The Ocean
ICELAND´S POLICY
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2
Executive Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3
1. THE OCEAN – FUNCTION AND IMPORTANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
1. 1 The Ocean and Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
1. 1 i. Administration of ocean issues in Iceland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1. 2 State of the high seas
.................................................
7
1. 2 i. Developing emphases, participation and actions by states on ocean issues . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
2. THE OCEAN – PHYSICAL FEATURES, POLLUTION AND CLIMATE CHANGE . . . . . . . . . 13
2. 1 Physical and chemical features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2. 2 Pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2. 2 i. Measurements and monitoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2. 2 ii. Pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2. 3 Climate changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2. 4 Depletion of the Ozone Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3. THE OCEAN – MARINE BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . 19
3. 1 Life in the Oceans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. 2 Sustainable utilisation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. 2 i. Commercial fish stocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3. 2 ii. Aquaculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3. 2 iii. Biotechnology
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4. THE OCEAN – THE SEA BED, NAVIGATION AND TOURISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4. 1 Utilisation of sea bed resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4. 2 Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4. 3 Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5. THE OCEAN – DEVELOPMENT CO-OPERATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6. THE OCEAN – ICELANDIC GOVERNMENT POLICY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6. 1 Ocean pollution and environmental change
6. 1 i. Ways to achieve the objectives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6. 2 Marine biodiversity and sustainable utilisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6. 2 i. Ways to achieve the objectives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
6. 3 The sea bed, navigation and tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
6. 3 i. Ways to achieve the objectives
6. 4 Development co-operation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
6. 4 i. Ways to achieve the objectives
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Foreword
The state of the ocean environment is a matter of fundamental importance for Iceland. The core
objective of the country’s policy on marine issues is to maintain a healthy ocean environment
and to ensure sustainable utilisation, so that the ocean can continue to serve as a bountiful
source of both healthy and valuable products and remain one of the mainstays of the country’s
economy. The policy emphases scientific research and expertise as a basis for responsible
management and action on ocean issues.
Iceland has long been actively involved in discussions on ocean issues internationally, and was
among those countries leading the way in the preparation and drafting of the United Nations
Convention on the Law of the Sea. The Icelandic government has campaigned actively for ocean
pollution prevention in international fora, and considerable progress has been made. Icelanders
are fortunate in having practically unpolluted waters around their country, which is the key factor
in ensuring the quality of Icelandic marine products. Iceland’s success in managing its fisheries
has drawn attention in many parts of the world.
Despite being a small country, Iceland is an active contributor on ocean issues. It is therefore
especially gratifying to be able to endorse this new, harmonised policy on ocean issues. This is
the first publication to provide in a single document an overview of Iceland’s policy, commitments
and emphases in this important area. It covers the wide field of ocean related issues including
the many environmental aspects where varying interests are at stake. It is clear, however, that
this policy cannot be defined comprehensively once and for all; this is an on-going task, which
must take into consideration changes both current and potential.
Our policy reflects to some extent changes in objectives and the involvement of a growing
number of actors concerned with marine questions. These questions are treated in a wider and
more holistic context in international fora than ever before, resulting in both challenges and
opportunities for Iceland. This makes it even more important for the Icelandic government to
establish a clear policy, which can serve as a guide for all parties involved in implementing
Icelandic policy on ocean issues.
This policy has been drafted through the productive co-operation of the Ministries for the
Environment, Fisheries and Foreign Affairs. Preparations began following a decision by the
Government in January 2003 and the Icelandic government formally adopted the policy in June
2004. During its preparation; other relevant Ministries were consulted, together with interested
parties and non-governmental organisations (NGOs).
It is our hope that the preparation and publication of this ambitious policy will benefit both
ocean issues and Iceland. It is important to follow up on the policy statement, in order for Iceland
to live up to its reputation as a leading advocate for the oceans, both at home and abroad.
Siv Friðleifsdóttir
Minister for the Environment
2
The Ocean
Árni M. Mathiesen
Minister of Fisheries
Halldór Ásgrímsson
Minister for Foreign Affairs
Executive Summary
Icelandic policy on ocean issues is based on maintaining the future health, biodiversity and
sustainability of the ocean surrounding Iceland, in order that it may continue to be a resource
that sustains and promotes the nation’s welfare. This means sustainable utilisation, conservation
and management of the resource based on scientific research and applied expertise guided by
respect for the marine ecosystem as a whole. The health of the ocean and sustainable utilisation
of its living resources provides the main basis for Iceland’s economic welfare. In view of the
importance of the waters surrounding Iceland, the government considers ocean issues to be
central to its activities for the foreseeable future.
Icelandic policy is based on three pillars: the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea;
the concept of sustainable development, and the view that responsibility for the conservation and
utilisation of marine ecosystems is best placed in the hands of those states directly affected by
the decisions taken and with the greatest interests at stake.
Iceland must participate actively and take the initiative internationally to win support for the
tenets of sustainable development, and thus recognition for its own perspectives. Iceland should
be a leader among states that prioritise improved treatment of the marine ecosystem. The country
and its policy should be a model for other states, increasing the country’s credibility in
international discussions on the utilisation and protection of the marine ecosystem.
Sustainable utilisation is the key to rational and responsible conservation and management of
marine resources. Iceland’s policy places special emphasis on the importance of preventing
ocean pollution. The application and further development of the ecosystem approach lays the
basis for achieving Iceland’s objectives in ocean issues.
Iceland’s policy stresses that scientific research and increased knowledge of the marine
ecosystem are the premises for further progress in comprehensive resource management and
decision-making on protection of the marine environment. Transparency of information on
sustainable utilisation of marine resources, biological diversity and characteristics of ocean areas
and species expands knowledge and increases both public confidence and interest in the marine
ecosystem. The policy proposes that Iceland’s participation in development co-operation be
increased in the areas of fisheries, resource management and environmental protection.
Effective co-operation and consultation on ocean issues within the public administration should
be increased, in order better to implement the main points of the policy. Increasing consultation
is intended to ensure that Iceland’s basic positions are clear, harmonised and provide guidelines
for all efforts to promote Icelandic policy on ocean issues.
In formulating a comprehensive ocean policy, an effort has been made to combine in one
document previous policy statements, commitments and emphases, while at the same time setting
new objectives and proposing ways to achieve them. The first five chapters of the document
emphasise the value of gathering and disseminating information, and present the factual basis
for the policy. This section is intended to describe the current situation. The concluding chapter
outlines the overall policy. The document is intended to serve as both a policy statement and
information source for public administrators, interested parties and the general public on
Icelandic policy on ocean issues.
3
1 The Ocean – Function and Importance
1. 1 The Ocean and Iceland
Icelanders depends upon on the ocean for their livelihood. The ocean and ocean currents
together influence weather and climate, and shape the conditions for life in the country. The
ocean also serves as a transportation and communication highway for Iceland. The history of
fishing is an integral part of the country's history and culture. Fishing has been an important
activity in Iceland since the earliest times, and during the past century the development of
fisheries has provided the basis for the country’s progress and economic growth. Marine life and
its utilisation have to a large extent created the quality of life that Icelanders enjoy today.
Iceland’s struggle to gain full jurisdiction over its waters was both long and difficult, but the
outcome can definitely be said to have laid the foundation for the welfare and development of
Icelandic society. Internationally, Icelanders led the way in promoting the rights of coastal states
to manage the use of their resources.
The Icelandic economy is highly dependent upon fisheries, which provide a major share of the
country’s foreign currency earnings, as indicated in Figure 1.
Marine products as a proportion of Iceland’s total exports 1991-2002
% of goods exports
% of goods and service exports
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Figure 1. Marine products as a proportion of Iceland’s total exports 1991-2002
In recent years, total Icelandic catches have ranged from 1.5 to 2.1 million tonnes. In 2002, the total
catch value was about ISK 77 billion, with catches from straddling stocks amounting to around ISK
18.7 billion. Exports of marine products amounted to 807.000 tonnes, worth ISK 131 billion. 1
Fluctuations in the fisheries sector, for instance, due to fluctuation in catches and variable prices
for exports, have often contributed to economic instability. Extensive changes have taken place
in Icelandic fisheries towards increasing liberalisation and modernising the operating
environment. Due to the size, scope and importance of fisheries in Iceland, policy formulation
and decision-making on marine issues has a far-reaching effect on the standard of living.
In recent years, increased productivity has resulted in the number of jobs in fisheries in Iceland
declining steadily. In 2002, around 11,700 persons worked in fisheries, or around 7% of the
total workforce. About half of them work in fishing and the other half in processing.2
While figures on the numbers employed in services, sales or other support sectors of fisheries are not
available, according to estimates; each fisherman at sea creates at least four to five jobs onshore.3
Parallel to the growth and development of marine resource utilisation, a vast amount of
knowledge concerning the oceans has been acquired in Iceland. Expertise in operating fisheries
enterprises has also grown. They are among the country’s more powerful enterprises, as is
clearly witnessed by their good performance and expansion abroad.
% of GDP
20%
Fishing
15%
10%
5%
0%
Figure 2. Contribution of fishing and fish processing to GDP 1973-2002
4
The Ocean
Fish processing
Educational and research institutions connected with the ocean in one way or another
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•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
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Navigational College of Iceland
Marine Engineering College of Iceland
University of Iceland, with several research institutes in related fields as well as the Fisheries Institute
Technical University of Iceland
University of Akureyri, Faculty of Natural Resource Science, Fisheries and Aquaculture programmes
The Vocational Training Committee in Fisheries
Hólar College, Department of Aquaculture
Marine Research Institute
Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories
United Nations University Fisheries Training Programme
Research station in Sandgerði
National Energy Authority (Orkustofnun), sea bed research.
The advent of new technology, changing industrial practices and social changes have meant new
possibilities for utilisation of marine resources in Iceland. Increased research is carried out both on
organic and non-organic marine resources. A report by the Ministry of Fisheries in 2002, Aukið
verðmæti sjávarfangs (Increasing the value of marine products), discussing how the value of marine
products could be increased, points to new ways to increase value substantially in the long term,
in part through research and development of new methods of processing and handling raw
materials. It also points out new areas of growth, such as aquaculture, biotechnology applications
and development of equipment and expertise. In addition, there are a number of other economic
sectors that are to an increasing extent dependent upon the ocean and its resources.
Fish processing
Fishing
Number
20,000
15,000
10,000
5,000
0
Figure 3. Estimated number of jobs in fisheries 1991-2001, with a breakdown into fishing and fish processing.
Economic sectors dependent upon the ocean and its resources.
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Fishing
Fish processing
Aquaculture
Tourism: whale watching, nature expeditions, sailing, sport fishing
Biotechnology
Manufacturing of gear and equipment (for fishing and fish processing)
Software production and development (for fishing and fishprocessing)
Shipbuilding
Transport
Service and support industries
When it comes to utilisation of marine resources, Iceland is in a special position compared with
most states. Comprehensive information on utilisation of marine resources is rarely as accessible
as it is in Iceland. Such information ensures transparency, keeps interested parties informed, and
contributes to objective and informed discussion on resource utilisation.
The involvement of and possibilities for the general public and private sector to influence
discussion and policy formulation on environmental issues, including ocean issues, has changed.
Both the public and industry leaders are increasingly aware of the importance of healthy oceans.
Ocean issues can be approached from a variety of directions. The significance of the oceans around
Iceland is not merely ecological. They also have an important role to play in transportation, as well
as security and defence. During the Cold War, Iceland was regarded as a key link in surveillance
and defence of North Atlantic shipping routes. In this respect, Iceland’s geographical situation gives
it an important role, and thus links ocean issues to the country’s membership of NATO.
Function and Importance
5
1. 1 i. Administration of ocean issues in Iceland
In view of the importance of the oceans to the country’s economy, the complicated and manysided involvement of public authorities, in both the legislative and executive arms of government,
in ocean issues hardly comes as a surprise. Six Ministries are responsible for various ocean
issues and the roles of each of them are outlined below. In addition, ocean issues are also
indirectly linked to concerns of other Ministries.
The division of responsibilities in this area between ministries is generally clear and is prescribed
in the Regulation on Government Offices. Their areas of responsibility, however, unavoidably
overlap to some extent, making integrated policies and smooth co-operation between them
important in such instances.
The Icelandic parliament, Althingi, is the seat of legislative power in Iceland. Legislation
provides the foundation for the administration of ocean issues, while at the same time laws and
parliamentary resolutions set the policy framework.
The Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for fisheries matters, research on fish stocks and the
conservation and utilisation of these stocks together with other living marine and sea bed
resources, as well as managing the areas where they are utilisable. In addition, the Ministry of
Fisheries is responsible for research and supervision of production and imports of marine
products, farming of commercial marine stocks, and support for research, development and
innovation in fisheries. The work of this Ministry is intended in particular to ensure and maintain
long-term ocean health and maximum yields for the Icelandic nation from sustainable utilisation
of the living marine resources.
The Directorate of Fisheries (Fiskistofa) is responsible for a variety of matters concerning fisheries
management, supervision of production of marine products and supervision of imports and
exports of fish and fish products. The Directorate of Fisheries oversees implementation of the
Fisheries Management Act and related Acts concerning, for instance, the issuing of licenses for
fishing and fish processing, allocation of quotas and data collection. The Directorate of Fisheries
is also responsible for ensuring compliance with laws and regulations, and imposes penalties for
violations. In addition to enforcing the laws on fisheries management, the Directorate of Fisheries
also ensures compliance with Acts and Regulations on the handling, processing and distribution
of marine products, and is responsible for collecting and disseminating information on fishing
and processing of catches.
The Icelandic Marine Research Institute (Hafrannsóknastofnunin) has a threefold role: to carry out
research on the ocean and marine life; to advise the government on sustainable utilisation of
marine resources; and to provide information to the authorities, interested parties in fisheries and
the general public.
The Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories (Rannsóknastofnun fiskiðnaðarins) is entrusted with carrying
out research, providing advice and disseminating information in matters concerning the
processing and consumption of marine products.
The Ministry for the Environment is responsible for nature conservation, including
protection of ecosystems, biodiversity and genetic resources, national parks and other protected
areas. This Ministry also looks after research on environmental issues not assigned to other
ministries, pollution prevention, climate change and foodstuffs supervision not assigned to other
Ministries. The Ministry is to encourage general environmental protection and co-operation
among Ministries and agencies working on these issues. Ocean issues have generally been a
priority in the Ministry’s efforts.
The Environment and Food Agency (Umhverfisstofnun) is under the jurisdiction of the Ministry for
the Environment. The Agency has a key role in the administration of environmental affairs in
Iceland, as it is responsible for and supervises, in co-operation with several other agencies,
pollution prevention on land and sea, nature conservation, animal protection, hunting, toxic
substances and food safety. In addition, the Agency co-ordinates pollution prevention
supervision, and issues of operating licenses by municipal health surveillance authorities.
The Icelandic Institute of Natural History (Náttúrufræðistofnun Íslands) is entrusted with basic
zoological, botanical and geological research in Iceland and organised data collection on
Icelandic nature. The Institute maintains systematic records of individual aspects of Icelandic
nature and is responsible for drafting and publishing of maps, for instance, on geology and
species distribution providing guidance on moderate utilisation of natural resources; and
assisting with research in assessing the conservation value of ecosystems and sites of natural
interest and the impact of construction and other land use on the natural environment. The
6
The Ocean
Institute preserves results in a scientific collection, providing as good an overview as possible of
the country’s natural environment, and is also charged with disseminating information.
The Ministry for Foreign Affairs is responsible for international and multilateral
agreements, development co-operation, and for Icelandic participation in international
organisations, agencies, conferences and meetings concerning public interests that are not
entrusted to other Ministries by the previously mentioned Regulation on Government Offices or
the nature of the issue. The Ministry has its own department of natural resources and
environmental affairs, which looks after Iceland’s resource and environment interests
internationally and aims at safeguarding Icelandic interests. Marine issues, including the law of
the sea, have always comprised a major part of the activities of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs.
The Ministry of Transport is responsible for questions concerning the organisation of ocean
transport, shipping, harbours, lighthouses and breakwaters. This Ministry is also responsible for
questions of transport safety and accident investigations in this connection. Tourism issues are
also the province of the Ministry of Transport.
The Icelandic Maritime Administration (Siglingastofnun Íslands) is an agency of the Ministry
entrusted with ensuring the safety of ocean voyagers and creating cost-effective and secure
conditions for navigation and fishing in Icelandic waters.
Another ministerial agency, the Iceland Tourist Board, supervises the travel industry in Iceland on
behalf of the ministry.
The Ministry of Industry is responsible for questions concerning geological resources on the
sea bed. The National Energy Authority, Orkustofnun, is an agency of the Ministry.
The Ministry of Justice is responsible, for instance, for policing of Iceland’s territorial waters
and fishing jurisdiction and maritime cartography. It controls the Icelandic Coast Guard, which
is entrusted with law enforcement and surveillance in Icelandic waters, as well as bearing the
ultimate responsibility for directing ocean search and rescue operations.
1. 2 State of the world’s oceans
The connections and interaction between the ocean and the atmosphere are necessary for all life on
earth. Movement and activity in the atmosphere determine the weather and climate, as well as
influencing ocean currents and surface movements, which in turn have a major effect on growth and
flourishing of marine life. In return, the ocean provides the atmosphere with heat and moisture.
