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The Representation of Women in Three Plays by Olympe de Gouges : La Nécessité du
Divorce, Le Couvent ou Les Vœux forcés and La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné
Olympe de Gouges, arguably one of the most influential women of the French
Revolution, remains significant in terms of feminism even in the present day. Her
provocative and near-parodic response in 1791 to the male-oriented Déclaration des droits de
l’homme et du citoyen of 1789, the Déclaration des droits de la femme et de la citoyenne, is
emblematic of her consistent challenging of the patriarchal structure of French Revolutionary
society. However, it is not solely in her political works that this criticism of existing social
structures is evident, but also in her dramatic writings, which were in fact deemed significant
enough to contribute to her trial and subsequent execution in 1793. In this light, this essay
will examine three plays by Gouges - La Nécessité du Divorce , Le Couvent ou Les Vœux
forcés and La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné – in terms of the representation of women
therein and its relevance to societal issues. This examination will commence with the
concepts of marriage and divorce, continuing with an analysis of religion. The patriarchal
family model and ideas of solidarity between women will then be explored, followed by
Gouges’ depiction of herself in La France sauvée. Finally, an informed conclusion will
assess the cumulative evidence and discuss the significance of these representations.
‘Le marriage est le tombeau de la confiance et de l’amour’1 declares Olympe de
Gouges in the postambule of her Déclaration, a sentiment often evident in her dramatic
writings. Even going so far as to propose her own, more equal marriage contract, the status of
women appears always at the forefront of Gouges’ thinking. Marriage being arguably the
defining element of a woman’s life in revolutionary France, it is no surprise that it plays such
an influential role in Gouges’ campaign for equality. In terms of the representation of women
1
Olympe de Gouges, ‘Textes Politiques’, in Œuvres (Paris : Mercure de France, 1986), pp. 69-129 (p.109).
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in these plays, the theme of marriage is almost omnipresent. Married and widowed young
herself, Gouges’ refusal to take on the title expected of her – that of ‘Veuve Aubry’ –
signifies a nonconformity which is evident throughout her works. In turning away from this
label and renaming herself Olympe de Gouges, described by Léopold Lacour as her nom de
guerre2, she claims an autonomy denied to most women of her era. Thus, this idea of female
agency is transferred to several characters in her plays. In La Nécessité du Divorce, published
in 1790, Madame d’Azinval embodies the married woman. Strong and sensible despite her
worries, Madame d’Azinval is one of Gouges’ model women. Although her husband’s
behaviour repeatedly upsets and shames her, she deals with the problem in an innovative
way. As she considers herself ‘cruellement punie’3, the character perfectly expresses the pain
caused by a spouse’s deplorable actions, which would surely have been familiar to many
women in the audience. However, by meeting with Herminie and making an attempt to
rectify the situation, Madame d’Azinval takes an active role in improving her own position, a
contrast to the passivity commonly expected of women at the time. By depicting the
discussion on marriage between Madame d’Azinval and the Abbé Basilic, Gouges highlights
the injustices suffered by wives – ‘vous en supportez tous les dommages’4- and this
condemnation of the oppression of married women is evident throughout the play. Even when
surprised by her husband’s eavesdropping, Madame d’Azinval is able to keep her composure
and insist ‘votre conduite et non la mienne a contribué à m’exposer àl’humiliation’5. This
placing of blame firmly on the behaviour of Monsieur d’Azinval suggests that Gouges holds
the comportment of men to be the cause of marital problems; as they have more power and
autonomy in the relationship, so they have the freedom to behave badly. Ultimately, Madame
2
Lacour, Léopold, Les origines du féminisme contemporain : trois femmes de la révolution : Olympe de
Gouges, Théroigne de Méricourt, Rose Lacombe ( Paris : Plon, Nourrit et Cie, 1900), p.18.
3
Olympe de Gouges, La Nécessité du Divorce, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique II (Paris : Côtéfemmes, 1993), I. 2.
4
Ibid., III. 7.
5
Ibid., III. 8.
