ill uU.
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;
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c:
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on
STUDY OP
iD TA1'URL1
OONSTDT IfJLIIDITY
S011iDULS
I.I
TiLL DLIEG OP
IR
DOUGLhS
.ubmitted to the
Oj
r:Tr
1
'ri
In partial fi1fil1ient of
the requirements for the
Degree of
LiST
OP SOLIICL1
Rolert 1array venderi
Iviay 16, 1932
APPROVED:
Redacted for Privacy
Proossor of Lwer Manuiacture
In Charge of Major
Redacted for Privacy
Chairman of Committee on G-rathate Stady
riI
.
u
,
r
i
Li
I
i I
WATER Ifl WOOD
-i
Page 1.
Drying
2.
Capillarity
4.
Viscosity
5
Vapor Pressure
6.
DESCRIPTI0I OP
8.
Dry :i1n
B.
Controlling and Eecording Instrwnents
9.
i1n Photographs
10.
Scales
12.
Pans
12.
i1n Photographs
13.
Heating
14.
Other Lqaipment
15.
EXPERIWNTAL PjOOhDURh
17.
Material
17.
Preparation of Loads
18.
Diagram of Section of Eiln
20.
Drying Procedure
21.
Operation Daring the Run
23.
Moore Chart
24.
EXPRILIT;L
Page 28.
3JLT
Preparation of uat&
In'iiviaual Jiuns
29.
49.
COMP.ARISCIJ s
Drying Times from
5O
to 25 Lioistare
50.
Co ii tent
Correlation Jiagrani
Drying Times from 25
51.
to ll
Loisture
Content
52.
Diagram of Drying, Time Curve
54.
55.
DISCUSS'I0t
Fibre Saturation Point
Circulation anTeinperatare
Capillarity ana iscosity iararn
Capillarty aunviseosty
55.
56.
58.
9.
Vapor Pressara
60.
Vapor resre diagram
G.
Table
C0LCLUSICi'S
J3IBLIOGiP
oi Canacities o
r br ioisare
64.
65.
65
WATER
IN
WOOD
Water may exist in wood in four forms:
water in the cell cavity, (2) as bound
(1) as free
water in
the
cell
walls, (Z) as vapor in the cell cavities, and (4) as part
of the protoplasmic content of the living cell.
The lat-
ter may b0 disregarded. in the consideration of water present in wood after it has been cat from the tree, becau.se
there are only a few living cells in the outer sapwood.
The rest have lost their protoplasmic contents.
In any study of the drying of wood these forms in
which water is present are naturally
In very wet wood, water exists as
of
free
prime importance.
water in the cell
cavities and also as bound water in the cell walls.
s
some of the water leaves the cell caxities in drying,
water vapor will replace it until all the free water is
gone.
This point at which water no longer exists as free
water in the cell cavities is :nown as tne
tion point.
fibre
satura-
Prom that point until all moisture has left
the wood structure, water exists as ooana water and vapor.
The removal of water liOLl tae suriace layers ci wooa
is a comparatively simDlo process of evaporation, but to
keep this process in operation, the water mast Le made to
transfuse from the interior to replace that which is
evaporatea.
In tnis process of transfuazon, tne proper-1-
ties of
the absorbed iiuid lecome
imortaut.
The most
important of tnese properties and those with which this
paper will be most concerned are ca;Dillarity, viscosity,
and vapor pressure.
iaiYIN
Polloving the outline of the principles of drying in
"Elements of Chemical
EngineeringT'
by Badger and LicCabe,
two steps occur in the transfer of moisture from the interior of a solid to tne drying medium.
These steps are:
(1) diffusion through the solid and (2) evaporation or
passage into the drying medium.
These steps allow the authors to classify drying
processes into three general types as follows:
"Evaporation takes place at the interface
(junction of
the solid and the drying medium) and the
main resistance is to this evaroration.
internal transfusion is small in
Resistance to
comparison
with the
evaporation resistance."
'TEvaporation at the interface with diffusion
resistance greater than that of evaporation."
"Evaporation tahing place before reaching
the interface.
partly as vapor.
Vater diffuses partly as a liqaid and
Resistance to transfusion as a liquid
controls this type of drying."
-2-.
In this classification the drying of wood falls in
types (2) and ('), though perhaps only in the latter at
temperatures over 212 d.egree
Fahrenheit and at moisture
contents below the fibre saturation point.
The fact that
internal diffasibu of water in wood controls the drying
rate rather than evaporation resistance more definitely
places the drying of wood in type (2).
This characteristic of the drying of wood brings
attention to the properties of the absorbed water which
mast be responsible for this internal transfusion.
Cap-
illarity might be termed a positive factor in this process, since this property is responsible for the movement of liquids in tubes.
Viscosity, on the other hand,
would be a negative factor as this property tends to resist motion or a change of shape.
The vapor pressure of
a liquid should aid to some extent in the transfusion of
a liquid and, therefore, can be classed as a positive
factor.
Thus, under any one set of conditions these three
factors are in operation, two of them tending to cause
movement of moisture against the action of the third.
As all of these properties or forces vary in different
amounts with temperature, it is reasonable to believe
that at one point, either a certain temperature or combination of temperature and humidity, a maximum resultant in the form of moisture movement in wood would be
obtained.
CA2ILLRITi
The rise of liquids in capillary tubes is a henotion of surface tension.
Basically, it depends on the re-
lative values of cohesion of the molecules of the liquid
for each other and of their adxiesion for the molecules of
It is this relation
the solid of the walls of the tube,
which determines the shape of the meniscus of the surface of the liquid in the tube and. consequently the presIf the liquid wets
sure and the direction of the flow.
the walls of the tube, the meniscus will be concave and
the flow will be in the apward direction.
The converse
is true, if the water molecules cohere to each other
with a greater force than that with wnich they adhere to
the walls of the tube.
The former case is true of the
capillary movement of water in the cells of wood. struc-
ture, and the movement is upward into the cell cavities.
Capillary pressure varies inversely with the curva-
ture of the meniscus of the surface of the liquid.
The
radius of curvature of rnenisci of the same liquid in
tubes of different diameters will vary directly with the
diameter of the tube due to the decrease in the ratio
between the circumference and the area of the surface of
liquid with the increase in diameter.
in the cells of wood structure, L.
-4-
Considering water
. Hawley of the For-
est Products Laboratory estimates that this capillary
pressure will amount to about one-half an atmosphere at
ordinary atmospheric conditions.