Although the interaction of ocean and atmosphere is subject to change, the nature and intensity of
this interaction can be a major factor determining the conditions for life on earth in different locations
and in the short and long term. Ocean currents, winds and precipitation are also major factors
determining the spread of pollution, which can travel great distances. Increasing attention has been
directed to the possible impact of climate changes on ocean current activity, and changes to it.
In certain regions, ocean pollution has exceeded acceptable limits. This is especially true of
enclosed seas and geographically limited ocean regions where there is extensive pollution from
land-based sources. For quite some time now, work has been underway on international rules to
prevent ocean pollution, as attested to by numerous international agreements. Protecting the
oceans against pollution is a matter of great priority for Iceland. Extensive work has been done
in this regard domestically as well as internationally.
Life in the ocean is diverse and inter-linked in a complex food web, extending from plankton to
large fishes and whales. It also varies greatly depending upon the region, with factors such as
currents, temperature and light being of greatest significance in determining ocean conditions.
The condition of living marine resources, such as commercial fish stocks, also differs greatly from
one region to the next. In many parts of the world, resource management has not been
addressed with sufficient determination, resulting in the deterioration and even collapse of fish
stocks in some areas. Other examples show that by acting firmly and responsibly, fishing can be
managed in a sustainable manner.
The ocean has long been a source of food for man, and in many places ocean fishing is the
most important source of protein in the local diet. The advent of larger, more powerful and better
equipped vessels, and new technologies in processing and storing catch boosted global fishing
in the last century.
The world economy is highly dependent upon transport, not least due to the major growth in
international trade in recent decades. Extensive freight transport is carried out via the world’s
Function and Importance
7
oceans, with maritime transport comprising a major share of all international transport. Ocean
and land transport link up in harbours, where an extensive industry has developed around
production and services. Throughout the world, settlement is moving to an increasing extent
towards coastal regions; most of the world’s largest cities are in coastal areas. Increased
utilisation of ocean resources and growing marine traffic has increased awareness of the risks
threatening the oceans and their ecosystems.
Increasing offshore petroleum production has brought changes to nearby coastal regions, led to
conflicts over jurisdiction and increased the danger of pollution. Extraction of various other
substances is carried out in the oceans and mineral extraction from the sea bed is likely to
increase in the future, as it becomes more profitable through improved technology.
Ocean research is difficult, both due to the vast areas and depth, as some 70% of the earth’s surface
is ocean, around 60% of the Northern Hemisphere and around 80% of the Southern Hemisphere.
The ocean floor has mountains, mountain ranges and deep chasms, as well as large, more level areas.
In many locations around the globe a variety of ocean research is carried out. This makes international
co-operation on research and dissemination of information very desirable and important.
1. 2 i. Developing emphases, participation and actions by states on ocean issues
The increasing economic utilisation by nations of the ocean, and its importance in a global
context, prompted the drafting of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea. It has
provided the legal framework for approaching ocean issues. International discussions on the law
of the sea has continued in recent years with environmental issues becoming increasingly
prominent. Discussion on environmental protection has to some extent been characterised by the
polarisation of conservation and economic growth as irreconcilable opposites.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
The Convention on the Law of the Sea is the first and only comprehensive international treaty on the law of
the sea. It was adopted in 1982, Iceland ratified it in 1985 and it came into force in 1994. Presently 145
states have acceded to the Convention. Although the Convention is not binding for non-signatory states, most
of its provisions enjoy the status of international customary law and as such are binding on all states. The
Convention set or codified rules on all ocean utilisation and covers all ocean areas, including the air space
above the oceans and the sea bed and strata beneath it. Human activities in the ocean are based on this
Convention; this includes measures aimed at preserving the ocean ecosystem, conserving marine life,
creating a forum and channels for international relations, ensuring sustainable utilisation of the oceans and
thus optimally safeguarding the interests of all people on earth. Other agreements have developed on the
basis of the Convention, dealing with issues upon which agreement could not be reached in the Convention,
or which were not fully dealt with. One example of this is the UN Agreement on the Conservation and
Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (referred to as the UN Fish Stocks
Agreement). It was adopted in 1995, Iceland ratified it in 1997, and it came into force in 2001.
The Convention on the Law of the Sea also established three institutions dealing with various legal and
technical questions concerning it. These are the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea, the United
Nations Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf and the International Seabed Authority.
Ever since the Convention was adopted, the Icelandic government has made it the cornerstone of its policy
and emphasised that it establishes the legal framework upon which all discussion of ocean issues must be
based, making it important to defend this Convention and encourage its implementation. Iceland was the
first European state to ratify the Convention that confirmed, for instance, the 200-nautical mile exclusive
economic zone (EEZ) of coastal states.
During the 1980s, the nations of the world devoted increasing effort to seek a balance between
environmental protection and continuing economic development and increasing welfare. The
approach selected has been called sustainable development. The main principles of sustainable
development were subsequently approved at the world summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, with
the Rio Declaration and a special action plan, Agenda 21. The core of sustainable development
is to seek to maximise economic and social welfare without damaging the earth’s basic qualities,
such as marine resources, or the possibilities of coming generations to enjoy welfare comparable
to or greater than that enjoyed today.
Sustainable development
4
Sustainable development has been defined as development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Sustainable development is based
on three main pillars: economic development, social welfare and equality, and environmental protection. The
first principle of the Rio Declaration states: “Human beings are at the centre of concerns for sustainable
development. They are entitled to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature.”
8
The Ocean
At the Rio Summit, the approach that is now becoming accepted in international efforts on the marine
environment was more clearly articulated than before. It involves, for instance, viewing the oceans to a
growing extent as a public global goods, acknowledging that many of the challenges we face are global in
nature and thus must be solved by concerted efforts of states.
Protecting the oceans – emphases and developments
1954 The first international treaty on prevention of ocean pollution was concluded in 1954 and applied
to ocean pollution caused by oils (hydrocarbons). Treaties in this area were among the first
international treaties for environmental protection. International co-operation in this area was
primarily carried out within the International Maritime Organisation.
1972 The UN Stockholm Conference of 1972 marked a turning point in international discussion of
environmental issues and economic development, as it dealt with global environmental issues in
the context of a single international forum. The United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP)
was established following the Conference.
1982 The adoption of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea was a milestone in ocean affairs. It
sets the legal framework for the administration and arrangements for utilisation of marine
resources. In addition, the Convention includes provisions on protection of marine biodiversity
and pollution prevention. The Convention began a new chapter in conservation of the ocean and
marine biodiversity.
1992 At the Rio Summit, the foundation was laid for efforts aimed at sustainable development. The Rio
Declaration, Agenda 21 and the international agreements on atmospheric issues and biodiversity
that were approved at the Summit, have defined national policies in environmental, resource and
development issues.
1995 The adoption of the Global Programme of Action to Reduce Ocean Pollution from Land-based
Activities (the GPA or Washington Programme) marked a major turning point, as 80% of all
pollution entering the oceans originates on land.
1995 The adoption of the United Nations Agreement on the Conservation and Management of Straddling
Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks provided for the implementation of provisions in the
Convention on the Law of the Sea. It contains important provisions on international co-operation,
research and the precautionary approach.
2002 The Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) reviewed progress made
towards the objectives of the Rio Summit, and how their implementation in the future could be
better ensured. Ocean issues were given major attention at the Summit, confirming the
importance of the ocean for all life on earth.
The Rio Summit and Agenda 21 were followed by a number of international agreements and
plans of action intended to promote the conservation and utilisation of marine resources with
greater emphasis on implementation. Around this same time, the UN Convention on the Law of
the Sea came into effect. It provides, for instance, for rights of coastal states to utilise the
resources within their EEZs. The commitments of the Rio Summit were reaffirmed at the
Johannesburg Summit in 2002. It laid down the main policy points in environmental and
development policy for the coming years.
Rio - Johannesburg
The Rio Summit marked a turning point in international discussion of environment and development issues,
for instance, with the adoption of the Rio Declaration. The Declaration itself is a short and succinct document
containing 27 principles for environmental and development issues. Agenda 21 is a comprehensive plan of
action on environmental issues, which in fact serves as a manual for states in international co-operation and
actions to achieve the objective of sustainable development. The agreements on atmospheric protection and
biodiversity have played a major role in formulating environmental conservation policy in the past decade
and will continue to do so.
Ten years after the Rio Summit, another summit conference was held in Johannesburg, the “World Summit on
Sustainable Development”. Discussion at this summit concentrated primarily on ways to implement many of
the promises made in Agenda 21, and other resolutions of the Rio Summit. At this summit the Johannesburg
Declaration, a short, political statement, was adopted. In this Declaration states reiterate their commitment to
implement sustainable development. An action agenda was also adopted in which ocean issues are included
(in Articles 30 to 36).
Marine issues and their importance for the global ecosystem were the subject of extensive discussion and
attention at the summit, as is evident, for instance, in the text of the action agenda. This can be interpreted
to mean that ocean issues have acquired a well-deserved importance internationally. The action agenda
includes objectives for sustainable fisheries, the introduction of the ecosystem approach no later than 2010,
Function and Importance
9
and for measurable success in prevention of land-based pollution by 2006. It reaffirms the importance of
increased scientific knowledge and understanding of the ecosystem of the oceans and coastal areas as a
basis for rational decision-making. It recognises the poor condition of the ocean in many areas, and the need
for the nations of the world to respond jointly, based on the principles of the precautionary and ecosystem
approaches. It proposes that regional institutions increase their co-operation, while emphasising that all
actions by states concerning ocean issues should be based on provisions of the UN Convention on the Law
of the Sea and be in the spirit of sustainable development.
Parallel to this development, globalisation and the increasing participation by states, agencies
and Non-Governmental Organisations NGOs in discussions in international fora have had their
effect on international relations. All of these parties influence the development of these issues,
although to a varying extent. NGOs, for instance, are now active participants at most major
United Nations conferences and many of them have hired specialists in their fields. Through their
co-operation and participation, NGOs often have a considerable impact on government
positions. Many NGOs have been accredited to United Nations Agencies and are formal
participants in their policy formulation. These organisations put pressure on governments and
their organisations to honour their international commitments.
Many are of the opinion that NGOs concerned with environmental issues have on occasion
tended to go to extremes in their policies and presentations. In some instances they have
disparaged scientific results to advance their own causes. This can cause conflicts and undermines
what would otherwise be important and useful co-operation. Among some NGOs there is also a
strong tendency to place conservation to an increasing extent under global management.
The Icelandic government has often had to oppose tendencies towards global management of
resource utilisation, for instance at the United Nations General Assembly, where resolutions are
presented each year on the oceans and law of the sea, and in its participation in international
agencies dealing with issues connected with the oceans.
Utilisation Rule
5
According to the UN Charter, and the basic principles of international law, states have the sovereign right
to exploit their own resources pursuant to their own environmental and development policies, and the
responsibility to ensure that activities within their jurisdiction or control do not cause damage to the
environment of other states or of areas beyond the limits of national jurisdiction.
Following the increased emphasis on resource and environmental issues, as well as increased
interest internationally in ocean issues, especially within the UN system, discussion on commercially
utilised stocks and the fishing industry have become more and more intertwined with discussion of
environmental issues. In international fora there have been discussions of complete protection of fish
stocks or entire ocean areas, and proposals have been submitted to entrust international agencies
with managing the utilisation of marine resources due to environmental considerations.
Iceland is in a rather special position among the countries concerned with ocean issues
internationally, because utilisation of marine resources is one of the main pillars of the country’s
economy.6 The Convention on the Law of the Sea acknowledged the special status of coastal
states. Many states which influence international discussion of ocean issues, however, have few
or no direct interests to safeguard, at least if such interests are measured by the contribution of
fisheries to their GNP. Such states thus approach discussion of ocean issues in a manner similar
to their approach, for instance, to matters of atmospheric pollution, i.e. their concern with the
ocean is based on the ecological service it performs and its impact on climate or the influence
which its purity has on the healthiness of foods, rather than as a central factor in their economies.
Under such circumstances, Iceland must make sure to safeguard its interests. Other nations need
to be informed of the special importance of marine resource utilisation for the Icelandic economy
and the central principle that conservation and utilisation of living resources go hand in hand.
Increased knowledge of the ecosystem and the interaction of various aspects of it, such as the
interaction of species and the impact of pollution on how they and other life forms flourish, has
meant that more emphasis is placed on a holistic view of the oceans than was previously the
case. This has meant that states have proposed that international agreements be applied to a
wider scope than their original framework provides for. Parallel to this development, the
integration of various agreements on ocean issues has increased.
Examples of changed emphases in international agreements
In the course of efforts carried out under the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of
Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the desire has been expressed both by participating states and the Convention
secretariat to expand its role, to include management of valuable flora and fauna to an increasing extent. This
10
The Ocean
would include trade in fish products. According to the CITES convention, it is only intended to concern trade in
species in danger of extinction and species which would be endangered if trade with them were not controlled.
In recent years discussion of the marine life has been increasing within the OSPAR Convention for Protection of
the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic. At a meeting of environment ministers of the OSPAR Contracting
States in the summer of 2003, a new assessment by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES)
of the condition of fish stocks and the impact of fishing on the ecosystem was presented. The meeting also passed
resolutions on the ecosystem approach, protected ocean areas and co-operation between states on overall policy
formulation on those ocean areas under the influence of European states. In addition, a policy statement on the
protection of ecosystems and of biological diversity was adopted. The Convention is thus an excellent example of
the above-mentioned international development guided by a broad-based vision of ocean conservation.
This increased discussion of the issue of resource utilisation and tendency towards global
management is not only attributable to new paradigm and changed emphases internationally. It
should also be borne in mind that ocean issues have at the same time been accorded a greater
share of the media spotlight due to reports of the poor condition of life in the marine environment
because of over fishing and pollution. This results in increased pressure for action by
governments of the world to improve the situation. Should they fail to respond and take specific
and effective action to improve the condition of the world’s oceans, this will add weight to the
argument that global management is the only available route to success.
The Icelandic government has generally been active in development co-operation regarding ocean
issues. Iceland’s position has always been based on the rights and obligations provided for in the
Convention on the Law of the Sea and the principles of sustainable development agreed upon at the
Rio Summit. The Icelandic government has put special emphasis on the management of resources
being in the hands of those states closest to the resource and who have a direct interest in the
responsible utilisation of the resource. A clear right to utilisation of resources is an incentive for
sustainable utilisation and preservation of ocean health and resources. In this connection, emphasis
has been placed on basing all discussion on ocean issues on the Convention on the Law of the Sea.
The development described here has resulted in extensive changes, in both the arrangements and
emphases of the Icelandic administration. Co-operation among the Ministries of Fisheries,
Environment and Foreign Affairs has been increased, as has participation in international meetings.
In addition, Iceland has to a significant extent taken the initiative in resolutions and actions in regional
and broader international fora, in support of the conservation and sustainable utilisation of marine
resources. In so doing, Iceland has tried to bring efforts and policies in international co-operation
closer to Iceland’s own policy. A clear example of this sort of initiative is the Reykjavík Conference
on the Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management, which was held in co-operation with FAO in
2001. It is now referred to in most international declarations concerning fisheries management.
The aim of the Icelandic government has been to ensure the nation has full jurisdiction over the
resources surrounding the country and to see to it that they are utilised in a sustainable manner.
The government regards these aims as being guaranteed by the Convention on the Law of the
Sea and supported by the principles of sustainable development from the Rio Summit. It regards
these objectives to be mutually reinforcing and Iceland’s position reflects this view.
The position adopted by the Icelandic government has also been influenced by the route chosen
by the government to conserve living resources in Icelandic waters. It is based on the premise
that if those persons who utilise the resource have rights and obligations concerning its utilisation,
this will serve as an inducement for sustainable utilisation. Similarly, open and unrestricted access
to resources would eventually result in irresponsible and unsustainable utilisation. The Convention
on the Law of the Sea, which assigns to Iceland both rights and obligations towards the oceans,
is thus based on this same premise. For this reason, it has been the view of the Icelandic
government that it alone is responsible for ocean issues within the limits of the EEZ.
Many matters connected with the protection and utilisation of marine resources, however, are of
such a nature that they can only be resolved through co-operation with other states. Iceland has
been an active participant in regional co-operation, as competent regional organisations are in
many instances a suitable forum for discussion of joint interests, such as in the case of a resource
shared by several states. The motivation for achieving success in the sustainable utilisation of a joint
fish stock of a number of states should be the same as in the case of a stock within the jurisdiction
of a single state. Furthermore, some ocean issues can be of such a nature that they demand
resolution by the international community on a global scale, such as actions to prevent or reduce
ocean pollution originating in distant parts of the world or due to activities on the high seas.
Function and Importance
11
In international co-operation, the Icelandic government has repeatedly promoted the role of
competent regional organisations, while at the same time emphasising the authority and
responsibility of individual states in conserving and utilising marine resources.
To achieve its objectives, the Icelandic government has emphasised that states should resolve
problems, firstly, on their own where possible; secondly, through regional co-operation and,
thirdly, by means of active participation in co-operative efforts between states in a broader,
international arrangement for conservation and sustainable utilisation of resources. It is
necessary to follow all of these routes, but which one is selected, or what balance is maintained
between them, in each case depends upon the nature of the question.