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d’Azinval’s willingness to forgive her husband rather than divorce him conveys the message
that marriages would be more likely to improve and succeed were power shared equally
between the spouses. In contrast, the character of Constance provides an example of a woman
in a different life stage. Her passivity, naivety and desire to marry, considered typical of
young women of the era, are indicative of the sort of young woman Gouges wishes to save
from the potential downfalls of traditional marriage. The marriage portrayed in the unfinished
La France sauvée ou Le Tyran Détrôné of 1792 is yet more controversial, in that it is the
marriage of the king and queen of France. This illustrates a determination on the part of
Olympe de Gouges to break down societal boundaries The queen is depicted as a dominant
spouse; her marriage not idyllic, yet not the caricature prevalent in the media at the time. As
John Cole asserts, Gouges is singular among her contemporaries for her commitment to
women’s rights not only in the public sphere but also within the realm of their private
relationships6. Her representation of female characters’ experiences of marriage reinforces
the views set forth in her own proposed marriage contract and exhibits a desire to end the
power monopoly of men in marital relationships. Marriage is not vilified, rather portrayed
with unapologetic realism. In this way, Gouges’ hope for future change in the institution of
marriage, as outlined in her proposed contract, is apparent.
Inextricably linked to the concept of marriage is that of divorce. Olympe de Gouges,
herself a supporter of the campaign to legalise divorce in France, views the proposed change
in the law from a woman’s point of view in her treatment of the issue. Without divorce,
women were effectively trapped in a marriage until widowed and were therefore in the
private sphere confined to a passive existence as wife, rather than an active pursuit of their
own interests. In the eyes of Gouges and many of her contemporaries, equality between the
6
John R. Cole, Between the Queen and the Cabby : Olympe de Gouges's Rights of Woman, (Montréal: McGillQueen’s University Press, 2011), p.5.
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sexes should mean a marriage on equal grounds, able to be terminated by either individual.
The most relevant of Gouges’ dramatic works to examine in relation to this issue is
indisputably La Nécessité du Divorce, a play arguably written specifically to explore the
debate surrounding legalisation. The fact that Gouges originally published the play
anonymously testifies to the controversy surrounding the debates. In her depiction of the
d’Azinvals’ unhappy situation, Gouges introduces the audience to the inherent problems she
sees in marriage without the option of divorce. Madame d’Azinval is presented as suppressed
by her lack of power within her marriage and in this way the potential advantages of divorce
come to light.. Despite his being a man, the character of Rosambert remains extremely
pertinent to women’s issues throughout the play as he frequently serves as a platform for the
myriad arguments in favour of divorce. Indeed, his observation that marriage leads to ‘la
corruption de la société’7 supports the view that marriage can only truly be equal and
successful when the option of divorce is provided. In portraying his taking action to improve
the situation of Madame d’Azinval, Gouges creates a blueprint for cooperation between the
genders. His well-intentioned lie regarding legalisation reveals the potential opportunity
therein for women to hold power in a relationship on a par with that of their male
counterparts. Acting again as Gouges’ mouthpiece, Rosambert’s reference to ‘toutes les
femmes esclaves’8 makes clear her view of women’s position in the private sphere. Perhaps
the most fascinating aspect of the finale is Gouges’ decision to portray Madame d’Azinval as
forgiving towards her spouse rather than vindictive. By demonstrating how access to divorce
could in fact improve a marriage, Gouges cleverly avoids overly radical arguments which
could potentially alienate some audiences. However, commitment to the practicality of
legalisation in terms of a move towards gender equality still remains at the forefront of the
plot. The same sentiment is evident in the suggestion, made in Gouges’ own alternative
7
8
La Nécessité du Divorce, I. 4.
Ibid., III. 9.
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marriage contract, that the marriage last simply ‘pour la durée de nos penchants mutuels’9, an
approach clearly aimed at ending the suffering of those fettered by unhappy unions. Through
her representation of Madame d’Azinval’s experience, Gouges demonstrates how the option
to divorce would be an equalising influence on the institution of marriage, as as the imminent
threat of losing his wife forces Monsieur d’Azinval to instantly change his behaviour towards
her. In short, Gouges evidently perceives dicvorce as an opportunity to end the subordination
of women in their private relationships in a society in which a married woman was still very
much under the control of her husband. Through her representation of the injustices suffered
by married women Gouges brings focus to the idea that divorce, eventually legalised in 1792,
represents a vital step towards agency and autonomy for the French woman as she is no
longer entirely bound by the constraints of a patriarchal and religion-based institution.
