Volume 40
Number 1
2013
NATIONAL
SOCIAL
SCIENCE
JOURNAL
Official Journal of the National Social Science Association
Name of Publication: NATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE JOURNAL
Issue: Volume 40 # 1 ISSN 2154-1736
Frequency: Quarterly
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Editor, Lem Railsback
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editorial Board:
Nancy Adams., Lamar University
Mark Bellnap, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University
Richard Bieker, Delaware State University
Benita Bruster, Austin Peay University
Jose da Cruz, Armstrong Atlantic State University
Robert Dewhirst, Northwest Missouri State University
Amy Shriver Dreussi, University of Akron
Jack Covarrubias, University of Southern Mississippi
Talitha Hudgins, Utah Valley University
Calvin Meyer, Dalton State College
James Mbuva, National University
Barbara Peterson, Austin Peay University
Pegly Vaz, Fort Hays State University
NATIONAL SOCIAL SCIENCE JOURNAL
Volume 40 #1
Table of Contents
Evidence-based Teaching Models and Strategies for English Language Learners
Nancy J. Adams, Nancy Leffel Carlson, Pamela Monk, Vance Cortrez-Rucker,
Lamar University
1
The Content Literacy Continuum: A Research-Based Intervention Model to Improve
Schoolwide Literacy at the Secondary Level
Daniel J. Boudah, East Carolina University
9
Student Disengagement: A National Concern from a Local Perspective
Paul Carlson, Rachel Martinez, University of Houston at Victoria
Mary Lasater, Lasater Consulting, Victoria, Texas
14
The Election of Barack Obama and the Importance of the Internet: Bring the
People Back into Government Again
José de Arimatéia da Cruz. Armstrong Atlantic State University
Adriana de Oliveira, University of São Paulo, Brazil
28
Preparing Special Educators: Identifying Aversions Towards Instructing Math
Michael J. Humphrey, Lee L. Woods, Boise State University
41
Sighs and Murmurs from the Chattering Class: Death with Dignity in the
United Kingdom
William Kirtley, Central Texas College
48
Protective Cultural Factors Fostering Academic Resilience in “At-Risk”
Mexican American Teenage Girls
Veronica Lopez-Estrada, The University of Texas-Pan American
56
A Comparative Study of the Public’s Attitude toward Labor Unions in Four
Southern States: An Empirical Analysis
H. Ronald Moser, Cumberland University
Gordon Lipscomb Freeman Jr., Middle Tennessee State University
68
Entry Level Assessment Center (ELAC) Predictors for Success as Law Enforcement
Officers: A Pilot Study
Patrick Oliver, Michael W. Firmin, Cedarville University
80
Comparative Qualitative Study of Public and Private Sector Managers' Attitudes and
Perceptions of Presenteeism and Absenteeism in the Caribbean
Roger Radix, Fernando Mora, St. George’s University, Grenada
James A. Johnson, University of Central Michigan
91
Third Party Interventions for Preventing Sexual Assault, Cultivating Empathy, and
Comforting Survivors: Proactive Responses in the Context of Escalating, Intimate
Partner Aggression
José I. Rodríguez, Truc M. Ha, California State University, Long Beach
Carl R. Atler, East Los Angeles Community College
Education and Immigration in California: Key Trends
Nena Tórrez, California State University San Bernardino
98
107
Student Paper Competition Winner – Undergraduate
Papa John’s Pizza and American Pie Pizzeria: A Comparative Analysis
Maria Dong, Victoria Martin, University of West Georgia
114
Film Review
“2016: Obama’s America”
Ben Miles, Art Institute of California
122
Evidence-based Teaching Models and Strategies
for English Language Learners
Nancy J. Adams
Nancy Leffel Carlson
Pamela Monk
Vance Cortez-Rucker
Lamar University
Purpose
Phase I of the study examined teachers’ understanding of the laws and guidelines governing English
language learners in the public school setting. The current study presents phase II, wherein educators
were surveyed to identify knowledge of selected evidence-based teaching models and strategies
supportive of English language learners (ELL), a growing population in schools across the United States.
Because linguistic diversity continues to be a growing part of public education, school administrators and
teachers must be knowledgeable of the optimal types of models and strategies needed for English
language learners (Cordiero & Cunningham, 2013).
Background
English language learners (ELL) must be provided the opportunity to overcome language barriers to
ensure their meaningful participation in educational programs (USDOE, 2005). According to the United
States Department of Education (2005), programs that educate ELL students must be based on sound
educational theory and adequately supported with effective staff and resources to support a realistic
chance of success. Title III of the No Child Left Behind Act mandated that states improve the English
proficiency of LEP students (USDOE, 2005).
Title III, Part A, Section 3102, of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), as
reauthorized under the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (USDOE, 2001), aimed to ensure English
language learners (ELL) and immigrant students attained English language proficiency and met the same
challenging state academic content and student academic achievement standards as all children were
expected to meet.
Definition of English Language Learners
NCLB defined limited English proficient students as:
ages 3-21, enrolled in elementary or secondary education, often born outside the United
States or speaking a language other than English in their homes, and not having sufficient
mastery of English to meet state standards and excel in an English-language classroom
(USDOE, 2001).
The term limited English proficient (LEP) and English language learner (ELL), were both used to
describe students who were not native speakers of English and whose English language skills were such
that the student has difficulty performing ordinary class work in English (USDOE, 2005).
Literature Review
Population Growth and Accountability Mandates
Non-English-speaking students were the fastest growing subgroup of children among public school
populations (McCardle, 2005). More than five million English language learners, speaking more than
400 languages were enrolled in grades pre-K through 12 in the 2008-2009 school year (NCELA, 2011).
Although the percentage of increase varied across regions of the United States, all regions showed an
1
increase in the ELL student population, both in total and as a percentage of the of the total school
population (Cordiero & Cunningham, 2013).
The U.S. Department of Education's Office for Civil Rights (OCR) oversaw school districts’ broad
discretion concerning how to ensure equal educational opportunity for ELLs. OCR did not prescribe a
specific intervention strategy or program model that a district was required to serve ELLs, and gave
substantial flexibility in developing programs to meet the needs of ELL students (OCR, 2006). English
language learners were required to have alternative services until they were proficient enough in English
to participate meaningfully in the regular program (USDOE, 2005). The following guidelines were
outlined by OCR (2006) for school districts to ensure their programs were serving ELLs effectively.
Districts must:
 identify students as potential ELLs;
 assess student's need for ELL services;
 develop a program which, in the view of experts in the field, has a reasonable chance for
success;
 ensure that necessary staff, curricular materials, and facilities are in place and are used
properly;
 develop appropriate evaluation standards, including program exit criteria, for measuring the
progress of students; and
 assess the success of the program and modify it where needed.
Districts were responsible for ensuring students had an equal opportunity to have English language and
academic needs met in a variety of ways, including adequate training to classroom teachers on second
language acquisition and monitoring the educational progress of the student even when parents deny ELL
services (Cordiero & Cunningham, 2013; USDOE, 2005). Limited English proficient (LEP) students
who were not offered services to assist in overcoming language barriers often experienced repeated
failure in the classroom, fell behind in grade levels, dropped out of school, were inappropriately placed in
special education classes, and did not have access to high track courses or gifted and talented programs
(USDOE, 2005).
The No Child Left Behind Act (USDOE, 2001), required that students meet state and Federal
accountability assessment standards. In addition, performance of LEP students on standardized tests were
required to be disaggregated, which directly impacted the Federal Adequate Yearly Performance (AYP)
and state accountability ratings of districts and schools. The NCLB mandates may have unintentionally
placed undue pressure on schools with high numbers of LEP students (Abedi, 2004). Performance on
mandated Federal and state assessments of the English language learner population, as well as that of low
socio-economic, special education, African-American, White, Hispanic, Asian-Pacific Islander, and two
or more race populations were required to be disaggregated as part of the process for determining district
and school AYP and state accountability ratings. This was to provide evidence to support the need to
effectively engage each student population in the teaching and learning process.
Limited English proficient students were twice as likely to live in poor families compared to children
who speak only English or English very well (Batalova, 2006; Reardon-Anderson, Capps, & Fix, 2002).
Considerable overlap in language instruction needs existed between LEP and economically disadvantaged
children, both groups that count toward schools’ performance under NCLB (Consentina de Cohen,
Deterding, & Clewell, 2005). For schools serving immigrant and LEP children, these combined
circumstances presented challenges and carried significant resource implications (Capps et al., 2005).
English language acquisition was necessary to glean the knowledge and skills required in key subjects
assessed as part of state or Federal accountability systems including reading, language arts, math, science,
and social studies. Thus, it appeared imperative that teachers were trained in the use of evidence-based
instructional delivery models and strategies that enhance instruction of ELL students (Cordiero &
Cunningham, 2013).
Instructional Delivery Models and Evidence-based Teaching Strategies.
The National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational
Programs (NCELA, 2011) maintained English language learners may be served by Language Instruction
2
Educational Programs (LIEPs) which either focused on developing literacy in English and in another
language, or they may be served by programs which focused on English only. Two-Way Immersion,
Dual Language, Early Exit Transitional, Heritage Language, or Developmental Bi-Lingual instructional
delivery models focused on developing English literacy and another language. Examples of delivery
models that focused on English literacy only are Content-based English as a Second Language (ESL),
Structured English Immersion (SEI), ESL Pull-out, and ESL Push-in, and Sheltered Instruction
Observation Protocol (SIOP) (Cordiero & Cunningham, 2013; NCELA, 2011). It was important for
educational leaders to determine which approach was most appropriate for the children in their schools or
districts (Cordiero & Cunningham).
Weisman and Hansen (2007) noted students often acquired conversational skills quickly, but it took
longer to develop literacy skills and academic language. Understanding subject matter while acquiring
English language skills required adaptations to instruction. Cordiero and Cunningham (2013) assert when
effective bilingual programs are not available for English language learners, an alternative was for
classroom teachers to use an approach called specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE),
or sheltered instruction (SIOP). This approach used techniques to teach ELL students concepts, content,
and academic language (Cordiero & Cunningham; Weisman & Hanson).
The sheltered approach incorporated many different types of instructional strategies, including
modified speech such as teachers speaking slower and clearly, emphasizing and repeating key points,
defining vocabulary in context, choral reading, avoiding idioms, and coupling talk with gestures,
drawings, graphs, and charts (Cordiero & Cunningham, 2013; Weisman & Hanson, 2007). The
curriculum was not watered down; instead, there was a rigorous core curriculum. The goal was to provide
appropriate scaffolding, or contextual support, to ensure content was comprehensible. Effective sheltered
instruction also provided opportunities for social interaction to reinforce learning and promoted the
production of language, including content-specific terms. Teacher training in SDAIE methodology
revolved around the idea that successful lesson design and course development hinged on the teacher’s
ability to provide a supportive affective environment and comprehensible second language input
(Cordiero & Cunningham). The SDAIE teaching strategies were often implemented with native English
speaking students; however, explicit training in the types of teaching strategies used in SDAIE
methodology indicated that teachers consciously and purposefully employed strategies and techniques
that were effective for not only learning English, but also the subject material.
The Study
Research Design
A non-experimental basic research design with a survey was used for this study. The following
components are described: research questions, instrument, limitations, and participants.
Research Questions
The research questions investigated educators’ knowledge of selected evidence-based instructional
delivery models and evidence-based teaching strategies supportive of English language learners.
Instrument
The survey instrument was developed based upon a review of the literature covering characteristics,
terms associated with English language learners (ELL), Federal and state laws and guidelines governing
education of the ELL population, and models and teaching strategies supportive of ELL students. Survey
questions and responses were clustered into two categories: ELL instructional delivery models and ELL
evidence-based teaching strategies. The questionnaire, processed through SurveyMonkey, was
distributed via electronic mail. Part I contained demographic information. Part II contained items
requiring respondents to answer “strongly agree”, “strongly disagree”, or “no knowledge”. A panel of
experts, including university professors and educational professionals from the field, provided face
validity for the instrument.
Limitations
A basic assumption of this study was the premise that respondents were, or previously had been,
actively involved with the education of ELL students. A limitation of this study was commensurate with
3
survey research methods. For this survey, data were collected at one point in time and reflected the
experiences and biases of the respondents whose input was strictly voluntary.
Participants
Participants were practicing educators who were Master’s degree candidates in Educational
Leadership, Educational Technology Leadership, Teacher Leadership, or Counseling programs in a
southwest state. Two thousand six hundred fifty-nine (2,654) surveys were distributed; three hundred
twenty-four (324) or approximately 13% were received.
Findings
Participant Characteristics
Table 1 (see Appendix A) shows the majority of respondents (80%) were female. Respondents
included several age groups from young educators at age 21 to seasoned educators at age 61 or over. The
majority of the respondents were between 31 and 50 years old.
The respondents represented several ethnic groups as shown in Table 2. The ethnic group represented
by the greatest number of respondents was Caucasian (71%). The next largest group was Hispanic (17%).
Almost 90%, of respondents were Caucasian or Hispanic. Groups least represented included Asian (1%),
African American (6%), Native American (<1%), mixed ethnic (3%), and a group indicated as Other
(1%).
The respondents represented several areas of employment (Table 3). Seventy-four percent (74%),
listed general education as their area of employment. The next greatest area of employment was
ELL/ESL/Bilingual (21%). Groups least represented were special education (11%) and counselors (6%).
Most respondents indicated they taught, or had taught grades 11-12 (34%), while the least represented
grade levels were PK-1st grade (18%). Other grade levels represented were 2nd-3rd grades (22%), 4th-5th
grades (23%), 6th-7th grades (23%), 8th grade (20%), and 9th-10th grades (31%). The majority (65%)
taught or had previously taught grades 9-12 (Table 4).
Respondents reported their teaching experience. Most respondents, (25%), had 4-7 years teaching
experience, while 12% had only 0-3 years experience. Others indicated 8-11 years experience (22%), 1215 years experience (18%) and over 15 years experience (24%).
Analysis of respondents’ demographics indicated the most likely respondent to this survey was a
Caucasian female, between the ages of 31-40 with 4-7 years experience, employed in general education,
who taught grades 9-12 (high school).
Table 5 shows educators’ knowledge of ELL instructional delivery models. The majority of
respondents, 91%, strongly agreed that every student who is identified as LEP shall be provided an
opportunity to participate in a bilingual education or ESL program, while 3.8% strongly disagreed, and
5.1% had no knowledge. Most respondents, 75.8%, strongly agreed that in bilingual education classes,
content area instruction is provided in both the student’s primary language and English, while 12.6%
strongly disagreed, and 11.6% responded that they did not know. Approximately 64.6% of respondents
strongly agreed the Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) instructional delivery model is a
recommended training for content area teachers wherein teachers learn to prepare and deliver
comprehensible lessons, while 3.4% strongly disagreed, and 32% stated they had no knowledge.
Table 6 shows that many respondents, 88.7%, strongly agreed that cooperative learning is effective
with ELL’s, giving them frequent opportunities to speak and practice what they have learned, while only
0.3% strongly disagreed, and 11% did not know.
Table 7 shows that 76.1% of respondents strongly agreed that Academic Language Scaffolding
describes the step-by-step process of building students’ ability to complete tasks on their own, while 3.4%
strongly disagreed, and 20.5% had no knowledge.
Table 8 shows that 68.8% of respondents strongly agreed, when possible, students should be provided
with academic support in their native language (Native Language support), which validates the students
and their culture, while 9.6% strongly disagreed, and 31.2% had no knowledge.
Table 9 shows that most respondents, ranging from 89.8% to 97.6% strongly agreed that strategies
such as enunciating clearly and at a slow pace of speech to presenting information in a variety of ways
and providing frequent summations of main points of a lesson, always emphasizing key vocabulary words
4
could improve mainstream instruction for ELL students. Respondents who strongly disagreed these
strategies improved mainstream ELL instruction ranged from 6.5% to 0.3%, while 3.8% to 2.0%,
responded they had no knowledge.
Summary and Conclusions
Three hundred twenty-four Master’s degree candidates in online programs for Educational Leadership,
Educational Technology Leadership, Teacher Leadership, or Counseling programs in a southwest state
responded to an online survey identifying their knowledge of selected ELL teaching models and
evidence-based teaching strategies.
Most respondents to this survey were Caucasian females, between the ages of 31-40 with 4-7 years
experience, employed in general education, who taught grades 9-12 (high school). Almost all
respondents were familiar with the term English language learner (ELL). Twenty-one percent of
respondents (21%) were ESL or bilingual teachers.
Most respondents (88.7%) were aware that cooperative learning is effective with ELLs. Most
respondents (89.8%-97.6%) were aware mainstream teachers can improve ELL instruction by enunciating
clearly and using a slow pace of speech, writing clearly, legibly, and in print, repeating information and
reviewing frequently. Other effective teaching strategies included avoiding idioms and slag words,
presenting new information in the context of known information, announcing the lesson’s objectives and
activities, listing instructions step-by-step, providing frequent summations of the main points of a lesson.
Most respondents agreed that always emphasizing key vocabulary words, and recognizing student success
openly and frequently were effective teaching strategies that provided successful learning for English
language learners.
The researchers noted these strategies are appropriate for English speaking students, as well. This may
indicate the respondents had, through experience or training, been made aware of the effectiveness of the
selected strategies; however, many respondents (35.4%) had no knowledge of or disagreed the Sheltered
Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) model was recommended as an effective instruction strategy for
ELL students. This may suggest that explicit professional development in that specially designed
academic instructional model for ELL students had not occurred.
Recommendations
Results of the study indicated that many respondents are unfamiliar with specific teaching models and
strategies shown to be effective with teaching English language learning students. A survey of literature
indicated a growing ELL population and increasing Federal and state accountability standards for students
with English language learning needs. Results of this study indicates that professional development needs
of educators includes teaching strategies explicitly designed to support English language learners.
Specially designed academic instruction in English (SDAIE) methodology, also referred to as sheltered
instruction, is a specific training model that ensures teachers ‘consciously and purposefully’ employ
strategies and techniques effective for not only learning English, but also, learning subject material.