Increased and active participation in international co-operation helps ensure Icelandic interests,
as Iceland’s right to its resources cannot be guaranteed by the Convention on the Law of the Sea
alone. For this reason, the Icelandic government has attempted as far as possible to actively
encourage other states to successfully manage their resources, in part through development cooperation. Responsible management and harvesting of marine resources everywhere in the
world furthers Iceland’s own policy. It means less likelihood of national sovereignty being eroded
due to demands for increased global intervention concerning the management and utilisation of
living marine resources.
The increased discussion concerning ocean issues described above has made new and
previously unknown demands on governments. More parties can now significantly influence
debate, trends and policies in marine issues. As a result, discussions and exchanges of opinion
on marine issues can be initiated in which states must participate. States with only limited direct
interests in ocean resources involve themselves extensively in these discussions. In international
fora where these issues are discussed, it is regarded as important for governments to be credible
and consistent. Part of doing so is ensuring that the information available on resource utilisation
is even more accessible. The Icelandic government is now emphasising this, for instance, by
making information on catches available on the Internet the day after they have been landed.
The Icelandic government has also decided that all available information on resources in the
waters surrounding Iceland will be made systematically available on the Internet. This strengthens
Iceland’s credibility in international discussions as well as providing support for other states
desiring to oppose increased international intervention in the management and utilisation of
ocean resources. Iceland can thus serve as an example for others to follow with regard to ocean
issues. Good examples of sustainable utilisation of marine resources strengthen the belief that
such success can be achieved elsewhere, both to the advantage of the ocean ecosystem and
those states and societies which are economically dependent upon utilisation of ocean resources.
2 The Ocean – Physical Features, Pollution and Climate Change
2. 1 Physical and chemical features
One of the main characteristics of the ocean is its salinity. This, together with temperature, is the
major factor determining its physical characteristics. The ocean’s salinity comes mainly from
land, when rainwater seeps through layers of rock, dissolving substances in them and
transporting them to the ocean. Ocean salinity varies, depending primarily upon evaporation
and precipitation. The ocean absorbs heat from the sun and distributes this store of heat to the
atmosphere, thus serving as a thermal reservoir for the earth. In addition, the ocean plays a
major role in equalising temperature at the earth’s surface through ocean currents that transfer
heat from the equator to the poles. While the average ocean temperature is 3.8°C, the average
temperature at its surface is 17.5°C. Temperature and salinity are major factors determining the
mixing of waters and renewal of mineral salts from the lower ocean layers, and thus the
productivity of individual ocean areas. Environmental conditions in the ocean area around
Iceland explain why the Icelandic banks are among the world’s richest fishing banks.
Figure 4. The warm Gulf Stream (Atlantic waters) comes from the south (red), the cold East Greenland Current (polar
waters) from the north (blue) and the East Iceland Current (cool waters) approaches the northeast of the country (green).
On the continental shelf, the coastal current (yellow), which moves clockwise around the country, is formed where the ocean
currents mix with fresh water from the land.
The cycle of cold and warm waters in the world’s oceans is a determining factor in the North
Atlantic climate. The ocean area around Iceland is important in a global context because much
of the warm and highly saline surface water carried into the area by ocean currents sinks once
it reaches here. This is referred to as deep water formation and it is important in driving the
thermohaline circulation of the world’s oceans. Through this cycle the world’s oceans are
connected by currents which are driven by deep sea water formation in the North Atlantic. This
cycle has been compared to a conveyor belt, which transfers warm sea northwards to warm the
atmosphere and in exchange moves cold, highly saline deep water southwards.
Iceland is at the intersection of different types of sea flowing from the south and north. Great
fluctuations in ocean condition, both with regard to temperature and salinity, have been known
since measurements began. It is considered likely that increasing greenhouse effect could lead
to changes in the inflow of the ocean currents to the ocean regions around Iceland, which could
affect the temperature in those regions and the productivity of fish stocks.
Ocean temperature is one of those environmental factors that have an extensive impact on the
marine ecosystem, including the distribution, spawning, behavior and flourishing of living
organisms as well as on food, metabolism and growth. Climate influences ocean temperature
and thereby marine biodiversity, although it is difficult to predict exactly what the effects will be.
Much depends on whether and how currents, vertical mixing and the separation of warm and
cold currents change in parallel to the climatic changes. Primary production may thus increase
in certain areas, increasing in turn the productivity of other organisms, while in other areas
production may decrease. It is impossible to predict with any certainty, based on current
knowledge, what impact the changes may have on competition between stocks and their yields
in the longer term.
13
Figure 5. The illustration shows the cycle of cold and warm sea water in the Atlantic. Warm and highly saline surface
water flowing north with the Gulf Stream meets cold, low salinity polar waters from the north in the East Greenland Current.
The sea cools as it moves farther north and becomes even saltier as polar ice forms. Since freezing binds fresh water in
the form of ice, this increases the salinity of the ocean near the surface. As it cools and becomes saltier, the sea at the
surface becomes denser than the waters beneath it. It thus sinks to form deep sea water. The surface water thus becomes
cold, deep sea water which flows south. This cycle is similar to a conveyor belt, moving warm sea northwards, to add
warmth to the atmosphere, and then moving cold, highly saline, deep sea water southward instead.
2. 2 Pollution
Some 80% of all the pollution entering the sea is estimated to originate from land-based
activities. Ocean pollution can have far-reaching effects, not limited merely to the ocean itself.
Almost all pollutants released into the environment eventually end up in the sea, whether they
are transmitted through air, water or underground.
How should we define pollution?
The Act on Prevention of Ocean Pollution, No. 32/1986, defines ocean pollution as:
Pollution occurs when micro organisms, chemical substances and chemical compounds have an undesirable
or damaging effect on public health, disrupt the biosphere or contaminate air, land or water. Pollution also
includes discomfort due to bad odour or taste, any type of noise or vibration, radioactivity and heat transfer.
The OSPAR Convention, which concerns the protection of the marine environment, defines pollution as
follows:
Pollution means the introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the maritime area,
which results, or is likely to result, in hazards to human health, harm to living resources and marine
ecosystems, damage to amenities or interference with other legitimate uses of the sea.
Substances that are considered as pollutants are commonly divided into five categories:
persistent organic substances; radioactive substances; heavy metals; hydrocarbons (petroleum
substances) and mineral salts. A simple way of measuring how damaging or polluting
substances are to the environment is to consider how stable they are, how soluble they are in
water and what effect they have on living organisms. They can have varying effects, for instance,
on metabolism, reproduction, hormones, DNA and cell division (which can cause cancer).
Substances that decompose slowly or incompletely can accumulate in organisms and
ecosystems, while other substances decompose into less dangerous ones.
Releases of pollutants into the environment grew for a long time in pace with increasing
industrialisation in the world, and climbed sharply during the post-WWII era, until 1970-1980.
In the 1970s people began to realise the dangers that unrestricted emissions presented for the
environment and mitigating measures were introduced, which have reduced the damaging
environmental consequences. Increased pollution has not least affected the ocean, which to
some extent has been a receptor for all sorts of waste and pollution.
The Act on Prevention of Ocean Pollution, No. 32/1996, which is currently under review, is the
core legislation concerning protection of the ocean and coastline around Iceland. Prior to that,
an Act was adopted prohibiting discharging of hazardous substances into the ocean, No.
20/1972, which prohibits Icelandic vessels from discharging into the ocean, whether within or
outside of Icelandic jurisdiction, any chemical substances or compounds that could be dangerous
14
The Ocean
to ocean life or human health. Other national legislation covering pollution and the ocean
environment includes the Act on Radiation Prevention, No. 44/2002, the Act on Nature
Conservation, No. 44/1999, and the Act on Health and Hygiene Practices and Pollution
Prevention, No. 7/1998.7
Polluter pays principle
8.
States shall develop national law regarding liability and compensation for the victims of pollution and other
environmental damage. States shall also co-operate in an expeditious and more determined manner to
develop further international law regarding liability and compensation for adverse effects of environmental
damage caused by activities within their jurisdiction or control on areas beyond their jurisdiction.
One of the more important international conventions concerning ocean pollution surrounding
Iceland is the Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic,
OSPAR, which has been signed and ratified by Iceland, Norway, the European Union and its
Member States. Its objective is to prevent pollution of the North-East Atlantic by reducing landbased pollution, pollution caused by dumping and incineration, and pollution from offshore
sources.9 Based on this agreement, extensive assessments are carried out through international
co-operation on the situation and conservation of the oceans and preservation of ecosystems and
biological diversity.
Another important convention is the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants
(POPs). Its objective is to protect human health and the environment from persistent organic
pollutants. The Convention is very important for Iceland and Icelandic authorities have placed
great emphasis on having states throughout the world reduce emissions of persistent organic
pollutants.
The Ministry for the Environment has developed an action programme for prevention of landbased ocean pollution. The plan is based in the Global Programme of Action on the Protection
of the Marine Environment from Land-based Sources of Marine Pollution (GPA) adopted by 114
nations in Washington in 1995. The Icelandic programme is intended as an aid for the
authorities in combating marine pollution from land-based activities. The objective of the
programme is to protect human health by preventing the degradation of the oceans and coastal
areas, restoring polluted areas, supporting the conservation and sustainable utilisation of marine
resources and maintaining biodiversity.
Iceland is a party to numerous other agreements concerning the protection of the oceans. These
include, for example, IMO agreements intended to reduce pollution from vessels and prevent
discharges of wastes and pollutants. Furthermore, there are several agreements concerning oil
pollution and equipment and response capacity, providing for international collaboration in
cases of accidents.
2. 2 i. Measurements and monitoring
During the past decade, measurements and monitoring of the concentration of pollutants in the
ocean around Iceland have greatly increased. In 1989, the Icelandic government established a
co-operation group to organise research on the condition of the ocean around the country. The
project includes pollutants and trace elements in the ocean, ocean sediments and living
organisms. The objective was in part to fulfil, on the part of Iceland, the requirements made of
contracting parties to the OSPAR Convention and its assessment programme JAMP,10 for
monitoring and measurement of potential pollutants of the ocean and its ecosystem. ICES serves
as an advisor on various technical aspects of the monitoring and processes the data on pollutants
in the ocean for OSPAR. Monitoring and measurements in the Arctic began with the Arctic
Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP 11) of the Arctic Council in 1991 as part of a
programme of environmental protection for the Arctic region. The programme involves the
monitoring and measurement of certain pollutants throughout the entire area. The main
conclusion of AMAP is that, by comparison with most other regions, the Arctic has remained
clean and practically unpolluted. It did, however, warn of risks from persistent organic pollutants,
mercury and brominated flame-retardants used in industry, making it important to continue
research and measurements in the area.
Information on the situation concerning pollutants in the ocean around Iceland is important since
such information strengthens the competitive position of marine products on foreign markets. The
Ministry of Fisheries has for this reason launched a programme for measurements of various
contaminants in marine products.
Physical Features, Pollution
and Climate Change
15
2. 2 ii. Pollutants
Measurements of the concentration of persistent organic pollutants in marine biodiversity around
Iceland have revealed that these levels are generally among the lowest found in measurements
of nearby areas of the North Atlantic. Although the majority of persistent organic pollutants in
Icelandic waters can be traced to distant sources, some of these substances originated in Iceland,
not least from waste water disposal into the ocean, as measurements have revealed. The effects
of marine paint additives containing tin (TBT 12) have been detected locally around Iceland, as
revealed by research on dogwhelks. This has been particularly evident in harbours around the
bay Faxaflói, but also in and near other harbours from South Iceland to the West Fjords.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)
It is a characteristic of POPs that they decompose very slowly in the environment. The substances accumulate
in organisms because they are soluble in fat tissue. Organisms thus cannot excrete them as liquid waste and
the concentrations of many POPs are multiplied the farther up the food chain an organism is. Many of these
substances are toxic. By far the greatest share of organic substances is of anthropogenic origin. The main
sources are various types of manufacturing, agriculture and waste incineration. POPs find their way to the sea
through air currents, rivers and waste water disposal. Evidence indicates that air currents are the principal
means of transport for many of these substances, because they are found in considerable quantity far from
known sources. These substances include PCB, dioxin, furan, hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs), DDT and TBT.
Radioactivity measured in Iceland is far below acceptable limits and considerably less than in
most other areas. Measurements in the ocean around Iceland reveal that the strength of
radioactive substances varies in different ocean areas around the country. The concentration is
highest off the northwest coast in the East Greenland Current. Part of the ocean water there has
come from the North Sea and contains radioactive substances from the Sellafield nuclear waste
reprocessing plant in England. It is one of the main sources (30-40%) of radioactive pollution in
the ocean around Iceland, together with atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons (45-50%).
Elsewhere the concentration is considerably less, and it is lowest along the south coast, where
warm Atlantic water is dominant.
Radioactive contamination
Radioactive substances in the environment can be both of anthropogenic and natural origin. Naturally
radioactive substances are found both in rock and soil, and ionising radiation also makes its way to earth
from out in space. The substances most often used to measure radioactive contamination are isotopes of
strontium (Sr-90) and cesium (Cs-137). These isotopes are considerably long-lived, since the half life for Sr90 is 29 years and for Cs-137 is 30 years. These substances are measured because of these long half lives
and because of how readily they accumulate in organisms and can thus be dangerous to the living
organisms. The anthropogenic origins of radioactive substances are most commonly linked to some sort of
nuclear energy use. The principal sources are atmospheric testing of nuclear weapons, nuclear industry and
nuclear accidents.
Measurements of radioactivity in the ocean and in marine organisms have been carried out since 1989. The
Sellafield nuclear waste reprocessing plant has in recent years stopped cesium discharges, but emissions of
technetium increased greatly and technetium is expected to be reported in Icelandic waters within a very few
years since it has already been found off the Norwegian coast. New technology to prevent technetium
releases from the Sellafield reprocessing plant promises to significantly reduce the risks to the marine
environment from the facility.
During the twelve years that monitoring of heavy metals has been carried out in Icelandic waters,
research and measurements have shown that the mercury concentration is among the lowest
found in the North Atlantic and it has not increased during this period. Measurements of other
heavy metals in organisms do not indicate that pollution of these substances is a problem in the
ocean area around Iceland. The concentration of certain heavy metals in fish on the Icelandic
banks can, however, in isolated instances exceed that on other North Atlantic banks, but this has
been traced to natural sources.
Heavy metals
Heavy metals are elements, which are all found in the ocean in some natural concentration, generally very
low. Their natural concentration varies depending upon the area and the geology and marine biodiversity
of the area concerned. The main heavy metals are cadmium (Cd), chrome (Cr), copper (Cu), mercury (Hg),
nickel (Ni), lead (Pb) and zinc (Zn).
16
The Ocean
Metals do not decompose in the environment but instead accumulate in the ground and sediment. Some
heavy metals tend to accumulate in organisms, including ocean organisms; this accumulation can be
dangerous to the organisms themselves and for consumers of marine products. The principal sources of
heavy metals are various types of industries and automobile emissions. Heavy metals can also be transferred
to the ocean by effluent and through seepage from landfill sites. In addition, a considerable quantity from
natural sources are carried to the ocean. Research indicates that a major portion of heavy metals are
transmitted to the ocean through the air and thus they can be carried vast distances. This applies to mercury
pollution, which is the cause of some concern to Icelandic authorities, who have made an effort to have this
examined especially by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).
Mercury pollution increased greatly following the Industrial Revolution. Most of the pollution originates from
burning coal for energy production and from open-air incineration of refuse, especially in Asia and Africa.
The effects of this pollution are felt both locally and far from the source. Research has shown that mercury
has accumulated in the Arctic, where it enters the food chain and accumulates in animals. Mercury has,
among other things, a negative impact on neural system development.
There is no continuous monitoring of hydrocarbons (oils) in Iceland. Knowledge of the sources
of hydrocarbon pollutants in Iceland is insufficient and no comprehensive information on this
question is available.
Oils (hydrocarbons)
Hydrocarbons is a collective term for various substances, including petroleum (crude oil), various organic
solvents, greases and various types of wax. Many substances in hydrocarbons are carcinogenic and dangerous
to life forms. An estimated 2.3 million tonnes of oil enter the oceans each year. While part of this oil is natural
flow, the greatest share is of anthropogenic origin; an estimated 60% of the total amount of hydrocarbons
entering the ocean originates from land-based activities. All hydrocarbons dissolve to some extent in water, but
to a varying degree, and thus have varying effects on marine biodiversity. Both heavy and light hydrocarbons
can have toxic effects on marine biodiversity, destroy habitats and spoil marine products.
Generally speaking, pollution from nutrients off the Icelandic coast is not considered to be a
problem, with the exception of very limited areas and instances. Research on mineral salts in
Icelandic waters began before 1960, when they were intended primarily to assess the fertility
of Icelandic ocean areas. Knowledge of the routes through which nutrients reach the sea is fairly
good. In 1991 a summary of this research was published, which indicated that there was no
eutrophication in Icelandic waters and more recent research has confirmed these results.
