Introduction to Roman Literature
1. Literature to Teach
Aims: over the course of these three lectures, you will...
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Become familiar with key authors and works
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Gain an understanding of historical context: the social and political conditions
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Develop a sense of what makes Roman literature distinctive
The 'Golden Age' of Roman Literature
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Increasing Roman interest in Greek culture:
“Captive Greece captured her savage conqueror” – Horace, Epistles 2.1.156
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Desire to emulate Greek literature and establish Rome's place in the literary tradition.
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The Roman experience: traditional focus on public speaking.
The 3 Functions of Roman Poetry (Cicero, Orat. 69-99; Quintilian, Inst. 12.10.58-72):
1) Teach
2) Please
3) Influence
Literature to Teach
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How did Roman poets distinguish themselves from the work of their predecessors?
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How does poetry relate to rhetoric and philosophy, which also teach?
While you are declaiming, Maximus Lollius, at Rome,
I, at Praeneste, have just been reading again
The author who wrote of the Trojan War, who tells us,
More clearly and better than ever Chrysippus and Crantor,
What things are fair, what foul, what hopeful, what not. (Horace, Epistles 1.2)
Didactic poetry
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Poetry on the subject of science, philosophy or some branch of knowledge.
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Greek tradition from Hesiod; any Roman tradition more obscure before 55 BC.
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
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Introduction to Roman Literature (1): Literature to Teach
1A. The Scope of Lucretius’ De Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)
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Book 1: explanation of the atomic universe
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Book 2: the movement & combination of atoms
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Book 3: the mind, body and spirit
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Book 4: perceptions, thoughts and sex
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Book 5: the history of life on earth
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Book 6: phenomena of the sky and earth
1B. Lucretius as a Philosopher-Poet
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Philosopher Epicurus, whose theories Lucretius expounds, was ambivalent to poetry.
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Lucretius explains his reasons for using poetry as a medium for his teaching...
First because I teach about important matters and endeavour to disentangle the mind from the
strangling knots of superstition, and also because on an obscure subject I compose such luminous
verses, overspreading all with the charm of the Muses. For obviously my actual technique does not
lack a motive. Doctors who try to give children foul-tasting wormwood first coat the rim of the cup
with the sweet juice of golden honey... I have a similar intention now: since this philosophy of ours
often appears somewhat off-putting to those who have not experienced it... I have preferred to
expound it to you in harmonious poetry and, so to speak, coat it with the sweet honey of the Muses.
(DRN 1.931-947)
1C. Lucretius' Poem of the Universe
Many primary elements (primordia) common to many things are combined in things in many
ways... For the same things constitute sky, sea, lands, rivers, and sun; the same compose crops, trees,
and animals; only they differ in their combinations and movements. Similarly, throughout these
verses of mine you see many letters (elementa) common to many words, even though you must
concede that the verses and the words differ both in sense and in resonant sound. Such is the power
elements derive from mere alteration of order.
(DRN 1.814-827)
Do you see now that, as I said a little earlier, it is often of very great consequence in what groupings
and positions the same primary elements are combined, and what motions they reciprocally impart and
receive, and do you see that a slight change in arrangement enables the same atoms to produce
fires and wood (ignes et lignum)?
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
(DRN 1.907-912)
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Introduction to Roman Literature (1): Literature to Teach
2A. The Opening of Virgil’s Georgics
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A more practical work than De Rerum Natura; but is its outlook any more limited?
What makes the crops rejoice (laetas), Maecenas, under what stars
To plow and marry the vines to their arbor of elms,
What care (cura) the cattle need, what tending (cultus) the flocks must have,
How much practical knowledge (experientia) to keep frugal bees –
Here I start my song.
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(Georgics 1.1-5)
Maecenas, Virgil’s patron and addressee (see chapter in LACTOR):
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Diplomatic and political advisor to Octavian; in charge of Italy after Actium
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Private citizen with a keen interest in culture and literature
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Link between poets (Virgil, Horace) and the princeps
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What interest did he have in farming?
2B. Farming and Philosophy
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Does Virgil see in his vision of the countryside an escape from political turmoil?
O farmers, abounding in good fortune, should they only come to know their luck! For them, far
from battle’s din, the land in its perfect fullness pours forth spontaneous nourishment.
(Georgics 2.458-460)
2C. Virgil on Lucretius?
… Blessed, he who understands the nature of things and tramples all fear and relentless fate and the
bone-shaking clatter of greedy Death beneath his feet. And fortunate, he who knows the gods of the
countryside – Pan, Silvanus of the woods and the sister Nymphs. No public honour, no tyrants’
purple has swayed him, no discord driven him to break faith with his brothers…
(Georgics 2.475-481)
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
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Introduction to Roman Literature (1): Literature to Teach
2D. Georgics 4: Symbolism of the Bees
Look at these passages in which Virgil describes the keeping of bees and consider:
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Can the bees be read as an allegory for human society?
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How closely do the bees resemble humans? How are they different?
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How might Roman readers have responded to the descriptions of their behaviour?
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What do the bees suggest about the relation between rural and urban life?
2D1. Introduction to Book 4
The sky’s celestial gift of honey – now I’ll follow up with that. Maecenas, look with approval on this
part as well. The wonder-stirring drama of a tiny state, its great-hearted leaders and the entire
species’ habits and pursuits and swarms and battles – of these I shall tell you. Trivial the work,
but hardly trivial the glory if unlucky powers so permit and Apollo heeds one’s prayers.
(Georgics 4.1-7)
2D2. Battles Among the Bees
But if they have flown forth to battles – for often discord accompanied by great agitation befalls
two kings, right then, from a distance, you may discern the mob’s temper and the feelings
stirred by war, for that martial call from hoarse-resonating brass blares to those that dally, and a tone
like the broken blurting of trumpets is heard; then, restless, they come together, their wings vibrate
and flash, they sharpen their stings with their mouthpiece and ready their strength; around the king and
to his royal tent itself, they swarm densely, summoning the enemy with a great clamour; therefore,
when they’ve gained a bright spring day and an open field, they burst from the gates to join battle,
high in the air the sound buzzes, mingled they’re gathered into a great ball and suddenly plummet – no
denser is hail from the air, nor so heavy acorns raining from a shaken oak. Among the armies, the
kings themselves, with enormous wings, keep their large souls pulsing in very small breasts, resolute
always not so retreat until a strong victor has forced one side or the other to turn its back in flight.
This tumult of passion and these overwhelming struggles are brought to rest, checked, by the
tossing of a little dust.
(Georgics 4.67-87)
2D3. The Work of the Bees
They alone know a fatherland as well as settled homes and, aware of winter to come, they spend
the warm weather hard at work and, among themselves, put aside the profits. For, some are
vigilant to gather food and by fixed agreement keep busy in the fields; others in the confines of their
homes put down the tears of narcissus and sticky gum from tree bark as the first foundations of the
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Introduction to Roman Literature (1): Literature to Teach
comb, then suspend wax that holds fast; some lead out the grown young, hope of the species; others
press together the purest honey and cause the cells to bulge with liquid nectar; there are those to whom
it falls by lot to stand guard at the gates, and they in turn observe the signs of rain and clouds in
heaven or take the burdens from arrivals or, troops drawn up, keep the drones, a feckless bunch, away
from the stalls. The work glows, and fragrant honey releases the scent of thyme.
(Georgics 4.155-169)
2D4. Bees and Reproduction
You’ll also note that this behaviour has satisfied the bees – they don’t indulge in mating, not letting
their bodies go slack in love nor bringing forth their young with effort; in truth, without male
help, they themselves gather young in their mouths from leaves, from sweet grass; they themselves
supply the king and small citizens and rebuild their castles, their waxen kingdoms. Often, too,
wandering amid hard rocks, they injure their wings and, more than that, forfeit life under their loads,
so strong their love of flowers, their glory in making honey. Therefore, though a short life limits
each individual bee, for it never lasts longer than the seventh summer, the species remains
immortal, and the fortune of the house lasts many years, with ancestors’ ancestors accounted for.
(Georgics 4.197-209)
2D5. The Bees and their King
And more – not Egypt nor powerful Lydia, not the tribes east of the Caspian Sea nor those near
the Indus so honor their king. When he is safe, all are of a single mind; when he is gone, they
break faith, they themselves pull down the honey they’ve made and tear the caps off the comb.
He is the guardian of their work. They revere him, and all surround him with a constant hum; great
numbers attend him and often lift him to their shoulders. For him they cast their bodies in battle’s
way and seek a grand death from their wounds.
(Georgics 4.210-218)
3A. Horace's Letter to Augustus: In Praise of Minor Poetry

