Research Journal of Applied Sciences, Engineering and Technology 9(12): 1119-1127, 2015
ISSN: 2040-7459; e-ISSN: 2040-7467
© Maxwell Scientific Organization, 2015
Submitted: November 19, 2014
Accepted: January 23, 2015
Published: April 25, 2015
Utilization of Rice Husk Ash for Sustainable Construction: A Review
1
1
M.N.N. Khan, 1M. Jamil, 2M.R. Karim, 1M.F.M. Zain and 1A.B.M.A Kaish
Sustainable Construction Materials and Building Systems (SUCOMBS) Research Group,
Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia,
43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Dhaka University of Engineering and Technology (DUET), Gazipur, Bangladesh
Abstract: Applications of Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCM) in construction industry are getting
priority due to environmental friendly behavior as well as enhanced mechanical and durability properties.
Considering the characteristics of SCM, properly burnt and ground Rice Husk Ash (RHA) has significant potential
on account of rich reactive silica (SiO2) compound. When RHA is applied in cementitious system it improves the
systems properties by two fold of effects; chemical or pozzlanic effect and physical or filler effect. The reactive
silica compound present in RHA reacts with cement hydration products calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2) and formed
secondary C-S-H gel, which is counted as chemical or pozzolanic activity of RHA. The physical or filler effect of
RHA is denoted as the proper distribution of finer RHA particles into the cementitious system. This study reviews
the advantageous use of RHA for sustainable construction. The aim of this study is to promote the idea of using
RHA by elaborating upon their various production processes, different properties, pozzolanic activity and its
contribution to the cementitious system.
Keywords: Contribution of RHA, fineness, reactive silica, secondary C-S-H gel, supplementary cementitious
materials
INTRODUCTION
Utilization of cement in the production of concrete
is popular all over the world. However, production of
cement is not only high energy intensive but also emits
greenhouse gases (Mehta, 1999). As a result,
construction industry is reaching its limiting value in
terms of sustainability. Researchers are exploring
alternative sources of cementitious materials for future
construction considering sustainability. Some industrial
by products (fly ash, slag, silica fume) and agricultural
wastes (rice husk ash, palm oil fuel ash, sugarcane
baggase ash) are produced every day. These materials
are associated with cementitious properties. These
cementitious materials are named as pozzolans. Rice
Husk Ash (RHA) is one of the popular pozzolan.
Generally, rice milling industry generates huge amount
of rice husk during milling of paddy every year.
However, popular use of this husk either used as fuel in
the rice mills to produce steam during parboiling
process or land filling which causes pollution (Mehta,
1977). On the other hand, RHA contains high amount
of silica compound and it is almost 80-85% (Siddique,
2008). Usually, silica presents in RHA in two particular
forms: amorphous silica which is chemically active,
crystalline silica which is chemically inactive (Della
et al., 2002). The amorphous form of the silica is the
key of pozzolanic activity of RHA. The formation of
amorphous silica depends on temperature and duration
of burning (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007; Zain et al.,
2011). Only properly burnt and ground RHA is
favorable for use as a pozzolanic material because it
contains high amount of amorphous silica
(Chindaprasirt and Rukzon, 2008). Its fineness and
reactivity is significantly improved after proper
grinding (Zain et al., 2011). Higher fineness and
specific surface area important property of RHA to
increase pozzolanic and filler activity (Karim et al.,
2014; Shukla et al., 2011; Raman et al., 2011;
Muthadhi and Kothandaraman, 2010; El-Dakroury and
Gasser, 2008; Giaccio et al., 2007). Thus, utilization of
RHA (an agricultural waste material) in concrete
production is very much helpful to reach the goal of the
sustainable construction (Serniabat et al., 2014).
Extensive research has been carried out by the past
researchers using RHA as partial replacement of
cement. This study illustrates a brief description on
various production processes of RHA, favorable
conditions for producing reactive RHA, properties of
RHA, pozzolanic activity of RHA and its contribution
in concrete and mortar.
Corresponding Author: M.N.N. Khan, Sustainable Construction Materials and Building Systems (SUCOMBS) Research
Group, Faculty of Engineering and Built Environment, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM
Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia, Tel.: (+6011) 39983961; Fax: (+603) 8911 8315
1119
Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 9(12): 1119-1127, 2015
PRODUCTION OF RHA
Various incineration processes were followed by
the past researchers for the incineration of raw rice husk
to produce RHA and reported in various literatures.