Eutrophication caused by nutrients
Phosphates and nitrates are nutrients necessary for the ocean’s algae, which are the first link in the marine food
chain. Excessive quantities of nutrients in ocean waters, referred to as eutrophication, can result in a dangerous
chain reaction. The nutrients cause an inordinate increase in algae, which can mean that they are not utilised
by animals for food but instead sink to the bottom and decay. Their decaying can in turn lead to a lack of
oxygen, if the mixing of the sea is insufficient. A lack of oxygen can, in turn, cause the death of benthic species.
Excessive increase in algae can also cause the toxic substances that they generate to become a problem.
Excessive quantities of such substances can damage or kill other organisms, such as aquaculture fish. In many
parts of the world great quantities of nutrients find their way to the sea, often creating problems in enclosed
inland seas or other limited ocean areas. The primary anthropogenic sources of nutrients are effluent, waste
water from foodstuffs production, livestock raising and run-off of artificial fertiliser from agricultural regions.
2. 3 Climate change
The concentration in the atmosphere of the greenhouse gases has increased substantially;
carbon dioxide (CO2) for instance has increased by almost one-third since the beginning of the
Industrial Revolution. Much of this increase can be attributed to anthropogenic activities, in
particular to burning of fossil fuels and deforestation. The global mean temperature during the
past century has increased by 0.6°C and part of this increase can be attributed to the growing
anthropogenic greenhouse effect. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has
assessed greenhouse gas emission trends until the end of this century. The possibility of further
global warming is high. How great this warming will be depends upon future in greenhouse gas
emissions, but the IPPC estimates this will range from 1.4 to -5.8°C over the next 100 years.
Such changes would result in sea level rise and other changes to the conditions and
circumstances for life in the oceans.
Physical Features, Pollution
and Climate Change
17
Greenhouse gases
The main gases that cause the greenhouse effect are carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides and nitric
oxides, ozone, hydrofluorcarbons (HFCs), fluorcarbons (FCs) and sulphurflourides (SFs). With the exception
of fluorcarbons, these gases all existed in the atmosphere prior to the advent of man, but they comprise in
total less than 1% of the atmosphere.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Kyoto
Protocol to this Convention are intended to prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with
the climate system and thus ensure that world food production will not be threatened and that
sustainable economic development can continue. Furthermore, the Convention is aimed at
encouraging international co-operation on adaptation to climate change. The Parties are
obliged, collectively and individually, to prevent an increased anthropogenic greenhouse effect
and protect and increase reservoirs of carbon in the earth’s ecosystems.
In parallel to Iceland’s ratification of the Kyoto Protocol to the UNFCCC in 2002, the Icelandic
government adopted a policy on measures to comply with the obligations of the Convention and
the Protocol. The policy includes proposals for actions in the coming years which will result in
decreasing emissions of greenhouse gases and increasing carbon sequestration through land
reclamation and reforestation.
Impact of climate change Iceland
It is difficult to predict climate change in small areas such as Iceland, because the changes will not be
manifest in the same manner everywhere in the world. The report of a scientific assessment panel on climate
change suggests that warming in Iceland in the coming decades could be around 0.3°C per decade, taking
into account the country’s location and depending upon greenhouse gas emissions and the physical
properties of the atmosphere and oceans. Fluctuations in temperature and climate are well known in Iceland,
where climatic conditions have varied considerably at different times in the country’s history. The country’s
location is a major climatic factor, as natural climate change are known to be greater here than in most other
locations. This makes forecasting climate change in Iceland difficult. Natural fluctuations can supplement
warming due to greenhouse gases or mitigate it, depending on whether these fluctuations are in phase or
not. If natural climate fluctuations during the coming decades result in cooling in the area around Iceland,
the average increase in global temperature may not result in warming in Iceland during the next 10-20 years.
On the other hand, if natural fluctuations tend towards warming, the total warming could become
considerably greater here than the global average. There is considerable uncertainty as to what effect
climate change will have on heat transfer to Iceland via the Gulf Stream and related currents, sometimes
referred to as the “conveyor belt”. Some climate models indicate that atmospheric warming could reduce the
strength of the conveyor belt, which would then result in less warming of the ocean areas around Iceland
than otherwise. Other calculations do not indicate that thermohaline circulation would be reduced as a result
of warming, while still other scenarios suggest that a major disruption could occur in its activity.
2. 4 Depletion of the Ozone Layer
In the early 1970s, concern arose as to the possible depletion of the ozone layer due to
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). These concerns were later shown to be well-grounded, and that
many other substances also cause depletion of the ozone layer. The international response to this
was the Vienna Convention on the Protection of the Ozone Layer, together with the Montreal
Protocol to the Convention, on substances causing the depletion. Iceland is a signatory of the
Convention and the Montreal Protocol. The Protocol includes provisions on the production,
consumption and trade in the ozone-depleting substances listed in its Annexes. The use of ozonedepleting substances has fallen sharply in Iceland. While the thinning of the ozone layer has
been considerable in the Arctic, the observed decrease over Iceland has been less than in most
other locations at similar latitudes.
Ozone and the ozone layer
Ozone is a gas which is found in the earth’s atmosphere. It is found in greatest quantity in the stratosphere,
at a height of around 20-50 km above the earth surface, where it forms the so-called ozone layer. Ozone
is formed and decomposes in the atmosphere. Emissions of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and related
substances from industrial and other activities disrupt the normal balance, with the result that more ozone is
decomposed than created. The greater the emissions of ozone-depleting 13 substances, the more rapid is the
thinning of the ozone layer. It is referred to as a hole in the ozone layer when this layer is substantially
reduced in certain areas.
The ozone layer is the earth’s sunblock. It protects humans, animals and vegetation against the harmful effects
of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. An increase in ultraviolet radiation at ground level causes a higher incidence
of skin cancer and can also increase the frequency of eye injuries, weaken the immune system of humans
and animals and slow the growth of plants on land and in the ocean.
18
The Ocean
3 The Ocean – Marine Biodiversity and Sustainable Development
3. 1 Life in the Oceans
A diversified marine environment is a precondition for life on earth. During the course of the
earth’s development an enormous diversity of life forms has been created. Human activities have
a great effect on ecosystems and have resulted in the extinction of species. This has been, to a
greater degree, due to the destruction of biologically diverse ecosystems and disruption of
habitats. According to estimates extinction of species has been greater than at any other time
during the past 60 million years. Although it is not completely clear what the impact of such
disturbance to the earth’s life forms will have, it is clear that it will reduce the possibilities of the
biosphere to respond to setbacks and in so doing reduce the possibilities for life forms, including
humans, to survive under new and changed conditions.
Ecosystems, biodiversity and habitats
An ecosystem is a specific area including the life forms, which live there, and the environment in which they
exist. Ecosystems are always changing, continually adapting to changed conditions to maintain a balance.
Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is a concept which applies to the millions of species of living organisms
on earth, their genetic material and ecosystems, i.e. the complex interaction of life forms with one another
and with their environment. 14 A habitat is the external environment in which a living organism exists and to
which it has adapted, where it finds food and shelter.
Around 270 species of fishes have been found in Iceland’s EEZ and some 150 species are
known to spawn there. The majority of fish species in Icelandic water are demersal species,
while there are relatively few pelagic species. Almost 2000 benthic fauna have been found and
identified within Icelandic jurisdiction. Two seal species, the harbour seal and grey seal, give
birth to their offspring here. At least seven species of toothed whales and five species of baleen
whales are common in Icelandic waters.
Food levels
The basis of life in the oceans, the first food level, is comprised of phytoplankton. Phytoplankton utilise solar
energy to produce organic material from non-organic, i.e. from water, CO2 and various nutrients. They have
a limited ability to move and are generally borne by currents in the ocean’s upper layers. Zooplankton, such
as calanus, form the second food level, feeding on the phytoplankton while serving as food themselves for
various other marine organisms. It could thus be said that the zooplankton transfer the primary production
to the fish, who cannot take advantage of it themselves. The third level in the food web is comprised of
species of zooplankton predators which live on other zooplankton, as well as fish fry, pelagic fish and some
types of whales. At the top of the food web are predatory species. Dead organisms and organic wastes are
decomposed by bacteria. The nutrient substances are dissolved and borne to the ocean’s upper layers where
they are recycled in further production. The ocean’s physical properties affect this cycle at all levels.
The main threats to biological diversity in Icelandic waters come from deterioration of habitats.
It is clear that fishing and fishing gear can disturb habitats, as does mineral extraction from the
ocean floor. It is also clear that environmental changes resulting from climate change or pollution
may threaten the ocean’s habitats and ecosystems.
With improved technology, increased research and knowledge, conservation of ocean areas
can become more focused and successful. Protection of ocean areas off Iceland through closure
of areas to fishing for longer or shorter periods has been practised for decades. The objective
of such efforts has been in particular to protect juvenile fish and important spawning grounds,
both of which are basic factors in the reproduction of fish stocks and their sustainable
utilisation.15 In connection with conservation of biological diversity, discussion of protection of
individual areas has increased. Such protection often focuses on habitats and their special
conservation.16
3. 2 Sustainable utilisation
In parallel with the growing pressure resulting from increased utilisation of the oceans, discussion
has also grown of marine life, its protection and utilisation. During the latter part of the last
century, states argued over arrangements for allocating rights and obligations concerning the
world’s oceans. The Convention on the Law of the Sea established a legal framework for marine
issues and is the only comprehensive international agreement on the law of the sea. By creating
the premises for managing utilisation of the oceans and marine life, the Convention marked a
major turning point in ocean issues.
Sustainable utilisation of living marine resources
is based on the concept of sustainable development. This implies that living marine resources should be used
to an extent that does not jeopardize their possibility of growth and reproduction in the future. This also takes
into consideration economic, social and environmental factors.
19
In many parts of the world, utilisation of marine resources has been subjected to scrutiny,
following which changes have been made to the objectives of resource management. The issues
that individual states wish to emphasise are to an increasing extent related to prioritising and
defining use of marine and freshwater areas, to clarify the relationship between different uses.
A more open and broader view of the entire marine environment and the impact of human
activities on it now characterises this discussion. Resource management aims to an increasing
extent to utilise living marine resources sustainably.
Iceland’s main forum for international co-operation in policy formulation and collaboration for
sustainable utilisation of living marine resources is within the Committee on Fisheries (COFI) of
the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the intergovernmental agency
with a mandate for utilisation of living marine resources. Upon establishment of FAO Fisheries
Department, its principal activities were assisting development and arrangements for fishing
under utilised fish stocks. Today, the main role of the department is to assist developing countries
in organising fisheries management, promote co-operation between states in arrangements for
fisheries, develop more ecologically friendly fishing techniques and in general increase
knowledge and disseminate information on fisheries to its member states. 17
FAO’s Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries and International Plans of Action
The Preface to the Code states that following major changes to the legal framework of utilisation of living
marine resources, such as the entry into force of the Convention on the Law of the Sea, enormous
technological advances in all areas and the development of a market-driven economic environment, an
urgent need arose for new concepts that could lead to sustainability and responsibility in utilising marine
resources. The Code is intended to comply with international laws and resolutions. The aim was to establish
non-mandatory principles and standards applicable to the conservation, management and development of
all utilisation of living marine resources.
FAO’s International Plans of Action (IPOA) are voluntary instruments elaborated within the framework of the
Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. They apply to all States and entities and to all fishers. Four IPOAs
have been developed to date: International Plan of Action for the Conservation and Management of Sharks,
International Plan of Action for the Management of Fishing Capacity, International Plan of Action to Prevent,
Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing and International Plan of Action for
Reducing Incidental Catch of Seabirds in Longline Fisheries.
FAO’s Fisheries Department is concerned with developing fisheries, fishing, processing and
marketing, following the principles of sustainable development. Work within the department
includes a variety of projects reflecting the new emphases and objectives, for instance on the
Code of Conduct, the drafting of International Plans of Action and the Reykjavík Conference on
Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem.
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international framework convention on the
conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. The Convention places certain
obligations on states for systematic registration and assessment of the situation of biological
diversity and for drafting of plans to ensure its conservation and sustainable use. Under the
Convention, work has been initiated on seven thematic work programmes, including one
addressing marine and coastal biodiversity, entitled the Jakarta Mandate. This programme
focuses especially on integrated marine and coastal area management, the sustainable use of
living resources, protected areas, mariculture and alien species. The programme strongly
advocates following the Decision by the Conference of the Parties to the Convention on an
ecosystem approach and its twelve basic principles.
The Convention on Biological Diversity
The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is one of two binding agreements adopted at the Rio Summit
in 1992; Iceland has ratified the Convention. The objective of the Convention is to conserve biological
diversity and encourage the sustainable utilisation of living resources. It also aims to encourage a fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources, including ensuring fair
access to them and opportunities to utilise them.
CBD provisions encourage conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity through relevant control
instruments, such as programmes and legislation. The Convention provides for member states to compile
national programmes to preserve biological diversity. It has, for instance, focused on the importance of
research and increased knowledge, as well as playing a role in establishing the ecosystem approach and
defining it as a basic method for conservation and utilisation of biological resources.
20
The Ocean
The UN General Assembly is the only global forum for ocean issues, and two resolutions are
submitted annually concerning the oceans and ocean issues. These are, on the one hand, the
so-called omnibus Law of the Sea resolution, on ocean issues in general, and, on the other, the
so-called fishing resolution, which originated with the merging of resolutions on the UN Fish
Stocks Agreement and on drifting gill nets.
UN Fish Stocks Agreement is the basis for international fisheries management and for conservation
of straddling and highly migratory fish stocks. It forms a framework for co-operation between
coastal states and high sea fishing states through regional fisheries organisations or arrangements
for the conservation and management of fishing from such stocks. It is intended to ensure their longterm conservation and sustainable utilisation.
The UN Fish Stocks Agreement
For the sake of simplicity, the United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United
Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and
Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks is referred to as the UN Fish Stocks
Agreement. By far the greatest number of fish stocks caught on the high seas are either straddling stocks, i.e.
stocks which dwell both within and outside of national jurisdictions, or highly migratory stocks. Examples of
straddling stocks are the Atlanto-Scandian herring stock, oceanic redfish on the Reykjanes Ridge, the blue
whiting stock and the Barents Sea Cod Stock. The main highly migratory fish stocks are the tuna stocks in many
parts of the world. The essence of the UN Fish Stocks Agreement is its rules that coastal states and high-seas
fishing states shall co-operate through regional fisheries organisations and arrangements on the conservation
and management of fish stocks that are both within and outside national jurisdictions. The Convention provides
a framework for such co-operation. The stated objectives of the Convention are to ensure the long-term
conservation and sustainable use of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks through effective
implementation of the relevant provisions of the Convention, which comprises five main sections.
The first section contains the general principles upon which conservation and management of the stocks is
to be based, including provisions on a precautionary approach, providing for states to be especially
cautious when information is uncertain, unreliable or inadequate. The second section, and core of the
Agreement, are the rules on mechanisms for international co-operation. It provides for co-operation between
coastal states and states fishing on the high seas, through regional fisheries management organisations and
arrangements. The third section states that conservation and management measures established for the high
seas, on the one hand, and areas under national jurisdiction, on the other, shall be compatible. The fourth
section contains provisions on surveillance and enforcement, and the fifth and final section of the UN Fish
Stocks Agreement includes provisions for peaceful resolution of disputes.
The UN Open-ended Informal Consultative Process on Oceans and the Law of the Sea was
established late in 1999, following a decision by the Committee on Sustainable Development. This
process, which was established for a three-year period, was originally intended to prepare and
enhance discussion at the UN General Assembly on Ocean issues and the Law of the Sea, making
proposals as to where co-operation and consultation could be improved. Here it is thus possible to
discuss all ocean issues, including resources, the ocean area and marine navigation. Since its
establishment, there has been discussion of land-based ocean pollution, sustainable fisheries
management, marine research, piracy, conservation of the marine environment, assistance to
developing countries in ocean conservation and sustainable utilisation, and protection of sensitive
ecosystems. In its efforts in this forum, Iceland has stressed the need for keeping discussion within
the framework of the provisions of the Convention on the Law of the Sea.
In preparation for the Johannesburg Summit on Sustainable Development, an international
conference on responsible fisheries in the marine ecosystem was held in Reykjavík in 2001. The
Conference was held by FAO at the invitation of the Icelandic government and with the support
of the Norwegian government. The Conference played a major part in introducing the content
and concept of an ecosystem approach into fisheries management. This approach implies that
utilisation of marine resources should be managed from a wider perspective than that of simply
considering commercial fish stocks. The result of the meeting was the Reykjavík Declaration on
Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem. This declaration was introduced and discussed
at the Johannesburg Summit.
The Declaration marks a turning point because, in adopting it, the world’s leading fishing nations
declare that consideration should be given to the ocean ecosystem in conservation and
management of living marine resources. It confirms that this involves taking into consideration the
impacts of fisheries on the marine ecosystem and the impacts of the marine ecosystem on fisheries.
Substantial weight is also placed on other aspects that affect natural fluctuations in the ocean and
ocean ecosphere, such as pollution and other negative environmental impacts. Special emphasis
is placed on assisting developing countries in achieving sustainable fisheries and, in particular,
in increasing the participation of international financial institutions in such assistance.