Horace justifying his unwillingness to write tragedy, like Ennius and other archaic poets:
You mustn't suppose that I am being sparing in praise of things that I refuse to do because others do
them well; the poet who tears my heart with imaginary grief, provokes it, soothes it, fills it with unreal
fears – such a poet I regard as capable of a tight-rope act. He is like a magician, who can transport me
now to Thebes, now to Athens. But please spare a modicum of attention for those who devote
themselves to a reader rather than put up with the haughty scorn of a spectator: if, that is, you
want to fill your library (a gift worthy of Apollo) and spur on the poets to seek green Helicon more
diligently.
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
(Epistulae 2.1.208-18)
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Introduction to Roman Literature (1): Literature to Teach
3B. The Ars Poetica: Horace on Poetry
Wisdom is the starting-point and source of correct writing... If a man has learned his duty to his
country and his friends, the proper kind of love with which parent, brother and guest should be
cherished, the functions of a senator and a judge, the task of a general sent to the front – then he
automatically understands how to give each character its proper attributes. My advice to the skilled
imitator will be to keep his eye on the model of life and manners, and draw his speech living from
there.
(Ars Poetica 309-18)
Poets aim either to do good or to give pleasure – or thirdly, to say things which are both pleasing and
serviceable for life... The man who combines pleasure with usefulness meets every demand,
delighting the reader and also giving him advice; this is the book that earns money for the Sosii,
goes overseas and gives your celebrated writer a long lease of fame.
(Ars Poetica 333-4; 343-6)
4A. Ovid: the Praeceptor Amoris
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Ovid the voice of the new, post-war generation of Augustan Rome.

Is he making a joke of didactic poetry?
I will not claim falsely, Phoebus, that I received my arts from you, nor am I prompted by the voice
of a bird of the air; not to me appeared the faces of the Muses as I was tending herds in your valleys,
Ascra; experience inspires this work: listen to an experienced bard; I would sing the truth. Be
present, Mother of Love, to this work, be distant, slender fillets, mark of modesty, and you long skirts
that cover half the feet: I will sing of safe sex and lawful loves, and in my song there will be no
crime.
First, strive to win them whom you wish to love, you who come fro the first time as a soldier in new
arms; the next task to this is to seduce the pleasing girl; third, that love should last a long time. This
is my limit; this area will be marked with our chariot; this the goal to be touched with my speeding
wheels. While it is permitted and you are able to go on with loose reins, choose to whom you say:
“You alone please me.”
(Ars Amatoria 1.25-42)
Literature to Teach: a summary of key points:

Aim of didactic poetry was not just to teach; see the role of the 'didactic addressee'.
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Dynamics of tradition and originality: responses to Greek lit. and to other Roman poets.
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Increasing influence of Roman politics over Roman poetry.
I.D.Fielding@warwick.ac.uk
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