-TEST SCORE
DIFFERENCE SCORE, FINAL GRADE-9 SCIENCE, AND SEX FOR 111
STUDENTS OF THE' B.S.C.S. GREEN VERSION BIOLOGY GROUP.
Student
Number
I
2
3
4
5
6
7 ■
8
9
IO
11 ■
12
. 13
14
15
16
17
18
19
I.Q.
57
57
57
57
57
57
58
58
59
59
59
59
62
62
62
62
62
62
62
31
. 32
33
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
34
64
35
36
37
65
65
67
67
67
67
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
38
39
40
Pre-test. Post-test
Score
Score
42
43
32
35
41
47
32
43
34
39
36
46
48
45
61
40
38
43
36
49
52
54
42
46 ■
53
44
44
45 •
■ 44
48
42
41
■ 43
34
38
52
44
39
42
31
62
59
50
59
67
73
62
63
67
62
66
70
67
61
59
■ . 54
54
58
57
20
16
18
24
'3
2
I
3
2
4
2
3
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
•3
I
2
3
3
•2
2 .
2
2
2
3
2
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
I
26
56
42.
45
53
49
51
70
50
51
59
56
61
50
56
64
56 .
57
Final Grade
9 Science
26
17
23
22
3
9
7
I
6
9
10
13
16
49
66
60
59
Difference
Score
. 20
.
11
.7
7
8
10
11
12
13
17
19
19
20
25
27
33
23
7
10 .
15
16
26
Sex
F
F
F
M
M
F
M
M
M •
F
F
F
M
M
F
F F
M
M
F
F
F
F
M
M
M
F
M
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
F
F
F
F
92
TABLE 7. (Continued)
Student
Number
I.Q.
41
42
45
44
45
46
47
67
67
69
72
76
78
44
44
44
46
46
47
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
49
.50
51
52
55
54
55 ■
56
57
58
59 •
60
'
48
61
62
65
64
65
48
48
48
48
66
49
51
51
55
55
55
55
54
54
55
55
55
55
55
56
67
68
69
70
71
72
75
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
48
Pre-test
Score
54 •
50
50
42
51
44
58
50
24
55
40
56
50
56
45
57
58
25
56
52
54
42
58
41
52
27
42
52
26
55
57
20
40
40
40
40
51
■ 46
59
45
Post-test
Score
Difference
Score
60
26
77
57
61
72
"58
47
47
57
59
45
54
. 51
57
47
42
45
51
45
46
50
45
55
59
52
27
7
19
21
14
9
17
15
4
5
18
21
Pinal Grade
9 Science
5
5
2
2
4
2
2
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
21
4
5
7
8
9
14
• 16
5
17
I
2
I
I
18
20
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
58
11
I
62
56 .
56
50
55
56
52
50
46
50
41
59
55
56
20
5
2
2 2
.
4
4 ■
15
16
56
8
10
6
10
io
15
14
11
■
I
2
I
2
2
2
I
4
2
2
Sex
M
F
M
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
F
M
M
F
F
F
M
F
F
M
M
M
F
F
M
F
M
M
M
F
M
M
F
F
FM
M
M
F
F
TABLE 7. (Continued)
Student
Number1
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93 '
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
105
104
105
106
107
108
109
HO
111
I.Q.
Pre-test
Soore
56
56
56
56
56
56
56 ■
56 •
56
56
56
56
17
26
• 31
35
35
35
36
41
35
39
39
64
29
38
42
38
47
27
35
36
36
36
36
36
37
37
37
39
41
42
43
26
27
33
32
29
40
30
32
25
24
38
35
36
39
Post-test
Score
45
43
47
49
74
44
53
57
54
63
44
52
38
30
38
36
31
43
35
37
31
36
42
• 49
47
44
23
37
32
23
41 •
40
26
35
29
34
Difference
Score
Final Grade
9 Science
4
8
8
10
10
15
15
15
16
16
17
17.
12
3
5
4
/■2
3
5
5
• 6
2
4
4
11
5'
6
4
8
2
2
2.
H
9
I
4
2
I
3
3
2
2
2
I
I
I
I
I
2
2
2
2
I
I
2
2
2
I
3
2 ■
’I
I
Sex
F
M
F
F
F,
F
M
F
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
F •
M
F
M
M
M
F
M
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
94
TABLE 8.