Religion, as it relates to women’s issues, is another controversial subject explored by
Olympe de Gouges throughout her writings, with religious characters a mainstay of many of
her dramatic works. As a result of the dechristianisation campaigns of the revolution, the
furore surrounding the future of the church pervaded all levels of society and was considered
controversial to the extent that Gouges struggled to have her play Le Couvent ou Les Vœux
forcés performed upon its completion in 1790. The dissolution of religious orders of 1790,
coupled with the practice of families sending unmarried or widowed women - often
unwillingly - into a life of religious service as a nun, evidently inspired Gouges to create this
account of corruption in both the church and the patriarchal family structure. It is through the
character of Julie that Gouges criticises most harshly the archaic custom of sending
husbandless women to convents. Drawing parallels with the plight of Suzanne in Diderot’s
La Religieuse (which, although extremely comparable, was in fact published 30 years later),
Julie’s fate represents a very real possibility for many French women of the pre-revolutionary
9
De Gouges, ‘Textes Politiques’, p.109.
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era. Julie and her mother Angelique, having been locked up by the Marquis, have been
robbed of their freedom and autonomy by a man exerting his patriarchal control. Julie is also
another example of a woman willing to rebel against subordination; she is described as
posessing an ‘âme de tigre’10 and willing to fight against her oppressors, in this case both the
Marquis and the church. By portraying Julie as not only resilient but also selfless, as she
assents to take the vows only to prevent harm coming to others, Gouges creates a character
who represents a more ideal woman. It is significant that Julie does not ask to be removed
from the convent, merely for the choice to delay her vows. In this way, Gouges draws
attention to the importance of choice in the convent system. Indeed, choice is a vital concept
in Gouges’ hope for women, as many of the changes she proposes in her political writings
centre on giving women options – such as that to divorce one’s husband. In her exclamation
‘oublier mes devoirs! non, jamais’11, Julie demonstrates her commitment to the duties
expected of her. In this, and in Julie’s refusal to allow her feelings for the Chevalier to sway
her into rash behaviour, Gouges represents a woman with a strong moral backbone. Instead of
portraying Julie as truly rebelling against the church, Gouges’ decision to show her suffering
even in acceptance of her fate provides a far more powerful criticism of women’s oppression
by a religious institutions. Furthermore, Julie’s willingness to sacrifice her own happiness by
taking her vows in order to protect others serves the dual purpose of both highlighting the
character’s bravery and drawing the attention of the audience to the futility of forcing women
into convents. This representation is echoed in the confession by the Abbess that Julie’s
dissention has made others restless, suggesting that the flaws in the system are apparent even
to those who exist within it. Perhaps the most powerful choice of words is to be found in the
Abbess’ declaration that ‘le plus pressant c’est de réduire Julie’12 . The idea that, in taking her
Olympe de Gouges, Le Couvent ou les Vœux forcés, in Olympe de Gouges : Œuvres (Paris : Mercure de
France, 1986), II. 1.
11
Ibid., II. 4.
12
Ibid., III. 7
10
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vows, Julie will literally be reduced to less than the young woman she was is indicative of the
absolute control exerted by the church over these women. Similarly, Gouges employs the
situation faced by Julie’s mother Angelique in order to denounce convent customs. Presented
as yet more tragic than the fate of Julie, her obligation to become a nun at the hands of a
tyrannical brother is an opportunity for Gouges to confront the audience with the brutal
reality of this practice. Hers are the true vœux forcés of the title, as despite the final
reconciliation she must remain bound to the convent. The silencing and confinement of
Angelique serves as a metaphor for the silencing of women as a gender. Just as Angelique’s
situation is only resolved once she breaks free to speak, so women’s situation cannot be
improved until they break free of societal boundaries and speak out.
In contrast, the character of the Abbess is employed by Gouges to symbolise the
detrimental effects of confining women to the environment of the convent against their will.
