QUINAULT BURSARY ESSAY
The British in Hamburg: Cultural Policy and Denazification during
the British Occupation and its Impact on Hamburg’s Cultural Life.
BY
Matthew Clark
22.09.2014
1,500 Words
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank the staff of The National Archives, The German Historical Institute, London, and,
particularly, the Staatsarchiv Hamburg for their assistance with this research.
I am also grateful to the German Department of UCL and the Quinault family for having provided me with
the opportunity to carry out this work.
Fig.1: Germany under Allied Occupation Map (Turner 1989); with Hansestadt Hamburg underlined in red.
The British in Hamburg: Cultural Policy and Denazification during the British
Occupation and its Impact on Hamburg’s Cultural Life.
The British occupation of Germany following World War II (see fig.1) is an area of history which has
never attracted much academic interest in Britain,1 even with the current reawakening of research
into Anglo-German relations. This essay aims to look at the historical actions and long-lasting impact
of Britain regarding Hamburg’s cultural life. The focus is limited to give a snapshot of Britain’s
actions. Hamburg’s unique role as a Stadtstaat2 serves as a microcosm for the whole Zone. The
relative removal of culture from wider political and economic currents allows us to consider it in
isolation.
We start with a general overview of British cultural policy and the process of denazification,
followed by closer studies of the impact of these policies. Finally, we will look at the longer term
impact of these two cases on Hamburg’s cultural life.
The primary focus of British cultural policy, in the immediate aftermath of the downfall of the
NSDAP regime, was part of their wider policy of re-education and denazification of German
institutions and society.3 Many historians have adopted the view that the British establishment was
distrustful of the German people, and viewed them as anti-democratic.4 This may well have been the
case among Whitehall policy makers, but it does not seem to have been among those dealing with
the Germans in Hamburg.5 What certainly drove British policy was creating a functioning democratic
society, to establish a peaceful European nation.6 This entailed the removal of committed Nazis from
all levels of society.7 This was done largely through the Fragebogen, which Germans had to fill in to
continue in most employment. The sheer scale of such a task – given economic and time constraints
– led to a greater emphasis on rehabilitation so as to keep German society functioning.
Denazification in the Arts.
By autumn 1945, denazification panels of three vetted staff-members existed at every theatre in
Hamburg.8 Those found to be Nazis were dismissed, in most cases without any financial assistance.9
1
Turner, Ian D. (1989) ‘Introducion.’, p.3 in Turner (Ed.) (1989).
City state
3
Clemens, Gabriele (1997) Britische Kulturpolitik in Deutschland 1945-1949: Literatur, Film, Musik und Theater
(Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag), p. 59
4
Turner, Ian D. (1989) ‘Introduction’, pp.3-7 in Turner (Ed.) (1989)
5
Based on wide-ranging positive comments about the Germans in documents consulted, particularly TNA FO
1014/459: 609/GOV/367/1 – 05.08.1947
6
Turner (1989) ‘Introduction’, pp.4-5
7
TNA FO 1014/397
8
SAH 363-6_A 35: Memo from Senatsdirektor Siemssen to Senatssyndikus Harder – 01.10.1945
9
See, for example, SAH 363-6_A 35: 609/Exec/234 – 14.09.1945
2
At first this was clearly a confused job: the Intendant10 of the Hamburger Sprechbühne, Rudolf Külüs,
points to the questionable ability of the German committees to provide an unbiased opinion,
pointing out that many of their decisions were followed by written complaints from the British, who
had a final say on such matters.11 This problem is repeated by other Germans, who accuse the panels
of being soft.12 Determining who was or was not politically belastet enough to be dismissed caused
issues for Germans and Britons. Repeated demands were requested for clarification of who must be
dismissed;13 and although the Military Government had these themselves no clear guidelines were
released to the Germans for months, and when they arrived they were written to provide leeway.14
The confusion surrounding denazification is clear from the dismissal of the Hamburger Theater in
Hamburg Intendant Hermann Enderlein. He was dismissed on 27th September 1945 without an
explanation to him or to the theatre by the British; this left the theatre in a state of chaos.15
The difficulty of successfully classifying people for denazification – even though by New Year 1946
the Fragebogen had evolved into a detailed twelve page questionnaire –16 was just one of the reasons
for changes in British policy. Alongside the economic, organisational and political issues which were