STUDENT NUMBER, I. Q., PRE-TEST SCORE, POST-TEST SCORE,
DIFFERENCE SCORE, FINAL GRADE-9 SCIENCE, AND SEX FOR 113
STUDENTS OF THE' B.S.C.S. YELLOW VERSION GROUP.
Student
Number
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
'10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
.
I 6Q
4
Pre-teat
Score
52
54
64
64
64
64
45
64
40
64
64
64
64 .
64
65
66 ■
48
39
34
66
Post-test
Score
62
38
39
35
52
46
42
45
49
67
67
60
67
48
67
67
35
67
43
48
20
■69
21
69 , . 43
50
22
69
36
74
23
56 '
78
24
48
25
39
26 .
26
48
27
49
. 39
40
28
49
42 •
49
29
30
49
43
34
51
31
32
51
45
38
53
33
36
34
53
33
35
53
40 '
36 .
53
37 .
54
29
42
38
54
36
54
39
47
'40
55
.
67
54
61
56
66
58
54
61
58
71
63
65
56
58
69
64
53
70
59
57
58
58
71
26
52 .
41
46
50
51
38
66
50 '
38
43
63
30
45
43.
56
Difference ■ Final Grade
9 Science
Score
10
13
16
16
16
18
19
20
22
23
19
17
23
11
9
9
16
18
27
• 11
14
22
22
15
15
26
2
6
8
8
4 '
21
12
2
10
23
I
3
7
9
2
4
3
2
2
3
2
3
2
2
3
2
2
3
4
3
4
2
3
2
3
3
3
4
2
Sex
M
F
F
F '
F
F
M
F
I
F
M '
F
F
M
M
F
M
F
F
F
M
M
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
F '
F
F
F
F
F
F
M '
F
M
M
2
F
I
I
I
-
2
I
I
2
3
I
I
2
I .
2
95
TABLE 8.
Student
Number
I.Q.
41
42
45
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
55
55
55
55
55
55
55
56
56
56
56
56
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
58
59
59
59
61
61
6-2
62
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
75
74
75
76
77
78
79
62
62
62
80
28
64
64
64
64
64
25
26
27
Pre-test
Score
32 '
33
38
42
62
36
49
35
25
48
45
38
44
37
45
36
44
48
49
42
46
38
51
38
46 .
52
45
45
50
41
■41
. 49
37
47
30
49
26
25
29
34
(Continued)
Post-test
Score
42
47
54
58
78
54 •
68
71
33
61
■
60
54
71
48
51
45
54
60
61
55
60
'44
59 .
55
54
60
51
55
60
54
74
60
42
52
38
59
27
34
31
39
Difference
Score
10
14
16
16
16 •
- 18
19
36
8
13
15
' 16
27
11
•6
9
10
12
12
13
- 14
6
8
17
8
8
6
10
■ 10
13
33
11
5
. 5
8,
10
I
9
. 2
5
Pinal Grade
9 Science
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
- 3
I
2'
2
I
2
2
I
I
2
3
3
3
.3
3
2
2
I
2
3
3
4 2
3
3
I
2
2
2
I
I
I
I
Sex
P
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
F
F ■
M
MM
M
F
F
M
M
M
F
F
M
M
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
.M
FF
M
M
M
M
96
TABLE 8.
Student
Number
82
83
32
33
36
84
85
36
86
36
36
87
37
37
37
88
89
90
91
92
39
39
39
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
HO
111
112
113
I.Q.
40
43
•
43.
43
44
44
44
44
44
44
45
47
47
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
Pre-test
Score
31
36
29
39
35
25
30
24
36
38
39
42
29
32
40
30
3433
29
35
22
54
38
33
45
28
40
35
'
32
36
53
45
45
40
49
45
51
52
53
. 40
44
:-55
40
37
51
36
48
44
Difference
Score
2
4
4 .
4 '
10
14.
2
4
9
11
3
4
3
16
49
35
34
21
41
Post-test
Score
37
34
34
37
41
35 ■
30
30
33
20
33
(Continued)
20
.