Risen to despotic power within the community, Gouges depicts her as both manipulative of
Julie, entreating her to ‘vous enchaînerez pour toujours’13, and deferent to men. Despite her
supposed power in the convent, the Abbess remains subordinate to male figures in the play,
representing the fact that women are forever doomed to be second-class citizens in the
traditional patriarchy of the Catholic Church. In her silencing of Angelique, the Abbess
exemplifies the harm done when women fail to support each other. This corruption within a
religion whose tenets are supposedly kindness, benevolence and selflessness makes evident
Gouges’ despair for the direction taken by the church community with regards to women.
The characters of the Curé and the Grande-Vicaire support this analysis, as they represent the
two different sides of contemporary religious views on women – the Curé embodying a new,
progressive and sympathetic attitude whereas the Grande-Vicaire personifies the oppression
of the traditional, Ancien Régime church. By the same token, Gouges alludes to the debate
13
Ibid., II. 2.
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over the dissolution of religious orders several times during the play. The scene in which
Soeur Agathe and Soeur Félicité discuss their potential fortunes if their life in the convent
should end raises the real question of what dissolution would mean for many nuns in a
practical sense. Although popular culture of the time imagines the nun as young and
beautiful, the worries of the two women that they will be liberated ‘après nous avoir passé les
plus belles années de notre jeunesse’14highlights the reality: that many nuns were older
women who would have trouble readjusting to life outside the convent. A dissatisfaction with
society’s dismissal of older women as useless is evident in her treatment of the nuns’ anxiety.
However, the fact that they do not appear to be without hope, as each reassures the other of
her beauty, suggests an inherent optimism and a differing attitude to that seen in the Abbess,
who foretells ‘nous toucherons à la fin du monde’15. On balance, through her representation
of female characters in Le Couvent, Olympe de Gouges comments on the impact exerted by
the church on women. Relevant to contemporary politics of the time in its treatment of the
dispute over dissolution, the play not only portrays the victim and oppressor but also a
potential way forward for the church in the character of the fair and progressive Curé. Despite
her condemnation of the Church’s treatment of women, Gouges at no point strays into heresy;
she does not denounce religion itself but merely its outdated and misogynistic practices. The
ultra-patriarchal organisation of the church represented in Le Couvent can indeed be
interpreted as a microcosm of society as a whole as the repression of women in the play
epitomises all which Gouges strives to overthrow. The church represents merely one facet of
the patriarchal aim to keep all women either married or in a convent, and a primary aim of
Gouges’ dramatic and political writing is the provision of a third route for women, in which
they are free to act as subjects in their own right.
14
15
Ibid., III. 1.
Ibid., III. 3.
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A frequent manifestation of patriarchal structures in Olympe de Gouges’ dramatic
works is to be found in her portrayal of family dynamics. Women in Gouges’ plays are often
seen in thrall to husbands, brothers, fathers, as it is perennially the male family members who
are dominant. Having freed herself from these constraints by refusing to take a widow’s title
or remarry, Gouges evidently wishes to claim this same agency for other women under male
control. In Le Couvent, the audience is presented with a classic example of women under the
command of male family members. By portraying the tragic situation of Julie and Angelique
at the hands of the tyrannical and all-controlling Marquis, Gouges highlights the injustice of
their lack of power. In addition, Angelique’s ability to resolve the situation by speaking out
against her domineering brother sends the message that these familial tyrants need to be
overthrown in order for women’s standing to improve. However, the play still serves as a
warning to women due to Angelique’s lack of an escape route from the convent. In this way,
Gouges emphasises the damage already done to women and the eventual repentance of the
Marquis further encourages the audience to view his crimes as reprehensible. Thus the play
as a whole functions as something of a cautionary tale, as Gouges illustrates both the harm
done to women by this family hierarchy and the possibility of a more harmonious future with
its removal. Similarly, in La Nécessité du Divorce, the audience is again confronted with two
women paralysed by the influence of men in their private lives, both of which are resolved
following a change in male behaviour. Madame d’Azinval, enduring a despairing existence
due to an indifferent husband who provides ‘bien du chagrin à sa femme’16 lives in a state of
limbo. Neither independent nor desired by her husband, the unenviable situation of this
character illustrates the damaging effects of such a power imbalance. Through Rosambert’s
ruse, Gouges provides an example of the advantages of this potential redistribution of male
power. In her advocation of legalisation of divorce, therefore, Gouges supports not only the
16
La Nécessité du Divorce, I. 1.