Ensuring that school leaders, support staff, and teachers have on-going professional development training
and support to provide for all students, including the growing English language learner population, is
imperative in this time of increasing accountability. This study supports the imperative need to provide
professional development to educators in research-based teaching techniques and models that are known
to be effective in teaching the exploding population of English language learning students in our schools.
References
Abedi, J. (2004). The No Child Left Behind Act and English language learners: Assessment and
accountability issues. Educational Researcher, 33(1), 4-14. Persistent link to this record (Permalink):
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=EJ72754 1&site =ehost-live
Batalova, J. (2006). Spotlight on Limited English proficient students in the United States. US in Focus.
Retrieved 4/12/2011 from http://www.migrationinformation.org/usfocus/display. cfm?ID=373
Capps, R., Ku, L., Fix, M., Furgiuele, C., Passel, J. S., Ramchand, R., McNiven, S., & Perez-Lopez, D.
(2002). How are immigrants faring after welfare reform? Preliminary evidence from Los Angeles
and New York City-final report. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
5
Cordiero, P. A., & Cunningham, W. G. (2013). Educational leadership: A bridge to improved practice.
(5th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Cosentino de Cohen, C., Deterding, N., & Clewell, B. C. (2005). Who’s left behind? Immigrant children
in high and low LEP Schools. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
McCardle, P. M, Mele-McCarthy, J., Cutting, L., Leos, K., & D'Emilio, T. (2005). Learning disabilities in
English language learners: Identifying the issues. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice
(Blackwell Publishing Limited), 20(1), 1-5. doi:10.1111/j.1540-582 6.2005.00114.x. Persistent link
to
this
record
(Permalink):
http://search.ebscohost.com
/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=15609874 &site=ehost-live
National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Educational
Programs (NCELA). (2011). Frequently Asked Questions. Retrieved 9/26/2011 from http://www.
ncela.gwu.edu/faqs/
Office for Civil Rights (OCR). (2006). Questions and answers on the rights of limited-English proficient
students. NCLEA Office of English Language Acquisition, Ed. Gov. Dept. of Ed. Retrieved
1/2/2012 @ http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/faqs/view/6.
Reardon-Anderson, J., Capps, R. & Fix, M. (2002). The health and well-being of children in immigrant
families. Assessing the new federalism policy brief B-52. Washington, DC: The Urban Institute.
U.S. Department of Education, Office for Civil Rights (OCR) (2005). Questions and answers on the
rights of limited-English proficient students. Retrieved 4/10/2011 from http://www2.ed.gov/about/
offices/list/ocr/qa-ell.html
Weisman, E., & Hansen, L. E. (2007). Strategies for teaching social studies to English-language learners
at the elementary level. Social Studies, 98(5), 180-184. Persistent link to this record (Permalink):
http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=2 6848945&site=ehost-live.
Appendix A
Table 1
Participant Characteristics Gender (N=324)
Gender
Female
Male
% responding
80.0%
20.0%
Table 2
Participant Characteristics Ethnic Group (N=324)
Ethnic Group
Caucasian
African American
Hispanic
Asian
Native American
Other
% responding
71.0%
6.0%
17.0%
1.0%
<1.0%
1.0%
6
Table 3
Participant Characteristics Area of Employment (N=324)
Area of Employment
General Education
ELL/ESL
Special Education
Counselors
% responding
74.0%
21.0%
11.0%
6.0%
Table 4
Participant Characteristics Grade Level Taught (N=324)
Grade Level Taught
PK-1st grade
2nd – 3rd grade
4th - 5th grade
6th – 7th
8th grade
9th – 10th
11th – 12th
Note. Multiple grade levels were accepted
% responding
18.0%
22.0%
23.0%
23.0%
20.0%
31.0%
34.0%
Table 5
Practicing Teachers’ Knowledge of ELL Evidence-based Delivery Models (N=324)
Knowledge area
% Yes
1. Every student who has a home language other than English 91.0%
and who is identified as LEP shall be provided a full
opportunity to participate in a bilingual education or ESL
program.
2. In bilingual education classes, content area instruction is 75.8%
provided in both the student’s primary language and English.
3. Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) is a 64.6%
recommended training for content area teachers wherein
teachers learn to prepare and deliver comprehensible lessons.
% No
3.8%
% No
Knowledge
5.1%
12.6%
11.6%
3.4%
32%
Table 6
Practicing Teachers’ Knowledge of ELL Evidence-based Teaching Strategies (N=324)
Knowledge area
% Yes
Cooperative learning is effective with ELL’s because all students 88.7%
are given frequent opportunities to speak and practice what they
have learned.
7
% No
0.3%
% No
Knowledge
11%
Table 7
Practicing Teachers’ Knowledge of ELL Evidence-based Teaching Strategies (N=324)
Knowledge area
% Yes
Academic Language Scaffolding describes the step-by-step 76.1%
process of building students’ ability to complete tasks on their
own.
% No
3.4%
% No
Knowledge
20.5%
Table 8
Practicing Teachers’ Knowledge of ELL Evidence-based Teaching Strategies (N=324)
Knowledge area
% Yes
When possible, students should be provided with academic 68.8%
support in their native language which validates the students and
their culture.
% No
9.6%
% No
Knowledge
31.2%
Table 9
Practicing Teachers’ Knowledge of ELL Evidence-based Teaching Strategies (N=324)
Knowledge area
% Yes
Mainstream teachers can improve ELL instruction by:
Enunciating clearly and at a slow pace of speech
Writing clearly, legibly, and in print
Repeating information and reviewing frequently
Avoiding idioms and slang words
Presenting new information in the context of known
information
Announcing the lesson’s objectives and activities
Listing instructions step-by-step
Presenting information in a variety of ways
Providing frequent summations of the main points of a lesson,
always emphasizing key vocabulary words.
Recognizing student success openly and frequently.
89.8%
6.5%
% No
Knowledge
3.8%
94.5%
96.9%
91.8%
97.3%
1.7%
1.0%
5.5%
0.3%
3.8%
2.0%
2.7%
2.4%
94.8%
96.9%
97.6%
97.6%
1.7%
0.7%
0.3%
0.0%
3.4%
2.4%
2.1%
2.4%
96.6%
0.7%
2.8%
8
% No
The Content Literacy Continuum: A Research-Based Intervention
Model to Improve Schoolwide Literacy at the Secondary Level
Daniel J. Boudah
East Carolina University
Recent NAEP data suggest that many secondary school students perform poorly on literacy tasks
(2011). In fact, the reading scores of 12th-graders in the 2009 assessment were four points lower than
scores in 1992. Furthermore, for some struggling students, school performance actually appears to plateau
in middle school, while the demands of school continue to increase or even escalate through high school,
resulting in a growing performance gap (Warner, Schumaker, Alley, & Deshler, 1980). Given data such
as these, it is little wonder that students with low performance are at significant risk for dropping out of
school (Hammond, Smink, & Drew, 2007). In the face of such a challenge, secondary schools require
access to comprehensive, research-based interventions to meet the differentiated needs of students,
particularly those who struggle with the literacy demands of schools. The Content Literacy Continuum
(CLC) holds considerable promise to address such demands.
The Content Literacy Continuum
Content literacy may be viewed as the listening, speaking, reading and writing skills and strategies
necessary to learn in each of the academic disciplines. The Content Literacy Continuum (CLC), then, is a
multi-tiered or response to intervention (RtI) system to increase students’ content literacy performance
within and across secondary disciplines. Moreover, the Content Literacy Continuum is specifically
designed to help secondary schools design and sustain comprehensive and integrated literacy
interventions using instruction that has proven to be effective (e.g., Schumaker & Deshler, 2010). The
CLC has evolved from over 30 years of research and development by researchers and associates of the
University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning.
Some of the key characteristics of the Content Literacy Continuum include a) school-wide
commitment to assist all learners, b) universal screening and progress monitoring of students, c) researchbased instruction, d) increasingly intense levels of interventions, and e) data-based decision-making.
Administrators and school faculty are committed and engaged in CLC together; this is significant since
CLC is intended to address the needs of all students, rather than any one group. Student performance and
progress is continuously screened and monitored in order to differentiate interventions according to
student needs. Teachers and administrators are introduced to and use techniques from the Strategic
Instruction Model (SIM) (e.g., Schumaker & Deshler, 1992) as well as other scientifically-based
techniques. Some interventions focus on helping content area teachers think about, adopt and present
critical content in a “learner friendly” fashion. Other more intensive interventions focus on teaching
students specific skills and strategies to learn content across disciplines. Since student performance and
academic progress is continuously monitored, performance data drives instructional intervention
decisions.
Five Levels/Tiers of Intervention
The CLC is referred to as a “continuum” because a range of intervention is provided to meet the needs
of all students. There are five levels included in the range of intervention: Level 1: Enhanced Content
Instruction, Level 2: Embedded Strategy Instruction, Level 3: Intensive Strategy Instruction, Level 4:
Intensive Basic Skill Instruction, Level 5: Therapeutic Intervention. From level 1 to level 5, the intensity
of intervention increases to address greater degree and specificity of student needs.
9
Level 1 interventions are directed towards the mastery of critical content for all students, within the
complex language/literacy demands of each academic discipline or content area (e.g., history, English,
math, science), regardless of student literacy levels. Content Enhancement Routines are typically
recommended and used by teachers, including the Unit Organizer Routine (Boudah, Lenz, Bulgren,
Schumaker, & Deshler, 2000) and the Framing Routine (Ellis, 1998). Content Enhancement Routines
empower teachers to present content to academically diverse group of students by selecting and
transforming the critical content with robust, cognitive-based graphic devices that engage students and
enable them to more successfully and meaningfully learn and remember information.
Level 2 interventions employ validated learning strategies and embed them within content area classes.
Specifically, strategies from the Learning Strategies Curriculum are recommended and used, including the
Paragraph Writing Strategy (Schumaker & Lyeria, 1993) and the LINCS Vocabulary Strategy (Ellis,
1994). Strategies are taught explicitly, but with adaptations for various content area classes.
CLC level 3 interventions offer more intensive and explicit instruction to students who are several
years behind their peers in literacy performance, including some students with disabilities, and may be at
risk for continued failure and dropout. This typically occurs during regular, daily time in a setting that
supplements, rather than supplants, regular English/Language Arts classes. Teachers may use a
curriculum such as Xtreme Reading (Strategic Learning Center, 2010). The objective is for students to
master specific reading and writing strategies, or to help students learn how to learn, rather than simply
providing homework assistance.
The goal of level 4 is the mastery of essential literacy skills for students who are multiple years behind
in reading performance or may even be considered non-readers, including some students with disabilities.
Clearly, without specific intervention, these students are at significant risk for continued failure and
dropout. The primary tools utilized include research-validated, commercially-available programs for
phonemic awareness, decoding, word attack, fluency, and comprehension skills. Intensive and explicit
instruction is provided during regular, daily instruction in a setting that supplements, rather than
supplants, regular English/Language Arts classes.
The focus of CLC level 5 is mastery of the fundamentals of language and communication, utilizing
curriculum-relevant therapy as well as devices and strategies used at the other CLC levels. Specific,
intensive, and explicit instruction is provided during regular, daily instruction by a variety of related
service providers, such as occupational therapists or speech/language therapists. Interventions are
designed to supplement rather than supplant regular English/Language Arts classes.
When compared to a more commonly recognized three-tier response to intervention (RtI) model, CLC
levels 1 and 2 are similar in focus to RtI Tier 1. CLC levels 3 and 4 are comparable to RtI Tier 2,
depending on the intensity and duration of intervention. When highly intensive and long-term
interventions are included, CLC levels 3 and 4, as well as level 5, are most similar to Tier 3 in a three-tier
RtI model (Ehren, Deshler & Graner, 2010).
Results of CLC Implementation
Many of the devices and strategies deployed in the Content Literacy Continuum originate from the
work of Deshler, Schumaker, and associates on the Strategic Instruction Model (SIM). SIM has been
developed in response to challenges faced by low performing students, including those with learning
disabilities, in secondary education classes (e.g., Faggella-Luby & Deshler, 2008). For over 30 years, SIM
research has validated interventions that impact student performance in content area and special class
settings, particularly for students at-risk for failure. For example, research on the Word Identification
Strategy indicated that students who learned the strategy made significantly fewer reading errors (Lenz &
Hughes, 1990). Research on the Word Mapping Strategy indicated that high school students in the
experimental group significantly outperformed comparison students on tasks related to strategy use,
meaning of words taught, meanings of word parts, and morphological analysis (Harris, Schumaker &
Deshler, 2008). Students who learned the Main Idea Strategy showed pre to post test score gains,
improvement through on-going curriculum-based measurement, and out-performed similar students on
the state reading test (Boudah, 2008).
10
In one implementation of CLC, approximately one hundred teachers in fourteen, highly-diverse high
schools were introduced to the three Content Enhancement Routines (CERs) as Level 1 CLC
interventions. Teachers participated in demonstration lessons at individual schools, as well as follow-up
observations with feedback and debriefing on the routines. Data were collected regarding student
performance on state End of Course (EOC) tests. Results indicated that student EOC test performance in
the classes of content area teachers that implemented CLC level 1 interventions was greater than the
performance of students in comparison classes where the teachers did not implement CLC level 1
interventions. Furthermore, the results appeared to be consistent across most schools, even given the wide
diversity in student populations, and across more than half of the content-specific courses in which data
were analyzed. Effects appeared to be positive for students with and without disabilities as well, and these
results supported the premise that CLC interventions, including those in inclusive classrooms, benefit all
learners (Boudah, et al., 2010).
CLC has also been implemented and evaluated in a smaller rural district that served approximately
3800 students, the percent of students qualifying for free or reduced lunch status was approximately 45%
percent, and schools had not met AYP in achievement for the students with disabilities and minority
subgroups. Over three to four months, approximately a dozen content area teachers volunteered to learn
and implement CLC level 1 classroom interventions, and two other teachers were identified to learn and
implement the more intensive CLC level 3 reading interventions for smaller groups of identified at-risk
students, including students with disabilities. Professional development and instructional materials were
provided to teachers, including demonstration lessons within classrooms, as well as follow-up
observations with feedback and debriefing.
After just one half-year of CLC level 1 implementation in this rural district, End of Course (EOC) data
were analyzed for 13 high school teachers, including 7 teachers who participated in CLC activities (CLC
teachers) and 6 who did not (non-CLC teachers). Comparing the EOC test scaled scores of all students in
the classes of teachers who participated in CLC activities with the EOC test scaled scores of all students
from comparison teachers who did not participate in CLC activities, the difference was statistically
significant (F= 12.9831, df= 1, 881, p<.0003). The mean EOC test scaled score for students in the classes
of teachers who participated in CLC activities (CLC students) was 75.38, and the mean EOC test scaled
score of students in the classrooms of comparison teachers who did not participate in CLC activities (nonCLC students) was 72.74 (Boudah, et al., 2010).
Adopting the Content Literacy Continuum
As already noted, CLC requires a school-wide commitment to assist all learners, where administrators
and teachers are engaged together through four stages of school adoption: exploring, planning,
implementing, and sustaining (Columbo, 2008). In the first stage of CLC adoption, exploring, school staff
engage in activities to develop awareness of learner differences and school needs, often through the use of
surveys or initial interviews. School and often district staff are introduced to the Content Literacy
Continuum and conversations occur to gauge interest and readiness to buy-in or commit to schoolwide
reforms. A decision is made to pursue planning for CLC implementation. In the planning stage, specific
and detailed analyses of outcomes and trends in student data occur, and a school-based leadership team is
formed in order to guide implementation of CLC. The team develops an implementation timeline and plan
of activities. In the implementation stage, professional development occurs for teachers, including
differentiated efforts for teachers and staff implementing different levels of CLC. On-going coaching
support is provided to teachers implementing specific Content Enhancement Routines or Learning
Strategies. Capacity building activities begin, such as training of school or district staff to provide
professional development regarding interventions from portions of the Strategic Instruction Model.
Student performance is monitored and evaluated through curriculum-based, standardized, or state
assessments, and data are analyzed. In the final stage of CLC adoption, sustaining, interventions are
refined, implementation fidelity in monitored within classrooms, student performance continues to be
assessed and evaluated, capacity continues to be built through training professional developers and
pursuing funding resources, accomplishments are celebrated, additional teachers or other schools begin
11
the CLC adoption process, and CLC is integrated into on-going school improvement plans as a way of
institutionalizing CLC within the culture of a school and district.
Conclusion
Secondary grades place far greater demands on students to read and comprehend content information
from textbooks, take notes from lectures, work independently, and express understanding in written
compositions and on state achievement tests. For students who haven’t acquired the requisite academic
skills in earlier grades, the challenge of mastering content can lead to failure and even dropout. In
response, the Content Literacy Continuum offers research-based strategies in a tiered approach to
addressing literacy for all learners within a school. Administrators, teachers and staff work to develop and
implement a coordinated plan to improve literacy and content area learning based on student
performance. In such a plan, CLC can help address national, state, and district priorities regarding
literacy, and can be a critical part of on-going school improvement plans. The CLC adoption stages allow
for flexibility of implementation, including differing starting places by school, depending on the needs
and contexts of schools. Based on recent results, the Content Literacy Continuum holds considerable
promise for secondary schools.
12
References
Boudah, D. J., Orr, T., Bratcher, J., Chapman, T., Ouzts, J., & Knight, B. (2010). Promoting literacy for
all in secondary schools through tiered, research-based interventions: The content literacy
continuum. Palmetto Administrator, 26, 36-39.
Boudah, D. J. (2008). The inferential main idea strategy: A strategy to improve reading comprehension
performance (Instructors Manual) (2nd ed.). Lulu Publishing: Lulu.com.
Boudah, D. J., Lenz, B. K., Bulgren, J. A., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2000). Don’t water down!
Enhance content learning through the unit organizer routine. Teaching Exceptional Children, 32(3),
48-56.
Columbo, B. (Ed.) (2008). Content literacy continuum leaders guidebook. Lawrence, KS: Strategic
Learning Center.
Ehren, B. J., Deshler, D. D., & Graner, P. S. (2010). Using the content literacy continuum as a framework
for implementing RTI in secondary schools. Theory Into Practice, (49)4, 315-322.
Ellis, E. S. (1998). The framing routine. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises.