Also, he suggests that
in the small aiertares of the pits in the cell walls
this pressure may rise as high as fifty atmospheres, bat
that it acts for so short a distance its effect is pro-
bably negligible in the movement of the absorbed moistare.
A rise in the temperature effects a decrease in capillary movement.
This is due to the increased movement
of the molecules of the liquid and a consequent lessening
of their powers of cohesion and adhesion.
In water this
decrease varies from the value at 32 degrees Fahrenheit,
taken as i00%, to 82% at this value at 212 degrees.
This decrease follows the curve of a linear equation as
is shown in the diagram on page 58.
V ISCOSITY
The friction between adjacent layers of a fluid
having different velocities has been termed the viscosity of the fluid.
It arises from a friction between mol-
ecules as capillarity depends on the cohesion and adhesion of these molecules.
While water is considered a
mobile rather than a viscous liquid, it has viscosity.
The viscosity of a liquid decreases with an increase in
-5-
temperature.
The table below shows the coefficient of
viscosity for a few liquids in centimeter-gram-second
xnits at different temperatures.
Substance
32° F.
590
Mercury
0.0166
Water
0.0179
2120
0.0155
0.0146
0.0126
0.01
0.0068
0.0028
8.3
14.5
Glycerine
1000
68°
0.114
The decrease in the viscosity of water is quite rapid from 52 degrees Fahrenheit to around 100 degrees,
after which the decrease is slower, and at 212 degrees
the curve remains almost constant at approximately ie% of
the value for the viscosity at 52 degrees.
(See chart
on page 58)
While viscosity in itself is a retardant to the
movement of water, drying
ractice, in the use of higher
temperatures than those occurring under ordinary atmos-
pheric conditions, takes advantage of the marIed decrease
in the viscosity and the resultant freer movement of the
water.
VAPOR PRLSSURE
The pressure exerted by the molecules of a liquid in
its vapor state is termed the "vapor pressure" of that
liquid.
The liquid itself may have a vapor pressure due
-6-
to the molecules which are passing off into the surrounding air from the surface of the liquid.
"Other things being equal, the rate of evaporation
from the surface of moist wood. is proportional to the
difference between the vapor pressure of the water at the
stirface of the wood and that of the vapor in the sur-
rounding air."
This difference has been called the "sat-
uration deficit".
At one temperature and humidity a certain part of
the unconfined air surrounding a moist surface is displaced by water vapor, and., while ro increase over the
atmospheric
existing
pressure occurs, a proportion of the pressure
is then due to the vapor which is present.
This
proportion increases up to the boiling point of water at
which point all the air adjacent to tho surface of the
water is displaced by vapor, and the total pressure on
the surface of the liquid. is due to the pressure of that
vapor.
-7-
DESCRIPTION
Ci?
hQUIPMLIT
The adaptation of experimental data to commercial
practice in any line of research is simplified if con-
ditions during the study and eqiipment used are as near
to those found in the industrial field as is possible.
The ideal equipment in a research project of this nature
would be the entire plant or factory itself, equipped
with added facilities and refinements and entirely at
the command of the student.
Perhaps more desirable and
surely more within the possibilities of educational institutions are miniatures of commercial installations,
complete in detail though reduced in size.
The writer feels fortunate in having had the oppor-
tanity to carry on this study with the aid of standard
dry kiln equipment, supplemented with instruments which
make it an experimental as well as a practical installation,
DRY KIL
The kiln used in these experiments is of the inter-
nal-fan
reversible circulation type,
It is full size in
every detail and dimension, with the exception of length
which is only sufficient to accommodate lumber up to
20 feet long.
The inside dimensions of the drying cham-8-
ber, exclusive of the lower part
which houses the coils,
fans, etc., are approximately 12 by 12 by 22 feet.
The
lower part mentioned above is about five feet deep.
The drying chamber is of tile and concrete construction coverod on the inside with moisture and heat
resisting paint.
Double-hinged doors of a patented fire-
proof construction close the open end of the kiln.
Adjacent to the closed end of the drying chamber is
the operating room or "pit".
This
room contains all the
instruments for recording and. regulating conditions
within the kiln.
Eext to the operating room is a room
Glimpses
which contains a small boiler and a band saw.
of the operating room may be had in the included photographs.
In the first photograph on page 10 may be seen
the controlling and recording thermometers.
The vapor-
filled bulbs of these instruments are within the drying
chamber and are connected to the controller by means of
armored copper tubes.
CONTROLLING AND RECORDING INSTRULLNTS
The recording, controlling instrirnent
which is
the
one seen furthest on the rig;ht, regulates the tempera-
ture and the humidity within the kiln.
Its operation
depends on two bulbs, ono of which measures the temperatu.re, while the other is completely covered with a wick,
-9-
TIlE SCALES, RECORDING AND CONTROLLING T}lERMOTiflTERS
AND
AN DRIVE
CONTROL VALVES POR THE HEATING COILS (ABOVE)
AND VAPOR LINE (BELOw)
-10-
which is kept wet from a water-box or reservoir receiving water from the operating room by means of a small
copper tube.
The difference between the readings of
these two bulbs determines the relative humidity within the drying chamber.
(The relative humidity o± the
air is the amount of water which it contains expressed.
in the per cent of the amount of water it could hold if
satu.rated at the same temperature and pressure.)
This controlling thermometer may be set for any desired temDeratare and humidity, and its mechanism causes
compressed air to operate the diaphragm valves shown in
the picture below.
Air entering these valves opens them,
and they are closed again by means of springs on the release of the air Pressure.
The top valve in the photo
controls the steam entering the two heating coils, while
the lower one is connected with the vapor line which
furnishes live steamto keep the humidity at the desired
point.
The other thermometer merely records the temperature
existing within the kiln.
Daring the experiments perform-
ed in this study, the bulb of this instruments was placed.
on the opposite side of the load from the two
controller.
bulbs of
the
It was placed in the path of return air as it
loft the lumber and before it was drawn down through the
heating coils for recircu.lation.
By comparing the tTdry
bulb" reading of the controller with the reading of this
-11-
latter instrument the amount of heat consumed in evaporating the moisture can 'cc read in degrees of temperature
drop from one side of the load to the other.
The change
in this drop is a rough indication of the progress of
drying within the load.
SO LE S
However, the facts concerning the loss of moisture
from the lwnrber within the kiln are read on the dial of
the large scale.
This scale is graduated in 25-pound
divisions to read up to
7,0OO pounds.