Incineration processes of RHA are briefly discussed in
the following sections.
Earlier, Loo et al. (1984) designed a ferrocement
furnace in order to produce RHA. The authors reported
that, at first raw rice husk was kept in the incineration
furnace for burning and after incineration then it was
allowed to cool for 24 h. Finally, they improved the
fineness of cool incinerated ash using Los Angeles
grinding machine. Because, grinding performance of
Los Angeles machine incorporated with 40 mild steel
rods of 10 mm diameter and 500 mm in length placed
in the rotating drum is better than the conventional ball
mills (Zain et al., 2011; Raman et al., 2011).
Nehdi et al. (2003) introduced another technology
for the combustion of rice husk using fluidized beds
which based on a different technique Torbed reactor as
presented in Fig. 1. The Torbed reactor can operatewith
gas velocities of 3-12 m/sec. The advantages of this
RHA production technology are able to produce smaller
RHA particles, more economic and easy to maintain
temperature. Torbed reactor initially produced coarser
RHA particles, ranges 44-46 μm. After that, this
particle size can be reduced to 7 μm using a vibratory
ring pulverizer. The authors reported that pozzolanic
RHA has very low carbon content and can be obtained
at combustion temperatures between 750 and 850°C
using this technology.
Habeeb and Mahmud (2010) designed a rice husk
incineration furnace having a capacity of 60 kg of raw
rice husks as presented in Fig. 2. It has three small
openings for ventilation. The design concept of this
furnace is almost similar to Loo et al. (1984). The
authors reported that to produce reactive RHA using
this furnace, the burning temperature of rice husk
should not exceed 690°C and particle sizes of RHA
should less than 11.5 μm for a grinding time 360 min.
Ramezanianpour et al. (2009) commenced another
type of furnace in order to produce RHA. The detail of
furnace reported by the author is shown in Fig. 3. This
furnace is capable to produce good quality of rice husk
ashes with various un-burnt carbon contents. Because,
temperature and rate of burning easily measurable in
this furnace. Burning temperature can be measured in
this furnace using thermocouples at the fire zone of air
inlet and outlet. The authors produced RHA at various
temperatures rate such as 550, 600, 650, 700 and 750°C
with duration of burning time 30, 60 and 90 min,
respectively. Finally, they suggested that RHA
produced at 650°C for 60 min can be considered to be
non-crystalline RHA and also save the RHA production
time.
Zain et al. (2011) developed a simple ferrocement
furnace located at Structural and Concrete Lab in
National University of Malaysia (UKM), Malaysia as
shown in Fig. 4. It has two parts: one is ferrocement
Fig. 1: Illustration of the cyclonic motion of rice husk
particles in a torbed reactor (Nehdi et al., 2003)
Fig. 2: The ferrocement furnace (Habeeb and Mahmud, 2010)
cylinder and another one is steel cylinder. The
dimensions of the ferrocement cylinder are 1030 mm
diameter, 1510 mm height and wall thickness is 60 mm.
The produced heat during combustion is trapped by the
ferrocement cylinder as well as preventing it from
spreading into the air. The steel cylinder has
dimensions of 760 mm diameter, 1090 mm height and
thickness is 5 mm which acts as a container for burning
of rice husk. In order to supply sufficient air during
combustion air ducts also designed, whose dimensions
are 100 mm diameter, 200 mm height and 100 mm
thickness. The combustion temperature can be
controlled by providing air through air ducts using
electric fans. The surfaces of the steel cylinder and air
ducts are porous with small holes of 5 mm diameter.
The authors suggested that furnace of UKM is able to
produce amorphous silica with the constant furnace
combustion temperature at 500-700°C for 2 h.
Although grinding for 30 min produced good result,
grinding for 60 min or more is recommended by the
authors for achieving standard fineness of RHA.
Van et al. (2013) furnished a modified incinerator
for the incineration of rice husk. The details of
incinerator as presented in Fig. 5. This incinerator can
produce about 20-25 kg of RHA within a burning
period of two days in a single batch. This incineration
process also able to produce RHA consists of high
1120 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 9(12): 1119-1127, 2015
Fig. 3: Schematic shape of rice husk ash furnace (Ramezanianpour et al., 2009)
Fig. 4: Furnace at UKM for burning rice husk (Zain et al., 2011)
amount amorphous silica content about 97.4%. In order
to produce active RHA, the authors ground RHA in a
batch ball mill with diameter of 270 mm, length of 400
mm and rotation speed of 67 rpm for different grinding
1121 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 9(12): 1119-1127, 2015
Fig. 5: Modified incinerator developed from the Sugita’s batch method
1: Drum; 2: Chimney; 3 and 4: Holes; 5: Adjusting door; 6: Steel frame (Van et al., 2013)
Table 1: Typical physical properties of RHA
Karim et al.