Ellis, E. S. (1994). The LINCS Vocabulary Strategy. Lawrence, KS: Edge Enterprises.
Faggella-Luby, M., & Deshler, D. (2008). Reading comprehension in adolescents with LD: What we
know; What we need to learn. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, 23(2), 70-78.
Hammond, C., Smink, J., & Drew, S. (2007). Dropout risk factors and exemplary programs: A technical
report. Clemson, SC: National Dropout Prevention Center.
Harris, M., Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (2008). The effects of strategic morphological analysis
instruction on vocabulary performance of secondary students with and without disabilities.
(Research Report.) University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning.
Lenz, B. K., & Hughes, C. A. (1990). A word identification strategy for adolescents with learning
disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 23(3), 149-158, 163.
Schumaker, J.B., & Deshler, D.D. (2010). Using a tiered intervention model in secondary schools to
improve academic outcomes in subject-area courses. In Interventions for achievement and behavior
problems in a three-tier model including RTI (pp. 609-632). Bethesda, MD: National Association of
School Psychologists.
Schumaker, J. B., & Deshler, D. D. (1992). Validation of learning strategy interventions for students with
LD: Results of a programmatic research effort. In B. Y. L. Wong (Ed.). Intervention research with
students with learning disabilities. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Schumaker, J. B., & Lyeria, K. D. (1993). Paragraph Writing Strategy: Instructor’s Manual. Lawrence,
KS: University of Kansas Center for Research on Learning.
Strategic Learning Center (2010). The Xtreme reading program. Retrieved October 1, 2010 from
http://www.smarttogether.org/outcomes/xtreme_reading.pdf
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Sciences (2011). Digest of educational statistics.
Retrieved on August 30, 2011 at http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d10/.
Warner, M. M., Schumaker, J. B., Alley, G. R., & Deshler, D. D. (1980). Learning disabled adolescents in
the public schools: Are they different from other low achievers? Exceptional Education Quarterly,
1(2), 27–35.
13
Student Disengagement: A National Concern from a Local Perspective
Paul Carlson
Rachel Martinez
University of Houston at Victoria
Mary Lasater
Lasater Consulting, Victoria, Texas
Researchers have been studying student engagement and disengagement for decades. While current
researchers have highlighted some factors and themes that may help to explain disengagement, these
factors when applied to local settings are closer to being hints or suggested starting points than
scientifically validated truths. Research findings demonstrate that major demographic factors such as
family income, gender, or ethnicity may be linked to levels of engagement (Lew, 2004; Van de Gaer,
Pustjens, Van Damme, & De Munter, 2009; Ream & Rumberger, 2008; Ladd & Dinella, 2008; Perreira,
Harris, & Lee, 2006). However, these factors are of limited value to those seeking to understand local sets
of at-risk students and trying to develop school-based strategies. In brief, research conducted outside a
district cannot reliably capture the key factors that lead to local disconnections, however well conceived
and conducted.
Quantitative Research Approaches to Disengagement
Over the last decade, quantitative researchers have been moving toward a consensus that
disengagement is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. Some (e.g., Ladd & Dinella, 2009; Archambault,
Janosz, Jean-Sebastien, & Pagani, 2009; Pellerin, 2005) have adopted part of the three disengagement
dimensions articulated by Fredericks, Blumenfeld and Paris (2004) which may be summarized as follows:
Behavioral disengagement. Student effort, attention, persistence, attendance. Pellerin (2005) noted,
“one of the strongest indicators of disengagement is physical withdrawal from schooling, which includes
such behaviors as tardiness, cutting classes, chronic truancy, and dropping out” (p. 1159).
Emotional disengagement. Student feelings toward school peers and teachers and having a sense of
belonging at school. Ladd and Dinella (2009) referred to emotional engagement as “a student’s
sentiments toward school” and they operationalize the construct as “. . . the extent to which children feel
that they value and belong to school” (p. 190).
Cognitive disengagement. The level of effort students apply to learning academic skills. According
to Archambault et al. (2009), “Cognitive investment in learning covers perceptions of competency,
willingness to engage in learning activities and engage in effortful learning, and establishing taskorientated goals” (p. 654).
Whether the above three dimensions are distinct or part of the same phenomenon, many quantitative
studies seem to agree that disengagement is best seen as a negative psychological condition whereby a
student loses motivation and interest and/or is distracted, and that these lead to behavioral and academic
effects typically resulting in declines in academic achievement.
Qualitative Research Approaches to Disengagement
Qualitative researchers from a “critical” perspective tend to employ a different approach. Rather than
operationalizing disengagement and drawing statistical correlations, they tend to rely on their research
subjects to talk about, explain, and interpret the concept. The methodology, seeks the perspectives of
subjects who have experienced disengagement. Such studies follow the perspective of Smyth (2006) who
claimed that if we wish to understand dropping out and disengagement, “we need to access the meanings
14
of these concepts . . . to explore them from the standpoint . . . of the existential experiences of young
people and from there, begin to construct more feasible reform platforms. ”(p. 288)
The central group of research subjects is usually students. Thus Ravet (2007a), examined ten
elementary school students’ perceptions of themselves as learners in the classroom and used four waves
of interviews to elicit their descriptions and evaluations of their learning behavior. Her objective was “. . .
to establish the subjective meaning of the recurring disengaged behavior” of the students (p. 235). Some
qualitative researchers include other subjects such as family members and/or teachers as well as students
(Thomas, 2007; Gutman & McLoyd, 2000; Sheehey, 2006).
Since the quantitative research cannot draw applications to specific schools or districts beyond their
target populations and since qualitative research cannot be generalized, local educators are left only with
hypotheses. Unless local educators have information about their students, the students’ social networks,
and in-school factors that underlie local disengagement, they are unlikely to construct effective strategies.
Consequences of Disengagement
Regardless of the definitional and research method questions, most researchers seem to agree that the
costs of disengagement to individuals, families and the society mount as the disengagement continues.
As noted, a disengaged student runs an ever-increasing likelihood of low academic performance and
dropping out. Beyond that, there are post-school effects including the downward cycle that includes
unemployment/underemployment, poverty, poor health, substandard housing, and involvement with the
criminal justice system. One alarming aspect of this phenomenon is that, like poverty, disengagement
tends to become intergenerational (Pellerin, 2005; Perry et al., 2010; Archambault et al., 2009).
While disengagement is especially painful to individuals and families, it also imposes burdens on the
educational system. Disengagement often leads to financial investments by educators who seek to
remediate its effects, behaviorally and academically. Title 1 of the Elementary and Secondary Education
Act, and remedial efforts including after-school and mentoring programs are expensive. Title 1 is
designed to provide compensatory support to schools with economically disadvantaged students. By
2007, the annual federal funding level of Title 1 reached approximately thirteen billion dollars and
supported programs reaching millions of low-income students (Ornstein & Levine, 2008).
The costs are not borne exclusively by individuals and schools. They reach deep into the economic and
political system. Noting that dropping out is a society-wide threat, Perry et al. (2010) summarized some
of the sobering details producing widespread financial damage that includes “the amount of total income
lost in lifetime earnings and tax revenues, annual Medicaid and health care expenditures for the
uninsured, annual college remediation costs, and billions of dollars in incarceration costs as a result of
students dropping out of high school” (p. 270). Amos (2008) observed that the debilitating costs could be
substantially offset if high schools could raise the graduation rates of Hispanic, Black/African American,
and Native American students to the same levels of White students.
Disengagement Factors
Quantitative researchers have amply linked demographic factors to disengagement. Thus urban
schools with students from low-income families are especially likely to have large numbers of affected
students (Perry et al., 2010; Kenny et al., 2006). Moreover, students from some ethnic minority
communities, including African American, Hispanic, and Native American students are also vulnerable
(Murray, 2009; Bennett, 2006; Holt, Bry, & Johnson, 2008; Dotterer, McHale, & Crouter, 2009). While
much of the disengagement research focuses on ethnic minority students, it is clear that the phenomenon
cuts across all ethnic groups (Gruman, Harachi, Abbott, Catalano & Fleming, 2008; Wiggan, 2008).
One important question concerns the target age/grade levels for study and intervention. The question
is when does disengagement occur? (Daly, Shin, Thakral, Seldeers & Vera, 2009) Should educators and
policy makers invest their energies in the early school years, in middle school, or at high school levels?
Much research targets students at middle school and high school levels (Lee & Burkam, 2003; Perdue,
Manzeske & Estell, 2009; Suh, & Suh, 2007). The shift from elementary to secondary school involves
sudden changes in placement with very different, often larger and denser settings in a dynamic time of life
when peer relationships become more salient and sustained adult supervision often declines (Daly et al.,
2009). While age is likely to be important, in-school factors also need to be considered.
15
Disengagement and School Culture
Researchers have associated specific school-related factors, such as teacher-student relationships,
social distance, intergenerational conflict, socioeconomic conditions, and ethnic differences with
behavioral and academic problems for years (Perry et al., 2010; Suarez-Orozco, Rhodes, & Milburn,
2009; Gruman et al., 2008; Murray, 2009). Teacher-student relationships have been repeatedly found to
relate to engagement (Garcia-Reid, 2007; Perry et al., 2010; Gruman et al., 2008, Ravet, 2007b).
Investigators have also found the curriculum at the secondary schools to be associated with
disengagement (Smyth, 2006; Marks, 2000). Smyth has characterized secondary school as “domesticated,
emaciated and totally devoid of educational richness or vitality” (p. 293). The critical approach quite
consistently finds the source within fundamental flaws in the schools rather than in students and their
families. While this might suggest a priori case building, there is little doubt that adolescents often
challenge the relevance of the curriculum and wonder about its practical significance.
Each of these school factors, teacher-student relationships, curricular relevance, and school size may
be important. Yet they vary from one setting to another.
Disengagement and Peer Relationships
One of the strongest motivations for attending school is to interact with peers. As Ornstein & Levine
(2005) observed, surveys of students consistently indicate that the best part of school is “my friends.”
Much of the research on peers and schools indicates that positive peer relationships correlate with higher
levels of engagement (Simons-Morton & Chen, 2010; Williams, Davis, Saunders & Williams, 2002) and
negative experiences with peers is linked to less engagement (Dotterer et. al., 2009; Buhs et al., 2006;
Simons-Morton & Chen, 2009).
Peer rejection, exclusion and maltreatment have been shown to have long-term consequences leading
to school avoidance (Buhs et al., 2006). In particular, peer discrimination has been shown to relate
negatively to adolescents’ cognitive and affective school engagement (Dotterer et al., 2009). While school
culture and peer dynamics seem to influence engagement, family factors must also be included in any
local analysis.
Disengagement and Family Relationships
The social and psychological gaps between schools and families have been studied for years. Teachers
may use “deficit” perspectives of low-income parents and view them as “welfare queens,” “druggies” and
“irresponsible parents.” Parents may view teachers as “prejudiced”, “condescending” and “incompetent”.
Many researchers believe that bridging this gap is essential to increased student engagement (Bennet,
2006, Mo & Singh, 2008, Murray, 2009).
Factors within the family have also been found to relate to student engagement. Using Baumrind’s
(1991) notion of parenting styles, Simons-Morton and Chen (2009) found a positive connection between
authoritative parenting (characterized by high levels of demand and high levels of support for children)
and middle school student engagement. Parental aspirations and parent-child relationships have also been
shown to relate strongly to student academic involvement (Mo & Singh, 2008). Family stress, especially
stress related to poverty, such as “unscheduled” residential mobility, has been linked to student
disengagement (Gruman et al., 2008).
Disengagement and Non-Family, Non-Educator Adults
Individual socialization often occurs in a wider network than is captured in the usual triad, family,
school, and peers. At this point, researchers who have ventured beyond the triad have primarily focused
on neighborhoods (Bennett, 2006; Bowen & Bowen, 1999; Daly et al., 2009).
Recent studies show differential effects of living in at-risk neighborhoods. A neighborhood that is
unstable, crime-ridden, and drug-infested; that has poor access to transportation; and that has a high
number of deteriorated buildings, high unemployment levels, and few working adults is an environment
that statistically constitutes a distinct threat to school performance (Berliner, 2006).
Methods
This study was undertaken to examine local engagement factors as perceived by students, local
educators, and family members. It was conducted under a formal agreement between the researchers’
university and public school administrators. The agreement followed discussions between the researchers
16
and an assistant superintendent of schools, the district’s director of research and development and the
school principal. The principal also selected the three teachers to be interviewed and worked with
teachers in selecting 12 student participants.
Participants
The students. Twelve at-risk high school students (four females, eight males, ages fifteen to nineteen)
were selected by their principal and teachers based on their belief that the students would be available,
articulate and willing to share their histories. They had been attending the school district’s Credit
Recovery Program, at an alternative high school, since the beginning of the 2009-2010 school year. The
students included Hispanic, African American, Anglo and mixed ethnicities. Some came from working
class and low income families and some from middle class homes.
The family adults. The seven family adults who were available and willing to be interviewed were a
grandmother, an aunt, parents (one couple), a single mother, a remarried mother, and a father. Nonparents who were primary care givers varied in their connections to the students and played the caregiver
roles for different reasons. An aunt informally adopted a female student when the mother refused to care
for her and her custodial grandmother became disabled. A grandmother took a male youth into her home
following divorce and because of the mother’s mental instability.
The researchers. Researchers included an adjunct faculty member with a terminal degree in education
and extensive teaching experience in one of this school district’s middle schools. The second researcher
was an assistant professor with a terminal degree in special education who had been a diagnostician in
nearby school districts. The third researcher was a professor with terminal degrees in special education
and educational anthropology.
The educators. Four educators in the School’s Credit Recovery Program participated in this study:
three teachers and the school principal. The teachers varied widely in age and experience and had
classroom experience with each of the students we interviewed. One teacher who had retired from an
earlier career had been teaching for six years while the other two were younger. Each had more than a
year of teaching experience in the Credit Recovery Program. The school principal was in her first year as
principal but, as head of the Credit Recovery Program since its inception, she had extensive experience
with students at risk of leaving school.
The Credit Recovery program. Credit Recovery Programs such as the one in which these students
were enrolled provide a way to “recover” credits for a course or courses that a student has not earned in
the traditional way and which are needed for graduation. They differ greatly from programs that allow
students to earn “first time credit” since Credit Recovery students have already satisfied seat time
requirements for a course or courses in which they were unsuccessful. Credit Recovery programs, in
general, have a primary focus on helping students stay in school and graduate on time. Students in this
study had the option of receiving direct instruction in classes that averaged 10 students; taking some
coursework through computer programs (e.g., Plato) and/or completing commercially-prepared
modules for non-core courses (e.g., American Preparatory Institute). The Credit Recovery Program
involved in our study has been in place in the school district for seven years with high school completion
rates increasing each year.
Procedures
This group of students provided us with the opportunity to reconstruct personal histories that included
earlier disengagement and recent renewed commitment to school completion. Thus there were two foci:
the time and circumstances of disengagement and the factors leading to re-engagement. We sought their
personal histories, but we also indicated our desire to discover the factors influencing school involvement
with peers. We interviewed three of their teachers and the school principal in order to obtain their
perceptions of the students and the school factors that worked toward and against engagement. We
interviewed family members to get a deeper understanding of the students’ historical relationships to
school from disengagement to re-engagement. All interviews were digitally recorded.
After obtaining signed consent for participation, we spoke with students in both group and individual
interviews. We held group sessions at the beginning and end of the research and between these, we
conducted individual interviews. Individual semi-structured interviews were intended to provide security
17
as well as freedom from distractions. Eight of these were conducted off campus, four occurred on benches
outside the school campus.
Each individual student interview was conducted with at least two of the researchers present. The
interviews averaged approximately 30 minutes. Students were assured of their anonymity and were told
that they could withdraw from the study at any time; however, none did.
Attempts were made to contact parents or guardians of all twelve of the students participating in the
study. Seven adults from six of the students’ families were willing and able to be interviewed. Using a
similar semi-structured interview process, parent interviews took place over several weeks following
student interviews. One interview took place at a parent’s place of work, one was conducted at the local
public library, and the remaining interviews took place in homes.
One-on-one interviews with three teachers took place in a classroom during planning periods. The
principal was interviewed in a classroom and in her office. The interviews lasted approximately 50
minutes.
The three researchers listened individually to the digital recordings and either transcribed them word
for word or made notes of recurring themes (Spradley, 1979). We named the themes using participants’
words whenever possible to ensure that we were accurately representing emerging themes. Interviewees
addressed our central research questions:
What causes student disengagement from school?
When, and under what circumstances is disengagement likely to occur?
What opportunities exist for effectively addressing student disengagement?
As we identified common themes, we found relationships between the students’, teachers’, and
parents’ perspectives and the literature on student disengagement. This article describes the overlap
among those themes to add to the body of knowledge that assists educators, families, and communities in
developing strategies to prevent disengagement from school and to address it when it occurs. Through
interviews and triangulation during data analysis (Gay, Mills, & Airasian, 2006), we made every effort to
accurately capture the lived experiences with school from the students’ perspective.
Results
Findings from the analysis of digital recordings were organized into the following themes (a) school
factors, (b) peer factors, and (c) educator and family factors. In addition, we tried to observe any
unexpected influences and we noted constraints that led to disengagement and opportunities that seemed
to lead to re-engagement. (See Table 1)
School Factors
The high school students, family adults and educators noted that large class sizes and high numbers of
students on the campus caused students to become overwhelmed. In fact, school size (including class
size) was interrelated with peer factors. One student observed that in school “there was lots of drama,
fights and arguments” Another said, “once in 9th grade I saw kids goofing off in class. I joined in or went
to sleep. I goofed off too. Then I didn’t get my credits”. Several students said that discipline problems
made learning in large classrooms difficult.
Most family members also focused on the middle school experience. One parent said, “Things went
south for him in middle school.” Another noted that his child became disconnected at that time because he
likes being with older kids and sees what they do in skipping, getting into trouble.” This parent noted that
when his son entered middle school, “He didn’t want his friends to know he was smart.”