The tracks on
which the loaded kiln trucks are run are hung free by
means of four iron rods from the system of compound levers on the roof' o± the kiln.
These levers are carefully
adju.sted and the weiht reduced and transmitted to a
single rod which enters the operating room to the scale.
The weight of the baffles and stickers used in each
load is set off on the beam of the scale and the weight
of the lumber alone can be read to within 10 pounds on
the dial.
:i?.A1s
Three fans in the base of the kiln provide air circulation.
These fans are of the disc type, are 39 inches
in diameter and have twelve blades each.
They are hung
on a single shaft running parallel to the long dimension
-12-
XPERILT
DRYING
DRY IILN
OVEN
AND
-13-
BUILDINGS
SLATL
BALA.NC
of the kiln and which is supported on three pedestal
bearings.
Oil is fed to these bearings by means of cop-
per tubing from three oil caps, situated conveniently
near the door of the kiln.
The fans are powered by a five horsepower induction
motor, operating on a three phase, sixty cycle current
at 220 volts and using 13.6 amperes at fall load.
Power
18 taken off this xotor by means of a grooved pulley and
three "Va belts running side by side.
The motor speed
Is reduced about one-third by the size of the two pullies.
The direction of the fans' rotation and their speed,
which determine the direction emd volume of the air move-
ment across the load, are controlled by a two-way switch
and a controlici' or rheostat.
The latter allows speeds,
ranging from 300 to 600 revolutions per minute.
Hi!ATLNG
Steam furnishes the heat for the kiln.
It is obtain-
ed. from the College heating plant daring the day and from
the small boiler at the kiln daring the night.
Steam
pressures vary from 30 to 40 pounds per square inch.
The
kiln boiler is of the fire tube type, is 12 Leet long by
30 inches in diameter, and has had its original fire box
remodeled for the installation of an automatic oil burner.
The heating coils within the kiln are in two banks of
-14-
24 pipes each.
One ban1 is situated on each side of the
kiln in a position a little below the level of the track.
(See diagram on page 20.)
The coils are of the combined
return-bend header type, having the return-bend at the
open end of the kiln and. the headers at the back.
These
coils are placed to drain to the lower header and the
condensate is then taken care of by two steam traps.
The vapor line consists of a single pipe, located
under each heating coil.
Small jets are placed at in-
tervals along each of these iipes.
OTHER .LU IPLiiiT
Under this heading there may be listed several
pieces of equipment.
The most important of these are the
air compressor, the small scales, the drying oven, and
the band Saw.
As was explained before, the air compressor furnishes the motive power for the regulation valves.
This
particular compressor is of the small unit type common
in garages and service stations, having the compressor
and motor mounted on top of the storage cylinder.
The
tank or cylinder carries air at from 70 to 100 pounds
per sqaare inch pressure, but this is reduced so that on-
ly 15 pounds pressurereaches the controller.
Between
the compressor and the controller, two filters are placed
in thø air line.
These filters remove the water, oil, or
-15-
L
other foreign matter from the air before it reaches the
controlling instrument. These would be injurious if
allowed to get into the instrument.
The oven, small scales, and the band saw are used in
taking the moisture content samples. The band saw is a
small upright model. The wheels are about 12 inches in
diameter, and the driie is through a direct connected
electric motor. The saw is about ons-qiarter inch in
width, and lumber two inches in thichness can be cat with
ease.
The sample wafers are weighed directly on the small
triple beam balance. This is a very accurate scale, and
when adjusted will weih to centigrams.
Weighing is followed by a drying period in the oven.
The one used this year is of a late type and operates
from a lighting circuit at 110 volts. The temperature
within the oven may be controlled to within a few degrees,
and as high as 200 degrees Centigrade may be maintained.
-16-
EXPERILIEITAL PROCEDURE
'Ttfl1T A
As pro'viously indicated this stady has concerned
Douglas fir lu.mber entirely. Afl arrangement was made
between the College and the Corvallis Lumber Company,
wherein the latter agreed to furnish the necessary
lumber for this experimental work.
The lumber as received from the mill was ungraded
clear, one inch in thickness and of various widths up to
one foot. The bulk of the majority of the loads was made
up of four and six inch widths with the former generally
predominating. Each load consisted of from 1000 to 1300
board feet.
Coming as it did from small logs, the lumber contained a large percentage of sawood. Eo effort was
made to determine this ercentage accurately, but in some
cases loads contained at least 3O of sapwood.
The above paragraphs will give some idea of the
heterogeneous nature of the material used in this study
and a better appreciation of the difliculties encountered
in correlation of resuits. Segregation of the material
into groups more homogeneous in character would have been
possible, but the question arises as to its value in this
-17-
It was not possible to secure all lumber in
instance.
one certain dimension or per cent of sap, and the time in
which the study was conductod was so limited that sorting at the him
would have resulted in one or two
charges only in each of many different classifications.
As the experiments were conducted, the number of charges
ran of the general and all-inclusive classification of
Timill_runTi were too few.
PBPA.ATIClJ OJ? LOADS
The lumber was piled flat on the three trucks, edge
to edge with no space between boards and with the boards
rurniing longitudinally.
Between each layer, five stick-
ers about 1 inch thick, 2 inches wide, and 8 feet long
wore placed directly over a steel bunh of the trucks.
This would space them about four feet apart.
Care was taken to "splice" the short lengths or butt
their ends together in the center of the load as well as
to keep
ends of the layers well filled out to the
the
length limit.
Gaps left in a layer would tend to deflect
part of the air in its passage across
wise cause
uneven drying in
the
the
load and other-
load.
The thousand feet of lumber dried in each charge
filled about seven or eight layers on the trucks and made
a pile about 8 feet wide and 15 or 16 inches high above
the bunks.
To get circulation through the load, when such
-lB -
a small part of the kiln capacity was utilized, a temporary baffle was used.
This baffle was a heavy piece of
sheet iron about four feet wide and twenty feet long and
was supplemented by two small pieces about three feet
wide and five feet long, which were fitted around the
ends of the load.
The position of the baffle is indic-
ated in the diagram on page 20.
The stickers under the
top layer of lumber were allowed to project some eight
inches toward the right wall of the kiln.
These stick-
ers served. to support the temporary baffle, which was
laid. partly on thorn and partly on the load. and fitted
tip to the wall of the him.
This cut off the circula-
tion into the vacant space in the kiln and forced. the
air to find. a path through the load.
Due to the smallness of the loads the bulbs for the
controlling thermometers wore removed from their position
about half-way up the right hand wall of the kiln and.
placed below the temporary baffle.