Parameters
(2014)
Specific gravity
2.05
Fineness passing through
96.70%
45-µm sieve (%)
Specific surface area
(N2 absorption) (m2/kg)
Shukla et al.
(2011)
2.06
96%
Raman et al.
(2011)
2.030
-
Muthadhi and
Kothandaraman (2010)
2.19
99.50%
El Dakroury and
Gasser (2008)
2.06
99%
Giaccio et al.
(2007)
2.06
-
-
23.455
-
38.90
28.80
Table 2: Typical chemical properties of RHA
Compounds
Silicon dioxide (SiO2 )
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Ferric oxide (Fe2O3)
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Magnesium oxide (MgO)
Sodium oxide (Na2O)
Potassium oxide (K2O)
Manganese oxide (MnO)
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
Loss on ignition (LOI)
Van et al. (2013)
87.40
0.40
0.30
0.90
0.60
0.04
3.39
0.40
4.60
Memon et al.
(2011)
77.190
6.190
3.650
2.880
1.455
1.815
0.135
5.429
periods. In each batch, the internal volume was partially
filled with 21 kg steel balls (7 kg of 12.5 mm, 8.4 kg of
22 mm and 5.6 kg of 28 mm diameter) and 1 kg RHA.
Form discussions related to production process of
RHA, it is noticed that temperature control and grinding
after burning process are the most significant to
produce highly reactive RHA. Only properly burnt and
ground RHA is suitable for the reactive amorphous
silica content. Higher burning temperature may produce
some crystalline formation of silica (Ismail and
Waliuddin, 1996). If RHA is produced with some
crystalline silica due to higher burning temperature,
then reactive RHA could be obtained by fine grinding
(Rodrigues et al., 2006). Most of the researchers
suggested to maintain temperature below 700°C during
Cordeiro et al.
(2011)
82.6
0.4
0.5
0.8
0.7
0.1
1.8
0.3
11.9
Zerbino et al.
(2011)
94.84
0.39
0.54
1.32
0.40
0.11
1.45
0.01
0.25
Gastaldini
et al. (2010)
90
0.28
0.14
0.45
0.28
0.08
1.55
0.02
5
incineration of rice husk. Madandoust et al. (2011) also
reported that silica content of the ash transforms into
non-crystalline or amorphous silica while rice husk is
burning between 550 and 700°C temperature for 1 h.
Therefore, it is clear that temperature ranges form 550650°C and using proper grinding media after
incineration of raw rice husk can produce higher
fineness and reactive silica content RHA.
PROPERTIES OF RHA
Typical physical and chemical properties of RHA
obtained from various literatures are presented in
Table 1 and 2. Generally, mean particle size of properly
ground RHA is less than cement particles. Particles size
1122 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 9(12): 1119-1127, 2015
of RHA normally ranges 5 to 10 µm. The ground RHA
particles indicate higher fineness, more than 95%
passing through 45 µ sieve. When RHA is applied in
cementitious system, it contributes to the hardened
properties of concrete or mortar by filling or
densification of microstructure due to higher fineness
(Khan et al., 2014a; Shukla et al., 2011; Raman et al.,
2011; El-Dakroury and Gasser, 2008). Higher specific
surface is another important property of RHA which
contributes in both pozzolanic and filler action (ElDakroury and Gasser, 2008; Giaccio et al., 2007).
Pozzolanic effect is governed by the pozzolanic
reaction of RHA. Pozzolanic reaction of RHA depends
on reactive amorphous silica compound that present in
properly burnt and ground RHA. When this amorphous
silica gets contact with hydration product of cement
then it produces secondary binder (Yu et al., 1999;
Feng et al., 2004; Jamil et al., 2013; Khan et al.,
2014b). Table 2 indicates that RHA contains high silica
compound and it varies 75-97%. The amount of active
silica present in RHA depends on proper burning and
grinding. Total percentage of major oxide (SiO2 + AlO2
+ Fe2O3) is over 70% which satisfies ASTM C618
standard for class F pozzolan. The lower loss on
ignition values of RHA indicates less amount of carbon
content, not more than 10%. Sometimes uncontrolled
burning produced crystalline silica which unable to
produce pozzolanic reaction, however this inactive
silica can take part in filler action. Therefore, mainly
reactive silica compound, large specific surface area
and higher fineness of RHA makes it suitable to use as
partial replacement of cement.