Most of the educators identified two school factors linked to disengagement: teacher deficiencies and
an irrelevant curriculum. They thought that out-dated and unimaginative teaching approaches were
important factors. One teacher stated, “The hardest students need the experienced teachers” and later
observed that schools should “get rid of teachers stuck in a rut.” The educators concluded that students
feel the curriculum is irrelevant. One teacher noted, “Students don’t see the relevance of anything in
school; it (school) doesn’t relate to their music, etcetera. They don’t see the point.” Another teacher
discussing the curriculum indicated, “I’ve struggled with this. What has [named a school subject] got to
do with their world?”
18
While looking at emerging themes we noted that there were in-school impediments to engagement and
there were factors that provided opportunities for enhancing engagement. The following table lists the
constraints and opportunities that were mentioned by participants during interviews. (See Table 2)
Peer Factors
Family members, teachers, and students indicated that strong peer influences inside and outside school
were related to educational performance, but there were differences in interpretation. All three groups
noted that peer relationships can both contribute to engagement and, in other instances, lead to
disengagement. In addition to these school factors, students, educators and family members all noted that
important peer relationships are part of a larger peer process that continues beyond school.
Student perceptions of peers. Students’ perceptions of their relationships with peers varied. In some
cases, they reported on-going deeply important connections to peers. Positive peer statements from
students were often strong. One young man reported, “I consider my friends as family.” He added that he
had two close friends at (the other) high school and “Without their help I’d have broken my promise to
my sister (to stay in school and not use drugs).”
Another male student formed a strong, long-lasting bond with a female in another city who has been
facing family strains similar to his. “My friend is a rock,” he stated. “We both have crazy [parents].” He
told us that they speak on the phone and by email daily providing mutual support and advice. “We help
each other out. . . we have been friends since third grade. She’s having problems now and I’m trying to
help her out.”
In one case, a female student was connected to a surrogate sibling group that insulated her benignly
from some peer influences. She told us that she had “only two or three girl friends. . .” and added, “Most
of my friends are guys . . . The guys treat me like a little sister. They interview any of my boyfriends.
They were my (older) brother’s friends.” Two other female students appear to have fairly strong
relationships with their boyfriends
Many of the students were involved in conventional recreational pursuits with peers. These included
dancing, driving a vehicle, going to the mall, going “mudding,” bull riding, playing video games,
watching TV, fishing and hunting, and/or spending time with their dating partners. However, there is
evidence of some disconnection from peers outside of school even as they renew their commitment to
completing school and graduating.
One student claimed to have quit his gang and stopped doing drugs. Another male student indicated, “I
don’t hang out with friends much.” His mother agreed. A female reported that while she maintains peer
relationships, her objectives were now very different from theirs. She said that she did not care very much
what her friends think and added, “Some friends don’t have goals, they just get a minimum wage job.
Less than half the students have long-term goals.”
Purposeful distancing from peers is not the only factor in these students’ relationships. Employment is
another. Several of the students have jobs after school. These seem to be associated with some peer
disengagement. As one reported, “I don’t have much time after school. I work. I do communicate with
friends, but I work.”
Family perceptions of peers. Family adults expressed three distinct attitudes toward their young
person’s recent and current peer relationships. Some expressed fear that their young person was currently
involved in undesirable activities and associations. An aunt said that she kept a tight rein on her niece’s
associations and seemed to want to know where she was at all times and with whom she was spending
time. Some indicated that the child was now old enough to make decisions independently and that their
own influence was waning. These expressed hope that their adolescent children would not be negatively
influenced by their friends. However one parent noted that peer relationships at work have been a positive
influence on his son. The young man’s father credits work, fellow-workers and the manager of his son’s
workplace as significant in “teaching him some responsibility.”
Educators’ perceptions of peers. The educators expressed a profound respect for the influence of
peers. Three of the four stated that the peers were the main influence, while the other indicated that peer
relationships are “very important.” They seemed to believe that there were important differences between
peer relationships inside school and those outside school.
19
The educators viewed in-school peer relationships as positive but, like some family adults, were
concerned about those outside. One of them observed, “They support each other in the school. Outside
peer relationships sometimes lead to trouble . . .” Another said, “We don’t see a lot of stuff outside
school . . . who they hang with. They talk about them but we don’t know much about them. Some seem
very negative . . . some have friends, siblings in jail . . .”
Educators’ perceptions of outside-school relationships varied with gender. One educator said, “Gangs
and drugs seem to affect boys more than females. With females it’s more of influences of males,
pregnancy, and fighting.” Our study of the interviews leads us to conclude that most of the educators
regard peer influences outside school to be negative. However, the lack of certainty on this subject was
apparent. Most admitted that they have little direct knowledge of after-school peer interactions.
Participants identified both constraints (factors within peer relationships that impede student
engagement) and opportunities (aspects of student relationships that facilitate student engagement) within
the lives of the students. The following table lists the constraints and opportunities that were mentioned
by participants during interviews. (See Table 3)
Educator and Family Factors
Educators at the Credit Recovery program expressed pride in going beyond the usual professional
responsibilities. They indicated that they encouraged students to come for tutoring and that they worked
to insure that the curriculum is understandable and relevant, and they try to establish and maintain
personal connections. Several educators and students said that their campus was “like a family.” One
referred to students’ problems at home and noted that this school “is their cocoon.” He added, “Home life
is stressful. Here they are comfortable – not threatened.”
The educators also reported that they try to connect with their students’ families and provide them with
their cell phone numbers and email addresses. However, they noted that connections with family
members varied considerably. One said that there was a “big disconnect” and in some cases “parents are
often hard to get hold of” and, “It is harder to get them to come up here.” However, educator inferences
about parental involvement were wide ranging and indicated a perception that their students’ families are
heterogeneous. One reported, “A lot of parents are concerned to get (their young people) through. But
some parents don’t care at all.” Another said, “We have every kind of family here.”
The students’ families were sometimes identified as the major factor behind low school performance.
One educator said, “Family breakdowns, lack of male influence are the biggest concerns.” When asked to
pinpoint specific causes of school disengagement, this educator said, “Probably divorce,” and added, “If
kids were in their teens when the parents divorced, they (students) think it’s their fault.”
The educators tended to see family stress as a central factor in student disengagement. “It all gets back
to family . . . disengagement is usually because of divorce,” said one educator. Another indicated that
“most students don’t have two parents. Almost all come from single parent homes. Most don’t live with
their family. Many of the kids are breadwinners.” While some of the educators seemed to take this view
of pervasive family dysfunction, others did not. In fact, most reported that parents of these students
(biological and step-parents) played a significant positive role. We came to understand the families as
highly diverse in their structure and in their capacity to support their children’s education.
Family members were universally positive about the Credit Recovery Program in our interviews. They
cited the personal attention and level of effort by educators, the teacher-student ratio, and the flexibility in
teaching approaches.
Non-Parent Family Influences
Our interviews yielded some serendipitous information. Crucial roles are often played by non-parent
family members. In fact, most of the adults we interviewed pointed to other family adults and/or siblings
as being very influential. One father said, “My nephew is a sergeant in the army. He comes home in
uniforms and medals. He’s like a big brother to [son’s name]. When he’s around, we’re not worried.”
The father continued, “I tell [son’s name], “See! He worked for all this (medals, rank).” The father said
that he reinforces the student’s cousin’s role and expects that the cousin will help to instill a work ethic.
In still another interview, a father said, “[son’s name]’s older brother (who is in college) gave him the
desire to continue with his education.” Later this parent said, “My brother influences him. He tells him he
20
(the uncle) doesn’t have an education and he [the student] needs to get an education.” A student told us
that she is strongly influenced by her older brother who joined the military. She is seriously thinking of
doing the same.
Just as the influences of older family members vary, so does the influence of siblings. One mother
reported that references to an older brother (in the military) who graduated from high school only inspired
resentment. She reported that when she suggests that her son emulate the older brother, he responds by
saying “I’m not like [him].” However, the father of another young man reported that it is likely that his
son’s recent interest in going to college was a result of his older brother’s success and imminent
completion of college.
Adults in the extended family can play crucial roles when a family is under stress. As we noted
earlier, a father told us that his brother (the student’s uncle) influences his son. In another case, a
female’s aunt assumed full parental-type responsibilities when other family members were unwilling or
unable to do so. One grandmother took in a young man who had moved extensively between households.
In each of these instances students were, in effect, rescued from households characterized by neglect and
instability.
There appears to be no generalization that would describe all the households, nor all the relationships
between homes and schools. Some peer influences are very strong. But they are subject to change. Some
of them support personal emotional well being and educational progress while others do not. Some
households provide strong support while others do not. In some households other relatives play important
roles. But there is no category here that allows prediction. Individual choices and priorities clearly play an
important part in determining personal and educational outcomes.
While looking at emerging themes, we identified constraints (factors within the families that seemed to
impede student engagement) and opportunities (family practices/systems that seemed to facilitate student
engagement) occurring within the district. The following table lists the constraints and opportunities that
were mentioned by participants during interviews. (See Table 4)
Discussion
This study allowed the researchers to examine disengagement retrospectively and to look at current
factors from the perspectives of three distinct groups. We place our discussion in the widely used three—
pronged definition of student disengagement.
Behavioral dimension of disengagement. As Pellerin (2005) indicated, cutting class and truancy are
important indicators of behavioral disengagement. Most students in our study stated that during their
earlier experience, they cut classes or were chronically truant. As they missed instruction and fell further
behind, their truancy increased. One student, in particular, stated that he “liked going to the alternative
school” where he was placed on numerous occasions over several academic years for behavior issues or
truancy. He told us, “it was quiet” and he said could get the help he needed.
Some students said that teachers (on the separate 9th grade campus) seemed to have few classroom
management skills and lacked discipline. They said that students took advantage of these teachers and
presented constant disruptions that interfered with learning. Some indicated that they had been
excessively tardy to school and/or to classes. The tardiness led to detention that, in turn, led to in-school
suspension and subsequently to almost complete disengagement. Some viewed inconsistent disciplinary
actions as unfair.
Emotional dimension of disengagement. Most students said that teachers were more helpful in
elementary school and teacher support dropped noticeably in middle and high school. More than one
student elaborated on “feeling dismissed” by some teachers who had made an “unfair judgment” about
them. Those students said they stopped asking for help when they seemed unable to obtain it. In their
view, teacher apathy and the increased demands of the curriculum led to their discouragement and
ultimate academic failure. That is the point when they “felt like dropping out.” These students also said
that “teachers didn’t care whether they learned or not.” They spoke passionately of teachers “not caring”
whether they passed or failed their classes and ultimately attributed their emotional detachment to middle
and high school teacher disinterest in them.
21
While teacher traits received much of the blame, the secondary school culture also seemed to factor
into their weak connections. Several stated that they had difficulty adjusting to new routines, social
situations, and the larger and more densely populated environment of middle and high school. Some felt
overwhelmed by the size of the school and large numbers of students in their classes. Most felt they did
not belong in the large high school whereas the Credit Recovery Program with its smaller classes and
more personalized attention from teachers made a difference for them.
Cognitive dimension of disengagement. The lack of cognitive investment (Archambault et al., 2009)
in middle school was evident in our interviews with students. The theme of perceived teacher
inadequacies was repeated throughout our discussions as were the lack of hands-on classroom activities,
overreliance on lectures and worksheets, and the general lack of helpfulness, including timely tutoring.
The move to secondary school meant, of course, that they had reduced exposure to individual teachers
and more teachers to please. And teachers have far more students and see each group for shorter
segments during the day and week. We repeatedly heard emotionally strong retrospectives on teachers
such as the following:
“They were just there for a paycheck.”
“They just sat there. The teachers were boring.”
“They were bad teachers who could not teach.”
The strong perceptions of teacher inadequacies were accompanied by perceptions of a daunting
curriculum. Thus the claim that teachers were uninterested, inept and failed to use effective teaching
strategies was matched by claims that the academic demands were overwhelming. Complaints that they
[the students] could not keep up with the curriculum and that they lacked basic skills became another
theme linked to cognitive disengagement.
Limitations and Future Research
There are five limitations in our study. First, this was an exploratory study. We expect but cannot
claim that the information we obtained or our interpretations represent experiences of others in this or
other Credit Recovery Programs.
Secondly, the selection process is subject to question. The selection was not randomized, as the
students were chosen by the educators in the school rather than by the researchers. These students and
their families constituted a “convenience sample” rather than a representative one. Students who were not
accepted into the school district’s Credit Recovery program were not studied nor were students who have
dropped out and not returned to school. While this is often seen as methodologically troubling, the
accessibility to and openness of these at-risk students suggests an advantage. Cooperation between
researchers and school personnel can open up productive lines of inquiry that might elude more
conventional research approaches.
A third limitation is that the study focused on the limited sample and did not explore all the school,
family, peer, and individual factors influencing these young people.
A fourth limitation involves the restricted field of other subjects. While we believe that a
comprehensive study of peer socialization, inside and outside of school, is essential we only glimpsed it.
Moreover, we did not obtain the views of other family members or of other influential people such as
those in job settings.
Finally, there is the question of bias resulting from researcher influences. Family members and
students probably perceived us as agents of the school and may have shaded responses. The interviewed
educators may have had a vested interest in the Credit Recovery Program and/or participated in an esprit
de corps that may have shaped their responses.
A broader and deeper study should be considered. This would include an examination of at-risk
students who have dropped out and not re-entered school, and it would study the range of factors that both
promote and discourage engagement. Moreover, it would provide a clearer longitudinal picture, showing
the development of disengagement from early school into secondary education. Future research should
also address the sampling issues; students not handpicked by the principal from a proposed list of
candidates nominated by teachers, school leavers who have not returned to schools, active members of
22
gangs, and females who are pregnant or have had babies should be included. Future research should also
expand to include other influential adults in students’ lives if they are revealed during interviews.
Nevertheless, we believe that our results from this study are valuable, as they provide a set of
perspectives from diverse sources regarding disengagement and reengagement experiences of students,
their peers, and their families as well as students’ varying experiences with school across time. We also
offer a foundation for a questioning process that can assist schools in tailoring engagement and reengagement strategies based on local needs.
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25
Table 1
Emerging Themes
Social
Emerging Theme
Setting
School
Overcrowding, large classes
Peer
Family
Student
Interviews
Family
Interviews
x
x
x
Teachers who fail to relate to students’ need
Teachers’ rigid methods, approaches
Peer “drama”, lack of classroom discipline
Failure to link curriculum to “real world”
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Lure of peer world, including gangs, cliques
Consumption of alcohol and drugs
Pregnancy, parenthood
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Family stress (including problematic relationships,
alcohol-related problems, household instability)
Mobility
Parental/household disengagement from formal
learning
Need for student income
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Table 2
Peer Constraints and Opportunities
Peer Constraints
• Fighting
• “Drama”
Table 3
Family Constraints and Opportunities
Family Constraints
• Family Instability and Stress
• Mobility
• Lack of positive adult models
• Disconnect between household adults
and school
School
Interviews
x
Peer Opportunities
• Friends who encourage them to stay in school
• Friends who encourage hobbies outside of school that
are safe
Family Opportunities
• Family members that support students and encourage
staying in school
• Family members who provided stable homes
• Family members who encouraged careers and college
• Many instances of extended family members such as
aunts, grandparents, step parents who stepped in to act
as “parents” for these students
26
x
Table 4
School Constraints and Opportunities
School Constraints
• Large class sizes and big campuses
• Lack of personal regard for students by
teachers
• Lack of understanding by teachers of
home problems
• Students who have fallen behind in
class work or lack the skills to keep up
• Inconsistent application of
differentiated instruction
• Curriculum not relevant to students
School Opportunities
• Alternative high school structure in place at Profit High
School (PHS)
• Multiple options to recoup credits through the PHS
Credit Recovery program
• Relationship-building training for staff and teachers at
PHS. Campus applies these strategies. “Sense of
family” on campus
• Minimum requirement of teachers to make contact with
parents twice each semester
• Opportunities to participate in clubs and other
enrichment activities
27
The Election of Barack Obama and the Importance of the Internet:
Bring the People Back into Government Again
José de Arimatéia da Cruz
Armstrong Atlantic State University
Adriana de Oliveira
University of São Paulo, Brazil
I.
Introduction
Internet usage has grown faster than any traditional media outlet. Candidates for political office have
been using the web in order to reach out to more people and potential voters. According to the United
States Census Bureau, 72.5% of the people in the country use the Internet and Internet usage grew
129.6% between 2000 and 2008 i. In the United States, the radio took 30 years to reach millions of
people; the television needed 15 years; and the Internet 3 years after the creation of the World Wide
Web ii. Analyzing this information, the Internet must be considered a strategic communicational tool in
politics.
US Population (2008):
303,824,646
Internet Usage (June 30, 2008):
220,141,969
% Population (Penetration):
72.5%
Usage Growth (2000-2008):
129.6%
Source: Internet World Stats: Usage and population statisticsiii
One of the reasons for the large usage of the Internet is the technological convergence. The Internet
can be used in electronic devices other than the personal computer, such as television, mobile phones,
palmtops, and others. This characteristic amplifies the possibilities of access iv. Other factors that have
promoted the Internet’s expansion are: 1) it is easy to use, requiring little technical knowledge; 2) the new
generation does not demonstrate any difficulty in using it; and 3) there are no expensive costs with
equipment and programs necessary to access the web connectionv.
In this context, the main objective of this paper is to analyze the using of the Internet and its results in
the political process. This work is relevant because of the following aspects:
1.
Communication in its ample definition and utilization is one of the most important
tools in a political process;
2.
The mass media has a significant role during presidential campaigns, but the Internet
is increasing its participation and effects in this process; and
3.
The Internet offers a new way to develop the political process, providing a new
format of communication where candidates as well as voters, independent of
geographic location and time, can communicate with their constituents and potential
voters.
This paper focuses on the role of the Internet in the political process in general while paying
particular attention to its role during the presidential campaign of Barack Obama. As David B. Magleby
(2010) has pointed out, “Obama made a clear and strong commitment early on to using technology to
help identify, track, and mobilize supporters and voters.”
II.
