Proceedings of 8th Asian Business Research Conference
1 - 2 April 2013, Bangkok, Thailand, ISBN: 978-1-922069-20-7
Factors Influencing the Attitudes, Behaviours and Career
Success of Reentry Women: An Indian Perspective
Bharathi Ravindran* and Rupashree Baral**
Women’s increased participation in today’s global labor force is a much
celebrated fact. However, the current improvised situation has not
essentially guaranteed a continued presence for working women in
India. Analyzing the reasons for their discontinuous careers, will go a
long way in resolving the talent crunch, that today’s industries face.
This study aims at identifying the factors contributing to the career exit
and reentry of Indian women. Additionally, the effects of organizational
factors like Policy support, diversity climate and organizational fairness
on the individual attitudes of reentry women like career satisfaction, job
satisfaction, organizational commitment and career commitment are
studied. The findings of this study would help in women talent retention
and management and would also prove to be a very strong impetus for
organizations to consider implementing non linear career models, which
would help in creating a win-win situation for both the organizations and
the female working population of India.
JEL Codes: O15, L2, D23 and J82
1. Introduction
Today, India is a force in the global economy, with a high demand for talent. In this
global ‘War for Talent’, diversity is a key policy lever and, women are seen as the key
resource pool in bringing new ideas and skills (Davidson et. al, 2003). However, the
number of women employed, especially highly qualified women, has been steadily
declining (Glover et. al, 2010; Valenduc, 2011). Though a lot of organizations have
come forth with specific gender friendly initiatives and programs to bring back and retain
female talent, the situation is still alarming. According to DataQuest, while women with
less than 3 years of experience constitute of 19% of the workforce, women with greater
than 10 years of experience comprise of only 10% of the workforce. An even more
alarming fact is that companies are increasingly hiring candidates to just fill in the
position. A more urgent and more complex challenge is that high level jobs, which
cannot compromise on quality, are getting more intense and more onerous. This leaves
women behind, which is yet another reason for companies to start considering a change
in the existing career models.
*Bharathi Ravindran, Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology,
Chennai, India
**Dr. Rupashree Baral, Department of Management Studies, Indian Institute of Technology,
Chennai, India
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The fundamental difference in the career patterns of men and women is often attributed
to the implication that women are less committed to their careers than men. But this is
definitely not the case. Hewlett, 2007, observes that attachment to career and their
commitment to work remains at the core of the women’s identities, providing status,
standing, meaning and purpose. Therefore it becomes the responsibility of the
organizations to properly appreciate and nourish their women employees, who most
definitely contribute as substantially as their male counterparts. Despite the fact that
educated Indian women have been identified as a key source of talent, the steps taken
to ensure their continuous employment are not satisfactory. Women are leaving their
careers in large numbers despite the numerous initiatives aimed at reversing this trend.
One such notable initiative is targeting women returners (Hicks-Clarke et. al, 2000).
2. The Indian Context
Despite the several advancements made by the educated Indian women with respect to
their identities, Indian society has always remained tradition-bound. Research on career
women in India shows that, work and family conflicts reported by Indian women, differ in
comparison to those observed by the women in the West (Sekaran, 1992). As
compared to their counterparts from across the world, Indian women face a lot of
difficulties in managing their work and life. They experience considerable pressure,
before going out to work and after work (Rout et al., 1999). The inflexible work load and
the absence of childcare facilities pose as impediments for employed mothers (Bharat,
2001). In societies such as India, where there is low gender egalitarianism, support from
spouses is very important for working women (Rosenbaum et. al., 1999). Unfortunately,
though Indian husbands encourage their wives’ participation in the workforce, they are
yet to assume responsibility for sharing domestic chores (Ramu, 1989).
Despite the fact that educated Indian women have been identified as a key source of
talent, the steps taken to ensure their continuous employment are not satisfactory.
Though a lot of organizations have come forth with specific gender friendly initiatives
and programs to bring back and retain female talent, the situation is still alarming.