There they were
placed in the path of the entering air.
bulb was placed on the opposit
The recorder
side of the load in the
path of the return air and directly across from the con
troller bulbs.
After the thermometer bulbs and baffles were in
place, the doors were tightly shut and the loads weighed in the operating room.
The trucks and baffles had
-19-
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THIS HOHK
been weighed previously, and this weight together with
an allowance of three pounds for each sticker used was
set off for each load on the beam of the scales,
weight read on the dial was
that of
The
the lumber alone.
DRYING PRQhDiJRE
It has been previously intimated that the subjects
of this study were three properties of water absorbed
in wood, namely, capillarity, viscosity, and vapor
pressure.
The movement of moisture in wood at any
temperature, neglecting a minor movement due to the
expansion of the water in eomDletely filled cell cavities, is due to the resultant of the forces of these
properties.
The value of the force of each is a func-
tion of the temperature of the surrounding air which is
heating the water and wood, but the humidity of this
surrounding air also affects the rate of evaporation
from the surface of the wood.
Thus, to study accurately
their resultant forces as they vary with the tempera-
ture, the effect of the humidity of the surrounding air
mast be eliminated if possible or held constant at some
point.
The effect of the humidity of the surrounding air
on the moisture movement in wood may be traced to a
great extent to its effect on the dryness of the outer
layers or shell of the wood.
-21-
In other words, if the
shell moisture content could be maintained through a
range of different temperatures, other things being
equal, the results obtained in drying time or moisture
movement could be attributed to the temperature alone.
However, this disregards the holding capacity of air for
moisture.
This increases with the temperature and the
adjustment of humidity for shell moisture content does
not adjust the increasing differences in moisture holding capacities at higher temperatures.
The United States
orest Products Laboratory made
some extensive tests to determine at what point, express-
ed in
moisture content, there would be no further loss
of moisture from wood when exposed for an indefinite
time to a certain combination of temperature and humidity.
This is called the equilibrium moisture content
for this temperature and humidity.
These tests were
made over a wide range of theoe combinations, and the
results
rer published in the form of curves for the dif-
ferent temperatures.
Jith the permission of the investi-
gators, the Lloore Dry Liln Company used the data to pre-
pare the chart which is here included.
This chart sim-
plifies the determination of the equilibrium moisture content.
Reading the temperature on the horizontal and the
humidity on the vertical axes, the desired moisture content is read from the oblique line which is cat at the
junction of the certain temperature and humidity.
-22-
When drying at any temperature and humidity, the
very outermost layers of the wood will readily drop to
the moisture content which is in eqailibrium with that
temperature a
humidity.
Choosing am arbitrary mois-
ture content for the shell to be maintained throughout
the experiments, the humidity needed at each temperature to obtain this shell moisture content was read
from the Lioore Chart.
The moisture content chosen was
11% in order not to reduce the surface moisture content
to a point which would be likely
o cut off capillarity.
Thus, at 190 degrees Fahrenheit the humidity maintained
was 78
and at l5 deurees, 70.
Tue circutation of air ;nrough tue load was
constant for all the scaeaules.
was a
ept
The circulation rate
roximately 200 lineal feet per minute through
the load.
0PhIii1I0N DTJhIhG flIb hLJL
The procedure after the loadint and starting of the
kiln charge varied somewhat in different instances.
With the nigner temperatures and ilurlioit-ies it was found
to be oi advantage to let tue macer and ailn neat for
awhile before starting the fans.
This, o± course had
some effect on the rate of dring, bat tue moisture contents, which this condition affected, were outside
the limits chosen for the final comparison of results.
La
'3
'3
20
-
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rn'
os'r
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DEGRI(S r.w-ttcr
----.,.--
rHERMOM( rER /
-__-
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MOORE
L)RY
T1PER'1L4'E
KR N
COMPAN'
NON H
RON TI AND OREGON
fl/H OR DRY- 8,J 8 f/11R4IO,llT(R IN IJMGREES /QIfl/HEIT
______T: ijj1'"'.
__jJiiiiL
-___ _ _
----a.u___
r(MpcA',qr1g( c-
In most cases no difficulty vjas encountered in building
up the temperature and humidity to Lhe desired points.
As stated before, the loads were weighed as origi-
nally pat into the him.
This weighing was repeated at
interals throughout each schedule.
At the beginning of
the run when moisture loss was raiid, visits for inspecion were made every two to four hours.
between visits was lengthened.
Later the time
When weighing, both the
weight and the time were recorded.
During these visits a routine inspection of instruments was made.
Both wet and dry bulb temperatures on
the controller were cheched with those scheduled.
The
recording instrument temperature was read, and the diffore nec between. it and the dry bulb on the controller
noted.
Added inspection of fan motor, compressor, boil-
er, etc., was made and in some cases averted accidents.
At some period in each schedule, the loss of weight
of the lunber had slowed, down to such an extent as to
announce a condition of moisture content equilibrium in
most of the lumber.
Such further loss as did appear
could be traced to certain mieces in the load which for
some reason, such as greater density, had lagged in the
drying process.
At this point the ziln was opened tem-
porarily and sampled for the average moisture content
of the lumber.
In sampling, an effort was made to secure samples
-25-
Some were taken from
from different parts of the load.
the center, riRht, and left sides at different heights
load.
in tt
The number taken varied from eight to
eleven.
Each board ssmpled was pulled from the load and two
feet out from one end.
The doors were closed as quickly
as possible, and. the 2-foot sections taken to the band
saw in the operating room.
At a point some three or
four inches back from the freshly cut end of each piece,
a thin wafer (from
versely.
to
inch thick) was cat trans-
After each wafer was cut, it was quickly
weighed and its weight recorded.
Then followed a dry-
ing period in the oven till repeated weighings showed
no more loss of weight.
is
.
The weight of each wafer. then
the weight of the wood substance alone, and the per
cent of water originally contained was calculated, using
the following formula:
100 (Original weight - Oven-dry weight)
weight = Moisture content in
_.
Oven-dry
of Oven-dry weight.
The average moisture content of the load was calculated from these samoles, and if it was the desired 1l
the kiln was shut off.
If the lumber had not yet reached
that point, the drying was continued and samples taken
again before shutting the kiln off.
During these experiments the recording and controll-26-
Ing instraments were calibrated at the variou.s temperature ranges. Their readings were checked with those of
a Uqu.id in glass thermometer having a United States
Bareau. of Standards certificate.