Media Politics/ Election in a Media Centric Society
Communication is an important topic for society, interfacing in various aspects of both private and
public life and in diverse areas of knowledge such as sociology, anthropology, philosophy, political
28
science, psychology, biology, informatics, and engineering, to mention a few of the disciplinesvi. In their
creation, communication vehicles and technologies, such as the press, radio, television, computers,
Internet, have allowed for different ways to participate in society. Waldenyr Caldas argues that the
media’s multiplication functions achieved a high degree of complexity, four of them being most relevant:
(1) political function, with the media acting as a support to the public business and a channel for dialogue
between those in power and the public; (2) social and economics development; (3) leisure; and (4)
education vii.
Concerning politics, the mass media are an important subject to be discussed because of their potential
to reach large audiences and in a very fast way viii. Television and radio have twenty-four-hour services,
like CNN, spreading breaking news throughout the world in matters of seconds. Newspapers, on the other
hand, will have articles with more detailed news. The Internet makes information available to users’
instantaneously. Communication technologies are being constantly developed, contributing to the media
availability in many electronic devices from where people can “plug themselves” in real-time. Audiences
can read, listen, and watch the news by using a laptop or a mobile phone, in addition to the more
traditional desk computer or television. The media are in the people’s homes, workplaces, and in the palm
of their hands in the 21st Century.
Additionally, politics is a permanent and well-covered subject across the media, especially the federal
governmental and presidential election campaigns. In 2008, the two top events, the presidential election
and the economic crisis, filled half of the total news broadcasted ix. In 2007, U.S. foreign affairs and
elections/politics were the most covered by the media, constituting about 30% of the most covered topics
in this periodx.
Even if politics is the most covered topic in the media, only a few people and facts become news. A
small group of selected journalists and editors, aligned with the directorship of the media companies
choose who and what will be in the news, and in which way the facts will be presented to the audience.
Fewer than fifty politicians are in the news regularlyxi. In 2008, the leading newsmakers on the news
regularly were Barack Obama (10% of the stories), John McCain (5%), Hillary Clinton (4%), George
Bush (2%), and Sarah Palin (1%). Other names were mentioned less than 1% xii. Those who become
newsworthy have political power because their concerns determine what will be widely available as
“news.” This is why the news media routinely ranks among the top ten American institutions with
political influence according to public opinion polls xiii.
During elections, mainly in the primaries, the power of the media is undeniable as the media engage in
the business of political “horse-racing,” that is, journalists predicting the winners and losers in the
political contest. They concentrate coverage on the eligible candidates according to the media criteria.
Candidates who are not electable, in their opinion, do not receive political coverage thereby are neglected
prematurely as a potential winner. Consequently, candidates who receive ample media coverage usually
do well in the polls. Good poll ratings bring more media coverage. A virtuous cycle begins and the results
of renamed public opinion polls, such as CBS/New York Times, NBC/associated Press, ABC/Washington
Post and CNN/USA Today, become benchmarks for voters, telling the public who the winners and losers
are xiv. So, the influence of the media becomes natural and unnoticed to the public.
Nowadays people choose candidates individually, that is, by studying their particular skills and
character attributes. Detached from their political parties, candidates can raise their own money and look
for voters independently. Additionally, political parties have become weak in a media centric society. The
media has an important role publicizing images which will be the main sources of information about the
candidate. Recognizing that the media has the potential to reach a great number of eventual voters in a
very fast way, candidates will fight for a place in the media during election. In this scenario, the
candidates’ political programs are, at first, prepared for the media. Campaigns are structured to gain the
best media coverage in order to touch the largest public opinion leaders and voters xv.
Candidates, like actors, have to perform well before the cameras. If not, they are simply not selected
by the media. Candidates that can not perform well before the cameras must invest a huge amount of
money in media training and media consultants. According to Doris Graber, two-thirds of the budgets of
presidential contenders are expended on their television contestsxvi. For them, television commercials and
29
exposure contributes to impressing voters and raising money. For candidates the media became an
essential tool in the political process to appear to a greater number of people and to construct their image
in order to be elected.
III.
Types of Media in Elections Campaigns
During election campaigns, all types of media outlets are explored by political candidates aspiring to
hold office. Political strategies are designed to guarantee a candidate maximum exposure on television,
radio, newspapers, magazines, and Internet. Television is still the primary source of political information
for the American electorate during presidential contests. Nevertheless, the percentage of voters citing this
vehicle as their only source of political news has diminished in comparison to other years. In 2000, threequarters of Americans (75%) cited television as their main source for campaign news. xvii In 2004, the
percentage remained almost identical (76%). xviii In 2008, television continued to be the dominant source
for campaign news, but only 68% of voters stated that they got most of their presidential campaign news
from television. As a result, fewer voters cited television as their main campaign news source in 2008
than in 2004 and 2000. xix
The traditional media outlets, such as radio, newspaper and magazines, have also seen a sharp decline
in audience and readership. Newspapers have been losing ground since 2004: in 2004, 46% of voters
stated that newspapers were their main source of campaign news, but just 33% cite newspapers currently.
The radio audience is also on decline (from 22% in 2004 to 16% in 2008), and magazines readership are
slightly down (6% in 2004, 3% currently). xx By contrast, the Internet continues to grow in importance as
a source of information for political candidates and pundits alike. The proportion of people citing the
Internet as one of their main sources of campaign information has risen exponentially: from 3% in 1996,
to 11% in 2000, to 21% in 2004, and 36% in 2008.xxi According to Doris Graber, the Internet messages of
all types are new territory waiting for analysis xxii.
Communication technologies provide real support for political transformation by breaking down
geographic boundaries and touching an increasing number of people. The Internet is central in this
transformation process. The Internet, more than ever, is an integral part of people’s lives, including in
their relationship to the political process. Armand and Michèle Mattelart argue that the multiplication of
the forms of communication has created a public space on a planetary scale.xxiii In the next section of this
paper the Internet will be analyzed as an innovative space of communication, with particularities not
found in the traditional media. We will also examine how the Internet played an important differential in
President Barack Obama’s campaign and government.
IV.
Social interactions mediated by communication technologies: Internet as a differential
According to John Thompson, during a great part of the human history, the majority of the social
interactions was face-to-face, with individuals sharing the same place at the same time, and with the
cultural tradition being passed orally from generation to generation. With the development of the media,
new forms of interaction and social relations were created, without the necessity of people to share the
same space at the same time. These new forms of interaction are: (1) the mediated interaction, which
implies the use of a technical tool (paper, electrical wires, magnetic waves, etc.) in the communication
(dialogical) among individuals; and (2) the quasi-interaction, reference to the social relations by the mass
media (books, newspapers, radio, television, etc.), with the symbolical forms produced to a indefinite
number of potential receptors having a monological character without interpersonal reciprocity.
Thompson emphasizes that the media provides “new forms of action in distance, allowing that individuals
direct their actions to others, diffused in space and time, and also that they respond actions and events
occurred in distant environments.” xxiv
The mediated interactions would have increased, mainly from the end of the 70s, with the fast
expansion of the informatics and communication technologies. The communication mediated by
computers, for example, was incorporated into human activities. Its involvement with the daily chores is
remarkable: work, bank transactions, communication among friends and relatives, purchases, online
education, social movements, information diffusion of public and private companies, elections
campaigns, and more.
30
Castells argues that the emerging media do not nullify or substitute other media. Instead, it promotes
continuity while re-enforcing social standards already in existence xxv. The Internet is the most recent and
one of the fastest forms of media to expand around the world thus presenting functionalities that deserve
to be discussed. The Internet became a mediator of social and organizational relations, acting in a
different way from the technologies earlier developed.
V.
Internet: many-to-many, virtual communities and collective intelligence
Pierre Lévy adopts the cyberspace concept coined by William Gibson in 1984 and states that:
The communicational space opened by the world interconnection of computers
and its memories. This definition includes the group of electronic systems of
communication as far as transmit information originated from digital sources or
designated to be digitalized xxvi.
Cyberspace constitutes not only the Internet but also independent nets from companies, associations,
universities, museums, newspapers, television, etc., and the digital codification is your distinctive
characteristic. The Internet functionalities, originated from the digitalization of the information and the
technological innovations, offer differential and innovated forms of information organization and
broadcasting. It also allows communication, participation, and interaction among people and institutions.
Additionally, geographic location and time, previous constraints in the communication process, represent
advantages in the expansion of interactions between people and institutions and in the search of
partnerships. The digital techniques provide a dynamic space, vastly wide and without hierarchies,
promoting a space of communication, interaction and relationship among individuals and organizations
never seen before. In the political process, new forms of interactions are available. In this sense, the
Internet must not be seen as a one way stream of information. This is a space of interaction where
receptors become transmitters and motivate actions to occur in the real world.
The Internet has an original format when compared to other media. Pierre Lévy distinguishes three
categories in the communication system (the communicational system designates the relationship among
the participants in the communication process) xxvii:
• One-to-many: do not present interactivity because there is one emission center that send messages
to a multiplicity of receptors. Examples: television, press, and radio;
• One-to-one: it includes the telephone and the post office, that perform mutual relations among
interlocutors, but only in contacts from an individual to other individual;
• Many-to-many: a new possible type of interaction because of the Internet, where many people
can communicate with many people.
In the many-to-many format, the Internet allows the implementation of a horizontal communication,
without hierarchies, and the formation of networks, with action and construction of collective values. The
many-to-many format also opens the possibility of the user to have only the role of receptor, but also that
of a user can create, modify and publish texts he did not find or he just wants to xxviii.
The possibility of communication among a great number of people is strongly favorable to the political
articulation and to the construction and reinforcement of a political campaign and its candidate. The
communication among many individuals, offered by the Internet, is increasing constantly. New
opportunities of sharing and exchanging information were created, supporting the collaborative actions
among people and institutions from different parts of the country and the worldxxix.
Pierre Lévy argues that cyberculture, because of its interconnection, points to a general telepresent
civilization; cyberculture allows for the formation of virtual communities to establish function of
“common interests, knowledge, mutual projects, in a process of cooperation or exchange, all of it
independently from geographical proximities, time and institutional affiliations.”xxx Virtual communities
have very similar origins to the communities of the contra cultural and alternative movements of the
1960s.
Castells highlights the important role of the Internet in the creation of “multiple and weak ties.” xxxi
The Internet allows information to be available and contacts to be made among unknown people with less
cost. The interactions mediated by the Internet do not suffer from one’s social-economic position,
31
making easier the communicational process. “It seems the virtual communities are stronger than the
observers in general believe. There are strong indications of mutual solidarity on the net, even among
weak ties users”. Lévy xxxii and Castells xxxiii argue that the virtual communities have their own dynamic of
operation (with the possibility to be develop affinities, intellectual alliances and friendships) and,
depending on the intensity of the interaction among people, the relations can become strong, durable, and
mutual. The Internet tends to increase the visibility of other information sources, being a positive factor in
social interactions.xxxiv This capability to search the virtual world for support of a candidate is favorable to
the election campaigns.
Lévy states that the big deal of the informatics is the collective intelligence. In other words, “the
valorization, the optimized utilization and the creation of the synergy among the skills, the thoughts and
the intellectual energies, whatever is it qualitative diversity and where it is used to be.”xxxv He further
argues that to live in an intelligent collective, interacting with other communities, provides constant
transformation and knowledge to the human groups at the same time reinforces the individual’s
singularities. xxxvi The virtual world is a new environment, with unpredictable and original collective
experiences, appropriated to the collective intelligence. Pierre Lévy believes that, “the alive
acknowledgements, the savoir-faire and the human beings’ skills are to be recognized as source of all the
other richness.” He further considers that the main goal of the new communication technologies is to give
support to social groups in order to build intelligent collectives, making cyberspace a place of
development of the social and cognitive potent.xxxvii
Juan Luis Cébrian argues that the best use of the digital technologies is the possibility of the people
combining their intelligence, their knowledge and creativity to advance social development. xxxviii Barack
Obama, during his presidential campaign and administration, has explored the advantages of the Internet;
namely, the possibility to interact and collaborate with many others, the organization of users in virtual
communities, and the exercise of work in collective intelligence.
VI.
The Internet and Barack Obama: The Use of the Media and Agenda-Setting
During the presidential campaigns, candidates often participate in pseudo-events and create political
ads to be placed on traditional media outlets, mainly television. Television remains the dominant source
for campaign news and information, but the percentage of voters relying on television as their primary
source of political information is diminishing. By contrast, the proportion of voters citing
cyberspace/Internet as their main source for campaign news is increasing. xxxix
Internet users are becoming more politically active on the World Wide Web. Some 74% of Internet
users went online in 2008 to get involved in the political process or to get news and information about the
election and their candidate. Nearly one in five (18%) Internet users posted their thoughts, comments or
questions about the campaign on an online forum such as a blog or social networking site. One in three
Internet users forwarded political content to their friends. Nearly 45% of Internet users went online to
watch a campaign related video xl. Recognizing the increasing importance of the Internet in the political
process as an agent of political socialization, candidates from both Democratic and Republican parties,
have established their own websites and have improved their performance in cyberspace. A candidate’s
website traditionally acts as a stage, allowing the candidate to become visible, create name recognition,
establish a personalized image, spread the core message, and ultimately call for funds and votes. xli A
candidate’s official website is becoming more interactive with each election. For example, in the 1996
websites were brochure-like; now they are very interactive and socially networked. xlii Now, a candidate’s
profile is created in social networking sites thus informing, communicating, and involving voters in their
campaigns.
Communication among Internet users has not only expanded in the recent year but also has become
easier with the proliferation of Internet cafes worldwide. Mobile phones and high-speed Internet have an
important role in this proliferation. In 1998, fewer than half of Americans stated that they had a home
computer. Few logged on to the Internet and if they did, they used a slow-moving dial-up modem. Today,
72.5% of Americans have access to the Internet xliii and far more people have access to a high-speed
Internet connections in their homes than a decade ago (58% vs. 43%). xliv Nearly 83% of Americans
stated that they have a cell phone, up from 74% two years ago. The growth in cell phone use has occurred
32
across all age categories – but the increase over the past two years has been particularly striking among
those in their 70s. Cell phone use among young respondents also has increased noticeably since 2006
(from 75% to 86%). xlv
Barack Obama’s presidential campaign took place in this new information superhighway era giving
importance to the Internet and the new ways to communicate and to motivate voters to participate in the
political process. The Internet was used in a strategical way thus contributing to his consolidation as a
political front-runner. During the presidential campaign, besides promoting the candidate, Obama’s team
used the virtual space to reach a larger number of voters, hear voter’s concerns, motivate people to join
the candidate, develop volunteers, fundraise, and create a team who transcend space and time frontiers.
The Obama campaign team built the biggest and most lucrative online donor base in the history of U.S.
politics, raising almost $700 million from over 3 million individual donors since he announced his
presidential bid in January 2007 xlvi. Obama was also able through the Internet to recruit a large number of
volunteers from all over the country.
The Obama official presidential campaign site, www.BarackObama.com xlvii, and social networking
sites were employed as official ways of information, communication, collaboration, and motivation, to
encourage people to be real activists in the campaign. In July 2008, the www.BarackObama.com site was
beating the www.JohnMcCain.com site four to one in the number of hits (4:1). In September 2008, in
spite of massive Republican propaganda, Obama’s site had twice as many people accessing it xlviii. The
Obama’s site has a blog format and is updated daily. This characteristic makes the site more informal,
simple, easy to navigate, and brings the candidate closer to Internet users. In the Obama’s website
homepage, users can:
• Read the news;
• Sign up for My.BarackObama.com, an online community to facilitate people to find local
events and groups, to motivate the users to contact voters near them and to invite the
users to share their stories on their blogs;
• Donate money and follow up on the events;
• Go to the Democratic Party website;
• Access the Barack TV and watch videos with Barack Obama, Michelle Obama and Joe
Biden. The videos are available also to download. There are videos using the YouTube
platform, Advertisements, and videos in Spanish;
• Sign up to receive text messages on the phone. By signing up, the user receives periodic
updates from the organization as well as advance notice about local events and public
appearances; and
• Access the social networking sites where Obama is officially present, in the section
“Obama Everywhere”.
The active presence and participation of the candidate in the social networking sites were essential to
reach his results on the virtual and real worlds. The great diversity of ethnic and cultural groups in the
U.S. takes part in virtual communities. Barack Obama had his official profile in some of the most
important social network communities. Besides his profile, his team updated information daily. Like the
real world, the virtual one needs to have current information. If not, the page, blog or website becomes
discredited and people stop accessing it.
Barack Obama participated actively from the beginning of his presidential bid until the end in social
networks such as Facebook, MySpace, YouTube, Flickr, Digg, Twitter, Eventful, LinkedIn, BlackPlanet,
FaithBase, Eons, Glee, MiGente, MyBatanga, AsianAve, and DNC Partybuilder. Those social networking
sites are free and accessible to anyone who registers with them. Each of these social networks offers
different communication tools or a targeting of various segments of the population, including:
• MySpace and Facebook are social networking websites with an interactive, usersubmitted network of friends, personal profiles, blogs, groups, photos, music, and
videos for teenagers and adults internationally. They are the most important in
33
the country in terms of number of active users: Facebook has more than
200,000,000 xlix and My Space 253,145,404 l.
• YouTube is a video sharing website where users can upload, view and share video
clips. Fickr is an image hosting website, and online community platform, widely
used by bloggers as a photo repository.
• Digg is a place for people to read and share content from anywhere on the web,
by submitting links and stories, and voting and commenting on it.
• Twitter is a service to communicate and stay connected through the exchange of
quick messages. Users can send and receive tweets (the messages) via the Twitter
website, Short Message Service (SMS) or external applications. Eventful is a web
service which aims to help users search for, track, and share information about
events. LinkedIn is a business-oriented social networking site mainly used for
professional networking.
• BlackPlanet, FaithBase, Eons, Glee, MiGente, MyBatanga, AsianAve are online
social-networking sites targeted in specific communities: African Americans;
Christians; baby boomers; gays, lesbians, bisexuals and transsexuals; Hispanics
(MiGente and Batanga); and Asian Americans, respectively.