Marine Biodiversity and
Sustainable Development
21
Ecosystem approach
At the WSSD in Johannesburg in 2002, this concept was defined as: “the comprehensive integrated
management of human activities based on best available scientific knowledge about the ecosystem and its
dynamics, in order to identify and take action on influences which are critical to the health of the ecosystems,
thereby achieving sustainable use of ecosystem goods and services and maintenance of ecosystem
integrity.”18 At the Summit, States set themselves the objective of working towards the general adoption of
such practices no later than 2010.
In many parts of the world fisheries management has not achieved its objectives since it is
difficult to keep total catches within predetermined limits. Avid captures by a large and powerful
fishing fleet and increased fishing pressure with extensive fishing capacity, has resulted in many
sorts of inefficiency and waste, and presents the greatest single threat to fish stocks, which can
influence other factors in the marine ecosystem.
The precautionary approach
Governments often have to formulate their policy or take decisions before definitive scientific findings are
available. In such instances they must proceed cautiously. This approach was stated as follows in Principle
15 of the 1992 Rio Declaration: “In order to protect the environment, the precautionary approach shall be
widely applied by States according to their capabilities. Where there are threats of serious or irreversible
damage, lack of definitive scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective
measures to prevent environmental degradation.” This approach has also been implemented directly in
international agreements, for instance in Article 3 of UNFCC. The application of the precautionary approach
towards utilising living marine resources is defined for instance in Article 6 of UN Fish Stock Agreement. It
should be mentioned that there is no essential difference between references to the “precautionary principle”
as in the Rio Declaration and to the “precautionary approach” or “precaution” in other agreements. In all
cases what is being discussed is the response when faced with lack of definitive scientific certainty.
New emphases in fisheries management have been gaining sway internationally. They are
based in part on the objectives of sustainable utilisation of marine resources, permanent and
transferable quota shares and the use of economic incentives, in addition to which increasing
efforts are made to base research and advice on a multi-species approach. The possibilities of
these routes leading to success lie primarily in ensuring more adequately that total catches are
kept within predetermined allocated limits. The use of permanent and well defined rights also
include motivation for profitable fishing, in the form of lower fishing pressure, since the
competition for catches is removed. Iceland has led the way among states introducing such
fisheries management methods and Iceland’s fisheries management has attracted interest in
many parts of the world. It has been pointed out, inter alia in an OECD assessment, as one of
the few methods in the world encouraging sustainable utilisation of fish stocks.
Catch Control Rule
To ensure further protection of commercial fish stocks in Icelandic waters, a catch rule for cod was introduced
in 1995 and has been under continuous review since that time. The catch rule follows a precautionary
approach, in that fishing is kept to a level that accords with the productive capacity of the fish stocks, keeping
in mind uncertainty, for instance, as to the size and reproduction of these stocks. The catch rule was also
developed in the spirit of the ecosystem approach insofar as it takes into consideration the interaction of
different species. The advent of the catch rule further ensures sustainable utilisation of fish stocks.
The essence of national legislation in nature and environmental conservation is to achieve
sustainable development, prevent pollution and conserve the special and vulnerable aspects of
the country’s nature and life forms, terrestrial and aquatic. Iceland is a signatory to international
conventions and agreements concerning the protection of the environment that are relevant to
Iceland.18
The Fisheries Management Act is the cornerstone of the current system of fisheries management
in Icelandic waters. The Act aims at promoting the conservation and efficient utilisation of fish
stocks, thereby ensuring stable employment and settlement throughout Iceland. The Act is
intended to provide the principles for fisheries management and to create a foundation for
efficient and rational utilisation of fish stocks, in order to provide maximum resource yield for the
country as a whole. These objectives thus fit in well with the concept and objectives of
sustainable development.
In the area of fisheries management there are a number of other acts that are no less important
than the Fisheries Management Act itself. In addition, a large number of regulations which play
an important role in implementation of the concepts, have been issued based on these laws.19
22
The Ocean
Jurisdiction and management of fisheries in Iceland
National jurisdiction over fishing banks and their management developed in Iceland in stages throughout
the 20th century, with a major turning point in 1976, when the 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone
became a reality. The period after 1976 was characterised by actions aimed at developing management
of fisheries in order to make them both cost-efficient and sustainable with regard to utilisation of the
resources. With the extension of its exclusive fishing zone to 200 nautical miles, it became clear that Iceland
would have to adopt new rules on management of commercial stocks. Legislation in this area was thoroughly
revised and the Act on Fishing in Iceland’s Exclusive Fishing Zone was adopted in 1976. This affirmed that
fishing was to be based on scientific assessment of the condition of the fish stocks. The annual catch of main
commercial stocks often considerably exceeded scientific advice, and many amendments were made to the
legislation and regulations on fisheries management.
In 1984, catch quotas were introduced for demersal species. A catch quota was allocated to each vessel,
based on its share of the total allowable catch (TAC) and the catch of the vessel in the preceding three years.
In 1985 a system of catch quotas was introduced in demersal fisheries for those vessels which preferred this
option rather than effort restrictions.
Demersal catch exceeded scientific advice during this period, both because the TACs set were higher than
recommended, and the catch itself exceeded the total established catch limits.
A detailed and comprehensive Fisheries Management Act was adopted in 1990. It is based on a system of
invididual transferable catch quotas, were each vessel allocated a permanent quota share. A vessel’s annual
catch quota is thus determined by the TAC for the species concerned, and the vessel’s permanent share of
that total. Since 1991, a number of changes have been made to the Fisheries Management Act which have
limited the right to transfer and the maximum quota share of individual vessel operators. In the spring of
2002, the Icelandic Althingi passed a law providing for the introduction of a fishing fee, assessed on harvest
rights allocated within and outside Icelandic EEZ in 2004.
To support the effectiveness of the fisheries management, a variety of other conservation and precautionary
measures have been taken concerning fish stocks. In the first place, large areas regarded as the principal
spawning and rearing grounds for juvenile fish are protected on a year-round or temporary basis from
fishing using bottom-trawl or midwater trawl. Cod spawning grounds are in addition protected for several
weeks in late winter at the peak of spawning. Additional rules have been adopted, for instance on the
selectivity of fishing gear, undersize catch and registration of catch in catch log books.
Since 1945, around 30 regional fisheries management organisations have been established, in
addition to a fair number of international agreements and other co-operation in this field. These
efforts have been supported by international conventions, including the Convention on the Law
of the Sea, followed by the Fish Stock Agreement, Chapter 17 of Agenda 21 from the Rio
Summit and FAO’s Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. These all emphasise the
importance of co-operation between states in fisheries management to better ensure responsible
and sustainable fisheries. The success of this co-operation has varied for a number of reasons,
such as disagreement on references, lack of information and research, disputes over national
catch quotas, and the participation of new parties, it should however, be borne in mind that in
general it can be difficult to measure success in this context.
Regional co-operation in fisheries management
Iceland is a party to various of regional arrangements on fisheries management in the North Atlantic, including:
North-East Atlantic Fisheries Commission (NEAFC): The Commission discusses utilisation and management
of fisheries in the North-East Atlantic, with the aim of maximising yield of stocks and protecting them from
over fishing. Co-operation covers straddling stocks, with the exception of anadromous species. The
geographical scope is the North-East Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, and the Barents Sea.
Northwest Atlantic Fisheries Organization (NAFO): This organisation aims to protect and maximise yields
of shared fishing resources in the North-West Atlantic. The International Commission for the Conservation of
Atlantic Tunas, (ICCAT), is responsible for conservation and scientific advice on fishing tuna and related
species in the Atlantic Ocean and adjacent seas.
There are also bilateral and multilateral agreements on the management of joint stocks, such as the capelin stock.
An important aspect of international and regional co-operation is to reduce and prevent illegal,
unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing and considerable success has been achieved in this
area. Co-operation of states within the UN system, FAO’s Fisheries Department in particular and
regional organisations is important in this connection.
Marine Biodiversity and
Sustainable Development
23
3. 2 i. Commercial fish stocks
The world’s fisheries are an important food source; on a global scale, an estimated 15% of all
animal protein in human food originates from fisheries.20
Capture fisheries and aquaculture
Global fish catches in 2001, not including aquaculture production, amounted to 92.4 million tonnes, which
is the highest ever. Aquaculture has been growing rapidly in recent decades, and its share in the total supply
of fish products has grown from 4% in 1970 to around 27% in 2000, when a total of 35 million tonnes
were produced. Growth in aquaculture is more rapid than in any other type of food production. This has
resulted in increasing employment in fisheries, principally aquaculture in many states. In 2000, fisheries and
aquaculture were the primary employment for an estimated 35 million people, compared with 28 million ten
years earlier. Changes are on the way, however, since employment in fishing and aquaculture is decreasing
in the most industrialised areas, such as Europe and Japan.
In parallel to the growth in global fisheries the general development of fish stocks in the ocean has
been a decrease in the number of under utilised and moderately utilised stocks; the number of fully
utilised stocks has remained steady, while there has been an increase in over utilised and weakened
fish stocks. FAO’s overview report (SOFIA) of 2002 estimated that around 25% of the world’s main
commercial fish stocks for which information was available, were under utilised or moderately
utilised, and that it is these stocks that in particular are the basis of increased ocean fishing. Around
47% of the main ocean stocks and species are fully utilised. These stocks are currently producing
as much as possible, taking the sustainability of the stocks and species into consideration. It should
be pointed out that, although stocks are fully utilised, they can nonetheless be growing. An
estimated 18% of fish stocks and species are over utilised and fishing from these stocks is not likely
to increase under current conditions, but rather more likely to decrease. Around 10% of fish stocks
are stocks that are recovering after having been depleted by over fishing and are thus not
producing as they should. It should be borne in mind, when discussing the situation of fish stocks
and species, that their situation varies depending upon the ocean region, and even from one area
to the next within certain regions. Furthermore, the situation of individual stocks in the same ocean
area can differ greatly. The situation of fish stocks in Icelandic waters is generally good, and
considerable success has been achieved in building up stocks in recent decades.During the past
century, annual Icelandic catches grew from just over 50,000 tonnes to around 2 million, with by
far the greatest share caught in Icelandic waters. These large catches have placed Iceland among
the world’s leading fishing nations. In 2001, Iceland was ranked 12th, with 2.1% of the global
catch. The fifteen leading fishing nations catch around 70% of the global catch in terms of quantity.
In 2001 these nations were, in descending order: China, Peru, USA, Japan, Indonesia, Chile,
India, Russia, Thailand, Norway, South Korea, Iceland, Philippines, Denmark and Viet Nam.
Icelandic Fisheries
During the early decades of the 20th century, Iceland’s catches were primarily ground fish species and were
well under 400,000 tonnes. Cod was by far the most important species, followed by haddock and pollock,
while the herring fishery emerged as a major factor soon after the end of World War I. During the latter half
of the 20th century, cod continued to be the most important demersal species, with haddock also in demand,
while Icelandic fishing for redfish and pollock increased substantially. The greatest increase, however, was
in pelagic fishing. During the past two decades fishing of flatfish and pelagics has expanded greatly.
Whaling in Icelandic waters was carried out from land stations with some interruptions for approximately one
century, or until 1989. In 1986 a decision by the International Whaling Commission to place a moratorium
in commercial whaling entered into force. In accordance with the provisions of the International Convention
for the Regulation of Whaling, however, a limited number of sei and fin whales were caught for scientific
purposes 1986-1989. Since 1990 no large whales have been caught in Iceland. Minke whales were pursued
from small motorboats in Icelandic waters for most of the past century. Due to the prohibition against
commercial whaling, however, no catching of minke whales was allowed in Icelandic waters after the end of
the 1985 season until 2003, when a decision was taken to commence minke whaling for scientific purposes.
Fishing by Icelandic vessels in distant waters has increased markedly in recent years. In 2002,
the catch from straddling stocks was 1,513,932 tonnes, with a value of ISK 18.7 billion, or
around 24.3% of the total value of Icelandic marine catch that year.
Table 1. Icelandic catches from straddling stocks in 2003, quantity and value.21
Species
Barents Sea cod
Deep-sea redfish
Oceanic redfish
Flemish Cap shrimp
Herring
Blue whiting
Capelin
Total
24
The Ocean
Quantity
(1000. tonnes)
5.960
43.063
5.335
4.804
117.910
501.494
680.291
1.358.857
Value
(ISK millions)
831.791
2.888.610
328.293
617.480
1.930.742
3.441.615
5.071.662
15.110.193
Since a number of states fish these stocks, emphasis has been placed on reaching agreement
on comprehensive management of these fisheries. To this end, Iceland has been an active
participant in regional fisheries management organisations in the North Atlantic and elsewhere,
in addition to its co-operation with states with interests at stake in fishing from joint stocks. The
success of this important co-operation has varied. It is important to make such co-operation as
successful as possible, however, and to this end the advantages and disadvantages of these
efforts are being reviewed in a wider context and for instance, placing increasing emphasis on
an ecosystem approach.
Icelandic authorities have stressed in all international co-operation and negotiations concerning
trade in marine products that all such trade needs to be liberalised. In addition to discrimination
and restrictions on free trade, intervention has also resulted in over-investment in fisheries,
excessive fishing capacity of fishing fleets and pressure on fish stocks throughout the world.
Barriers to trade and subsidies have reduced possibilities for states to achieve the objectives of
sustainable fishing.
3. 2 ii. Aquaculture
From about 1980, there was extensive investment in connection with developing salmon farming
in Iceland, with disappointing results. Since then, salmon production in Iceland has scarcely
increased while production in competing countries, such as Norway, Scotland and the Faroe
Islands, has grown enormously. In 2002 global farmed salmon production amounted to over 1
million tonnes, of which Norway produced 430,000 tonnes while Iceland contributed only
around 1,500 tonnes.
In recent years, there has been a new trend, with major fisheries companies moving into
aquaculture and investing in developing salmon farming. They plan on further expansion in the
next few years. An increase in ocean temperature recently has had a positive impact on salmon
farming.
Fisheries enterprises have invested in research on cod farming. This includes both experiments
in catching live fish for on-rearing, and also raising juveniles produced by an experimental
hatchery which has carried out extensive research for the past 16 years on raising marine
species. The experimental farming station has developed a turbot hatching stock that now
produces some 150,000 turbot juveniles annually. Production of halibut juveniles has been very
successful. In 2002 Iceland produced some 400,000 juveniles, or about one-third of world
production. Two Icelandic enterprises produce abalone for export. The abalone is transported
live to Japan. Several undertakings have also begun experiments with mussel aquaculture, and
one in rearing spotted wolf fish.
From the above it is evident that, although farming of fish and other marine species has not been
a major industry in Icelandic waters, its significance has increased in recent years and it can be
expected to expand significantly. The Ministry of Fisheries report from 2002, on a five-year
programme to increase the value of marine catches and add value to marine products, forecasts
that in 2012 the export value of aquaculture will be ISK 36 billion, up from ISK 1 billion in
2001. There are many factors involved here, not least increased knowledge of the biological
and technological factors, and knowledge of additional species suitable for farming, which can
facilitate the adaptation of aquaculture to Icelandic conditions.
Two Ministries are directly involved in aquaculture: the Ministry of Agriculture, concerning
freshwater species and Ministry of Fisheries for marine species. The Ministry for the Environment
is also involved in granting operating licences.
3. 2 iii. Biotechnology
There are high expectations of biotechnology, a field where development is dependent upon
research, innovation and exploitation of know-how. The report from the Ministry of Fisheries on
added value of marine products anticipates that biotechnology will be an important part of
increased value creation in the future, and its share could increase from ISK 300 million in 2002
to ISK 11 billion in 2012. Using biotechnology methods, marine products can be better utilised
than is currently the case, to produce various more valuable products. Research in this area has
made rapid advances recently and the interest shown by producers in taking advantage of these
methods has increased. This can involve the use of biotechnological methods in processing or
utilisation of living organisms or parts of them to produce various products.
Marine Biodiversity and
Sustainable Development
25
4. The Ocean – The Sea Bed, Navigation and Tourism
There has been very little utilisation of the ocean area around Iceland and its resources, with the
exception of fishing banks. Sea bed extraction has been very limited and the conditions do not
yet exist for petroleum extraction. Authorisation has been granted, however, for exploration of
the Icelandic continental shelf in search of hydrocarbons and the government has begun
preparation for possible granting of research and development permits. No decision has yet
been taken, however, on granting of such permits.
The ocean has always been used for travel and transport. Through the ages Icelanders regarded
the ocean as their main link to other countries. Today, an increasing number of cruise ships stop
in Iceland. The ocean, its coastline and marine life attract both Icelandic and foreign travellers
and development of services linked to nature excursions has been increasing. Non-traditional
uses of the ocean are considered likely to increase, such as in connection with tourism and
outdoor leisure, nature excursions and sport fishing.
Up until now there have hardly been any conflicts or overlap between such activities and
utilisation or treatment of the ocean around Iceland. Looking ahead to the future, however, we
can expect such overlaps to increase.
4. 1 Utilisation of sea bed resources
Utilisation of resources on or under the sea bed will increase in the near future, both on the
Icelandic continental shelf, in the open sea, and on the continental shelves of other nations.