-27-
EXPERILIhITAL
ihSULTS
PREPARATION OP DATA
The data taken during these experimental runs and
used in the calculation of each drying curve were: the
ago in hours o± the run each time the lumber was weighed
and tae weight of tne lumber at that age. Por most of
the runs there were over twenty of these readings o
and weight.
Having determined the final moisture content of
each run by
sampling, the moisture contents of the lum-
ber at different periods during the schedule were cubalated. The moisture content is measured in per cent of
the woight of the wood substance or oven-dry weight.
Thus, at the end of the ran at an equilibrium moisture
content of ll, the lumber weighed liiç of the weight of
the wood substance, and at a place of x moisture content it weighed (100%
%) of the wood substance.
Having the final moisture content and the weignts of
the load at different eriods, the oisture content
in per cent was calcalaeci at each mriod, using the
following formula:
111% : (100 + x%)
:: final weight : weight at x%
Simplifying and solving for :;
-
111 (weiht at x%
100
final weiht
Using age in hours as the abscissas and moisture
content in per cent of oven-dry weight as the ordinates,
points were plotted on coordinate paper and a curve
drawn through them.
These curves are the graphic ac-
counts of the loss of moisturu from each of the charges
run during the exieriment.
IjL)I Ii.hiL
ui
In the course of this study eir2hteen kiln charges
were run.
Of these eighteen, thirteda were used as
reliable data, the others being discarded for various
reasons told below.
The drying curves of those thir-
teen and short accounts of all the runs are given below.
RUN IIO. 1
Started October 16, 1931
Pinished October 19, 1931
Drying time--74 hours
Initial moisture content -- 57%
Pinal moisture content -- 14%
-29-
Schedule:
135 degrees F., 75% humidity -- 44 hours
135
,
44%
U
--
24
Ti
The load was steamed four hours at the beginnin and two hours at the end of the run at 150 d.egrees
and i00% humidity. This schedule was run as a practice
Remarks:
or test schedule.
ITJN NO. 2
Started October 24, 1931
Finished October 27, 1931
Drying time -- 76 hours
Initial moisture content -- 69%
Final moisture content -- 9%
Schedule: 145 degrees F., .70% humidity -- 18 hours
-- 22-i145
50%
TI
TI
TI
Ti
145
IT
TI
Ti
145
IT
TI
IT
TI
IT
145
The load was given an initial steaming of
3- hours and a final steaming of 2 hours at 150 degrees
an for the same purpose as above.
and 100% humidity.
Remarks:
)TTTT
'Tfl
1TJ.
'
'
Started November 5, 1931
Finished Noverber 9, 1931
Drying time -- 94 hours
-3C) -
Initial moisture content -- 56%
Final moisture content -- ll
Schedule: 135 degrees F., 70 humidity during the entire schedule.
Reirks: This was the first run, used in the study. Constant temperature and. humidity were maintained till the
1umer reached an equilibrium moisture content. For
carve see page z2.
I10. 4
Started iovember 20, 1931
Finished Iovember 23, 1931
Drying time -- 64 hours
Initial moisture content -- 23.4%
Final moisture content -- 9%
Schedule: 150 degrees F., 70% humidity for 17 hours
160
IT
IT
170
IT
TI
170
TI
IT
53%
30 ç;
U
IT
IT
"
IT
TT
12
Q.L
IT
IT
This charge conistd of' about eight thousand
feet of one by four inch, vertical grain 1uier which
was already partially air-dried. It was run for the
convenience of the Corvallis Lumber Company. iot used
in ixiis study.
Remarks:
I
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Started December 4, 1931
Finished December 7, 1551
Drying time -- 69 hours
Initial moisture content -- 59%
Final moisture uouient -- 11%
Schedule:
160 degrees
.,
75% hamiditi for the entire
ran
Remarks:
b'ina1 steaming treatment was given this load.
Considerable warping was noted, bat it was duo more to
the character of the lumber than to the severity of the
run.
See page 34.
RU
NO. 6
Started December 12, 1931
Finished December 15, 1931
Drying time -- 61 hours
Initial moisture content -- 56%
Final moisture content
11%
Schedule:
180 degrees i?.,
77% humidity for the entire
run
Remarks:
This run was started at 190 degrees and 78%
humidity, but this point could not be reached and the
temperature and humidity were
and. 77 %.
drojed
to 180 degrees
The kiln boiler shut off for three hours in
the morning, but the drying carve seems to give no
r, r?
-
;-ft
I.
1
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an..a.flfl..
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III
indication of the lost time
See page 55.
RUI NO. 7
Started December 17, 1931
Finished December 20, 1931
Drying t:ime -- 69 hours
Initial moisture content -- 74
Final moisture content -- 10.5%
Schedule: 170 degrees ., 76% humidity for the entire
run
The college steam was turned off at two different times for about half an hoar. o apparent ill
Remarks:
effects resulted. See page 37.
y-rr
.tu1
Tj
Started January 12, 1932
Finished January 15, 1932
Drying time -- 70 iours
Initial moisture content -- 67%
Final moisture content -- 11%
Schedu.lo; 1b degrees ., 72% humidity for the entire
run
Remarks:
See page 38.
-3&-
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1.tJN NO. 9
Started January 26, 1932
Finished January 29, 1952
Drying time -- 57 hours
Initial moisture content -- 60
Fiflal moisture content -- l0.5
Schedule:
180 degrees F., 77% humidity for the entire
ran
Renrks:
Some difficulty was encountered in getting
the humidity up to the desired point.
The first ten
hours of the drying curve could be considered unreliable data.
See page 35.
RUN ]0. 10
Started February 4, 1932
Finished February 7, 132
Drying time -- 63 hours
Initial moisture content -- 53.5%
Final moisture content -- 1
Schedule:
170 degrees F., 76% humidity for the entire
run
Remarks:
See page 37.
RUN NO. 11
Started February 10, 1932
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a......
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Finished February 13, 1932
Drying ti -- 71 hours
Initial moisture content -- 60.3%
Final moisture content -- 10.6%
Schedule: 177 degrees F., 77% humidity for the entire
ran
Some time vuas lost in reaching the right ternperature and humidity. The first eight hours of the
drying curve were subject to conditions other than those
Remarks:
schedulede
See page 40.
RUN NO. 12
Started February 24, 1
Fiiished Febru.ar 27, 1932
Drying time -- 68 hours
Initial moisture content -Final moisture content -Schedule:
55.5%
180 degrees F., 77% humidity for the entire
r tin
The first eight hours of the drying curve are
unreliable as the hwnidity was not up to the proper
point. See page 42.