• DNC PartyBuilder provides the users online tools to setting up and managing
groups or activists, to organizing and managing real-world events, to
fundraising. li
The strategies used by Obama’s team concerning the Internet focused on the mobilization of people,
the stimulation of the youth, and the participation of the population in government. According to Joe
Rospars, head of the Obama’s campaign Internet team, the goal of the Obama Internet effort was to lower
the “barriers to entry and make it as easy as possible for folks to come to our Web site.”lii
Mobilization of people
The Internet provides the format to promote communication among many users, independent of time
and space barriers. The virtual communities gather people with similar ideas and goals. They can develop
strong ideological ties, exchange information, and work toward a common objective collectively. People
organize their efforts in the virtual world and apply them in the real world. The web format enables
Internet users to interact with each other instantaneously, which is not possible in any other
communication media.
Barack Obama’s team used the Obama official website and social network communities to
communicate with millions of people at the same time and at a low cost. According to Paul Zube and
Rebecca Hayes of Michigan State University, Barack Obama is far more popular on Facebook, the social
networking site most widely used by college students, than any other politician liii. On this site, there are
several communities and more than 500 links which cites his name. The two biggest communities, Barack
Obama and Barack Obama’s One Million Strong for Obama, have 6,238,057 and 1,014,903 supporters,
respectively. John McCain, Obama’s opponent during the 2008 presidential campaign, also has two
groups: the first one has 565,719 supporters and the second one 63,112 liv. In MySpace, the Obama page
has 1,532,126 friends while McCain’s profile is offline lv.
Managing virtual communities can bring better results than sending out emails or expecting Internet
users to visit a candidate’s website. However, it is important to emphasize that just building a profile in a
virtual community does not guarantee that this person will have a great number of political supporters or
“hits.” The virtual community is alive like the persons who participate in them. The webpage demands
dynamism and requires updating daily. Messages, videos, photos, and links to other sites are tools often
used to enhance a candidate’s website. These also always have to be updated. The three most viewed
Obama videos were watched 7,246,777, 6,014,302, and 4,886,077 times, respectively. The first video was
short and showed Barack Obama on The Ellen Degeneres Show (October 30, 2007). The second and third
ones concerned Obama’s speeches in Philadelphia on March 2008 and in Chicago on November 2008,
one day after being elected the 44th President of the United States.lvi
34
Like no other media, Internet users can have horizontal communication, without hierarchies. They can
directly write a message, for example, to a governmental official, a CEO of a multinational corporation, a
famous actor, or a religious authority. People who belong to the same community become closer to each
other. Joining Obama’s Facebook page or Obama’s MySpace page or any other of his virtual social
network communities bring people near to the candidate and each other. They have a positive attitude
knowing that they can send Obama a message, watch a video of the candidate talking directly to them,
send him their ideas, have his answer, help him organizing events and fundraising, join the candidate in
his goals. It is a feeling of making something together and of co-responsibility or co-ownership. In fact,
people feel they are a real social actor participating in an active way in this important moment of the
country. According to David B. Magleby, the Internet played a critical part on the successful campaign
run by the Obama team for the following reason:
Critical to the success of My.Barack.Obama.com was its design, which allowed
individuals to take action on their own without direction or permission from the
campaign. Campaigns generally want to control the message and determine the
messenger. Obama exercised message control in advertisement, but was less concerned
about the content of person-to-person messages by supporters. lvii
Young public and Potential Voters
While some scholars argue that young people are less likely to participate in the political process;
others argue that young people are not disengaged, they are merely engaging in the electoral process
differently from older generations. Youths they have developed new forms of participation that take into
account changing issues, times, and technologies. According to Kathy Edwards, attention is drawn to
youth-led protests, such as those around globalization and the recent Iraq war, as evidence that young
people still care about social issues and social change. Proponents of this view also point to “Internet
participation” and to the numerous youth inspired, operated, and patronized Internet sites that are either
issue based or encourage participation more generally. lviii
The Internet is a young person’s worldlix and a space for them to participate in the political process by
debating relevant political issues. The Internet is as important, if not more important, than television for
younger voters. Nearly six-in-ten voters under age 30 (58%) stated that they get most of their campaign
news from the Internet, and about the same percentage cites television (60%). Overall, a solid majority of
voters stated that they got news about the presidential election from the Internet. Nearly 56% of voters in
2008 cited the Internet as their source of political news, up from 41% in 2004. Among voters ages 18 to
29, 76% stated that they get any campaign news from the Internet, more than in any other age group lx.
Also, young people have a new manner to engage in political issues, participating in the political debate
on social networking sites. Nearly 83% of those between the age 18 to 24 have a social networking
profile, and two-thirds of young profile owners took part in some form of political activity on these sites
in 2008 lxi.
Since 1996, the number of young people voting has increased. The presidential election of 2008
brought to the poll nearly two million more young Americans under the age of 30 as compared to the
2004 elections. The increase is a continuation of the trend observed in the 2004 and 2006 elections. Youth
turnout was 11 percentage points higher than in 1996, which was the low point after decades of decline.
While young people increased their turnout significantly in 2008, older adults voted at lower rates than in
2004 and only slightly above their 2000 level lxii.
Presidential
Age 18-29
30 and Older
Election Year
39.6%
63.6%
1996
40.3%
64.6%
2000
49.0%
67.7%
2004
51.1%
67.0%
2008
Source: New Census Data Confirm Increase in Youth Voter Turnout in 2008 Election
35
As we observe, young people have a new venue and place to engage in politics. For candidates it
becomes necessary to be familiar with how to use the Internet to reach younger voters. Barack Obama did
it very well. His strong participation in social networking sites brought him close to a larger number of
young voters and facilitated their interaction, communication, and support in the presidential election of
2008. According to Thomas Patterson of Harvard University, young voters were attracted to Obama the
first instance by his early opposition to the Iraq war. At the same time, he happened to have the kind of
personality and message that appealed to the Internet generationlxiii. Obama lead John McCain by almost
30 percentage points among 18 to 29 year-old registered voters (62 % vs. 34%). lxiv Again, according to
David B. Magleby, “the new technology tools were frequently used by younger voters. This group,
which historically votes less, was a major target for Obama in the Iowa caucuses and in every contest
thereafter.” lxv
Participation in the Government: Bringing the People Back In
Decisions about whether and how to use information technology in the public administration process
are policy choices, not purely technical decisions. Obama’s administration continues using the Internet
strategically. The Internet is still a space to bring people to participate in his administration. Obama’s
team used the Internet to “bring the people back into government” and thus enhance communication
between the White House and the public. People seem to continue to be connected to the White House as
they are to the Barack Obama’s website and virtual social network communities. This way Barack Obama
participates in an innovated session of questions and answers. People should send questions via the
Internet and the most voted questions would be answered by the President in an online conference called
“Online Town Hall Meeting” which occurred on March 26, 2009. 92,937 people submitted 103,981
questions and cast 3,602,695 votes lxvi. People voted in their favorite questions during 36 hours. The
“Online Town Hall Meeting” was transmitted simultaneously by the Internet, the White House Site, and
TV channels.
When the government encourages people to participate in the decision making process of government,
it produces a participatory democracy. Voters feel part of the government, responsible for good or bad
results. Public participation can be viewed as intrinsically valuable for citizens themselves, for such
participation fosters important personal virtues. To the government itself, a participatory management is
valuable because it helps provide government decision makers with additional information needed to
make better decisions lxvii.
VII.
Conclusion
The Barack Obama presidential campaign departed from previous campaigns in its use and reliance on
the Internet as a political tool. During the earliest stages of the campaign, Obama and his team
recognized how important the Internet could be as a political tool to reach voters in general but
particularly younger voters. Based on our discussion regarding the importance of the Internet in the
media centric political arena of the 21st Century, there are several points to be emphasized:
• The Internet is a space of interaction, collaboration, and communication for many people without
time and space barriers and in a low cost;
• The Internet provides a space where people can work together toward a common goal;
• The Internet is the space for young people and it has become a place where young people can be
political active;
• The social networking communities had a fundamental role in the communication and interaction
between Barack Obama and the young people, which was important in the political process and
election of Barack Obama;
• Candidates are developing new strategies on the Internet to reach the Internet users;
• It is possible to bring people close to the government, hear their concerns and answer them;
• People feel co-responsible and active social actors when they are called to participate in the
public affairs. Not necessarily the whole population will participate, but the feeling of having an
open channel brings transparency and confidence to them.
36
References:
Caldas, Waldenyr. Cultura de Massa e Política de Comunicações. São Paulo: Global, 1986.
Castells, M. A Galáxia da Internet. Reflexões sobre a Internet, os negócios e a sociedade. Rio de Janeiro:
Jorge Zahar Editor, 2003.
Castells, M. A Sociedade em Rede. A era da informação: economia, sociedade e cultura. São Paulo: Paz e
Terra, vol. I, 1999.
Cebrián, J.L. A Rede. Como nossas vidas serão transformadas pelos novos meios de comunicação. São
Paulo: Summus Editorial, 1999.
Coglianese, Cary. The Internet and Citizen Participation in Rulemaking. Faculty Research Working
Papers Series. John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University. November 2004.
Doris, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002.p.2-5.
Edwards, Kathy. Youth democracy and social change. Faculty of Education and Social Work, University
of Sydney. Paper presented to the Social Change in the 21st Century Conference, Centre for Social
Change Research, Queensland University of Technology, 27th October 2006.
Hayes, Rebecca. Reaching out on their own turf: Social networking sites and Campaign 2008. Presented
on April 17th and 18th 2008 in the congress Politics Web 2.0: an international conference organized
by the department of Politics and International Relations at the Royal Holloway University of
London (RHUL)
Lévy, P. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999.
Lévy, P. A Inteligência Coletiva. Por uma Antropologia do Ciberespaço. São Paulo: Edições Loyola,
1998.
Mattelart, Armand; MATTELART Michèle. História das Teorias da Comunicação. São Paulo: Edições
Loyola, 1999.
Oliveira, Adriana C.C. E-SOCIAL: comunicação e formação de parcerias entre Estado, Mercado e
Terceiro Setor, na Internet, visando o desenvolvimento social. Dissertacao de Mestrado. Escola de
Comunicacao e Artes da Universidade de Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo, 2007.
Santaella, L. Comunicação e Pesquisa. São Paulo: Hacker Editores, 2001.
Thompson, J. B. The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media (Stanford University Press,
1996). pp. 77-82.
Zube, Paul. VulnerableSpace: A comparison of 2008 Official Campaign Websites and MySpace.
Presented on April 17th and 18th 2008 in the congress Politics Web 2.0: an international conference
organized by the department of Politics and International Relations at the Royal Holloway University
of London (RHUL)
Texts/Articles:
Barack Obama asks internet users to e-mail their policy ideas, November 7, 2008. Times Online.
www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_america/us_elections/article511017
(accessedin
March, 28th, 2009)
High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama. Paper-press. November 13, 2008.
Internet
key
to
Obama
victories.
BBC
NEWS.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr//2/hi/techonolgy/7412045.stm - published in June 12, 2008 (accessedin March, 28th, 2009)
Key News Audiences Now Blend Online and Traditional Sources. Paper-press. August 17, 2008.
New Census Data Confirm Increase in Youth Voter Turnout In 2008 Election. CIRCLE (The Center for
Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement) http://www.civicyouth.org/?cat=6.
Accessed in April 28th, 2009.
The State of the News Media 2009: An Annual Report on American Journalism.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2009/narrative_yearinthenews_intro.php?media=2#1broadtopi
cs (accessedin April 15th, 2009)
The tough job of communicating with voters. Paper-press. February 5, 2000.
37
The Internet's Role in Campaign 2008. Pew Internet & American Life Project Apr 15, 2009.
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2009/6--The-Internets-Role-in-Campaign-2008.aspx. Accessed
in April 28th, 2009.
Voters liked campaign 2004, but too much “mud-slinging”. Paper-press. November 11, 2004.
Young Voters Favor Obama, but How Many Will Vote? October 22, 2008.
http://www.gallup.com/poll/111310/Young-Voters-Favor-Obama-How-Many-Will-Vote.aspx.
Accessed in April 29th.
Websites:
BarackObama.com. www.barackobama.com. Accessedin April 26th, 2009.
Barack Obama website – Organizing for America. Section Obama Everywhere – YouTube.
http://www.youtube.com/profile?user=BarackObamadotcom&view=videos&sort=v.
Accessedin
April 29th, 2009
Facebook. http://www.facebook.com/. Accessed on April 27th, 2009.
INTERNET WORLD STATS: Usage and population statistics. Notes: The North American Statistics
were updated as of June 30, 2008. The demographic (population) numbers are based on data
contained in the US Census Bureau. The most recent usage information comes mainly from the data
published by Nielsen//NetRatings, ITU, and other reliable sourceswww.internetworldstats.com
(accessedin March, 28th, 2009)
List
of
social
networking
websites.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_networking_websites#cite_note-102. Accessed on April
28th, 2009.
MySpace. http://www.myspace.com/. Accessed on April 27th, 2009.
NIELSEN ONLINE REPORTS TOPLINE U.S. DATA FOR MAY 2008. http://www.nielsenonline.com/pr/pr_080610.pdf accessedin April 28,2009. Analysing the profile of the Internet users
per age, 33.91% are 18 to 34; 26.64% are 35 to 49; 22.35% are 55 or more; and 9.66% are 65 or
more.
Wikipedia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpace;
www.myspace.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook; www.facebook.com; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube;
www.youtube.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr;
www.flickr.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digg;
www.digg.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter;
www.twitter.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eventful;
http://eventful.com/;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinkedIn; www.lindedin.com; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackPlanet;
www.blackplanet.com;
www.faithbase.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eons.com;
www.eons.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glee.com;
www.glee.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiGente.com;
www.migente.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batanga.com;
www.batanga.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AsianAve;
www.asianave.com;
http://www.democrats.org/page/content/partybuilder/. Accessed on April 27th, 2009
www.WhiteHouse.gov. Online Town Hall Meeting
i
INTERNET WORLD STATS: Usage and population statistics. Notes: The North American Statistics were updated as of
June 30, 2008. The demographic (population) numbers are based on data contained in the US Census Bureau. The most
recent usage information comes mainly from the data published by Nielsen//NetRatings, ITU, and other reliable
Avaialable at sourceswww.internetworldstats.com (accessed March, 28th, 2009)
ii
CASTELLS, M. A Sociedade em Rede. A era da informação: economia, sociedade e cultura. São Paulo: Paz e Terra, vol.
I, 1999.
iii
INTERNET WORLD STATS: Usage and population statistics. Notes: The North American Statistics were updated as of
June 30, 2008. The demographic (population) numbers are based on data contained in the US Census Bureau. The most
recent usage information comes mainly from the data published by Nielsen//NetRatings, ITU, and other reliable sources
Available at www.internetworldstats.com (accessed in March, 28th, 2009)
38
iv
CASTELLS, M. A Sociedade em Rede. A era da informação: economia, sociedade e cultura. São Paulo: Paz e Terra,
vol. I, 1999, pp. 431-434.
v
LÉVY, P. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999.
vi
SANTAELLA, L. Comunicação e Pesquisa. São Paulo: Hacker Editores, 2001.
vii
CALDAS, Waldenyr. Cultura de Massa e Política de Comunicações. São Paulo: Global, 1986.
viii
DORIS, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002, p.2-5.
ix
The
State
of
the
News
Media
2009:
An
Annual
Report on
American
Journalism.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2009/narrative_yearinthenews_intro.php?media=2#1broadtopics (accessed in April
15th, 2009)
x
The
State
of
the
News
Media
2008:
An
Annual
Report
on
American
Journalism.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2008/narrative_yearinnews_intro.php?media=2 (accessed in April 15th, 2009)
xi
DORIS, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002.p.118.
xii
The State of the News Media 2009: An Annual Report on American Journalism. Top Lead Newsmakers in 2008.
http://www.stateofthenewsmedia.com/2009/narrative_yearinthenews_intro.php?media=2#electioncov (accessedin April
15th, 2009.
xiii
DORIS, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002.p.99-101.
xiv
DORIS, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002.p.99-101.
xv
DORIS, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002, pp.237-246.
xvi
DORIS, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002, pp.237-246.
xvii
Paper-press, (the tough job of communicating with voters – February 5, 2000).
xviii
Paper-press, (voters liked campaign 2004, but too much “mud-slinging” November 11,2004).
xix
Paper-press, (High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama- November 13, 2008).
xx
Paper-press, (High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama- November 13, 2008).
xxi
Paper-press, (High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama- November 13, 2008).
xxii
DORIS, Graber A. Mass Media & American Politics. United States of America: CQ Press, 2002.pp.237.
xxiii
MATTELART, Armand; MATTELART Michèle. História das Teorias da Comunicação. São Paulo:
Edições Loyola, 1999.
xxiv
THOMPSON, J. B. The Media and Modernity: A Social Theory of the Media (Stanford University Press, 1996). pp.
77-82.
xxv
CASTELLS, M. A Sociedade em Rede. A era da informação: economia, sociedade e cultura. São Paulo: Paz e Terra,
vol. I, 1999.
xxvi
LÉVY, P. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999, p.92.
xxvii
LÉVY, P. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999, p.63.
xxviii
CASTELLS, M. A Galáxia da Internet. Reflexões sobre a Internet, os negócios e a sociedade. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge
Zahar Editor, 2003.
xxix
OLIVEIRA, Adriana C.C. E-SOCIAL: comunicação e formação de parcerias entre Estado, Mercado e Terceiro Setor,
na Internet, visando o desenvolvimento social. Dissertacao de Mestrado. Escola de Comunicacao e Artes da Universidade
de Sao Paulo. Sao Paulo, 2007.
xxx
LÉVY, P. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999, p.127.
xxxi
CASTELLS, M. A Sociedade em Rede. A era da informação: economia, sociedade e cultura. São Paulo: Paz e Terra,
vol. I, 1999, pp. 442-449.
xxxii
LÉVY, P. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999, pp. 127-130.
xxxiii
CASTELLS, M. A Sociedade em Rede. A era da informação: economia, sociedade e cultura. São Paulo: Paz e Terra,
vol. I, 1999.
xxxiv
CASTELLS, M. A Galáxia da Internet. Reflexões sobre a internet, os negócios e a sociedade. Rio de Janeiro: Jorge
Zahar Editor, 2003, p. 102.
xxxv
LÉVY, P. Cibercultura. São Paulo: Editora 34, 1999, p.167.
xxxvi
LÉVY, P. A Inteligência Coletiva. Por uma Antropologia do Ciberespaço. São Paulo: Edições Loyola, 1998, pp. 31.
xxxvii
LÉVY, P. A Inteligência Coletiva. Por uma Antropologia do Ciberespaço. São Paulo: Edições Loyola, 1998, pp. 2526.
xxxviii
CEBRIÁN, J.L. A Rede. Como nossas vidas serão transformadas pelos novos meios de comunicação. São Paulo:
Summus Editorial, 1999.
xxxix
Paper-press. (High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama- November 13, 2008).
xl
The Internet's Role in Campaign 2008. Pew Internet & American Life Project Apr 15, 2009.