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right of the couple to separate, but the right of women to claim power in the family dynamic
on an equal basis to men. The character of Constance, however, presents a different aspect of
this patriarchal dominance. Denied the right to marry Germeuil as a result of Rosambert’s
control over him, Constance is without agency or control over her own future. The fact that
Rosambert’s influence is over another man further emphasises Gouges’ denunciation of these
family hierarchies, as even an autonomous male character cannot escape the control of a
patriarch. As Constance is only free to be happy once Rosambert relinquishes his hold on
Germeuil and assents to the marriage, Gouges underlines the possibility of a harmonious
future without this domination. Indeed, this issue is all the more pertinent given the reliance
of many young women of the era on their fathers to assent to, or even choose, their future
spouse. In any case, almost every aspect of a woman’s life in revolutionary France is defined
in relation to the men around her. By representing the struggles of the female characters in
her dramatic writings, Olympe de Gouges draws attention to the injustice of female suffering
in the family sphere. A lifelong advocate of rights for women in all aspects of life, only by
presenting examples of such oppression could Gouges hope to rouse public opinion and
effect any kind of change. Possessing a unique vantage point due to her own uncommon
position as an unfettered woman, Gouges is more able to critique the subordination of her
own gender.
In contrast to oppression by men, solidarity between women is a key element of
character relationships in Gouges’ plays. Gisela Thiele-Knobloch says of the playwright; ‘elle
est profondement convaincue que, si les femmes se montaient plus solidaires, elles
arriveraient à changer leur sort dans la histoire humaine.’17and this belief is indeed
consistently evident in Gouges’ representation of women in her dramatic writings. Female
Gisela Thiele-Knobloch, ‘Preface’, in Olympe de Gouges : Théâtre Politique II, by Olympe de Gouges
(Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993), pp. 7-37 (p.24).
17
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characters, though frequently let down by the men around them, are often shown to benefit
from closeness and support shared with other women. For example, the interactions between
Madame d’Azinval and other women in La Nécessité du Divorce repeatedly demonstrate the
value of female friendship. In the case of Constance, Madame d’Azinval cares about the
younger woman’s problems despite the severity of her own. The absence of any element of
rivalry, often present in dramatic depictions of female companionship, provide an example of
a loving and loyal female friendship of the kind Gouges evidently wishes to encourage. In
contrast, the married woman’s statement to her friend: ‘les hommes sont si trompeurs si
volages’18 highlights the harmful nature of male behaviour towards women – the friendship
between the two women is arguably the healthiest relationship in the play. This is further
stressed by Constance’s loyalty and sympathy towards Madame d’Azinval rather than
towards her own brother. Perhaps the most fascinating female interaction in the play,
however, is that between Madame d’Azinval and Herminie, her husband’s love interest. The
compassion of the married woman towards Herminie is even more striking given the fact that
dramatic and literary tradition would usually dictate that these two women be rivals. As the
audience most likely anticipates animosity between them, Gouges’ decision to depict
Madame d’Azinval as forgiving rather than berating is a potent example of the alliance
between women which she aims to promote. The poignant scene in which Madame d’Azinval
embraces Herminie and declares her ‘malheureuse victim de l’amour’19 creates a powerful
image of women working together rather than against each other. Turning away from the
somewhat common portrayal of women as putting men above all other things, Gouges instead
suggests a movement towards women helping each other in a bid to move towards equality.
In her representation of women, Gouges implies that their communal oppression invites a
communal uprising against the traditions of a patriarchal society. In order to reclaim and re18
19
La Nécessité du Divorce, III. 2.
Ibid., III. 5.
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make female identity for the French women, all women would be required to stand together,
a sentiment which pervades much of Gouges’ political writings. Her Déclaration itself, in its
universality, invites women to begin considering themselves as a united force rather than
divided by barriers of age, class or status.
Another, more blatantly political element pertaining to Gouges’ female characters can
be found in the unfinished La France sauvée, ou le Tyran Détrôné. Described as a ‘royalistepatriote’20 who famously offered to defend Louis XVI at trial, Gouges’ particular interest in
Marie-Antoinette proves again her aforementioned hope for the power of female solidarity.