Rernars:
RUN NO. 13
Started March 2, 1932
Finished March 4, 1932
-41-
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Drying tine -- '72 hours
Initial moisture content -- oi%
Pia1 moisture content -- 11%
Schedule: 185 degrees F., 78% humidity for the entire
ran
The humidity was not up to 78% for 12 hours.
The drying curve on page 43 is not reliable data down
to 32% moisture content.
Remarks:
RUI'T 1W. 14
Started March 10, 1932
Finished March 13, 1932
Drying time -- 72 hours
Initial moisture content -- 58%
Final moisture content -- 10.7%
Schedule: 185 degrees F., 78% humidity for the entire
ran
The first eight hours of the schedule were
taken in reaching the proter temperature arid humidity.
See page 47
Remarks:
UE 1W. 15
Started March 15, 1932
Finished March 18, 1952
Drying time -- 60 hours
Initial moisture content -- 53%
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U
U
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U
U
U
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I'inal moisture content -- 10%
Sohedu.le:
190 degrees Ii'., 78% humidity for the entire
run
Rerw.rke:
The fans were not turned on till the tempera-
ture and humidity had
took nine hours.
reached
the desired points.
The curve on page 4
Tills
is drawn from the
time the fans were turned on.
RUN NO. 16
Started March 30, 1932
Finished April 3, 1932
Drying time -- 88-b hours
Initial moisture content -- 42%
Final moisture content -- 12.6%
Schedule:
'., 76% bwnidity for the entire
170 degrees
run
Rerks:
This charge was
discarded
from the experi-
mental data due to the fact that about 200 feet of 1-
by 12 inch vertical grain lumber was included in the
load and was responsible for the
time.
RUI NO. 17
Started April 6, 19o2
Finished April 9, 1932
Drying time -- 75 hours
-46-.
increase in drying
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Initial moisture content -- ll
Schedule:
170 degrees F., 76% humidity for the entire
run
Remarks:
ture
The fans were turned on after proper tempera-
and. humidity were reached.
See page 47.
RUI NO. 18
Started April 12, 1932
Finished April 15, 1932
Drying time -- 78 hours
Initial moisture content -- 54%
Final moisture content -- 13%
Schedule:
170 degrees
76% humidity for the entire
run
Remark:
This run was discarded from the data due to
the failure to reach the
tent.
aiproximate 11%
moisture con-
Readings of controlling and recording thermom-
eters showed a oonditiou of error in one or the other.
-48-.
C 0 II P A R I S 0 N S
Because of the variation of initial moisture con-
tents, the drying curves and total drying times repro8eflted could not be accurately compared.
AlSO, for the
reason that in most cases scheduled conditions did not
exist immediately
at the begirming of the runs, a mois-
ture content was chosen which would be found in the drying carvos somewhere
below
the initial moisture content.
This procedure also made sure that transfusion had began
before results wore ta:en for comparisons.
content of 50% was not low enough in a few
The moisture
cases to
bring the succeeding parts of the carve into scheduled
conditions, but it was thought advisable to use that
moisture content rather than a lower one.
It was further decided that for greater accuracy
in comparisons the drying curves should be divided into
two parts, the first being from the 50% moisture content,
chosen as above,
to
Douglas fir, is about 25%
ing part of the
saturation point which, in
moisture content. The remain-
the fibre
carves from 25%
moisture content to 11%
was considered separately.
Below is given a comparison of the drying carves of
this experimont in the time in hours read on these
curves between the moisture contents of so% and 25%.
-4 -
ach run or charge is listed separately, and the average
time for each temperature is given in the column on the
extreme right.
DRYING TILLS PR0II 50% TO 25% IIOISTURE CONTENT
Below is given a list of the different runs with
their drying times for the tipper parts of their drying
carve; listed separately and averaged for each temperature.
Temperature
Time in Hours
Humidity
From 50% to 25% 11.0.
Average
20
190° P.
78%
20
185° F.
78%
22
I'
19
77%
25
IT
26
T
II
180° P.
IT
I'
TT
IT
177° F.
170° F.
20.5
24
25
77%
24
24
76%
26
II
11
22
IT
IT
26
24.6
160° P.
75%
22
22
145° F.
135° F.
72%
22
22
70%
28
28
II
-50-
with which to work, the
Having only thirteen ru.0
more elaborate statistical methods of correlation would
be of little value and the '1scatter" diagram herein ineluded may even be misleading.
CORRELATIOR OR "SCATTER" DIAGRAIVI
Time in Hours from 50% to 25% M. C.
Temperatures
in degrees ?.
19
190
185
20
21
22
23
24
26
27
28
1
1
1
180
1
175
1
170
25
1
2
165
160
1
155
150
145
1
140
135
However, if further schedules should conform to the
frequencies noted in the tnirteen already taken, some
slight correlation might be indicated between temperature
and drying time between so% and 25% moisture contents.
In the diagram the only indication of correlation is the
-51-
grouping of short drying periods in the high temperature
corner of the rectangle.
This grouping suggests a line
drawn diagonally from the upper left to the lower right
hand corners or a correlation of high temperatures with
short drying periods.
In opposition to this possible
correlation is the fact that the drying time of 22 hours
occurs at four different temperatures, ranging from low
to high.
This indicates no correlation between tempera-
ture and drying time between 50% and 25% moisture content
and only further experirnent
will determine wnich trend
will be followed.
DRYIIG T ILtS BiTVViiJE 25% LED 11% I0 IS TUiI C 0NTL.NT
In comparing the curves from 25% to 11% moisture
content, the same difficulty of an insufficient number
of samples was encountered.
A list, similar to that on
page 50, of drying times for this range of moisture contents is included.
The diagram on page 54 shows the
average time for each temperature plotted and an attempt
at an average line drawn through these points.
This
curve shows a flattening off between 170 and,lb0 degrees
and a slight rise at l)0 degrees.
The majority of these
runs were made at around 170 and 180 degrees, and the
points representing the average time for these temperatures are more accurately placed than ttie point for the
-52-
190 degree schedule, at which temperature only one run
was made and. wnich is
responsible or an upward
tilt
In the average curve.
LIST OF DRYING TIiLtS i'ROki 25% TO 11
Temperature
M0ISTURi2 OOIITEIT
Time in
Humidity
Hours
From 25% to 11% 1.O.
i90° F.
78%
1850
78%
TI
P.
II
IT
180° P.