Utilisation of sea bed resources has an environmental impact which varies depending upon the
circumstances and nature of the activity in each instance. The advent of a multibeam echo
sounder in the Marine Research Institute’s new research vessel has revolutionised the
opportunities for sea bed research in Icelandic waters. Work is now underway on mapping
selected areas of the sea bed in more detail than was previously possible. The results of sea bed
research can be put to use in a variety of applications. Examples of this are studies of environmental
disturbances from land-based or marine activities, or due to utilisation of the ocean resources,
which affect the sea bed. In addition, there are a great variety of studies of submarine geology
which can be used for research on possible utilisation of sea bed resources in Icelandic waters.
The Convention on the Law of the Sea provides the legal basis for the rights of states to utilise
resources on and under the sea bed. The OSPAR Convention contains various provisions on
structures at sea in connection with extraction, aimed at limiting the negative environmental effect
this causes. The Convention on Biological Diversity and the Berne Convention also include
protection of benthic communities and sea bed habitats.
Icelandic legislation on utilisation of resources on or under the sea bed is relatively recent. The
Act on the Entitlement of the Icelandic State to Sea Bed Resources, No. 73/1990, declares that
all resources on, in or under the sea bed, outside of the so-called net-laying area (60 fathoms
out from low-water line) and as far out to sea as Iceland’s sovereign jurisdiction extends, in
accordance with national law, international agreements or agreements with individual states,
shall be the property of the Icelandic state. In the Act in question, the concept of resource
includes all non-organic and organic sea bed resources apart from living organisms. According
to the Act, utilisation of sea bed resources is subject to the authorisation of the Ministry of
Industry. Up until now, authorisations have been granted primarily for gravel extraction, and
recently also for extraction of calcareous algae sediment from the sea bed.
The Nature Conservation Act, No. 44/1999, discusses extraction of minerals in Chapter VI,
including extraction off or from under the sea bed. It provides, for instance, for the Minister of
Industry to seek the opinion of the Environment Agency before granting authorisation for
extraction of materials from the sea bed, and extraction within the net-laying area is made
subject to an operating permit from the local authority concerned. Extraction of materials on the
sea bed is covered by the Act on Environmental Impact Assessment.
The Hydrocarbons Act, No. 13/2001, covers exploration, research and development of
hydrocarbons and their transport outside of the net-laying area in Iceland’s territorial waters and
EEZ and on its continental shelf. In the Act, hydrocarbons refers to petroleum, natural gas or
other type of hydrocarbon found in natural deposits in the geological strata under the sea bed
and which are utilisable in gaseous or liquid form. According to the provisions of the Act, all
exploitable hydrocarbons outside of the net-laying area are the property of the Icelandic state.
All exploration for hydrocarbons, research on them or processing is subject the authorisation of
the Minister of Industry. Two permits for hydrocarbon exploration in Iceland’s EEZ have already
been granted.22
27
Consulting committee on continental shelf and oil exploration issues
A consultation committee under the auspices of the Ministry of Industry deals with continental shelf and oil
exploration issues. The committee is comprised of representatives of the National Energy Authority
(Orkustofnun) and the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, as well as representatives of the Ministry of Industry. The
committee’s role is as follows:
• to safeguard Icelandic interests in the area of oil and continental shelf issues, for instance, by
following the progress of oil exploration in nearby areas where conditions may be assumed to be
similar to those within Iceland’s EEZ;
• to monitor technological developments in oil exploration and development;
• to make proposals on policy to be followed in granting research and development permits on the
continental shelf and participate in formulating rules in this regard;
• to co-ordinate actions by Icelandic authorities in response to inquiries by petroleum exploration
companies and other parties concerning research and development permits within the EEZ;
• to make proposals on publicising the Icelandic continental shelf, to increase the interest of both
domestic and foreign parties in researching it;
• to represent the Icelandic authorities and look after communications with parties interested in research
and development permits in Iceland’s EEZ;
• to make proposals to the Minister of Industry concerning research projects in the field of petroleum
exploration and continental shelf issues financed by public funds, including annual budget allocations
for sea bed research;
• to represent Iceland in collaboration with Norwegian authorities and the Norwegian Petroleum
Directorate concerning the Jan Mayen area;
• to represent Iceland in collaboration with Danish and Faroese authorities concerning the Hatton-Rockall area;
• to encourage the preservation of continental shelf documentation in a single location and in an efficient
manner..
No permits have been issued for research and development of hydrocarbons based on the
Hydrocarbons Act, but work has begun in preparation for the possible granting of such a permit.
Among the aspects that need to be examined before permits are granted are various issues
concerning environmental and economic matters. The Act provides for the Minister of Industry
to seek the opinion of the Ministries of Fisheries and the Environment before granting a permit
for exploration, research or development of hydrocarbons. In granting a permit, care must be
taken to ensure that the utilisation of the resources takes both environmental and macroeconomic
perspectives into consideration, as well as whether utilisation has already begun in the near
vicinity.
4. 2 Navigation
Ocean travel is of major and wide-reaching significance for Iceland. The nation has traditionally
been and will continue to be highly dependent on ocean transport of products to and from the
country. Vessel traffic thus provides the basis for communication and trade with other states. It
is possible that climate change in the Arctic may result in shipping routes opening up through
Arctic regions, linking the Atlantic and the Pacific Oceans. This would result in greatly increased
traffic through Icelandic waters and providing services for such shipping could become an
important part of the Icelandic economy.
The frequency of accidents among seafarers, in particular in connection with fishing, is high in
a global context; statistics show that fatal accidents are more common among sailors and
fishermen than among other workers. The highest accident frequency among fishermen is found
in developing countries, where many factors, such as marine craft, know-how, rules and
surveillance are often very unsatisfactory. The international agencies particularly concerned with
security at sea are the International Maritime Organisation (IMO), the International Labour
Organisation (ILO) and FAO.23
In recent decades, major advances have been made in many areas of seafaring security. This
applies to Iceland, for instance, and is visible in stricter rules, surveillance and the vigilance of
seafarers themselves. In 2001, Althingi adopted a parliamentary resolution on a long-term
maritime safety programme. This was the first time a special, co-ordinated effort has been
proposed in maritime safety, based on a parliamentary resolution. The objective of the
programme, which was prepared as a co-operative effort of the social partners and the public
administration, was to improve the security of Icelandic vessels and their crews, as well as of
passengers aboard Icelandic vessels sailing in the Icelandic EEZ. Work on the action
programme was carried out from 2001-2003 and a draft programme has been prepared
extending until 2008. Maritime safety issues will be part of the national communications
programme as of 2004 onwards.
28
The Ocean
Accidents involving vessels at sea can result in a danger of pollution. A parliamentary resolution
adopted by Althingi provides for the drafting of rules on notification obligations and
demarcation of sailing routes for oil transport vessels and other vessels sailing in Iceland’s EEZ
with hazardous cargo. They would include, for instance, the right to immediately stop a vessel
if pollution were detected.
Transport of petroleum and petroleum products to Iceland.
Each year some 700,000-800,000 tonnes of petroleum and petroleum products are transported to Iceland.
By far the greatest portion of this transport goes through harbours in the southwestern Faxaflói bay area via
sailing routes along the country’s south coast. Oil is distributed by coastal shipping (and land transport) from
the Faxaflói area to other parts of the country. Along the south and west coast of Iceland there are important
spawning grounds for many commercial stocks and rich fishing banks. Oil leaking into the ocean along the
south coast as a result of an accident could damage the ecosystem and be spread by coastal currents far
west along the country’s coast in a very short time.
To follow up on the parliamentary resolution, the Minister of Transport and Communications appointed a
committee to take action on the resolution. In its conclusions, the committee proposed that the ocean area to
the south and west of Iceland be declared a special risk area, where seafarers were obliged to show
particular caution. Information on the area concerning sailing hazards and pollution prevention measures
would then be entered on sea charts and the requirement set that vessels give notice when sailing through
the area and of increased knowledge on the part of officers.
Discharge of vessels’ liquid ballast
Discharge of vessels’ liquid ballast involves a pollution risk. Such discharges mean a risk that alien species
will be transported between different and unrelated ecosystems. Such transport of alien species has been
known to have a very damaging effect on ecosystems and their life forms.
Under the auspices of the Ministry for the Environment an Acute Pollution Committee has worked
on guidelines for the authorities on how to respond to pollution accidents. The Committee has
delivered an interim report, which includes a great deal of information expected to be useful in
risk analysis and compilation of response plans, to enable more effective response to pollution
accidents at sea.
4. 3 Tourism
The tourism sector in Iceland has grown rapidly in the past few decades. In 2003 some 320,000
travellers came to Iceland, and total foreign currency earnings from foreign tourists were
estimated at ISK 37.3 billion.24 The tourism sector is second only to fisheries in foreign currency
earnings. Visits by cruise ships have increased greatly in number and in 2003 over 100 vessels
put into port in Iceland carrying some 53,000 passengers. Nature excursions at sea, such as
whale-watching tours, are popular and have become an established part of this sector. Deepsea sport fishing and yachting are also increasing in popularity.
The ocean and coastal areas of the country are a major tourist attraction, due to the great natural
beauty of many areas and varied flora and fauna of the coast; their attraction will clearly
continue in the future. The importance of the ocean, its ecosystem and environment is thus
incontestable for the further growth and flourishing of the tourism sector in Iceland. Work is
underway on a new tourism strategy aimed at encouraging further growth of the sector.
The Sea Bed, Navigation
and Tourism
29
5. The Ocean – Development Co-operation
Through its participation in international development co-operation and by adopting
international conventions, the Icelandic government commits it self to contributing to development
co-operation in fisheries. Most developing countries still have some way to go in the area of
fisheries management and on marine environmental issues. In most cases, little is known about
the state of fish stocks, monitoring and surveillance is unsatisfactory and IUU fishing is common.
If action is not taken to rectify the situation, the number of over fished stocks will increase.
According to FAO, 95% of the people involved in fisheries and aquaculture are in developing
countries, and they fish almost 60% of the global catch. The number of people employed in
fisheries and aquaculture in the world more than doubled in the last 30 years of the 20th century,
from 13 million in 1970 to 36 million in 2000. In terms of value, around half of the fish products
exported come from developing countries.
Pollution and increased pressure on the earth’s resources has had a widespread effect on basic
aspects of the biosphere, including the ocean. Changed conditions for economic development
and habitation often hit hardest the poorest segment of the population in the world’s poorest
countries. As understanding of human impact on nature grows, the nations of the world have
had to pay increased attention to the fact that the actions of one nation affect others.
Uncontrolled and unsustainable resource utilisation in one country, or in one part of the world,
has also a substantial impact on people’s conceptions of and confidence in resource utilisation,
even if this is well managed elsewhere and in the spirit of sustainable development. Increased
development assistance, based on the principles of sustainable development thus serves the
interests of both developing and developed countries.
The Convention on the Law of the Sea provides for special consideration to be given to the
interests and needs of developing countries, in addition to which the very objectives of the
Convention serve the interests of these nations as well as the others. The Convention’s provisions
also provide for member states to support assistance programmes for developing countries in
science, education, technology and other areas to protect and conserve the ocean areas and
prevent, reduce and monitor ocean pollution. The UN Fish Stock Agreement recognises a special
need for providing developing countries with financial, scientific and technical assistance to
ensure they are capable of managing and utilising straddling stocks and highly migratory fish
stocks. They should be provided with assistance in achieving the goals of conservation and
utilisation, and should not be burdened with excessive obligations, i.e. special consideration
should be given to their circumstances.
At the Rio Summit on environment and development, special attention was given to the relations
between environmental issues and resource utilisation and economic development, and welfare
of countries, particularly in the world’s poorest countries. The Rio Declaration points out that efforts
need to be made to improve the situation of poor developing countries and that the nations of the
world collectively bear responsibility to do so. It also provides for co-operation between states to
establish and maintain sustainable development by strengthening scientific understanding through
exchanges of scientific and technical expertise, and to encourage adaptation to new technology,
and technology transfer. Agenda 21 discusses development assistance in more detail and cooperation between states in this area. It points out, for instance, the importance of increased
education and practical know-how, and access of developing countries to international markets.
FAO’s Code of Conduct includes provisions stating that fair consideration should be given to
developing countries. This implies that states and institutions should recognise the special
circumstances and needs of developing countries and take measures in the area of finance,
technology transfer, job training and scientific co-operation aimed at increasing their capacity to
utilise their living marine resources as well as participate in high seas fishing.
The Reykjavík Declaration points out that most developing countries face substantial obstacles in
adopting the principles of the ecosystem approach, intended to ensure food security, social
development and sustainable utilisation of natural resources. In order for the developing countries to
take into account ecological factors in utilising living marine resources, the participating states issued
a declaration pledging to assist the developing countries with expertise, education and practical
experience in collecting and processing biological, oceanographical and ecological information and
in gathering data on fishing. This is an optimal opportunity to contribute towards improving and
advancing these states’ fisheries management.
In Johannesburg, the nations of the world reiterated their commitments from Rio and prescribed the
working procedures to be used to achieve the objectives of sustainable development. The
Johannesburg plan of implementation contains the recommendation that international financial
institutions increase their assistance participating in developing sustainable fisheries in the
developing countries. This recommendation fits in well with Iceland’s objectives at the meeting that is
aimed at strengthening and reinforcing the pillars of sustainable utilisation of living marine resources.
30
The Ocean
Iceland’s development assistance
Before the Icelandic International Development Agency, ICEIDA, was established in 1981, Icelanders worked
on fishing projects in developing countries under the auspices of FAO. When this work was at its peak, early
in the 1960s, a total of 27 Icelanders were involved in development projects in various parts of the world,
two of them working at FAO headquarters.
To begin with, ICEIDA’s development assistance consisted of research on fish stocks, after which the officers
on fishing vessels were provided with training, and most recently the focus has been on training people in
quality control of fish products and assistance with setting up the basics of fisheries management systems.
Since 2000, ICEIDA’s focus has moved away from fisheries projects.
In addition to bilateral co-operation between ICEIDA and several states, the Icelandic government has assisted
developing countries in the fisheries sector through the operation of the UN University Fisheries Training
Programme in Iceland. The Programme began in 1997, after the government assigned the task of operating
the programme to Marine Research Institute, in co-operation with the Icelandic Fisheries Laboratories, the
University of Iceland and the University of Akureyri, Iceland. A total of 62 students from 19 developing
countries completed a six-month training course during the first five years of the programme’s operation.
When Official Development Assistance by industrialised countries decreased during the last
decade of the 20th century and the beginning of this century, financing of fisheries programmes
were particularly hard hit. Experience of development assistance projects in fisheries was said
to be poor and such projects were considered more difficult than many others. Furthermore,
developing countries own contributions to fisheries issues were too little.
When the greatest funding was available for fisheries projects in developing countries, these
projects were of a different nature to those now in progress. During 1960-1980, technical
transfer was provided to enable countries to expand into new areas and improve their catch per
unit of effort (CPUE). Today, the greatest need is to develop the basic aspects of fisheries
management, stock assessment and general ecological research, in order to ensure sustainable
utilisation of resources. In some states, however, there is a need for measures to reduce the
capacity of the fishing fleet.
Developing countries have on occasion requested assistance from the Icelandic government in
fisheries matters. In most cases, it has not been possible to provide this assistance, as ICEIDA
has focused on a few countries, in order to avoid to spread its resources too thinly. It currently
has four co-operation countries, all of them in sub-Saharan Africa: Namibia, Mozambique,
Malawi and Uganda. The advent of the UN University Fisheries Training Programme has offered
one possibility for responding to requests from countries for assistance, but this has always been
limited to the training that a six-month course of study can provide.
The Icelandic government has in recent years devoted limited attention to development
assistance in the form of co-operation with international agencies concerned with ocean issues.
In 2001, however, the Icelandic government was the primary sponsor of the Reykjavík
Conference on Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem in co-operation with FAO.
Furthermore, the Icelandic government has, for several years, contributed to a special advisory
fund of the World Bank that is used to sponsor consultants from the donor countries of whom the
Bank has a need for.
Various NGOs have for many years concerned themselves with co-operation with developing
countries, multilateral development institutions, development assistance organisations and
development banks in the area of ocean environment. In some areas of development cooperation there has been positive collaboration between NGOs and multilateral development
institutions on environmental issues.
Development Co-operation
31
6. The Ocean – Icelandic Government Policy
Utilisation of natural resources has served as the basis for Icelanders’ sustenance ever
since the country was settled. Utilisation of living marine resources, in particular, has long
ensured the sustenance and welfare of Icelanders. In light of the importance of marine resources
for Iceland, the government must adopt a clear and responsible long-term policy.
The principal objectives of Icelandic policy on the ocean are to maintain the ocean’s health,
biodiversity and productive capacity, in order that its living resources can continue to be utilised
sustainably. This means sustainable utilisation, conservation and management of the resource
based on research, technology and expertise, directed by respect for the marine ecosystem as
a whole.
Active participation and initiative in international fora makes it possible to positively
influence currents and trends in discussion of marine issues. It is important to gather support for
the principles of sustainable development, and to encourage all states to improve their
management of the marine ecosystem. Iceland and its policy should serve as an example for
other States, and contribute to Iceland’s credibility with regard to utilisation of marine resources.
The policy is based on three pillars. Firstly, on the United Nations Convention on the Law of
the Sea, which provides a legal framework for ocean issues and, a basis for the management,
conservation and utilisation of the ocean area both within and beyond of Icelandic jurisdiction.