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2009/6--The-Internets-Role-in-Campaign-2008.aspx. Accessedin April 28th, 2009
xli
Paul Zube. VulnerableSpace: A comparison of 2008 Official Campaign Websites and MySpace. Presented on April
17th and 18th 2008 in the congress Politics Web 2.0: an international conference organized by the department of Politics
and International Relations at the Royal Holloway University of London (RHUL)
39
xlii
Rebecca Hayes. Reaching out on their own turf: Social networking sites and Campaign 2008. Presented on April 17th
and 18th 2008 in the congress Politics Web 2.0: an international conference organized by the department of Politics and
International Relations at the Royal Holloway University of London (RHUL)
xliii
INTERNET WORLD STATS: Usage and population statistics. Notes: The North American Statistics were updated as
of June 30, 2008. The demographic (population) numbers are based on data contained in the US Census Bureau. The most
recent usage information comes mainly from the data published by Nielsen//NetRatings, ITU, and other reliable
sourceswww.internetworldstats.com (accessedin March, 28th, 2009)
xliv
Paper-press, (Key News Audiences Now Blend Online and Traditional Sources – August 17, 2008).
xlv
Paper-press, (Key News Audiences Now Blend Online and Traditional Sources – August 17, 2008).
xlvi
Internet key to Obama victories. BBC NEWS. http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/techonolgy/7412045.stm - published
in June 12, 2008 (accessedin March, 28th, 2009)
xlvii
BarackObama.com. www.barackobama.com. Accessedin April 26th, 2009.
xlviii
Barack Obama asks internet users to e-mail their policy ideas, November 7, 2008. Times Online.
www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_america/us_elections/article511017 (accessedin March, 28th, 2009)
xlix
Facebook. http://www.facebook.com/press/info.php?statistics. Accessed on April 28th, 2009.
l
List of social networking websites. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_social_networking_websites#cite_note-102.
Accessed on April 28th, 2009.
li
Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySpace; www.myspace.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook;
www.facebook.com; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube; www.youtube.com; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flickr;
www.flickr.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digg;
www.digg.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twitter;
www.twitter.com; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eventful; http://eventful.com/;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LinkedIn;
www.lindedin.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackPlanet;
www.blackplanet.com;
www.faithbase.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eons.com; www.eons.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glee.com; www.glee.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiGente.com;
www.migente.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batanga.com;
www.batanga.com;
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AsianAve;
www.asianave.com;
http://www.democrats.org/page/content/partybuilder/. Accessed on April 27th, 2009.
lii
Quoted in David B. Magleby “How Barack Obama Changed Presidential Campaigns” pg. 33
liii
Paul Zube. VulnerableSpace: A comparison of 2008 Official Campaign Websites and MySpace. Presented on April
17th and 18th 2008 in the congress Politics Web 2.0: an international conference organized by the department of Politics
and International Relations at the Royal Holloway University of London (RHUL). Rebecca Hayes. Reaching out on their
own turf: Social networking sites and Campaign 2008. Presented on April 17th and 18th 2008 in the congress Politics
Web 2.0: an international conference organized by the department of Politics and International Relations at the Royal
Holloway University of London (RHUL).
liv
Facebook. http://www.facebook.com/. Accessed on April 27th, 2009.
lv
MySpace. http://www.myspace.com/. Accessed on April 27th, 2009.
lvi
Barack Obama website – Organizing for America. Section Obama Everywhere – YouTube.
http://www.youtube.com/profile?user=BarackObamadotcom&view=videos&sort=v. Accessedin April 29th, 2009.
lvii
Quoted in David B. Magleby “How Barack Obama Changed Presidential Campaigns” pg. 33
lviii
Edwards, Kathy. Youth democracy and social change. Faculty of Education and Social Work, University of Sydney.
Paper presented to the Social Change in the 21st Century Conference, Centre for Social Change Research, Queensland
University of Technology, 27th October 2006.
lix
NIELSEN ONLINE REPORTS TOPLINE U.S. DATA FOR MAY 2008. http://www.nielsenonline.com/pr/pr_080610.pdf accessedin April 28,2009. Analysing the profile of the Internet users per age, 33.91% are 18
to 34; 26.64% are 35 to 49; 22.35% are 55 or more; and 9.66% are 65 or more.
lx
Paper-press. (High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for Obama- November 13, 2008):.
lxi
The Internet's Role in Campaign 2008. Pew Internet & American Life Project Apr 15, 2009.
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2009/6--The-Internets-Role-in-Campaign-2008.aspx. Accessedin April 28th, 2009.
lxii
New Census Data Confirm Increase in Youth Voter Turnout In 2008 Election. CIRCLE (The Center for Information
and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement) http://www.civicyouth.org/?cat=6. Accessed in April 28th, 2009.
lxiii
BBC NEWS – Internet key to Obama victories – http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/techonolgy/7412045.stm published in June 12, 2008 – accessed in March 28, 2009.
lxiv
Young Voters Favor Obama, but How Many Will Vote? October 22, 2008. http://www.gallup.com/poll/111310/YoungVoters-Favor-Obama-How-Many-Will-Vote.aspx. Accessed in April 29th.
lxv
Quoted in David B. Magleby “How Barack Obama Changed Presidential Campaigns” pg. 34
lxvi
www.WhiteHouse.gov. Online Town Hall Meeting
lxvii
Coglianese, Cary. The Internet and Citizen Participation in Rulemaking. Faculty Research Working Papers Series.
John F. Kennedy School of Government. Harvard University. November 2004.
40
Preparing Special Educators:
Identifying Aversions Towards Instructing Math
Michael J. Humphrey
Lee L. Woods
Boise State University
Special education teachers are to be minimally proficient in all basic academic skill and content areas.
Normally, this would not propose any problems for teachers performing at basic skill levels. However,
what are the possible impacts when a special educator is required to instruct a student in a performance
skill or content area in which they are not comfortable or proficient? How would this affect his or her
ability and attitude instructing this content when students who are typically difficult to reach and difficult
to teach? What can special education preparation programs due to identify future special educators in
these content areas?
It is commonly stated that future teachers explore careers in elementary education because of their
perceived dislike for higher content instruction. This is also true for special education teachers. The
perception of a special education teacher is one of offering remedial instruction to students who have
difficulty or are not expected to ever achieve mastery of a skill or content area. Given this, future teaching
professionals are commonly required to explore their dispositions in their teacher preparation programs.
Their performance levels in their theoretical, pedagogical and experiential components in their program
are also assessed by the faculty and staff at their institution. This is common practice in all accredited
educational programs, but what is being done with special education teachers who might be experiencing
a specific aversion to a specific content area?
The formation of the National Reading Panel (NRP) in 2000 led to efforts to improve student literacy.
The NRP’s findings led to the development of a federal funding program under No Child Left Behind
called Reading First (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). However, this focus on literacy has
overshadowed mathematics and is changing in our current educational system (National Research Council
[NRC], 1989). High school students and graduates need to be proficient in mathematics in order to be
productive citizens (NRC, 1989).
Special education preparation programs need to take into account general mastery in three specific
academic areas and performance skills: mathematics, reading and writing. Most state special education
teaching endorsements are from kindergarten to 12th grade. This is a broad spectrum of mathematics
levels, from number identification to higher mathematics. Not only are k-12 special educators required to
know the range of mathematic content and procedures, but they also may need to know several different
strategies and approaches to effectively meet the diverse learning needs of their students.
In 2008 the National Mathematics Advisory Panel (NMP) derived that algebra was the beginning level
of higher mathematics and that the United States needed to revamp their mathematics instructional
program at all levels driving up to algebra (kindergarten – 8th grade)(National Mathematics Advisory
Panel, 2007). The division of mathematics is then set in two distinct categories, basic (k-8th or prealgebra) and advanced (9-12th or algebra and higher). In conjunction with NCLB this would also entail
that all students perform at higher levels in mathematics at secondary grade levels.
Aversion to mathematics is a common perception among adults today. Innumeracy is the
mathematical parallel of illiteracy, but may be more socially accepted (Dewdney, 1993). It would not be
considered unusual in conversation for a teacher to state, “Oh, I just not a math person.” A teacher who
states “I just don’t read,” would be met with quizzical looks and disbelief. Illiteracy is not socially
41
acceptable especially among educators, and for good reason. Why then, is innumeracy so readily
acceptable and what are the possible impacts for future special educators?
One factor higher education agencies need to take into account in their special education preparation
programs is to produce teaching professionals who are competent in reading, writing and mathematics. In
order to achieve this, their programs would require their candidates to not only learn how to instruct these
content areas and performance skills, but to be able to perform in these areas as well. This study seeks to
find identifying factors and their impacts among perceptions of special education teacher candidates in
instructing mathematical content at various grade levels (basic and algebra) and investigate possible
instructional and remediation strategies for these candidates and subsequent future students.
Methodology
Participants and Setting
In the spring of 2010, a new course was developed to instruct special education teacher candidates how
to teach mathematics to students with exceptionalities. These candidates had been accepted into the
teacher licensure program, which among other things requires passing scores (172) in the Praxis I
Mathematics assessment. A total of 25 candidates attended this course. Each student participating in the
study was fulfilling the requirements necessary for their degree or teacher certification. The presence of
this requirement suits the purpose of this study and constitutes the necessary rationale for using a
convenience sampling method (Gall, Gall, & Walter, 2007). Due to the convenience sampling, the study
is not experimental (Creswell, 2003), but represents an informative population of teacher candidates
preparing for their future professions that involve instructing mathematics to students with
exceptionalities. .
Data Collection
During this course, a third-party researcher administered two assessments. These assessments
consisted of 1) five basic algebra questions and 2) a survey about their comfort levels and satisfaction
with mathematics. If a candidate self-identified as having an aversion towards the instruction of
mathematics, the researcher made contact and requested participation in a structured interview.
Triangulation of the data was based on multiple data sources, including (a) algebra assessment, (b) survey
responses and (c) structured interviews (Creswell 1998; Merriam 1998).
Basic algebra.
Five basic algebra questions were administered to the participants of this study. Each of these
questions highlighted a specific skill found in the beginnings of advanced mathematics. Each question
was scored as being either correct (1) or incorrect (0).
Survey.
Each of the participants were asked to complete a survey that asked them to rate their comfort levels
with instructing different levels of mathematics and anxiety levels with their performance in mathematics.
Each participant was also asked if they felt confident in instructing mathematics in the future professions.
If the participants reported that they did not feel they were ready to instruct mathematics and they didn’t
feel satisfied in their performance in mathematics they were contacted to participate in a structured
interview.
Structured interview.
Students were emailed a request to participate in a structured interview (See Table 4) if they identified
themselves as not feeling adequate in instructing mathematics and were not content with their
performance in mathematics. Each interview lasted from 45-60 minutes. These interviews were recorded
digitally and thematically analyzed to discover themes in the participants’ experiences in mathematics and
outlook toward instructing mathematics.
Results
Participants correctly answered less than two of the five algebra questions (see Table 1) The average
score was 1.72 out of 5.0 (Chronbach’s Alpha = .717). The lowest performance levels being in
participants’ understanding of exponents (24%) and equations (20%), The highest performance levels did
not reach over 44%.
Survey Responses.
42
The responses of the first six Likert-scale questions averages ranged from 2.04-3.80. As shown in
Table 2, the highest average represented the participants’ comfort level in teaching K-6th grade
mathematics (basic or pre-algebra) and the lowest average represented the participants’ comfort level in
teaching 9-12th grade mathematics (algebra and above). Respondents described the levels of math they
have experienced as a student ranging from algebra to discrete calculus. Two “Yes/No” questions were
used to identify possible interviewees. These questions were, “Are you satisfied with your performance
in mathematics as a student?” and, “Are you confident in your knowledge of instructing mathematics to
students with exceptionalities?” Respondents who replied “No” to both of these questions were contacted
to be interviewed (n=5).
Survey correlations.
Responses to questions, “I look forward to instructing students in mathematics,” and, “I find
mathematics a very enjoyable subject to study,” were combined to calculate a comfort with mathematics
variable (Chronbach’s Alpha = .705). Responses to questions, “I feel nervous when completing
mathematical tasks,” and, “I have always struggled with mathematics in my education,” were combined
to calculate an anxiety towards mathematics variable (Chronbach’s Alpha = .811). These calculated
variables, comfort and anxiety, were used to test the null hypothesis (see Table 3), there is no significant
statistical relationship between future special education teachers anxiety and comfort with mathematics
and their outlooks on teaching basic level (K-6th grade) and algebra-level (9-12th grade) mathematics.
The results of the correlation analyses demonstrate that four of the six relationships were statistically
significant and a greater magnitude than 0.44. However, the correlations containing anxiety towards
mathematics were generally negative and only one was statistically significant. The null hypothesis, there
is no relationship between participants’ anxiety and comfort levels with instructing mathematics is
rejected. The correlation between anxiety towards mathematics and comfort teaching 9-12th level
mathematics demonstrates that there is a negative relationship between participations’ anxiety in math
and their comfort level with teaching higher-level mathematics (p < 0.05). This would signify that special
education teacher candidates that experience higher levels of anxiety towards mathematics feel less
comfortable instructing higher-level mathematics in their future profession. The null hypothesis, there is
no relationship between participants’ comfort with mathematics and their comfort levels with instructing
mathematics is rejected. The correlation analysis also demonstrates that there is a positive relationship
between participant’s comfort with mathematics and their comfort level with teaching lower level and
higher-level mathematics (p < 0.01). This finding would signify that special education teacher candidates
that are more comfortable with mathematics are more comfortable when instructing both lower level and
higher-level mathematics in their future profession.
Structured Interviews.
Of the 25 special educator candidates taking the course, five met the criterion for experiencing an
aversion towards instructing mathematics. Of those five, three agreed to be interviewed (see Table 4)
about their experiences with mathematics. We transcribed these interviews for analysis. We conducted a
realist thematic analysis to report emergent patterns of themes from the experiences and reality of the
participants (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Two primary themes emerged from the analysis of the interviews;
participants’ struggles with mathematics as a student and participants’ perceptions of instructing students
with disabilities mathematics.
Struggles with mathematics as a student.
Recollections of interviewees’ mathematical experiences as students were reported to be unpleasant or
unimportant to them during that period of their life. “I never thought math was going to be important to
me, so I always did the bare minimum expected of me. I took the courses I needed to graduate [high
school] and that is all I would do.” Postsecondary experiences among the three interviewees follow the
general trend of avoiding mathematics and degrees that required a high level of mathematics proficiency.
“I choose a degree that had the minimal math requirements, and usually searched for options that fulfilled
the math education requirement, but didn’t have to do with numbers like symbolic logic.” Two of the
participants considered themselves to be non-traditional students and were impacted by the mathematics
requirement for special education endorsement and certification.
43
“I did the bare minimum in math to graduate with my diploma, then the same
avoiding math to get my degree. Now over ten years later, I have to take a math
course for teacher education and another course on how to instruct mathematics to
students with exceptionalities, and I haven’t taken a math course since high school.
This [gap] was very difficult to deal with.”
In general, the three participants interviewed describe a theme of not enjoying math as a student and
avoidance of math during their educational careers. This avoidance was due to overall sense of difficulty
experienced with mathematics and a perception that they did not possess the skills for mastery of complex
math.
Perceptions of instructing students with disabilities.
As future special education teachers, all participants vocalized the necessity to be able to teach
mathematics to their students. They expressed their willingness to teach basic number concepts and
functions such as: addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, but they expressed concern about the
possibility of teaching mathematics such as algebra and geometry. “I wouldn’t want to teach my students
algebra. I can barely do algebra. How can I teach when I am not even sure I can get the problem right?”
All participants agreed that it was important to collaborate with other instructors who were proficient at
higher-level mathematics; however, one interviewee expressed a curious outlook.
“I am not sure how asking for help might look as a new special education teacher. I
am sure they [math-teacher] would help, but they might perceive that I am not qualified
to teach anyone if their own students are better than I am as an adult-certified-teacher.
Do you think if I regularly ask for help, my co-workers might view me as less qualified?
This same instructor might be a very important member on one of my students’
individual education planning teams.”
In general, the three participants interviewed expressed comfort with instructing students basic math
and functions. They also agreed about the importance of collaborating with other professionals when the
instructing math levels beyond their comfort or knowledge levels. Each participant also felt more
comfortable working in special education at the elementary level instead of the secondary level. This
assumption, is supported by the interviewees’ doubt their future students would need assistance in higherlevel mathematics.
Perceptions of special education preparation programs.
As current students attending a pedagogical mathematics course, all respondents expressed some level
of anxiety towards their performance in the class. They expressed an increase in the effort level required
to complete course assignments and meet expected learning outcomes for the course in comparison to
other courses in their program. Several strategies were identified regarding remediation strategies;
seeking assistance from a family member more comfortable with mathematics, collaboration from a peer
in the class and requesting help from the instructor. These strategies share the common theme of
requesting support from a person who possesses a higher level of comfort with mathematics content.
Discussion
Possessing an aversion towards instructing mathematics may affect a special educator’s ability to
effectively fulfill their professional requirements; efficient instruction of mathematics (Humphrey &
Hourcade, 2009). Identifying possible aversions towards instructing mathematics is one avenue to
explore the remediation and resolution of possible impacts for future special educators enrolled in
preparation programs.
As identified in this study special education teacher candidates did not perform well in algebra level
mathematical tasks. Possible identified factors were: negative experiences in mathematics as student (k12th), avoidance pursuing a math-heavy degree and extended periods of time between math-genre courses
in their academic career.