This opinion evidently extended to the monarchy, as the dedication of her Déclaration to the
queen attests. La France sauvée, however, a fictionalised account of Gouges’ real-life
attempt to meet Marie-Antoinette, dares to portray the queen herself as a character. The
queen is presented throughout as a strong presence and a somewhat domineering wife to her
husband, even denouncing him as ‘roi craintif’21. This corresponds to an extent with her
representation in much political satire, as the king often appears cuckolded and somewhat in
thrall to his spouse. Gouges’ depiction of Marie-Antoinette also echoes her own previously
discussed sentiments regarding male control as the queen blames ‘les erreurs des hommes’22
for her current situation. The queen is also revealed to be intelligent, with clear knowledge of
military news and current politics. In this way, Gouges creates a multifaceted character
through her imaginings of the monarch. However, Marie-Antoinette is also characterised as
being unapologetically anti-revolution. Stating the belief that ‘les peuples sont faits pour les
fers. Les rois pour le bonheur du monde’23 the queen appears unconcerned with the plight of
the masses. This unsympathetic element to her character’s depiction suggests a certain
20
Lacour, p.51.
Olympe de Gouges, La France sauvée ou le Tyran Détrôné, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique
II (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993), I. 2.
22
Ibid., I. 3.
23
Ibid.
21
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animosity on the part of the previously monarchist Gouges, perhaps at having her audience
with the queen denied. Questioned on the play at her trial, Gouges’ statement ‘J’ai fait tenir à
la femme Capet le langage qui lui convenait’24 supports this view as the playwright evidently
believes her representation of the queen’s opinions to be correct. Gouges’ depiction of the
queen’s desire to exploit the former’s dedication to her cause creates an image of a monarch
at once clever and manipulative, focused intently on self-preservation. In contrast, in the
pivotal scene in which the Marie-Antoinette, having eavesdropped on the exchange between
her courtiers and Olympe de Gouges, observes ‘si j’etais à sa place j’y penserais peut-être’25,
Gouges suggests that hope still remains for altering the course of the monarch’s opinion. This
nuanced characterisation of Marie-Antoinette conveys a certain indecision on the part of
Gouges herself – at once displeased with the monarch’s behaviour and still hopeful of gaining
the support of this influential woman. As Lynn Hunt asserts, the queen herself is ‘the most
important example of a woman acting in the public sphere’26. This significance of MarieAntoinette as a woman in a position of power is evidently not lost on Gouges, as the
representation of the queen in La France sauvée explores myriad issues surrounding the
increasingly desperate position of the French monarchy.
Among the various female characters represented in these plays, one in particular is
remarkable: Olympe de Gouges herself. By writing herself into one of her own plays, Gouges
breaks through the usual barrier between playwright and audience. This portrayal, had the
play ever been completed and performed, would have served to express her views to the
public in a far more direct sense than ever before. As Thiele-Knobloch states, during the
revolutionary era ‘être à la fois femme, célibataire et auteure était alors absoluement
24
Thiele-Knobloch, p.20.
La France sauvée, I. 9.
26
Lynn Hunt, The Family Romance of the French Revolution (Los Angeles: University of California Press,
1993), p.90.
25
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inconcevable’27 and Gouges, in her decision to put herself on stage, is clearly aware of the
potential in her own rarity. During the appearance of Olympe de Gouges as a character in La
France sauvée, her disinclination to conform to class barriers is apparent, often through stage
directions. Refusing to show the deference expected by the Princesse de Lamballe, Olympe’s
direction riant avec éclat adds a gleeful edge to her defiance. Thus, Gouges’ disregard for
traditional social hierarchy is made apparent. Her derisory remark ‘vaine chimière, le rang, la
naissance’28, further emphasises her support of the revolutionary principles advocating the
dissolution of class boundaries.Also evident in Gouges’ depiction of herself is a strong sense
of foreboding. Pronouncing several warnings amounting to ‘vous périrez tous’29 it is clearly
her belief that the monarchy faces impending disaster. One can surmise that, as she has been
denied a personal audience with the queen, inserting herself into the play as a character is a
way for Gouges to speak more directly to the queen and public simultaneously and deliver
her warning. Her desire is clearly to prevent such an outcome; by exclaiming ‘je ne veux
point que ma nation se souille de sang’30 , Gouges voices both her abhorrence of political
violence and her dedication to her country. As she compares herself to Lamballe and
surmises that their situations are not so different, attention is again drawn to elements which
unite women rather than those which separate. In this, and in her denunciation of the queen’s
valet as ‘d’une esclave’31 Gouges raises the point that all women are essentially enslaved by
the patriarchal power structure, even Marie-Antoinette herself cannot escape its grasp.