According to DataQuest, while women with less than 3 years of experience constitute of
19% of the workforce, women with greater than 10 years of experience comprise of only
10% of the workforce. An even more alarming fact is that companies are increasingly
hiring candidates to just fill in the position. A more urgent and more complex challenge
is that high level jobs, which cannot compromise on quality, are getting more intense
and more onerous. This leaves women behind, which is yet another reason for
companies to start considering a change in the existing career models. The
fundamental difference in the career patterns of men and women is often attributed to
the implication that women are less committed to their careers than men. But this is
definitely not the case. Hewlett, 2007, observes that attachment to career and their
commitment to work remains at the core of the women’s identities, providing status,
standing, meaning and purpose. Therefore it becomes the responsibility of the
organizations to properly appreciate and nourish their women employees, who most
definitely contribute as substantially as their male counterparts. This stresses the need
for understanding the relationship between the various diversity initiatives and family
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friendly policies, and the organizational performance, which can help organizations
understand the benefits of these initiatives. If female talent does confer significant
benefits to organizations, then an important area for research is how organizations can
foster a positive climate for women, so that the corporate culture as a whole and HRM
policies and procedures in particular are supportive of women with specific emphasis to
women returners. This area has not been properly addressed by empirical research.
3. Research Background and Motivation
The present paper proposes a research framework to be empirically tested. This
framework stems from a qualitative study conducted by the authors in the preliminary
phase, which analyzed the factors responsible for career exit and reentry of women, the
challenges faced by the reentry women before and after reentering their careers and,
the supportive factors that enabled them to make a successful reentry. The study was
conducted through structured and semi-structured, face to face and telephonic
interviews among 40 Indian women, who have made a successful reentry to their
careers. The transcripts were analyzed using content analysis.
The results of this study revealed that, unsupportive workplace culture and lack of family
friendly policies have severe impact on women’s career choices. A lot of literature on
work-life balance and conflict also support this statement. Additionally, it was also
revealed in our results that women face a lot of obstacles to career reentry. Reasons
like lack of career advancement opportunities, lower quality job/ status and lack of
suitable positions to return to were quoted by a lot of respondents as the challenges that
were faced while trying to reenter the labor markets. Those who do reenter, find several
challenges pertaining to the workplace like no promotional opportunities, Lower quality
job/status, Sense of loss and isolation, Working hours, Mother’s guilt feeling,
Psychological stress, Change in technology, Discrimination from colleagues, Resocialization, Income penalty, Traveling, No time to spend with family. Hence, it is very
clear from our results that women’s exit to a large extent is affect by lack of family
friendly policies and unsupportive work-family culture. The results also explicitly reveal
the fact that, organizations are not highly receptive to women trying to reenter after
career interruptions or break.
4. Literature Review
Diversity Climate. Diversity climate is defined as “employee behaviors and attitudes
that are grounded in perceptions of the organizational context related to women and
minorities” (Mor Barak et al., 1998). Cox (1994) uses the following three levels to
describe the context of diversity climate: individual, inter-group, and organizational
factors. Of particular interest in this study are the individual and organizational factors.
Cox's model of the diversity climate recognizes the interplay between the individual and
the organizational situation in which that individual is embedded. The twin aspects of
diversity and climate are brought together by Kossek et. al. (1993). They argue that
power in most organizations still lies with males and that manages to create ”dominant
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heterogeneous culture”. Kossek et. al. (1993) also point out that climates are affected
by equal opportunities policies, access to resources and opportunities in the
organization, and by how individuals and groups view those policies. They argue that
women are often more aware of restrictions on their advancement and opportunities
than are men. Their results show that male respondents considered the organization’s
diversity efforts as less important than did female respondents. Additionally, female
respondents had a more positive attitude towards diversity efforts than the male
respondents. They also showed that women respondents believed men and women to
be qualified to the same level while male respondents thought that women were less
qualified than men. In summary, women minorities were more likely to support diversity
initiatives. Hence, while measuring the behavior and attitudes of women in
organizations, diversity climate becomes an important factor.
Policy Support. The dramatic increase in the number of women who work outside the
home, has reduced the time available for domestic and care giving responsibilities. Yet
workplace norms have failed to adjust to the growing number of workers with such dual
responsibilities, and continue to be based on an ideal worker, who is able to work fulltime, continuously, and is unencumbered by childbirth, sickness, school closures or
domestic work. Organizations offer their commitment to diversity through schemes and
policies such as flexible working hours, equal opportunities policies, childcare provision,
career breaks and mentoring. The work of Alimo-Metcalfe (1993) and Sidney (1994)
have shown the benefits conferred to the organizations due to these policies. The
implementation of work-family policies is viewed as both responsive to and supportive of
women’s increasing participation in the labor force. It has also been repeatedly proven
that family-friendly policies positively affect recruitment, productivity, and retention, and
thus contribute to enhancing the ability of individuals to participate successfully in the
labor force (Shwartz, 1996). Pylkkänen, et. al., (2004), argues that family friendly
policies have a positive impact on the probability of women’s return to labor market.