Average
34
34
37
35
77%
fl
¶T
TI
32
I!
IT
TI
25
31
37
1770
p
77
37
170
F.
76
32
26
Ii
II
IT
H
TI
IT
JJ.
1600 F.
75%
40
40
145
F.
72%
39
39
135
F.
70%
62
62
The minimum average time from 25
to ii% mois-
tare content is found at 170 degrees. The average
tIn at 180
degrees is
but
.7
of' an hoar longer.
This, in itself, is too small a difference to be of
an average of three runs, but, by going
including all those runs over 170 degrees,
Importance as
further and.
70
60
.
ci
0
40
a
.
a
a
30
20
130
140
10
160
170
a
.
180
190
200
Temperature in Degrees Fahrenheit
DIAGRAM:
AVHRAGA DRY I1G TI1iES i?OR DI
'P!IIT
PROM 25% TO 11% IJOISTURA C0NTJT PLOTTiD ADD AD AVERAGE
CURVi DRAWD.
the average time mounts to 3.4 hours or an increase
of 3.1 hours over the average at
10 degrees.
Here again we have a difference. in
which is of slight
importance in
drying time
commercial practice,
but the trends are more easily followed than in the
upper parts of
the drying carves and these trends are
important due to the conclusions
-54-
which may be drawn,
DISCUSSIOI
FIBRE
SATURETIOI
POIiT
In dividing the drying carves into two parts, one
above and one below the average moisture content of 25%,
It was the idea of the writer to have the parts differThis characteristic was the
Ing in one characteristic.
presence of free water in the cell cavities of the wood
being dried.
Vhile 25% moisture content is the accept-
ed fibre saturation point for Douglas fir, the
fallacy
of thinking that at an average moisture content of 25%
In a board all the free water is gone from the cell cavities is evident.
If the structure of wood were strictly homogeneous
and if drying took place without the presence of a rnoistu:re gradient, that is, if there were no difference between the moisture contents of the shell and. core, accur-
ate determination of the moisture content at which no
free water existed would be possible.
Douglas fir is one
The 25% value for
which mast exist uniformly to hold
true, to the definition and must not be the average of
an 18% shell and a
Thus, one
2% core.
has no means of telling just where on the
drying curves the free water no longer exists in the
cil cavities of the wood.
Tests for moisture gradients,
-55-
if exhaustive enough, might disclose this point, and. it
may be approximated by a study of the drying curves
themselves.
Theoretically, the drying process slows up
at the fibre saturation point.
flattening or brea1
The point at which the
in the drying curves begins should
indicate the approximate point of the disappearance of
free water.
Studying the curves included it can be seen
that this break does not come at 25% moisture content,
bat much lower on the carve and varies greatly among
the runs.
It cannot be claimed that the curves were
divided on each side of the fibre saturation point,
therefore, but rilerely at 25% moisture content.
CIRCULATIOI
AID
TELaDERATURE
It has been fairly well established that the rates
of drying wood, down to the fibre saturation point, is a
function of the circulation within certain limits.
This
is because a more rapid circulation will bring heat more
quickly to the lumber to replace heat lost through evaporation of water arid also will remove the moisture-laden
air from the surface of the wood, allowing a more rapid
transfusion of water from the interior of the wood.
Also, authorities on the drying of wood agree that
an increase in the temperature will result in an increase
in the drying rate.
Prom the included table of water-
-56-
holding capacities of air in grains per cubic foot at different temperatures and iumidities, It is found that air
at 190 degrees and 78 per cent humidity has a little more
than twice the capacity for moisture than that at 160
degrees and 72 per cent humidity.
With these figures
alone it would seem that the moisture loss at 190 degrees
and. 78 per cent humidity would be much faster than at
160 degrees and 72
r cent humidity.
The actual results
at these temperatures show a decrease in th-ying time of
only two hours or 9 per cent from the lower to the higher
temperature.
This would indicate that the air had suf-
ficient capacity at the lower temperature.
The argument arises that using one rate of circulation which was comparatively low a condition might exist
wherein the moisture-laden air was not removed rapidly
enough or enough keat conducted to the lumber at the
higher temperatures to allow them to dry at the proper
rate.
An anwer to this is the fact that the drop in
temperature across the load was more than eight
degrees
in only two instances even at the beginning of the
charges, and one which registered a temperature drop that
would tnalce the return air at 100 per cent humidity did
not suffer in drying time.
hours of every
run of
'or the first twenty-four
the higher temperatures the
vapor
and heating lines were using steam in large quantities to
-57-
?IZ
1q2
liz
5Z
4, 32
'z
*
V.,
.7z
Qi,
2e
7
_0
SO
40
Per'cern'cze oIL'a/ve
DIAG-RAi'1 SHOWING TEE
O
0
/0
0
ait 3%O/
FFiCT OII TEMRTUES ON CAPILLARITY
AND VISCOSITY O
WATJR
su.pply heat lost in evaporation of water to keep the
humidity at the proper point.
Viewing these resalts as fairly as possible the eon-
clu.sion appears that for these rims, at least, the
movement of moistare within the wood. rather than the
-58-
rate of evaporation from the surface was the
limiting
factor in the drying rate, and that temperature had
little effect on this rate.
Considering the comparison of drying curves below
the 25% moisture
content, the results are more marked
than those above.
At the lower temperatures
considerably longer, and, as
drying time
grees.
seems to appear
the
time is
has been shown, a minimam
at between 170 and 180 do-
CAPILLARITY
VISCOSITY
AID
the
xamining the diagram of
effect of temperature
on capillarity and viscosity on page 58,
it is noted
point between 170 and 180 degrees the
between viscosity and capillarity curves is the
that at a
distance
greatest.
Both capillarity and viscosity decrease with an increase
in temperature but
not
at the same rate.
explained, a decrease in viscosity aids,
as has been
while a
in capillarity hinders moisture movement.
ference in
the space between
these
temperaturescorresponds to the
and a negative
po
pressure
force.
resultant of a positive
Leaving the third factor of Va-
it is reasonable to ezpect greater
at 52
Thus, the dif-
cur-yes at different
out of tho discussion for
112 degrees than
decrease
the
time being,
moisture movement at
degrees and further, duo
to the
ehape of the curves, more at 172 degrees than at 192 do-59-
grees.
The fact that drying times from 25% to 11% moisture
content were lower
around 170 degrees has been mentioned
and. seems to 'bear oat the theory of a maximum resultant
of capillarity and viscosity mentioned above.