hampering denazification across society,17 the desire to establish a successful cultural life and a
special consideration for artists in Germany played a major role in the easing of denazification in
Hamburg. A 1946 report from the British shows that views such as ‘[t]he same standard of
denazification cannot be applied to artists as to the man-in-the-street’ were quite standard, and that
nearly a fifth of Hamburgers believed that ‘[a]rtists should be exempted from denazification in any
form.’18 This generous view of artists had two branches: first, that artists and culture had suffered
under the Nazis and that this should not be repeated; secondly, that the artist had a special talent
which was irreplaceable.19 This softer view of artists meant that by 1948 the Hamburg Senator for
Culture could nominate Albert Lippert as Intendant of the Deutsches Schauspielhaus and gain British
approval, although Lippert had been a paying member of the SS among other issues, which while not
necessarily causes for dismissal, certainly raised concerns.20
10
Artistic Director
SAH 363-6_A 35: Memo from Senatsdirektor Siemssen to Senatssyndikus Harder – 01.10.1945
12
SAH 363-6_A 35: Letter from Wilhelm Jüng – 22.10.1945
13
SAH 363-6_A 35: Memo from Senatsdirektor Siemssen to Senatssyndikus Harder – 01.10.1945
14
For Military Government guidelines see: TNA FO 1014/397; for when guidelines were distributed see: SAH
363-6_A 35: Memo regarding Fragebogen Guidelines being sent to Theatre & Opera Kommissionen –
13.11.1945; for the guidelines themselves, see: SAH 363-6_A 35: Die Bedeutung der unter C des Fragebogens
Military Government aufgeführten NS-Hilfsorganisationen. – 03.09.1945.
15
SAH 363-6_A 35: ICU/4.505/F.&E. – 27.09.1945.
16
SAH 363-6_A 35: Fragebogen von Ingeborg Ramseger – 05.10.1946.
17
Turner (1989) ‘Denazification in the British Zone.’ pp. 239-242
18
TNA FO 1014/401: 609/ICU/245/15 - ??.10.1946
19
ibid.
20
TNA FO 1014/53: 609/SECT/19/23 – 01.01.1948-31.12.1948
11
The main impact on the Hamburg Theatres came from the British and the German authorities both
valuing the position of culture; as there were few attempts at major reorganisation in the post-war
period, continuity was provided, allowing for a relatively healthy cultural life to re-establish itself by
1948, despite economic problems. This continuity maintained a distinctively German theatrical voice.
The Founding of the NWDR.
The most striking element of the NWDR’s history is the speed with which the British acted. Within
less than 24 hours of the final broadcast from the Reichssender Hamburg on 3rd May 1945, the
British were transmitting again.21 By the evening of 9th May they were broadcasting a range of light
music as well as messages in a variety of languages for displaced persons.22 By September of the same
year almost a full day’s worth of programmes were being broadcast.23 For Christmas Eve 1945 they
were able to produce a number of specialist programmes.24 It is notable how quickly the NWDR
shifted from strictly utilitarian programmes to entertainment (see Appendix), while playing a major
role in British re-education policy. The BBC programme Lernt Englisch im Londoner Rundfunk
broadcast frequently, teaching English to the Germans and fostering understanding. It was very
popular in Hamburg, with requests being made in 1948 for the formation of listener and study
groups.25
As the Reichssenders had been under the direct control of the Propagandaministerium during the war,
they were a highly Nazified operation,26 and the broadcaster had to be established quickly as it was
vital to the Military Government. To add to the complications only the Hamburg transmitter
remained operational.27 The British therefore started from scratch, with a combination of British
personnel and young German journalists.28 This mixture of British leadership with capable German
talent continued with the appointment in autumn 1946 of Hugh Carleton Greene, former controller
of the BBC’s German service, as the Chief-Controller of the NWDR, which had been officially
established on 22nd September 1945 when the Cologne transmitter was repaired.29 Greene set out
to establish a German public service broadcaster along the lines of the BBC.30 The creation of a
21
SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Chronologie: 50 Jahre Rundfunk in Norddeutschland: 1923 bis 1972
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Announcers Lay-Out for Wednesday 9 May 45
23
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Radio Hamburg Schedule – 22.09.1945
24
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk Schedule (Sender Hamburg) – 24.12.1945
25
TNA FO 1014/53: 609/SECT/19/23 – 01.01.1948-31.12.1948. R.J. Quinault was of course heavily involved in
the organisations for such programmes (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/r-j-quinault7784812.html).