Secondly, on the principle of sustainable development, the basis of which was established at the
1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro. And
thirdly, on the principle that responsibility for the conservation and utilisation of marine
ecosystems is best placed in the hands of those States directly affected by the decisions taken
and have the greatest interests at stake.
The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea provides the legal framework for
ocean issues. The Convention lays down the principles for relations between States, in addition
to covering research, conservation, utilisation and management of the utilisation of marine
resources. It also places obligations on States concerning, for instance, measures to prevent
ocean pollution and participation in international ocean research. The Convention on the Law
of the Sea ensures Iceland full control of marine resources in its waters and creates the conditions
for utilising them in a sustainable manner.
Sustainable development is a basic objective of the Icelandic policy. It entails taking full
account of environmental, economic and social objectives when making decisions. The
conclusions of the Rio Conference, together with the international agreements and action plans,
which have been developed in its wake, lay the foundation for achieving this objective.
Responsibility for conservation and utilisation of marine ecosystems rests on the coastal
state or states concerned, and any states that utilise the ecosystems. Having the right to utilise
the resources of the marine environment carries with it the incentive and the responsibility to
maintain the health of the ocean and its resources, so that they can be utilised in to the future.
When more than one state must be involved, such as in the case of a common resource of
several states, a regional solution shall be sought among those states directly concerned. At the
same time, it is clear that numerous issues are of such nature that they can only be solved in a
broader, international forum.
In international co-operation, the Icelandic authorities should support the role of the competent
regional organisation where appropriate, and reiterate the authority and responsibility of
individual states and regional organisations in conserving and utilising marine ecosystems.
Discussions and decision-making concerning ocean issues may originate in individual states,
regional institutions or international institutions. Active efforts to gather support for Icelandic
views are thus necessary at all levels.
The Icelandic government will continue its efforts to prevent marine pollution. This issue
needs to be emphasised, for instance, through participation in the efforts of international bodies
and international agreements. While Icelandic waters are relatively unpolluted compared to
most other ocean areas, much of the pollution detected around Iceland originates from distant
33
sources, making responding to it the common interest of Icelanders and other nations bordering
on the Atlantic. Since pollution does not respect national boundaries, international co-operation
and multilateral agreements are prerequisites for success in pollution prevention.
Sustainable utilisation of resources, based on the principles of sustainable development, is
the key to rational and responsible conservation and management of living marine resources.
Management of the utilisation of living marine resources should be based on research, sciencebased recommendations and the development of a legal framework that clearly reflects the
concept and objectives of sustainable development. The marine ecosystem must be examined
using a holistic approach, in order for Icelandic policy to include all aspects of marine life. It
must be ensured that the utilisation of resources and other pressures on the marine ecosystem,
for instance due to pollution, do not exceed what the ecosystem can sustain. The best way to
achieve this is to develop practical applications of the ecosystem approach, applying it to
management of conservation and utilisation of living marine resources.
Research and expertise need to be strengthened, if resource utilisation is to be managed
rationally and responsibly with an ecosystem approach. The central concept of the ecosystem
approach is to take into consideration the impacts of fisheries on the marine ecosystem and the
impacts of the marine ecosystem on fisheries. Basic research on the ecosystem food web needs
to be improved and increased. It is important that government policy formulation and objectives
be realistic, and that the knowledge providing the basis for responsible use of the ecosystem
approach methodology is gathered and utilised for rational and informed decision-making. By
maintaining the current emphases and objectives, increased knowledge can be used to improve
resource management methods step by step.
Information on the marine ecosystem and its sustainable utilisation needs to be made
accessible. This includes information on sustainable utilisation of living marine resources,
biodiversity, the characteristics of different ocean areas and species, monitoring of marine
pollutants and contaminants in both marine catches and the sea itself, and the marking and
traceability of marine products. It is important that the information is presented clearly and is
accessible to the public on the Internet.
Iceland’s initiative in marine issues in international fora needs to be increased. To increase
support for the principles of sustainable development, States should be encouraged to improve
their management of the world’s oceans. In recent decades, a growing number of parties have
become concerned with the conservation and utilisation of natural resources. There is now
widening debate on marine issues, pressing for improved management of the oceans and
protection of their ecosystems. This is manifest in new multilateral resolutions and agreements, in
the agenda and work of international institutions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and
in the policies and actions of national governments. The Icelandic government devotes extensive
effort to taking the initiative and participating in discussions, resolutions, projects and cooperation as part of the effort to maintain the health of the oceans.
Co-operation on marine issues needs to be increased within the administration. It is important
that the Iceland's policy is clearly defined, accessible and used as guidelines in work on marine
issues, both domestically and abroad.
The Ministry of Fisheries is responsible for formulating and implementing a policy of sustainable
utilisation and conservation of living marine resources. When it comes to the protection of marine
biodiverity and ocean habitats, however, the responsibilities of the Ministry of Fisheries and
Ministry for the Environment overlap. Thus policy formulation in this area has to be carried out
through co-operation of these Ministries. The implementation of this policy can be expected to fall
primarily to the Ministry of Fisheries, since those mechanisms currently applied in managing the
utilisation and conservation of living marine resources will also be applied to encourage the
conservation of marine biodiversity and ocean habitats. The authorisation conferred by the Nature
Conservation Act to grant protection to ocean areas can also be applied in achieving the objectives
set. Protection against marine pollution is also an important aspect of biosphere conservation.
The Ministry for the Environment leads the way in shaping the content, emphases and
implementation of Icelandic policy concerning prevention of ocean pollution.
As regards Icelandic participation in international co-operation on ocean issues, these Ministries
consult and co-operate with the Ministry for Foreign Affairs that is responsible for international
and multilateral agreements, and for Icelandic participation in international organisations,
agencies, conferences and meetings that are not entrusted to other Ministries.
More active consultation is required between the Ministries for Foreign Affairs, the Environment
and Fisheries, focusing on defining Iceland’s policy in marine issues. Regular consultation
34
The Ocean
meetings between senior-level representatives of these Ministries will be held at least twice
annually. At these consultations, the Ministries are to review all their projects connected with
marine issues, as well as upcoming meetings and conferences and the main issues on their
agenda. Each of the Ministries can take the initiative in arranging consultation in preparation
for international meetings. In preparing for international meetings, the Ministries need to be
informed on the subjects or themes involved and evaluate whether and in what manner they can
jointly prepare for them. A co-ordinated common position and arguments, based on an overall
assessment of interests should be available before the meeting commences. All the Ministries
concerned should be informed of the results of the meetings. At the same time, regular
consultations with interested parties and NGOs should be increased.
Development co-operation in fisheries and environmental issues needs to be increased.
Support for the principles of sustainable development needs to be gathered in development cooperation fora through active participation in the debate on the means and ends of development
co-operation. Financial assistance for programmes in fisheries and environmental protection,
under the auspices of multilateral development institutions, needs to be increased.
Iceland’s participation in development programmes and co-operation with developing countries
on marine issues is an optimal route for influencing their policy formulation and emphasis in
marine issues, and can thus be to the advantage of both Iceland and developing countries in
the longer term. A great number of international agencies and NGOs work in the field of
development co-operation and have a major voice in shaping and winning support for specific
views and approaches in ocean issues. Iceland’s involvement in development co-operation in
this area is thus also important, so as to muster support for Icelandic views. Due to the extensive
and varied expertise in fisheries, resource management and marine biodiversity that Iceland
possesses, it is natural that specific and increased weight be placed on development cooperation in this field.
It is important to increase the involvement of the Ministries of Fisheries and the Environment in
policy formulation by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs on development co-operation.
A subsequent section will examine the primary objectives of the Icelandic government in ocean
issues that are based on maintaining the health and sustainability of the ocean surrounding
Iceland, in order to sustain and promote the nation’s welfare in to the future.
6.1 Ocean pollution and environmental change
For a country, that bases its existence to a large extent on utilisation of living marine resources, it
is important that the oceans and their resources be given sufficient protection against pollution and
other adverse anthropogenic environmental impacts. In addition to the negative impact on the
productivity of individual stocks, pollution can also have a negative impact on markets and the
value of Icelandic marine products, since the demands of consumers and the authorities for healthy
products are steadily increasing in parallel with discussion of contamination of marine products.
The Icelandic government’s policy, Welfare for the Future – Sustainable Development in Icelandic
Society. Policy Guidelines until the Year 2020, lays down the principles and general emphasis for
sustainable development in Iceland. It examines pollution issues and lists the emphasis and objectives
aimed at clean oceans, limiting anthropogenic climate change and protecting the ozone layer.
From the Icelandic government’s policy on sustainable development: Ways to achieve the objectives
of clean oceans, limiting anthropogenic climate changes and protecting the ozone layer.
• The concentration of contaminants in marine products from Icelandic waters should always be within
the strictest limits set by domestic or foreign health authorities.
• Release of contaminants from vessels and on-shore activities should be completely eliminated,
especially release of persistent organic pollutants (POPs), radioactive substances and heavy metals.
• Iceland should continue to be in the forefront of international co-operation and action against marine pollution.
• Iceland should take an active part in international co-operation aimed at preventing dangerous
anthropogenic interference with the climate system by reducing emissions and increasing sequestration
of greenhouse gases.
• Use of fossil fuels should be reduced.
• Icelandic expertise in utilising renewable energy sources should be shared with developing countries.
• Iceland should continue to be among those states leading the way in limiting the use and emission of
ozone-depleting substances.
• The use of ozone-depleting substances should be completely eliminated in Iceland by 2010.
Icelandic Government Policy
35
The levels of pollutants in Icelandic waters are very low. Part of the pollutants detected
here can be traced to human activities in Iceland, but the major portion originates elsewhere,
often from distant sources. The concentration of pollutants in marine products from Icelandic
waters is generally well below critical limits and appears to be decreasing, both as a result of
stricter measures adopted in Iceland and even more because many states have tightened their
regulations on emission of pollutants.
The lack of an overall assessment of the situation of the world’s oceans weakens
international political resolve to take action to protect them. While considerable information is
available on pollution in the world’s oceans, this is in piecemeal form and scarcely standardised.
This fact has hindered decisions on action at international level to protect the marine
environment. Iceland has proposed that an assessment of the situation be undertaken by the
United Nations. The United Nations General Assembly has decided to establish a process to
undertake this assessment, in close co-operation with international agencies concerned. The
conclusions of the process, which will be based on regional assessments where such are
available, will serve as a basis for strategic policy decisions by governments on protecting the
oceans against pollution and thereby laying a better foundation for sustainable utilisation of
marine resources. Iceland has offered to host an international conference to launch this
assessment process.
Climate change and the depletion of the ozone layer can alter the conditions for life forms in
the ocean around Iceland. The Icelandic government has made it a priority to participate actively
in international efforts concerning climate change. The response has also included a variety of
domestic measures, both intended to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases and ozone-depleting
substances, as well as actions aimed, for instance, at increasing the absorption of greenhouse
gases; research has been increased and data collection and provision has been augmented
substantially. Since the government has already adopted a policy on climate change that is
available for reference, this report includes no further discussion of the issue.
International co-operation on protection of the marine environment and active participation
by Iceland in international fora is important. International co-operation on measures to reduce
pollution is very important, especially since pollution is spread over great distances by air and
ocean currents without regard for national boundaries. Iceland’s international efforts have
primarily been within the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), the Arctic Council,
through the Council’s working group on the Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME),
the Convention for the Protection of the North-East Atlantic (OSPAR Convention) and the
International Maritime Organisation (IMO).
Policy aimed at preventing ocean pollution and its implementation is a
precondition for success. Despite the fact that pollution in the ocean surrounding Iceland is
insignificant and originates from distant sources, it is important that Icelandic legislation on
measures against ocean pollution be clear and effective. In such a case, Iceland is more justified
in demanding similar actions by other states. Most of Icelandic legislation against ocean
pollution is based on the international agreements that Iceland has ratified. The Icelandic
parliament has adopted an act on conservation of ocean and coastal areas. The act is intended
to protect the ocean and coasts against all types of pollution; it makes clearer and more detailed
provision for the scope and division of responsibilities among those parties who are to implement
the legislation. It also places increased responsibility on polluters.
In 2002 the government approved an action plan for measures to prevent ocean pollution
from land-based sources. A working group is preparing to follow up on the objectives and
emphasis of this plan, which is based on the Global Programme of Action on Land-based
Sources of Pollution (GPA). The Icelandic government stresses that the GPA needs further
international support, including financial support, to assure its implementation.
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6.1.i. Ways to achieve the objectives
- Research should be increased on the possible impact of pollution and other environmental
changes, together with monitoring of such changes in the ocean ecosystem and their economic
and social consequences. Public institutions involved in research and monitoring of the oceans
should co-ordinate their activities as much as possible, and work jointly on data and information
collection. In addition, it is important that consultation and co-operation be increased in
presenting information on monitoring and the results of scientific research.
- Efforts should be devoted towards furthering the Action Plan for measures to prevent ocean
pollution from land-based sources, for instance, by classifying coastal areas according to the
factors that primarily determine the local impact of sewage disposal, mapping the emissions of
POPs and heavy metals from wastewater outlets, mapping polluted spots and compiling an
evaluation of the concentration of nutrients near large aquaculture installations.
- Iceland should take an active part in the preparation of the Global Assessment of the Marine
Environment, emphasising that it focus on the pollution of the world’s oceans. The assessment
should not include areas already dealt with in other assessments.
- Iceland should promote international support for the implementation of the Global Programme
of Action for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land-based Activities (GPA). It should
be ensured that the international campaign for improved sanitation in developing countries,
adopted in Johannesburg, also include treatment of sewage before it enters the ocean.
- Financial support should continue for actions by the Russian Federation to reduce pollutant
releases into Arctic waters, in accordance with its National Programme of Action.
- Iceland should continue to work through UNEP for international action against the release of
heavy metals, POPs and other damaging anthropogenic substances into the oceans. This
requires both active participation in the work of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic
Pollutants, in UNEP’s Mercury Programme, and negotiations on a Strategic Approach to
International Chemicals Management (SAICM).
- Continuing emphasis should be placed on the importance of reducing even further release of
radioactive substances into the oceans, of putting a stop to releases from nuclear reprocessing
plants, and of placing added weight on actions aimed at reducing the danger of pollution from
radioactive waste in the Arctic Ocean.
- Co-operation between the countries of the Arctic Council on marine issues should be increased.
An important means of achieving this is the drafting of the Arctic Marine Strategic Plan under the
direction of the Council’s working group on Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME).
Icelandic Government Policy
37
6.2 Marine biodiversity and sustainable utilisation
Ever since Iceland began its efforts to obtain control and management of its waters, the
government’s principal objective has been to manage its living marine resources in a sustainable
manner. A second objective in utilising these resources has been to maximize their yield, and a
third to reinforce to the extent possible, employment and regional development. Iceland’s
experience shows that sustainable development and economic gain are not mutually exclusive,
but rather go hand in hand. Responsible and informed decision-making is an integral part of
Iceland’s policy.
Iceland's policy on sustainable development, Welfare for the Future – Sustainable Development
in Icelandic Society. Policy Guidelines until the Year 2020, lays down the principles and general
policy for sustainable development in Iceland. It discusses the sustainable utilisation of living
marine resources and preservation of biodiversity.
From the Icelandic government’s policy statement on sustainable development: Ways to achieve
the objectives of sustainable utilisation of living marine resources and preservation of biodiversity.
• Utilisation of fish stocks and other living marine resources should remain on a sustainable basis and be
based on the best available scientific findings.
• Where scientific findings demonstrate a need for limiting harvesting of certain stocks, such harvesting should
be based on the precautionary approach in order to achieve maximum sustainable yield in the long term.
• A long-term policy for utilisation of individual stocks should be developed, for instance, by using catch
rules and applying a multispecies approach wherever possible.
• The methods and management for the utilisation of living marine resources should take into
consideration the complex interactions in the marine ecosystem and aim at minimising the negative
impact of utilisation on marine biodiversity.
• Action should be taken to ensure that the biodiversity of habitat types and ecosystems in Iceland will be
maintained by protecting species of animals, plants and other organisms, the genetic resources they
represent, and their habitats.
• All utilisation of living natural resources should be sustainable.
• The precautionary approach and ecosystem approach should be applied in all operations that might
alter or disrupt ecosystems, in order to keep negative impact to a minimum..
Research and increased knowledge is a basic premise for achieving and
maintaining Iceland’s objectives in marine issues. Understanding and knowledge of
the ocean’s ecosystem enables Icelanders to assume the responsibility concerning the
management and utilisation of marine resources. Work by the Icelandic Marine Research
Institute, as well as the contribution of other research institutes and co-operation with scientific
institutes abroad, in particular the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), is
especially important in this respect.
Biological and ecological assessment of the oceans’ condition has been directed in particular at
the situation of individual commercial stocks and their utilisation. While this aspect will continue
to be of importance, consideration must also be had for new approaches that are primarily
characterised by a holistic ecological approach. This implies, for instance, showing increased
regard for the entire ecosystem in conservation and management of marine resources, in efforts
both in Iceland and abroad, as witnessed by the Reykjavík Declaration of the Food and
Agriculture Organization (FAO).