24
4
8'
9
15
. 17
19
24
5
22
.I
2
4
6
8
8
9
Final Grade
9 Science
Sex
I
’ I
I
2
2
0
I
I
I
I
I
2
I
I
2
2
I
2
I
2 ,
3
2
2
I
I
2
I
2
I .
I
2
I
M
F
F
M
M
M
F
F
M
M
F
F
F
M
M
M
F'
M
F
F
M
F
F
F
\F
M
F
M
M
M
M
M
97
TABLE 9. STUDENT NUMBER, I.Q.
PRE-TEST SCORE, POST-TEST SCORE,
DIFFERENCE SCORE, FINAL GRADE-9 SCIENCE, AND SEX FOR 82
STUDENTS OF THE. AUSTIN TRADITIONAL GROUP.
I.Q.
Pre-test
Score
Post-test
Score
I
2
3 '
4
5
6
7
8
9
IO
11
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
42
53
52
'42
33
39
47
43
48
'35
42
56
64
55
61
12
66
66
66
40
43
33
50
Student
Number
1314
15 16
17
18
19 ,
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39'
, 40
69
69
69
72
74
74
75
76
78
51
53
53
54
54
54
54
55
55
55
55
56
56
56
56
56
57
39
54
42
38
36
42
37
• 34
35
62
23
61
14
11
54
20
68
60
49
51
55
41
-
62
33
39
35
33
14 11
3
19
25'
58
52
49
46
47
41
47
58
56
45
52
35
31 .
.
70
56
85
62
58
71
70
77
. 55
62
50
.
Difference
Score
49
48
55
36
51
49
66
51
■ 74
46
55
.
60
44 ■
64
25
7
11
12
8
12.
v 18
7
39
15
17
• 24
12
21
10
10
15
18
15
16
I
18
10
12
9
• 36
10
13
23
10
11
.-
Final Grade
9 Science
3
3
2
2
11
3 ’
2
.2
3
2
2
2
I
I
3
2
2
3
3.
2
4
4
4
' 2
3
I
2
2
I '
2
I
2
2
I
2
2
2
2
2
2
Sex
F
M
F
M
M
F
F
M
F
F
F
M
F
M
F
F
F
F
F
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
F
F
M
M
M
F
F
M
F
F
■M
98
TABLE 9.
Student
Humber
41
42
45
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
55
54 "
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
65
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
75
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
I.Q.
57 '
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
57
58
58
59
59
(Continued)
Pre-test
Score
Post-test
Score
51
46
42
41
42
47
45
52
47
40
56
65
55
58
52
62
49
66
69
58
65
44
58
45
5627
59
40
59 '
61
■ 42
49
64
64
64
64
51
44
44
47
47
47
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
41
45
44
41
52
. 55
50
56
55
46
' 67
52
85
48
56
56
57
61
42
40
55
51
59
58
■
.
20
I
7
11
15
15
9
10
51
15
2
' 2
2
2
2
5
5
5
2
2
2
5
5
5
2
2
4
5
■
10
7
5
2
12
24
6 ■
12
10
6
5
19
5
t
2
I
2
2
.5
5
20
58
47
70
75
44
58
56
56
58
45
I
I
9
65
58
55
65
59
12
9'
16
11
17
i 18
21
14
21
12
• 11
19
9
15
15
15-
65
57
45
52
64
28
50
x
62
■59
62
62
62
62
62
62
:
54
.54
67
58
Difference Final Grade
Score
: 9 Science
I
I
I
'
2
2
2
I
2
I
2
I
. 2
I
"
-
Sex
M
M
M
F
M
M
M
F•
F
M
F
M
M
F
■ M
M
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
M
M
M
F
M
M
M
F
M
M
M
F
F
M
M
M
M
99
TABLE 9•
Student
Number
I.Q.
81
48
82
48
(Continued)
Pre-test Post-test
Score '
Score
29
42
Difference
Score
2
IO
31
52
t,
Final Grade
9'Science
I
2
Sex
M
M
100
TABLE 10.
STUDENT NUMBER, I.Q., PRE-TEST SCORE, POST-TEST SCORE,
DIFFERENCE SCORE, FINAL GRADE-9 SCIENCE, AND SEX FOR 113
STUDENTS' OF T H E 'ROCHESTER TRADITIONAL GROUP.
Student. , I.Q.