The posi-
tion of this maximum resultant is responsible for the
greater number of runs in the vicinity of 170 and 180 dgrees, which were made in an effort to let any tendency
become evident.
VAPOR PRESSURE
Bringing in the part which vapor pressure plays in
moisture movement is fraught with dangers of misinterpretation of facts.
Results from these experiments would
eaggest that vapor pressure has little effect either
above or below the fibre saturation point on drying time.
While the wood contains free water in the cell
Ca-
vities at the core, the temperature gradient in the
piece will range from
the temperature of
sholl to the temperature of
at the core.
the
the air at the
dewpoint or "wet" bulb
The lower temperature
of
the core is due
to the loss of heat used in evaporating the water in the
outer layers.
Thus, the vapor pressure
at
the shell
will be the vapor pressure of the air in the kiln at the
humidity maintained, and the vapor pressure
-60-
at the
core
will theoretically be that of air at i00% humidity and
the temperature of the "wet" bulb.
can be formulated from vapor
The following table
ressures of saturated
vapors at different temperatures.
Temperature in
At shell
At core
.
Vapor pressures in cm. of Hg.
At shell
1700
159°
22.9
180°
l69
29.6
190°
179°
ô6.5
At core
23.9
Difference
1.0
0.6
7.9
1.4
Considering the largest difference between shell
and core vapor pressures, we find, a gradient or differ-
ential of 1.8% of an atmosphere of pressure at 1900 favoring the movement 0± moisture from the core to the
shell.
Whether this difference in pressure is of great
consequence is Questionable from the light of the figixres secured in these experiments.
Below the point at which free water is present in
the cell cavities, the temperature of the core approaches
that of the shell until theoretically, when the wood is
completely dry or drying has ceased at a uniform moisture
content of shell and core, the two will be identical.
Thus, with a uniform moisture content of shell and core
and. a uniform temperature tnrougkiout
,
no differential
in vapor pressures would exist between shell and core.
With the saturation deficit expressed as the number
-61-
6
5
L
90
io
170
210
250
290
53O
TENPERITURE 1W DEGREES F
DIAGRA1I SHOWIiG THui VA?OR PRSSURB 0]? WATiR AT DIRiNT
of additional grains of moisture per cubic foot needed to
saturate the air at any certain humidity and temperature,
the following table was prepared, showing the difference
between the saturation deficits daring the conditions
intained for four runs of the range covered by this
-62--
experiment.
Ternp-
]o. of
io. of
Saturation deficit
eratare
grains
grains
in
pr cubic
per cubic
grains per cubic foot
foot at
foot at
required to saturate
100% humid-
humidity
the air at the humid-
ity.
maintained.
ity maintained.
0F.
145
4
IO.
of additional
72%.)
17
160
90
70 (m%,
20
170
115
88 (76%)
27
190
173
137 (78%)
36
.ibove the point of 25% average moisture content
this difference in saturation deficit seems to have only
the slightest, if any, effect on the drying time.
Below
that point the drying time could not have been limited
by the saturation deficit, if it had no effect previous
ly, for the reason that eva oration from the surface is
eo much slower that the moisture-holding capacity of
the air would inhibit it only in cases of extremely
small saturation deficits.
-65-
Relative
Humidity
in %
Temperature in degrees Fahrenheit
90
100
110
120
140
130
150
160
10-
1.7
2.3
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.6
8.4
11.0
20-
.3
4.4
5.7
7.5
10.0
12.5
15.5
20.0
4.8
6.
8.b
11.0
14.
18.0
21.0
29.0
40-
6.2
8.5
11.0
14.5
10.7
24.0
O.0
8.0
DO-
7.8
l0..
lo.9 18.0
9.5
0.0
48.0
60-
9.3
12.2
16.2
21.0
27.5
35.0
45.0
57.0
70-
10.6
14.2
18.6
24.3
32.0
41.0
53.0
66.0
lb.0
1.0
6.0
47.0
o0.0
74.0
8090-
13.5
18.0
23.5
31.0
41.0
52.0
65.0
82.0
100-
15.0
20.0
26.0
o4.O
45.0
58.0
72.0
90.0
170
180
190
200
210
220
10-
13.2
16.8
20.
24.
30.
35.
TABLE SH0tNIIG
20-
24.5
31.
38.
47.
56.
79.
T11Ji CPA0ITY.
30-
37.
45.
56.
68.
80. 100.
40
49,
60.
73.
8°. 110. lSOe
II0ISTURE IU
50-
60.
74.
90.
111. 15. ibO.
GRAINS PJR
60-
71.
87.
108.
132. 160. 190.
CUBIC FOOT
70-
82.
102.
124.
150.
182.
DIPFBRUIJT
80-
92.
115.
140.
170.
205. 250.
90-
104.
128.
155.
190. 230. 275.
100-
115.
142.
173.
212. 255. 300.
-64-
220.
OP
IR FOR
TiMPERTURRS
UD HUIdID-
ITIiS.
T
C 0 1
C L U S I 0 U S
The data secured in this study indicate several conclasions.
First, under the conditions of equal circula-
tiori. and. moisture content of the shell held. in the exper-
iments, the effect of temperature on the rate of drying of
wood from 5O
to 25
moisture content is not recogniz-
able from drying times obtained. at the different temperatures.
Second, there appears to be an optimum point for
the movement o
of 25
and. ll
moisture between the moisture contents
at between 170 and 180 degrees Fahrenheit.
The position of this optimum point coincides with the
position of the greatest resultant of capillarity and.
viscosity as read from the diapram on page 58.
Third,
the factor of vapor pressure in the movement of moisture
in wood appears to be of little or no consequence in
these experiments.
It must be added. that these experi-
ments were conducted. at temperatures between 15 and 190
degrees Fahrenheit.
At higher temperatures this third
conclusion might not hold true.
These conclusions cannot be announced. as definite
without further study because of the heterogeneous nature
of the material used., the lack of sufficient data, and
because of the inaccuracies which result from a new an
untried experimental technique.
-65-
B I B L I 0 G R A P II Y
Badger, Walter L. and McCabe, Varren L., Elements of
Chemical Engineering, first edition, 1931
Fowle, Frederick B., Smithsonian Physical Tables, second
reprint of the 7th revised edition, 1923
Hawley, L. F., Wood Liquid e1ations, United States Do-
partment of Agriculture, Technical Bulletin No. 248
Ioeh1er, Arthur and Thelen, Roif, The Kiln Drying of
Lumber, first edition, 1926
-66-