26
SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Chronologie: 50 Jahre Rundfunk in Norddeutschland: 1923 bis 1972
27
ibid.
28
ibid.
29
http://www.ndr.de/der_ndr/unternehmen/geschichte/nwdr107_page-2.html and SAH 621-1/144_1126: HaDienst Meldung Nr.5 – 20.09.1945
30
SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Rundfunkrede Januar 1948. – 01.01.1948
22
broadcaster independent of the state was in the British interest as it protected against governmental
abuse of the network.31
On 1st January 1948 the NWDR was placed under German control and made a legal entity according
to Military Government Ordinance 118 and Die Satzung des Nordwestdeutschen Rundfunks,32 with
Greene remaining as the first Generaldirektor.33
The difficulty of transplanting the legally and culturally very British BBC to the different German
political culture was immediately apparent. The NWDR was overseen by a Hauptausschuss34
composed of the great and good.35 It was felt by many – and in particular the SDP – that this failed
to represent either the public or political parties, and that the non-political structure of the NWDR
allowed for the masking of anti-democratic tendencies among its staff.36 The SDP, FDP and KPD
were all against the NWDR, as was Adenauer.37
It did not take long for Germany’s different culture to take effect. First, against the stipulations of the
charter the first Verwaltungsrat38 appointed their chairman, the former Culture Minister of Lower
Saxony Adolf Grimme (SPD), as the first German Generaldirektor.39 Political differences in the new
German administrations led to the splintering of the NWDR in the mid-1950s into three smaller,
regional broadcasters.40
Later reforms undid the British attempt to create a centralised broadcaster. What the British did
firmly establish though was a licence-fee funded broadcaster, independent from the state and
proprietors. It also offered a platform for the development of German journalists in the post-war
31
ibid.
Charter of the Northwest German Broadcasting Institution.
33
See: SAH 621-1/144_1427: Militärregierung-Deutschland Britisches Kontrollgebiet Verordnung Nr.118:
Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk – 24.12.1947 and SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Rundfunkrede Januar 1948. –
01.01.1948 and http://www.ndr.de/der_ndr/unternehmen/geschichte/nwdr107_page-2.html
34
Central Committee, charged with protecting the NWDR’s independence and general oversight, and with
appointing the Verwaltungsrat, see below.
35
See SAH 621-1/144_1427: Militärregierung-Deutschland Britisches Kontrollgebiet Verordnung Nr.118:
Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk – 24.12.1947 – for composition of Hauptausschuss.
36
SAH 621-1/144_1853: I.Ein deutsches Rundfunkstatut? – 02.03.1948 and SAH 621-1/144_1853: I.Kern
Memorandum – 16.03.1948
37
This means that all four major parties were against the NWDR. See SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Rundfunkrede
Januar 1948. – 01.01.1948 – and http://www.ndr.de/der_ndr/unternehmen/geschichte/nwdr107_page-2.html
38
Administrative Board, roughly equivalent to the former Board of Governors at the BBC.