Work-life balance practices and policies will help employees to balance their work and
family demands, which can lead to enhanced employee productivity and significant
business improvements (European Network for Workplace Health Promotion, 2006;
Human Resources and Social Development Canada, 2006). With regard to job
attitudes, use of and satisfaction with policies like work schedule flexibility has been
associated with increased organizational commitment and reduced turnover intentions
(Aryee, Luk, & Stone, 1998; Halpern, 2005; Houston & Waumsley, 2003). A number of
studies have found that employees who benefit from childcare centers, referral services
and other family-supportive practices report higher levels of commitment to the
organization (Goldberg, Greenberger, Koch-Jones, O’Neil, & Hamill, 1989; Grover &
Crooker, 1995; Orthner & Pittman, 1986; Youngblood & Chambers-Cook, 1984).
Organizational Justice. Kim (2009) found that employees who perceived that they were
treated fairly by their company, tended to develop and maintain communal relationships
with the company. Also, when employees felt that they were treated fairly by their
company, they were likely to hold more commitment, trust, satisfaction, and control
mutuality than when they perceived that they were treated unfairly. When committed to
diversity management, an organization will be able to establish fairness of the systems
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which evaluate, promote, and compensate its employees based on their performance
and ability rather than criteria such as gender. Traditionally, organizational justice has
been recognized as being composed of two aspects, distributive and procedural justice.
Distributive justice refers to the perceived fairness of the amounts of compensation that
employees receive, while procedural justice refers to the perceived fairness of the
means used to determine those amounts (Folger et. al., 1989).
Research suggest that distributive justice is greatly influenced by ratings based on
performance and recommendations for salary hikes and/or promotions based on
ratings, whereas management practices such as two-way communication, employee
participation, and consistent application of performance appraisal standards are
recognized as determinants of procedural justice (Greenberg, 1986; Korgaard et. al.,
1995). According to Magoshi et. al. 2009, when a company effectively utilizes diversity
management practices, employees may perceive that, decision processes are
implemented on non-prejudicial factors, and accordingly, their sense of justice will be
enhanced. Enhanced justice triggers the employee outcomes like career and
organizational commitment and career and job satisfaction.
Work-family Culture. A supportive work-family culture has been defined as the shared
assumptions, beliefs and values, regarding the extent to which, for women and men, an
organization supports and values work and family integrations (Thompson, et. al.,
1999). Supportive work-family culture was positively related to affective organizational
commitment and negatively related to intention to leave the organization (Thompson, et.
al., 1999, Dikkers, et. al., 2004). Additionally, Lyness, et. al. (1999), have shown that
supportive work-family culture career commitment and plans to return to work sooner.
Mauno, et. al. (2005), argues that poorer work-family culture leads to poorer job
satisfaction. This particular study has shown that work-family culture is found to be more
supportive among female respondents than male respondents. Thus, studies have
shown that work-family culture has its strongest links with the employee behaviors and
attitudes.
Career Satisfaction. Career satisfaction has become an important research topic in
both psychological and business research. Career satisfaction measures the extent to
which individuals believe their career progress is consistent with their own goals, values
and preferences (Erdogan et. al., 2004; Heslin, 2003; Seibert et. al., 2001). With
reference to diversity management, Cox (1993) contends that career satisfaction is
affected when individuals do not feel valued because of their gender. Career
Satisfaction, according to Hicks-Clarke (2000) is greatly affected by policy support,
organizational justice and diversity climate. Work-family culture is also positively linked
to career satisfaction (Lyness et. al., 1999).
Career Commitment. Despite increased attention to career development, career
commitment has been relatively more neglected. Career commitment describes
individual attitudes to their career and has been acknowledged as a form of work
commitment that individuals have on a career facet (Aryee et. al., 1994). Career
commitment is characterized by the development of personal career goals, as well as
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by attachment to, identification with, and involvement in those goals. Individuals with
strong career commitment may display higher levels of requirements and expectations
from the organizations with which they establish relationships. This phenomenon also
implies that individuals with high career commitment may be more motivated when their
expectations are satisfied by the organization than are less committed individuals
(Chieh-Peng et. al., 2003). Chenuis (1991) found that attitudes towards life, job
satisfaction and supportive organizational climate were related to career commitment.
According to Hicks-Clarke, et. al. 2000, policy support, organizational justice and
climate for diversity strongly impact career commitment. Schein (1984) posits that in
organizations that make less of a separation between work and family norms, an
individual’s commitment to family does not make any conflict with his commitment to
work and family.