Essentially, Gouges is blatantly aware of her own unique position of potential influence. As a
woman, she would usually have little opportunity to have her opinions heard but as a writer,
such agency is available to her. There is an air of desperation in this, her final and unfinished
play, as her attempts to influence the political sphere continue to prove futile. In her
27
Thiele-Knobloch, p.8.
La France sauvée, I. 7.
29
Ibid.
30
Ibid.
31
Ibid, I. 8.
28
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representation of herself in the piece, Gouges makes clear the fact that she is prepared to risk
her own standing in order to criticise the behaviour of those in positions of power.
As one of few prominent female playwrights of the revolutionary era, Olympe de
Gouges is most notable for her unwavering dedication to furthering the cause of the French
woman. It is vital to consider her dramatic works in addition to her political writings, as
evidence of the latter can so often be identified in the former. Through her representation of
women in the three plays examined here, Gouges explores issues affecting the society of the
time, transcending barriers of class. The impact of the institution of marriage, the possibility
of divorce, patriarchal power structures and the Catholic Church are all shown to have
profound effect on women in Gouges’ plays, just as they would doubtless affect French
women from the peasantry to the aristocracy. The situations experienced by the female
characters allow the playwright to draw audience attention to issues she believes of greatest
importance; those where she believes change is most necessary. Furthermore, the dynamics
between female characters often provide a favourable example of solidarity between women,
such as that between Madame d’Azinval and Herminie in La Nécessité du Divorce. In this
way, Gouges advocates a unification of French women, that they might work collectively
towards their goal of equality in society. Gouges’ decision to include herself as a character in
one of her final, unfinished manuscripts illustrates her commitment to ameliorating the
position of women in France and French society as a whole, as she attempts to transgress
traditional playwright-audience boundaries in order to reach those whom she hopes to
influence. The representation of women in these three plays, therefore, is testament to the
unwavering dedication on the part of Gouges to ameliorating the injustices suffered by
women in France. At a time when men were ostensibly being liberated; her attempts to carve
out a place for their female counterparts in this new society remain clear in the legacy of her
writings.
FR322
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Word count : 4,977
Bibliography
Primary Texts
De Gouges, Olympe, Le Couvent ou les Vœux forcés, in Olympe de Gouges : Œuvres (Paris :
Mercure de France, 1986)
—La France sauvée ou le Tyran Détrôné, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique II (Paris :
Côté-femmes, 1993)
—La Nécessité du Divorce, in Olympe de Gouges : Theatre politique II (Paris : Côté-femmes,
1993)
Secondary Texts
De Gouges, Olympe, ‘Textes Politiques’, in Œuvres (Paris : Mercure de France, 1986), pp.
69-129
Lacour, Léopold, Les origines du féminisme contemporain : trois femmes de la révolution :
Olympe de Gouges, Théroigne de Méricourt, Rose Lacombe (Paris : Plon, Nourrit et Cie,
1900)
Groult, Benoîte, ‘Introduction’, in Olympe de Gouges: Œuvres by Olympe de Gouges (Paris :
Mercure de France, 1986), pp. 11-64
Thiele-Knobloch, Gisela, ‘Preface’, in Olympe de Gouges : Théâtre Politique II, by Olympe
de Gouges (Paris : Côté-femmes, 1993), pp. 7-37
Hunt, Lynn, The Family Romance of the French Revolution (Los Angeles: University of
California Press, 1993)
Cole, John R., Between the Queen and the Cabby: Olympe de Gouges's Rights of Woman
(Montréal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2011)