Number
I
2
3
4
5
6
7
.8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Pre-test
Score
Post-test
Score
39
57
70
63
34
54
57
61
65
72
62 '
62
62
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
64
66
66
66
67
67
67
67
67
69
69
75
.75
75
64
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
48
49
49
51
53
53
’
46
41
31
46
' 48
51
51
57
40
48
35
21
50
51
50
'
.
42
41
45
51
47 ■
45
46
52
49
51
52
35
24
28
51
35
43
40
■ 48
29
43
. 37
50
46
Difference
Score
18 '
24
22
3
.8
9
10
14
15
21
25
27
36
11
13
15
61
73
62
57
61
64
65
64
52
65
71
67
62
75
.
20
. 20
20
62
65
71
63
40
27
31
54
43
52
50
58
35
59
' 46
61
62
22
11
•
17
29
10
16
20 .
11
5
3.
3
3
8
9
10
10
6
16
9
11
16
Final Grade
9 Science
2
2
3
2
2
3
4
2
3
3
3
3
2
• 2
2
4
3
2
4
4
3
3
4
4
4.
■3
2
2 :
I
I
2
2
2
2
2
I
2 •
2
2
3
Sex
M
F
F
M
F
F
M
M
M
F •
M
M
F
F
M
M
I'
F
M
F
M
M .
M
M
F
F
F
M
M
F
M
M
F
F
M
M
■F
M
M
M
101
TABLE 10.
Student
Number
I.Q.
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56 ■
57
58
59
53
54
54
54
55
55
55
55
55
56
56
56
.56
56
56
56
56
56
56
57
. 57
57
57
57
57
60
61.
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
Pre-test
Score
Post-test
Score
Difference
Score
48
68
38.
20
34
23
41
41
23
44
49
37
32
28
44
24
42
37
48
38
31
47
44
44
47
40
42
44
58
' 53
58 .
47
58
27
52
58
58
31
58
43
■ 45
59
54
59
54
59.
46
59
43
59
62
43
62
37
62
49
62
(Continued)
39
36
55
60
28
53
60 .
55
35
32
50
33
52
48
59
50
48
72
50
49
55
50
54
57
60
55
37
65
' 52
52
54
61
72
59
59
51
48
65
42
.
4
13
14
, 19
5 ■
9
11
18 ■
3
4
6
9
10
11
11
12
• 17
25
6
• 5
8
'10
12
13
7
8
10
13
21
9
9
7
18
13
16 '
8 .
11
16
3
Final Grade
9 Science
I
I
I
2
2
I
3
2
I
I
I
2
I
2
2
2 '
I
I
2
I
2
2
2
I
2
I
2
I
3 I
2
2
2
2
2
2
I
I
2
2
Sex
F
M
M
M
F
F
M
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
F
M
M
F
F
F
F
M
F
M
F
F
F
M
F
F
M
M
M-
F
F
M
M
F
102
TABLE 10.
(Continued)
Student
Number
I »Q.
Pre-test
Score
81
21
21
28
28
28
28
28
38
27
39
44
45
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104 •
105
106
107
108
109
HO
111
112
113
32
33
34
34
36
36
36
36
36
36
36
• 36
37
37
39
■ 41
43
43 .
43
44
44
44
44
44
47
47
47
39
• 39
28
29
37
32
34
34
34
29
36
30
. 34
31
30
35
33
38
36
48
36
16
26
29
32
30
28
30
36
42
26
Post-test
Score
Difference
Score
Final Grade
9 Science
I
I
I
10
12
5
6
2
33
48
5
'19
I
I
39
36
39
41
35
31
2
2
4
5
7
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
.2
39
34
41
40
40
36
41
43
42
57
37
26
47
35
35
31
35
39
40
51
51
.
2
3
4
7
9
2
10
I
8
5
6
9
I
10
21
6
3
I
7
9
4
9
25
.
I
I
I
2
2
I•
I
I
I
2
I
2
I
2
I
I
Sex
M
M
F
F
M
M
M
F
F
M
F ■
M
M
F
F
F
M
M
M
M
F
M
M
M
M
F
F
M
F
M
F
F
F
MONT ANA STATE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES
762 100 0881 8
cop. 2
An e v a lu a t io n o f f o u r
s e le c te d a p p ro a c h e s
to
DATE
te a c h in g .. .