POZZOLANIC ACTIVITY OF RHA
RHA is a highly reactive pozzolanic material; it
contains non-crystalline silica and high specific surface
area that are accountable for its high pozzolanic
reactivity. The reactive non-crystalline or amorphous
silica present in RHA react with hydration product of
cement and produces an additional C-S-H gel (Yu
et al., 1999; Feng et al., 2004). As a result the quality of
RHA mixed concrete or mortar is improved
significantly. Usually, pozzolanic activity of RHA
depends on:



Presence of amorphous silica
Fineness of RHA particles
Its specific surface area (Zain et al., 2011; Shukla
et al., 2011; Raman et al., 2011)
The pozzolanic reaction can be satisfactorily
described by the Jander diffusion equation that is based
on Fick's parabolic law of diffusion (Cabrera and Rojas,
2001). The Jander equation for three dimensional
diffusion in a sphere is (1 - (1 - x) 1/3)2 = (D/r2) kt
where, x is the fraction of the sphere that has reacted, r
is initial radius of the starting sphere and k is the
diffusion constant.
Presently, Jamil et al. (2013) reported a theoretical
estimation for the maximum percentages replacement
of RHA based on pozzolanic reaction between RHA
and cement hydration product calcium hydroxide (Ca
(OH)2). The author mentioned that, anhydrous calcium
silicates (C3S and C2S) present in cement only involves
to produce Ca (OH)2.
The hydration of cement (C3S and C2S) follows the
equations (Metha and Monteiro, 2006):
2 (3CaO.SiO2) + 6 H2O→3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O
+ 3Ca (OH)2
2 (CaO.SiO2) + 4H2O→3CaO.2SiO2.3H2O + Ca
(OH)2
It is observed that hydration of cement (C3S and
C2S) produces calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2).
Based on chemical equilibrium, pozzolanic
reaction between silica and Ca (OH)2 in the presence of
water is as follows (Jamil et al., 2013; Yu et al., 1999):
2SiO2 + 3Ca (OH)2 + H2O→2Ca1.5 SiO3.5 2H2O
CONTRIBUTION OF RHA IN
CEMENTITIOUS SYSTEM
Concrete or mortar incorporating with RHA shows
higher strength and durability than concrete without
RHA. Strength of RHA blended concrete depends on
several factors such as curing period, water to cement
ratio, cement replacement level and quality of ash.
Early ages strength development of RHA blended
concrete is not significant while compared to the longer
ages curing. This may due to the formation of
secondary C-S-H gel at later ages that provides a
homogeneous and compacted microstructure. Water to
cement ratio also plays important role in the strength
development of RHA blended concrete. Gastaldini
et al. (2010) found the highest compressive strength for
20% RHA mixed concrete at water to cement ratio 0.35
while compared strengths for other water to cement
ratios. De Sensale (2006) reported that performance of
controlled incinerated RHA blended concrete much
better than residual RHA mixed concrete. According to
Habeeb and Mahmud (2010) study, strength of RHA
blended concrete increases with the increment of RHA
percentages. The author reported that available silica
from the addition of RHA reacted with that portion of
C-H released from the hydration process and thus, the
C-S-H released from the pozzolanic reaction. As a
result, greater portion of RHA may produce greater
amount of C-S-H. Saraswathy and Song (2007)
reported that up to 30% replacement level of RHA,
there is no decrease in compressive strength observed
when compared to control concrete after 7 to 28 days of
curing. According to Isaia et al. (2003) study, 20%
1123 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 9(12): 1119-1127, 2015
and control mortar is much significant at long term
ages.
The application of RHA in concrete brings the
following advantages:



Fig. 6: Evolution of compressive strength of concretes against
curing time (Cordeiro et al., 2009)

RHA mixed concrete showed higher strength than
control concrete at both 28 and 90 days curing period.
Figure 6 shows the compressive strength development
concrete containing various percentages of RHA which
is a finding of Cordeiro et al. (2009). It is seen that 20%
RHA concrete shows significant strength at all ages.