39
SAH 621-1/144_1427: Militärregierung-Deutschland Britisches Kontrollgebiet Verordnung Nr.118:
Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk – 24.12.1947 – and SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Chronologie: 50 Jahre Rundfunk in
Norddeutschland: 1923 bis 1972
40
http://www.ndr.de/der_ndr/unternehmen/geschichte/Konflikte-KaempfeKontroversen,rundfunkanstalt103.html and SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Chronologie: 50 Jahre Rundfunk in
Norddeutschland: 1923 bis 1972
32
landscape, such as Axel Eggebrecht, and clearly established the importance of a public service
broadcaster that provides wide-ranging programming, creating the dominance they still enjoy.41
British attempts to reform cultural life in Hamburg had varying degrees of success; it is, however,
undoubtable that they have had a lasting impact and changed the shape not just of the city, but also
of Germany as a whole. British policies regarding re-education led to an appreciation of English
through the radio and a varied broadcasting remit. The failures of British policy meanwhile allowed
for a German-ness to reassert itself across German cultural life. The British failed to reconfigure the
German mind-set and continuity in theatre allowed a distinctly German theatrical voice to be saved.
The failed attempt to establish a British institution in Germany with the NWDR has transformed
itself according to the German ideas of subsidiarity, federalism and cooperation. And its impartial
voice, and affordable entertainment helped nurture Germany’s post war democracy. The British
impact on Hamburg’s cultural life still has resonance today, and offers another perspective from
which to examine Anglo-German relations.
41
http://meedia.de/2010/12/07/trotz-internet-fernsehnachrichten-boomen/
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARCHIVAL MATERIAL
SAH 363-6_A 35
SAH 363-6_A 35: 609/Exec/234 – 14.09.1945 – Comd. 609 L/R Det Mil Gov (letter to Bm re:
pensions and dismissal)
SAH 363-6_A 35: Memo from Senatsdirektor Siemssen to Senatssyndikus Harder – 01.10.1945 –
Senatsdirektor Dr Siemssen, Vermögens- und Schuldverwaltung (contains letters from Külüs and
reference to committees)
SAH 363-6_A 35: ICU/4.505/F.&E. – 27.09.1945 – Major Black, R.A.S.C. – in SAH 363-6_A 35: Memo
from Senatsdirektor Siemssen to Senatssyndikus Harder (dismissal of Enderlein)
SAH 363-6_A 35: Letter from Wilhelm Jüng – 22.10.1945 – Wilhelm Jüng, Vorsitzender des
Betriebsrates der Hamburgischen Staatsoper (complaint against denazification)
SAH 363-6_A 35: Memo regarding Fragebogen Guidelines being sent to Theatre & Opera Kommissionen –
13.11.1945 – Kulturverwaltung
SAH 363-6_A 35: Die Bedeutung der unter C des Fragebogens Military Government aufgeführten NSHilfsorganisationen. – 03.09.1945 - Military Government-Germany, British Zone of Control
SAH 363-6_A 35: Fragebogen von Ingeborg Ramseger – 05.10.1946 – C.C.G. (B.E.) Public Safety
(Special Branch)
SAH 621-1/144_1126
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Ha-Dienst Meldung Nr.5 – 20.09.1945 – Military Government-Germany, British
Zone of Control
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Erste Ansage im Hamburger Sender nach Beendigung des 2. Weltkrieges –
19.9.1973 – Axel Eggebrecht
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Announcers Lay-Out for Wednesday 9 May 45 – 09.05.1945 – Radio Hamburg
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Programme Chief Letter – 19.09.1945 – Ralph Posten
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Radio Hamburg Schedule – 22.09.1945 – Radio Hamburg
SAH 621-1/144_1126: Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk Schedule (Sender Hamburg) – 24.12.1945 –
Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk
SAH 621-1/144_1427: Militärregierung-Deutschland Britisches Kontrollgebiet Verordnung Nr.118:
Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk – 24.12.1947 – Military Government-Germany, British Zone of Control
SAH 621-1/144_1853
SAH 621-1/144_1853: I.Ein deutsches Rundfunkstatut? – 02.03.1948 – Helmuth Kern, SPD
Rundfunkreferat
SAH 621-1/144_1853: I.Kern Memorandum – 16.03.1948 – Helmuth Kern, SPD Rudfunkreferat
SAH 621-1/144_1853: I.Denkschrift über Verfassung und Programmgestaltung des NWDR – 1948 – Hg.