Utilisation of resources and environmental protection need to be integrated
through enhanced emphasis on an ecosystem approach. An ecosystem approach is
both a means to achieve specific objectives in improved resource management and a conceptual
basis. Its point of departure is ecological resource management in the spirit of sustainable
development, aimed partly at preservation of biodiversity, protection of ocean areas and
prevention of ocean pollution. Furthermore, it recognises the connections and interactions
between humans and the ecosystem.
Management of the utilisation of living marine resources in Icelandic waters has to a significant
extent reflected the elements comprising the ecosystem approach. Emphasis has been placed on
research and scientific harvesting advice, having regard to the interaction and interconnections
between different stocks and species in the marine ecosystem. Work is underway on developing
multispecies models, sensitive areas such as spawning grounds have been especially protected,
and rules are in effect limiting the use of specific types of fishing gear in certain ocean areas.
Temporary closures of fishing grounds are, inter alia, used to protect juveniles.
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Although the above-mentioned aspects are already in place, knowledge of the marine ecosystem
is far from extensive and comprehensive enough to enable management and utilisation of marine
resources while taking all ecosystem factors into consideration. It is, however, important to bear
in mind that progress must be made step by step, based on the best knowledge available. Further
development and application of the ecosystem approach thus depends on increased research
and knowledge.
The next step towards an ecosystem approach to marine resource management in Iceland
involves further development of multispecies models and their application for resource utilisation
and management. Research on the impact of utilisation needs to be increased, having more
regard for the impact of fishing gear on the marine ecosystem. Work is needed on the marine
ecosystem and protection of biodiversity and especially sensitive and diverse ocean areas off the
coast of Iceland must be defined and demarcated. The Iceland government has adopted the
objective of mapping biodiversity as one aspect of developing an ecosystem approach.
The government is well aware of the increased integration of resource issues, on the one hand,
and environmental protection, on the other. Iceland’s opportunities in these changing times lie in
taking the initiative and actively participating in international efforts to formulate future policy, to
the benefit of the oceans and Iceland’s future interests.
Areas in Icelandic waters that are considered sensitive and biologically diverse, and thus
in need of protection, must be defined. International interest in protecting ocean areas has
increased, in particular in connection with discussions on preservation of biodiversity. The
Icelandic government reiterates the necessity of protecting ocean areas that are considered
special or sensitive, following a comprehensive policy based on research and expertise.
Decisions on protection must be controlled exclusively by the state with jurisdiction over the area
in question, or jointly by those coastal states concerned when ocean areas beyond the exclusive
economic zones of states are to be protected.
The proposal is made here that protected areas be defined as those ocean areas where the
biodiversity, sea bed or ocean itself is given specific protection to achieve certain objectives. The
objectives of such protection can be very diverse. They could include protecting what is
considered as special or unique, protecting biological diversity and protection as part of
sustainable utilisation of living resources and reviving habitats.
Fishing capacity must be reduced. This is the primary threat to sustainable utilisation of
living marine resources, and is partly maintained through subsidies. Icelandic authorities have
for many years argued this point internationally and these efforts must be maintained.
Emphasis is placed on co-operative and co-ordinated efforts by states in increasing monitoring
of landings and trade in illegal catch. Catch figures are among the most important data used in
estimating stock size. Improving this data in order to support build-up of the oceans’ living
resources is of utmost importance. Over fishing and resource depletion influence discussion and
public opinion everywhere. It is thus beneficial for a fishing nation like Iceland, if fishing nations
are trusted in the international arena, for their efforts to pursue responsible fisheries.
It is important, within regional management organisations, to promote the
understanding that responsible and sustainable utilisation of living marine resources should be
based on scientific research and applied knowledge. Regional management organisations,
when entrusted with the task of managing utilisation of living marine resources, are the
appropriate forum in which to decide on and ensure rational resource management and
conservation.
Marine aquaculture is likely to increase in the near future. There is little doubt that Iceland
has extensive possibilities in marine aquaculture, but success will depend greatly on whether an
enabling environment is provided to promote growth in the sector by supporting research,
selective breeding, disease prevention, licensing and supervision.
It is important to work on comprehensive legislation for marine aquaculture. In drafting such
legislation, care must be taken to minimise potential threats to the marine ecosystem from such
mariculture, including disease, pollution, genetic contamination and the possible introduction of
alien species into the marine environment.
Biotechnological advances could result in the use of genetically modified species. It is vital
that such organisms are not released into the ocean. Possible genetic resources must be taken
into consideration in protecting and utilising ocean and sea bed resources.
Icelandic Government Policy
39
6. 2. i. Ways to achieve the objectives
- Icelandic policy calls for sustainable utilisation of all living marine resources.
- Work should be continued and expanded in developing an ecosystem approach to managing
human activity in the waters within Icelandic jurisdiction. This is aimed at limiting the disruption of
the marine ecosystem resulting from utilisation of marine resources and other commercial activity.
- Special emphasis should be placed on strengthening and expanding research aimed at taking
the entire marine ecosystem into consideration, including nutrients and the food web, species
interaction and the effects of predation.
- A special effort should be directed at research on the impact of fishing on the marine ecosystem
in Icelandic waters. Development and use of fishing gear and technologies that maximise
economic gain while minimising any negative environmental impact should be encouraged.
- Efforts should continue on liberalising trade in marine products on world markets, and
preventing measures leading to distortion of competitive positions.
- Work should begin on outlining policy concerning vulnerable marine areas around Iceland,
analysing the need for their protection. What areas need protection must be defined, for
instance, with due regard to national legislation and international guidelines.
- Work should also begin on preparing an Icelandic action programme for protection of
biodiversity, for sustainable utilisation of natural resources and on genetic resources. The
Ministry for the Environment shall direct the work on this programme. The Ministry of Fisheries
will perform a key role in its preparation and in policy formulation with regard to the oceans,
since the mechanisms available to achieve the objectives of such a programme are under the
auspices of that Ministry.
- The Icelandic government should continue its active participation in the UN open-ended
informal process, while ensuring that this process continues to be based on the Convention on
the Law of the Sea and related agreements.
- The Icelandic government should take the initiative, within regional organisations, in ensuring
that emphasis and decision-making on the utilisation and conservation of living resources be
based to an increasing extent on a more holistic view of the marine ecosystem.
- Iceland should be among those states leading the fight against illegal, unreported and
unregulated fishing (IUU). International co-operation such as through FAO and in regional
organisations is very important in this regard.
- In an effort to ensure the future of mariculture around Iceland, it is important to develop clear
and harmonised rules regarding all species. Very strict conditions should be established for
farming stations and other activities in connection with marine aquaculture, to prevent accidents
that might result in irreversible damage to the ecosystem.
- Regard must be shown for biotechnology interests in decision-making concerning the utilisation
and conservation of marine resources around Iceland. A policy should be adopted on
genetically modified marine organisms and how such organisms should be handled.
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6. 3 The sea bed, ocean transport and the travel industry
It must be ensured that activities on or under the sea bed show regard for the conservation
of the marine ecosystem as a whole and do not, for instance, threaten biodiversity or sensitive
spawning and rearing grounds of marine species. Since methods of research on the sea bed
and utilisation of its resources are making rapid advances, it can be regarded as highly likely
that utilisation of sea bed resources in Icelandic waters could increase substantially within the
span of several decades. The advent of improved technology enables better observation of the
areas concerned, for instance, for assessing possible environmental impact of activities on the
sea bed. It is important that such research be increased and those areas already utilised, or
which are to be utilised, be examined with particular regard to the impact of such utilisation on
the ecosystem. Such research and information are also very important when it comes to
evaluating areas for protection around Iceland.
The marine ecosystem around Iceland could be at risk from alien organisms from distant
and foreign ecosystems, transported here by ocean vessels. Organisms can be transported both
in the ballast water as well as through growth on and attachment to the hulls themselves. The
increased danger of pollution resulting from transport of pollutants, as well as the possibly
increasing frequency of imports of alien organisms, gives cause for concern, especially in view
of a possible increase in Arctic sailings in the wake of global warming and the shrinking Arctic
polar ice. The security of ocean transport need to be ensured and the sailing routes of vessels
carrying pollutants needs to be limited to the extent possible.
Further growth and diversity in the Icelandic tourism sector is based in part on a healthy
ocean and marine ecosystem. Excursions in the marine environment are popular among both
Icelanders and foreign visitors. Action must be taken to ensure that they can continue in the future
and the travel industry be given optimal opportunities to develop further nature excursions and
leisure options on the ocean and the coast.
6. 3. i. Ways to achieve the objectives
- Work should commence on formulating a policy for the utilisation of sea bed resources, based
on new and improved possibilities for sea bed research. It must be ensured that the utilisation
of sea bed resources and objectives on protection of ocean areas go hand in hand. Such a
policy must define the areas of responsibility clearly, and ensure co-operation within the public
administration concerning licensing research on and utilisation of sea bed resources.
- Further work is proposed to ensure the security of ocean transport in Icelandic waters,
including, in particular, risk analysis, preparation of response plans for possible pollution
accidents at sea, and possible intervention by the authorities in such cases.
- Iceland should prepare for the possible opening of new shipping routes in the north, connecting
the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, focusing on the environmental impacts. A working group has
been set up under the auspices of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs to compile a report
concerning the opening of these shipping routes.
- It must be ensured that the conservation and utilisation of marine resources remains compatible
with those of the tourism sector and can be used to its advantage. The Icelandic tourism sector
must be enabled to continue to use the ocean for a variety of purposes.
Icelandic Government Policy
41
6. 4. Development co-operation
In the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, a policy on Iceland's development co-operation is under
preparation. The work is based on the report “Iceland and the Developing Countries: A review
of Iceland's development co-operation”.25
The authors of the report propose a sizeable increase in the country’s development assistance,
through both the Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA) and multilateral
assistance channelled through international agencies. The authors propose that support for
several international agencies be increased; that Iceland adopt a clear policy towards them and
become more vocal in its advocacy. Among those agencies specified that support fisheries
projects are FAO, the World Bank and UNDP. The report suggests that the activities of the United
Nations University Fisheries Training Programme in Iceland be expanded still further, for
instance, with some courses arranged in developing countries in addition to specialised training
in Iceland. Furthermore, it proposes that Iceland become a member of the Global Environment
Facility (GEF). One of the methods of supporting the work of international agencies is to sponsor
two-year appointments of specialists to institutions considered of high value for Icelandic
development co-operation. Specific mention is made of seconding a fisheries expert to FAO or
the World Bank. A proposal is also made to continue the Permanent Representation of Iceland
to FAO in Rome.
It is important that development co-operation policy is in accord with overall
government policy. Development assistance, both bilateral and multilateral, is the
responsibility of the Ministry for Foreign Affairs and thus a part of Iceland’s foreign policy. In
order to ensure a co-ordinated overall policy on ocean issues internationally, development cooperation policy must be formulated in consultation with those Ministries responsible for these
issues.
The Icelandic government has maintained that development co-operation should
focus on areas where Iceland has a comparative advantage. This approach should
be continued and those aspects of Icelandic development co-operation in particular that are
connected to the sustainable utilisation of marine resources should be strengthened.
Iceland’s participation in development co-operation concerning ocean issues
should be increased through more active participation in discussion and policy formulation
with multilateral development institutions. It is important to promote support for the allocation of
more funding to programmes in the field of sustainable utilisation of marine resources. At the same
time, Icelandic authorities must take part in programmes in the fields of fisheries and
environmental protection in developing countries in co-operation with institutions such as FAO and
the World Bank. In addition to direct participation in multilateral development institutions efforts,
these institutions and their programmes can be supported through secondments of specialists.
Iceland should follow developments closely and participate in discussion on marine
environment issues and fisheries within multilateral development institutions. In this connection, it
is important for Iceland to become a member of the Global Environment Facility (GEF), that is
devoting increasing attention to ocean issues and appears to be, for many developing countries,
the key to financing development programmes linked to resource utilisation. It is important to
increase Iceland’s participation and involvement in discussion and decision-making by
multilateral development institutions concerned with development assistance and ocean issues.
The UNU Fisheries Training Programme needs to be expanded as an integral part of
Iceland’s development assistance. It is important that the study reflects the basic principles of
sustainable development and thus encourages developing countries to utilise their resources
sustainably.
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6. 4. i. Ways to achieve the objectives
26
- Special emphasis should be placed on issues concerning sustainable utilisation of marine
resources in Icelandic development assistance.
- The Icelandic authorities should increase their participation in policy activities of multilateral
development institutions, stressing sustainable utilisation of natural resources.
- A special Icelandic trust fund within FAO should be established. The objective of this trust fund
will be to support programmes and projects by individual states in the area of sustainable
utilisation of marine resources, carried out by FAO specialists.
- The Icelandic government should take part in the establishment of the Global Trust Fund being
set up by the World Bank. The Fund is intended to assist developing countries in preparing and
financing programmes in the area of sustainable fisheries.
- Iceland should become a member of and participate in the activities of the Global Environment
Facility.
- The involvement of Icelandic specialists in marine issues, both at the World Bank and FAO,
should be increased substantially.
- The involvement of the Permanent Representation of Iceland to FAO should be reviewed and
steps taken to further ensure that Icelandic policies be taken into account within FAO.
Icelandic Government Policy
43
Reference
1 Statistics Iceland. Landshagir 2003 (National Statistics 2003).
2 Ministry of Fisheries, 2003.
3 Birgir Þór Runólfsson (1999). Sjávarútvegur Íslendinga. Þróun,
staða og horfur (Icelandic Fisheries. Development, situation
and outlook).
4 Ministry for the Environment (2002). Velferð til framtíðar.
Sjálfbær þróun í íslensku samfélagi, stefnumörkun til 2020
(Welfare for the future. Sustainable development in Icelandic
society, policy to 2020).
15 The first provisions authorising the Minister of Fisheries to
protect ocean areas through regional and temporary closures,
based on the advice of the Marine Research Institute, were set
in Act No. 81/1976.
16 This has been apparent, for example, in efforts in connection
with the UNESCO agreement of 1972 on protecting natural
and cultural properties of outstanding universal value (World
Heritage Convention). In its efforts the Convention has shown
interest in adding important ocean regions to the World
Heritage List with the aim of protecting them especially.
17 188 states as well as the EU are members of the Organisation.
5 Principle 2 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development.
18 See Annex C, on the national and international legislative
framework of the ocean biosphere.
6 Cf. the discussion above, pp. 5-6 and Figures 1 and 2.
7 See further discussion on national legislation in Annex A.
19 See further discussion of Icelandic legislation on fisheries
management in Annex D.
8 Article 13 of the Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development.
20 FAO (2002). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture
2002.
9 This applies, for example, to discharges from vessels, drilling
platforms or other offshore activities.
21 Source: Directorate of Fisheries.
10 Joint Assessment and Monitoring Programme, an international
project under the OSPAR Convention for the monitoring and
measurement of substances which can pollute the ocean and
marine ecosystems.
22 Rules on requirements for granting exploration permits have
been defined in Regulation No. 553/2001.
23 FAO (2000). State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2000.
24 Ministry of Transport and Communication, 2004.
11 A working group on monitoring the condition of the Arctic.
12 TBT is an organic chemical compound containing tin. The
substance has been used in particular for painting vessel hulls
to prevent organisms from growing on them. Since 1990, use
of TBT has been very limited and since 2003 there has been
a global prohibition against TBT hull paint.
13 Ozone-depleting substances contain chlorine (Cl) and/or
bromium (Br). They are volatile and very stable substances,
and can thus be carried high up into the stratosphere. Their
destructive effect on the ozone layer varies considerably and
is defined as their Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP).
14 The definition of biological diversity, according to the Convention
on Biological Diversity, is as follows: Biological diversity means
the variability among living organisms from all sources including,
inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and
the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes
diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems.
Design and layout: Fíton ehf.
Cover photograph: Curt Carnemark
Photograph 4: Unnsteinn Stefánsson
Photograph 5: Kristinn Garðarsson
Other photographs: Gísli Páll Guðjónsson
Print: Gutenberg
2004
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25 In Icelandic only: Ísland og þróunarlöndin, álitsgerð um
þróunarsamvinnu Íslands og þátttöku í starfi alþjóðastofnana
(Iceland and the Developing Countries: A review of Iceland's
development co-operation.), Ministry for Foreign Affairs. 1
September 2003, Hermann Örn Ingólfsson and Jónas H.
Haralz,
http://www.utn.stjr.is/media/Skyrslur/Island_og_throunarlondin.pdf
26 The following proposals for emphasis in development cooperation in the area of ocean issues are made with reference
to a report from the Ministry for Foreign Affairs on Iceland’s
development co-operation, proposing that allocations for
development assistance be increased.
Ministry for the Enivironment
Ministry of Fisheries
Ministry for Foreign Affairs
Vonarstræti 4
150 Reykjavík
Telephone 545 8600
Fax 562 4566
Email: postur@umh.stjr.is
Skúlagata 4
150 Reykjavík
Telephone 545 8300
Fax 562 1853
Email: postur@sjr.stjr.is
Rau›arárstíg 25
150 Reykjavík
Telephone 545 9900
Fax 562 2373, 562 2386
Email: postur@utn.stjr.is
www.umhverfisraduneyti.is
www.sjavarutvegsraduneyti.is
www.utanrikisraduneyti.is