Organizational Commitment. Much research has been conducted on organizational
commitment, including studies on related concepts like professional commitment.
According to Morrow (1983), organizational commitment is commitment to a place of
work. Career Opportunities, work-life policies and job characteristics have a direct
impact on organizational commitment (Bashir et. al. 2008). Additionally, Hicks-Clarke et.
al. (2000), have proved that, in addition to policy support, organizational justice and
climate for diversity strongly impact organizational commitment. As stated earlier,
supportive work-family culture also relates to organizational commitment positively
(Thompson et. al., 1999; Dikkers et. al., 2004). According to Hicks-Clarke et. al. (2000),
among the family friendly policies, flexible hours predicted organizational commitment to
a greater extent.
Job Satisfaction. Job satisfaction or Employee Satisfaction (also referred to as morale)
is one of the most used variables in Organizational Behavior research. It is an
employee's attitudinal response to his or her organization. Garcia-Bernal et al. (2005) in
their study of job satisfaction with respect to gender differences argued that with job
satisfaction perceived to be a pre-condition for competitive levels of quality to be
recorded and for organization to be successful then employee satisfaction should be
cardinal to organizational objective. Several research have also repeatedly shown that
job satisfaction has strong ties to work-family culture, policy support, diversity climate
and organization justice (Hick-Clarke et. al., 2000; Chileshe et. al., 2007; Bowen et al.,
2008; Thompson et. al, 1999; Dikkers et. al, 2004).
Perceived Family Demand and Perceived Job Demand. Work demands and family
demands are more commonly linked to performance and quality of well–being using the
work-family conflict and work-family facilitation mechanisms. Work demands are
generally associated to work-family conflict while family demands are associated to
family to work conflict. The perception of the job and family demands by the employees
will often influence the behaviors and attitudes of them. Sturges et. al. (2004) find that
as graduates become embedded in their employing organization, the barriers to worklife balance pile up, primarily in the form of heavy demands on graduates’ time and
energy. Once they begin to experience increased demands from their family
responsibilities, they expect to work more reasonable hours and achieve a more
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balanced lifestyle. Should this not occur for whatever reason, they would consider
leaving the organization – as they “work to live, not live to work” (Sturges et. al., 2004).
According to Way (2008), perceived job demand negatively influences the job
satisfaction, Higher the job demand, lesser the satisfaction in job. For employees
dealing with simultaneous work and family demands, flexible working practices or other
family-friendly programs can be very important in choosing whether to stay with or leave
an employer (Beauregard, 2007). Attitudes toward balancing a career with family
commitments, as well as the actual experience of managing competing demands from
work and from home are likely to be a significant predictor of employees’ satisfaction
with their career outcomes (Sanders et al., 1998) and perceptions of career success.
5. Conceptual Research Framework and Hypothesis.
Based on the literature discussed above and the implications of the first phase of study,
a conceptual framework is developed and presented in this paper which demonstrates
the influences of policy support provided by organizations in India, Organizational
Justice, Work-family Culture and Diversity Climate on the individual level outcomes of
the two groups of women namely, job satisfaction, career satisfaction, organizational
commitment and career commitment. The solid arrow in the model represents direct
hypothesized relationships, and the dashed arrow represents hypothesized moderating
effects. It was hypothesized that Policy support, organizational justice, work-family
culture and the diversity climate would be positively related to organizational
commitment, job satisfaction, career commitment and career satisfaction. Perceived
work demand and perceived job demand were hypothesized to have moderating impact
on the direct relationships between individual outcomes(organizational commitment, job
satisfaction, career commitment and career satisfaction) and its antecedents (policy
support, organizational justice, work-family culture and diversity climate).
Conceptual framework
1. Policy Support
2.
Organizational
Justice
1.
Organizational
Commitment
2. Job
Satisfaction
3.Work-family
culture
1. Perceived Work
Demand
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6. Conclusion
The aim of this research is to find the reasons which push a woman out of workforce
and, those that help a woman to reenter her career after a career break. Due to lack of
sufficient research that authenticates the underlying relationship between organizational
factors and behavioral attitudes of reentry women, the proposed framework will prove to
be a very strong impetus for organizations to consider implementing non linear career
models. This would help in creating a win-win situation for both the organizations and
the working women in India. The future scope of this research is to perform a
comparative study on the proposed framework, between two groups of Indian women
namely – Reentry women who have taken a career break and women with no career
interruptions. The results of the proposed quantitative study will prove as to how a
career break will influence the attitudes and behaviors of women.
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