Sozialdemokratische Partei Deutschlands
SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Chronologie: 50 Jahre Rundfunk in Norddeutschland: 1923 bis 1972 – 1972 –
Norddeutscher Rundfunk
SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Telegramm der BBC an den Nordwestdeutschen Rundfunk anlaesslich der
Ueberreichung der NWDR-Satzung am 30.XII.1947 – 30.12.1947 – British Broadcasting Association
SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.Rundfunkrede Januar 1948. – 01.01.1948 – Hugh Carleton Greene
SAH 621-1/144_1853: II.NWDR Report - ?mid-1950s? – Nordwestdeutscher Rundfunk
TNA FO 1014/1020
TNA FO 1014/1020: Ordinance No. 110 – Military Government-Germany, British Zone of Control
(theatre and music ordinance)
TNA FO 1014/397
TNA FO 1014/397: Denazification Instructions – C.C.G. (B.E.) [entire dossier]
TNA FO 1014/401
TNA FO 1014/401: 609/ICU/245/15 - ??.10.1946 – C.C.G. (B.E) Information Control Unit Hamburg
(report on arts etc. and denazification views also joke)
TNA FO 1014/459
TNA FO 1014/459: Directive to the Hansestadt Hamburg Advisory Theatre and Music Committee –
22.01.1948 – C.C.G. (B.E.) PRISC
TNA FO 1014/459: Hamburgisches Gesetz- und Verordnungsblatt, Nr.35, Mitt. den 24. Dezember ’47,
s.95 – 24.12.1947 – Senat der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg
TNA FO 1014/459: HQ/14301/128/ZAC – 14.04.1947 – C.C.G. (B.E.) Zonal Advisory Council
(details debate calling for political control of info and culture)
TNA FO 1014/459: 609/GOV/367/1 – 05.08.1947
TNA FO 1014/53
TNA FO 1014/53: 609/SECT/19/23 – 01.01.1948-31.12.1948 – C.C.G. (B.E.) I.S. Regional Staff
(monthly reports, include state of theatres, number of English plays, reference to Lippert and
currency reforms)
OTHER SOURCES
Clemens, Gabriele (1997) Britische Kulturpolitik in Deutschland 1945-1949: Literatur, Film, Musik und
Theater (Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag)
The Independent (27.11.2001) [ONLINE] Obituary: R.J. Quinault URL =
http://www.independent.co.uk/news/obituaries/r-j-quinault-7784812.html (Accessed 15.07.2014)
Rölle, Thomas (1997) Der britische Einfluß auf den Aufbau des Nordwestdeutschen Rundfunks von 1945
bis 1948 (Aachen: Shaker Verlag)
Schröder, Jens (2010) [ONLINE] Trotz Internet: Fernsehnachrichten boomen URL =
http://meedia.de/2010/12/07/trotz-internet-fernsehnachrichten-boomen/ (Accessed 15.09.2014)
Turner, Ian D. (Ed.) (1989) Reconstruction in Postwar Germany: British Occupation Policy and the Western
Zones, 1945-55 (Oxford: Berg)
Wagner, Hans-Ulrich [ONLINE] Konflikte, Kämpfe, Kontroversen. URL =
http://www.ndr.de/der_ndr/unternehmen/geschichte/Konflikte-KaempfeKontroversen,rundfunkanstalt103.html (Accessed 01.08.2014)
Wagner, Hans-Ulrich [ONLINE] Der NWDR unter britischer Kontrolle 1945-1947 URL =
http://www.ndr.de/der_ndr/unternehmen/geschichte/nwdr107_page-2.html (Accessed 01.08.2014)
APPENDIX – Comparison of radio programmes by type on Radio Hamburg and the NWDR on
09.05.1945, 22.09.1945 and 24.12.1945.