From above discussions, it is clear that strength of RHA
associated concrete increases up to 30% replacement of
cement. Mortar incorporating with RHA also shows
similar manner. Chindaprasirt et al. (2008) reported that
strength 40% RHA mixed concrete is higher than
control mortar after 90 days of curing. Ganesan et al.
(2008) concluded that, cement can be replaced up to
30% by RHA without any adverse effect on strength
and durability properties of mortar. Tensile strength of
RHA mixed concrete and mortar is also better than
control concrete as shown in Fig. 7 which is obtained
from Madandoust et al. (2011). However, early tensile
strength of RHA mixed concrete is not good enough
when it is compared to control concrete.
Therefore, cement can be replaced up to 30% by
RHA without effecting strength of concrete and mortar.
The difference of strength between RHA mixed mortar









Increases compressive strength (Saraswathy and
Song, 2007; Habeeb and Mahmud, 2010;
Gastaldini et al., 2010; Isaia et al., 2003), flexural
strength (Ismail and Waliuddin, 1996; Coutinho,
2003; Karim et al., 2013), split tensile strength of
concrete (Madandoust et al., 2011; De Sensale,
2006; Habeeb and Fayyadh, 2009)
Reduces cost (Memon et al., 2011)
Increases workability ((Habeeb and Fayyadh,
2009; Coutinho, 2003; Mahmud et al., 2004; Givi
et al., 2010)
Increases
resistance
to
chemical
attack
(Chindaprasirt et al., 2007; Chindaprasirt et al.,
2008)
Reduces effect of alkali-silica reactivity (Nicole
et al., 2000)
Reduces shrinkage packing or densification of
particles in concrete (Habeeb and Fayyadh, 2009)
Reduces heat gain through the walls of buildings
(Lertsatitthanakorn et al., 2009)
Reduces amount of super plasticizer (Sata et al.,
2007)
Reduces potential for efflorescence due to reduced
calcium hydroxide (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007)
Reduces permeability (Ganesan et al., 2008; Zhang
and Mohan, 1996; Jaya et al., 2011)
Improves consistency of OPC-RHA blended paste
environmental management as well as sustainable
with increasing amount of RHA percentage (Karim
et al., 2013; Singh et al., 2002)
Reduces material cost and emission of CO2 due to
less cement utilization (Chindaprasirt et al., 2007;
Memon et al., 2011)
Increases compressive strength and decreases leach
ability (El-Dakroury and Gasser, 2008)
Fig. 7: Development of tensile strength with age (Madandoust et al., 2011)
1124 Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol., 9(12): 1119-1127, 2015






Reduces the plasticity of soil (Basha et al., 2005)
RHA reduces porosity of concrete (Chindaprasirt
and Rukzon, 2008, 2009; Zhang et al., 1996)
Electrical resistivity (Gastaldini et al., 2009) and
ultrasonic pulse velocity of concrete increased
(Safiuddin et al., 2010) and reduced corrosion
(Saraswathy and Song, 2007; Tuan et al., 2011)
Decreased air permeability (De Sensale, 2006)
RHA mixed concrete showed better bond strength
as compared to normal concrete (Saraswathy and
Song, 2007; Sakr, 2006)
Produced self-compacting concrete and ultra-high
performance concrete (Memon et al., 2011; Tuan
et al., 2011)
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This literature review deals with the production
procedure of RHA as well as its effect on concrete and
mortar properties. It is noticed that in order to get
desired properties RHA, controlled burning and well
grinding are essential. It is difficult to get all ash in
reactive form of amorphous silica since some of ash
converted to crystalline form. Incorporating incinerated
rice husk ash has a significant effect on the properties
of concrete or mortar. Compressive strength of mortar
and concrete increased when cement is partially
replaced by RHA. This is due to reactive amorphous
silica content that contains in RHA. This active silica
reacts with hydration product of cement and produced
secondary C-S-H gel, which brings a significant change
in microstructure. Finer RHA fills pore or voids into the
microstructure of concrete and mortar. Finally, this
literature has been reported some recommendations for
future research in this area. These include the
following:



Need to develop higher capacity of RHA burning
furnace for commercial or industrial purpose.
Need to elaborate cost analysis between concrete
with or without RHA.
Need to test strength of concrete that contains
higher percentages of RHA.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The authors acknowledge the Ministry of Higher
Education of Malaysia for providing the necessary
funding required for the research through Exploratory
Research Grant scheme (ERGS/1/[11]/TK/UKM/02/
10).
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