Special educator candidates in a preparation program varied in their anxiety levels and comfort levels
of instructing mathematics. Participants with higher anxiety levels had lower comfort with mathematics
and lower comfort with instructing 9th-12th (algebra and above) level mathematics. Participants with
44
higher comfort levels with mathematics had the highest level of comfort instructing k-6th (pre-algebra)
and 9th-12th (algebra and above) level mathematics.
Special education teachers need to be proficient in the content areas they are expected to instruct.
Higher education agencies need to provide a comprehensive program to prepare future special education
teachers that are competent instructing all content areas, including mathematics. Special education
teacher candidates who identify themselves as uncomfortable with mathematics should be recommended
to form assistance groups, such as tutoring sessions, remedial mathematics classes or peer-assisted
learning communities in order to become more comfortable in their mathematics performance and
subsequent future instructional responsibilities.
Extrapolation of the results of this study are limited, given the participants were only selected from one
university level course and only three participants were willing to engage in the structured interviews.
Subsequent investigations should not only look at the indentifying factors of aversion towards
mathematics, but also explore the efficacy of instructional and remediation strategies for special educators
with possible aversions attending higher education preparation programs.
References
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in
Psychology, 3, 77-100.
Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions.
Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage.
Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches (2nd
ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Dewdney, A. K. (1993). 200% of nothing: An eye-opening tour through the twists and turns of math
abuse and innumeracy. New York: Wiley.
Gall, M. D., Gall, J. P. & Walter, R. (2007). Educational research: An introduction (8th ed.). Boston,
MA: Allyn and Bacon
Humphrey, M., & Hourcade, J. J. (2009) Special educators and mathematics phobia: An initial qualitative
investigation. The Clearing House, 83(1), 26-30.
Merriam, S. B. (1998) Qualitative research and case study in education. San Fransisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
National Mathematics Advisory Panel. (2007, January). Preliminary report: National Mathematics
Advisory Panel—January 2007. Washington DC: U.S. Department of Education, National
Mathematics
Advisory
Panel.
Retrieved
October
16,
2007,
from
http://www.ed.gov/about/bdscomm/list/mathpanel/pre-report.pdf
National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching children to read: An
evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for
reading instruction (NIH Publication No. 00-4769). Washington, DC: National Institute of Child
Health and Human Development, National Reading Panel.
National Research Council. (1989). Everybody counts: A report to the nation on the future of mathematics
education. Washington, DC: Author.
U.S. Department of Education (2003). No child left behind: A parents guide. Washington D.C.: U.S.
Department of Education.
45
Table 1
Algebra Assessment
Question
-7 – (-6 + 2)
-5 – (-4)
Solve for n A = P(1 + ni)
Evaluate this expression 5 -
Skill
Real numbers
Number correct (n=25)
10
Percent Correct (n=25)
40%
Equations
Exponents
5
6
20%
24%
Factor this polynomial
completely
12x2 – 30x
Write answer in lowest
terms
4x + 2 + -2x + 8
x+5
x+5
Factoring
polynomials
11
44%
Rational expressions
11
44%
Average 1.72
Average 34%
4
Note. Chronbach’s Alpha for all five items = .717.
Table 2
Survey Responses
Question
Strongly
Disagree
8%
Slightly
Disagree
8%
Neutral
Slightly
Agree
32%
Strongly
Agree
20%
Mean
n=25
3.48
1) I look forward to instructing
32%
students in mathematics
2) I feel comfortable teaching K-6th
8%
4%
24%
28%
36%
3.80
grade mathematics
3) I feel nervous when completing
20%
20%
12%
36%
12%
3.00
mathematical tasks
3) I feel comfortable teaching 9-12th
40%
36%
8%
12%
4%
2.04
grade mathematics
5) I have always struggled with
20%
16%
12%
24%
28%
3.24
mathematics in my education
6) I find mathematics an enjoyable
16%
28%
12%
32%
12%
2.96
subject to study
Note. Questions one and six were combined to form Comfort with Mathematics variable (Chronbach’s
Alpha = .705). Questions three and five were combined to form Anxiety Towards Mathematics variable
(Chronbach’s Alpha = .811).
46
Table 3
Pearson’s Moment Correlation Anxiety, Comfort, K-6th and 9-12th
Anxiety Towards
Mathematics
-.259
Comfort with
Mathematics
Comfort Teaching
K-6th Math
Comfort with
Mathematics
Comfort Teaching .003
.714**
th
K-6 Level Math
Comfort Teaching -.441*
.591**
.528**
9-12th Level Math
Note. *. = Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. = Correlation is significant at the 0.01
level (2-tailed).
Table 4
Structured Interview Script
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
How do you feel when faced with a difficult algorithm?
Do you balance your checkbook?
Did you ever enjoy math as a student?
How important do you feel mathematic instruction is?
What impacts do you think you have in your students’ math development and progress?
Author Note
Michael J. Humphrey, Department of Special Education & Early Childhood Studies, Boise State
University; Lee L. Woods, Department of Special Education & Early Childhood Studies, Boise State
University.
Correspondence regarding this manuscript should be addressed to Dr. Michael Humphrey, 1910
University Drive, Education Building Room 204, Boise ID 83725-1725.
michaelhumphrey@boisestate.edu
47
Sighs and Murmurs from the Chattering Class:
Death with Dignity in the United Kingdom
William Kirtley
Central Texas College
Introduction
Your life, your choice
Motto of Dignity in Dying UK
Political pundits describe the United States Senate as more recalcitrant than the British House of Lords
(Fabian 1). As exasperating as the Senate is with its earmarks and secret holds, it is not nearly as
dysfunctional as the House of Lords. Imagine that Americans overwhelmingly support a bill on an
important social issue. When the Vice-President of the Senate calls for a vote, mitered bishops clad in red
and gold ecclesiastical robes, process into the chambers and vote as a block. Their votes provide the
margin of defeat for the bill. Such a scene actually happened in the House of Lords.
The thesis of this paper is that the structure of English government serves as a barrier to social change.
The case in point is the desire of 82 percent of the English people to revise the Suicide Act of 1961 to
allow hastened death similar to that practiced in the U.S. states of Oregon, Washington, and Montana.
This paper examines the structure of the House of Lords, chronicles the efforts of activists to pass Death
With Dignity legislation, and analyzes several current developments.
Theory – The functionalist perspective in the social sciences stresses the role of institutions in
maintaining unity in society. French Sociologist Emile Durkheim likened society to an organism, the
health of which depends on order and organic solidarity. He argued that just as the nervous system
controls the organs of the body, law regulated the institutions of society. The purpose of both was the
same, equilibrium and health (Jones 24).
Robert Merton, an American Sociologist, called it dysfunctional, if an aspect of society functioned in a
way that harmed society. Such a term describes the English Suicide Act, a law that prescribed punishment
for assisting or aiding a suicide. This law has unintended consequences injurious to the people of the
United Kingdom.
Gabriel Almond, a political scientist at Stanford, favored the functionalist approach. He noted, “Every
political system has some way of formulating and responding to demands” (Comparative Politics 73).
This paper tells the story of how Dignity in Dying, a British special interest group, developed strategies to
implement changes in the Suicide Act, and how the English government reacted.
The House of Lords
A Bizarre and Antiquated Anachronism
Daran Hill
Americans have never understood the mother of all parliaments. American textbooks perpetuate the
myth that George III was the primary cause of the revolution. Historian Pauline Mailer in her book
American Scripture argues that the English established the supremacy of an elected parliament long
before 1776. Parliament had the right to raise taxes, control the military, and “bind the colonies in all
cases whatsoever” (23). Parliament, not the King and his ministers, caused the American Revolution.
The Structure of British Government – The Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland contains two chambers: the House of Commons and the House of Lords. Voters elect the
Members of the House of Commons. Members receive a salary. Bills that raise taxes must start in the
Commons. Members say aye or no in a voice vote, if the vote is close, the speaker calls for a division of
48
the house. The party that holds a majority in the House of Commons, or builds a coalition, forms a
government and elects the Prime Minister.
At the opening of parliament members of both houses gather in the House of Lords to hear the Queen
read the manifesto of the ruling party. Lords are not elected. Tim Luckhurst in a scathing article,
“Psst…wanna be a Lord?” referred to the House of Lords as “scarcely more democratic than North
Korea’s National Defense Council” (1). Lords are not paid, although they can claim certain allowances.
Some peers take home £47,360 ($78,200) a year. The British public decries abuses of expense allowances
by members.
There are three types of Lords: Life Peers appointed by the Queen upon the advice of the Prime
Minister; Hereditary Peers elected by the nobility; and Lords Spiritual, who hold office because of their
positions as Bishops in the Anglican Church (See Appendix A).
Election years are a popular time to elect Life Lords, many of whom are former members of the
House of Commons (See Appendix B). The Life Peers Act of 1958 allowed women to sit in the House of
Lords. The Law Lords left the House of Lords in 2009 to form the Supreme Court of the United
Kingdom.
Lords play a vital role making laws and serving as a check on government. They are independent from,
and complement the work of the House of Commons. Their power over legislation is qualified. They
cannot amend a money bill and can delay a bill for only 14 months (See Appendix C). They consider
themselves experts in many fields. They hold general debate on bills, scrutinize them in committee, and
ask questions of ministers. The House of Lords played an important part in the defeat of a National
Identity Card Bill in 2005. They amended it 279 times before returning it to the House of Commons.
Setting and Decorum – The decorative scheme of the Palace of Westminster reaches a climax in the
House of Lords. When the Lords occupied the chamber in 1847, The Builder magazine enthused, “The
whole glitters with colours and gilding – carvings in stone, stained glass, encaustic tiles and fine work in
metal” (Wilson 14). The famous English architect, Augustus Pugin, designed stained glass windows in
the Lords’ Chamber. Large frescos extol the virtues of justice, religion, and charity. Eighteen bronze
statues of those that witnessed the signing of the Magna Charta grace the walls. Carvings of lions and
unicorns display the artistry of craftsmen of the period. A richly carved canopy tops the gilded Queen’s
throne.
The presiding officer is the Lord Speaker, a position elected by the House of Lords and subsequently
appointed by the Queen. The current speaker is Baroness Helene Hayman of Dartmouth Park. She
presides from a large red cushion placed in front of the Queen’s throne, called the woolsack, a reminder
of England’s wealth from the wool trade during the Medieval period. The lords sit on padded red-leather
benches. The seats for the peers of the government are to the right of the throne. This side contains
benches with armrests for the Lords Spiritual. The peers of the opposition sit to the left of the throne.
Independents or crossbenchers sit on benches in the middle (Tour).
Peers refer to one another in the third person as “the noble Duke” or “the Most Reverend Primate.”
They need not seek recognition to speak. They simply stand and talk. The House decides by acclamation
who has the floor, if two Lords stand at the same time. Speeches are not normally subject to time limits.
However, the House may move that they no longer wish to hear a noble Lord. Peers vote by saying
content or not content, if the speaker calls for a division of the House, they walk to the appropriate lobby.
The Lords Spiritual wear clerical garb. The other peers wear their red, ermine trimmed parliamentary
robes only when introduced as new peers and at the State Opening of parliament.
Reform – Paul Tyler of the Guardian noted, “Many peers use the house as a private club, without
attending a single day.” About half of the number of Lords attend on any given day. One Lord described
the House of Lords as, “corruptingly nice” (Wells 241). A recent investigation revealed that operatives of
the Labour Party sold seats in the House of Lords to raise campaign funds. As long as party leaders
nominate Lords, the public suspects that one can buy a seat in the House of Lords.
The Labour Party unveiled a plan to replace the House of Lords with a 300 member elected body in
2010. They proposed the name Senate for this new legislative body. However, the plan came to naught.
Polly Toynbee of the Guardian in “Goodbye to the Bishops,” suggested this failure as one of Labour’s
49
significant missed opportunities. She noted that 50,000 people wrote letters to the House of Lords with
the message that, “The Lords is for people of all faiths and none; there is no space for reserved benches
for the clergy.”
Baron David Steel of Aikwood, a Liberal-Democrat, sponsored a reform bill in 2011. It removes the
power of recommendations for life peerages from political parties and vests it in a Statutory
Appointments Commission. The bill grants a leave of absence to members who do not attend. Peers
sentenced to more than a year in prison would lose their membership in the House. The need for structural
reform is obvious when one considers the issue of hastened death.
Efforts to Pass Death With Dignity Legislation
The euthanasia Lord is at it again.
Graham Pointer
A Good Lord – Joel Joffe, a crossbencher, represented Nelson Mandela against the South African
apartheid government in 1962. The government asked him to leave the country after the trial. He moved
to the United Kingdom, set up two life insurance companies, chaired Oxfam, a worldwide organization
that fights poverty and injustice, and founded his own charitable trust. The Queen raised him to the
peerage as Baron Joel Joffe of Liddington in 2000. He lives in a 16th century mansion in Wiltshire and, at
79, still enjoys tennis with his friends.
He joined the Voluntary Euthanasia Society (VES) when he first came to England. The society split
into two sister organizations in 2007; Compassion in Dying, a registered charity that works for the
welfare of people who are at the end of their lives, and Death in Dying, a non-charitable 25,000 member
lobbying group (Satherly and Hehir).
Lord Joffe remembers, “I did nothing but get their bulletins and felt guilty that their postage costs
would be more than what I’d paid to join” (Turner-Wright). When the Society decided to introduce a bill
into Parliament, they asked him to introduce a private member’s bill. This type of bill expresses the
interests of a single member, rather than that of the government. Lack of approval by the government
diminishes its chance of success. Joffe proposed legislation similar to Oregon’s Death With Dignity Act
in February 2003. His legislation allowed terminal patients to receive legal lethal prescriptions from their
doctor.
Joffe argued that the Suicide Act of 1961 needed revision. Individuals, who help a loved one die, face
punishment of 14 years imprisonment. Physicians commit an illegal act if they assist someone to die.
Family members that accompany those who travel to Dignitas in Switzerland to die, do so under
questionable legal circumstances. Terminally ill people often resort to violent and botched suicides to end
their lives of pain (Harris and Hehir 3).
Select Committee Report –The House of Lords appointed a Select Committee to consider the issues
raised by Joffe’s 2003 bill. The Committee took evidence over nine months in the United Kingdom, the
state of Oregon USA, the Netherlands, and Switzerland. They issued a 736-page document in April 2005.
This document included testimony from Lords and witnesses that represented both sides. The
thoroughness with which the authors scrutinized the complex subject of assisted death is an example of
the House of Lords at its finest.
Joffe explained that he based his bill “on the principal of personal autonomy, the right of the individual
to decide for themselves how best he or she should live their lives” (Select Committee Report 47).
Barbara Coombs Lee, chief petitioner for Oregon’s law, testified that few people in Oregon availed
themselves of the law’s provisions and that the law was now part of the “social fabric” of Oregon (Select
Committee Report 311).
Opponents of Oregon’s law disagreed. Dr. William Toffler of the Oregon Health Sciences University
(OHSU) charged the ultimate goal of proponents of Oregon’s law, like Coombs Lee, was euthanasia. Dr.
Jeffery Stevens of Oregon Health Sciences University stated, “I am a cancer doctor and I view this topic,
assisted suicide and euthanasia, as a cancer (Select Committee Report 337).
The House of Lords discussed the Select Committee report on 10 October 2005. Seventy-three peers
took part in a debate that lasted for nine hours. In the final vote, the Select Committee voted in favor of a
change in the law. Joffe introduced another right to die bill in November 2005 in response to their
50
support.
Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill – Groups opposed to the bill formed a coalition, Care Not
Killing. They mounted a well-orchestrated campaign when it came up for a second reading in 2006. The
Roman Catholic bishops of England and Wales launched the “biggest political campaign ever” (Blake 1).
They sent out a million leaflets and DVDs to parishes and directed priests to organize educational
meetings. They encouraged parishioners to write letters to members of the House of Lords. Rowan
Williams, the Archbishop of Canterbury, spoke out forcibly against Joffe’s bill. Care Not Killing
organized a demonstration outside the Palace of Westminster. Opponents of the bill presented a petition
containing 100,000 signatures to 10 Downing Street (Wilson 1).
Lord Joffe stood before his peers on 12 May 2006. He told them as a Jew, he found letters from
opponents of his bill festooned with swastikas and sprinkled with references to the holocaust particularly
offensive. He reiterated that, under terms of his bill, only terminal competent patients could receive lethal
medication from their doctors; they must self-administer the lethal drugs; and there was no evidence of
abuse in eight years of use in Oregon (Joffe “Assisted Dying”). He told the House that patients should not
have to endure unbearable pain. Joffe begged his Peers to read The Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill
Bill a second time.
Baron Alex Carlile of Berriew, a Liberal-Democrat, termed the bill, “morally indefensible” (Wilson 2).
He pronounced it a slippery slope that would end with doctors giving lethal drugs. “Everybody in your
Lordships' house knows that those who are moving this bill have the clear intention of it leading to
voluntary euthanasia” (BBC News 2).
The Vote -The debate lasted seven hours and ended with what Joffe called “a cunning tactical ploy by
Lord Carlile” (Joffe Remarks). It is customary to allow Private Member’s bills an unopposed Second
Reading. However, Carlile introduced an amendment to delay the bill for six months. Twenty-two Lords
Spiritual supported his motion. The final vote was 148 to 100. This meant the bill had no chance of
becoming law during the session.
Lord Carlile defended his actions in a letter to The Times entitled, “The Slippery Slope Is No Fiction.”
He insisted that he based his actions on concerns for public safety rather than for religious reasons. He
argued that his tactics were “entirely proper constitutionally,” and asserted that Joffe’s bill was “no runof-the-mill Private Members Bill,” because it involved “life or death issues” (Carlile 1).
Mark Slattery, head of communications at Dignity in Dying, said, “The bill has faced the onslaught of
the biggest political campaign in church history, but public support for it has held firm” (BBC News 2).
Julia Millington of ProLife Alliance vowed, “We will continue to resist any change in the law” (BBC
News 2). Lord Joffe introduced his bill in subsequent sessions of the House of Lords. He says, “We
ultimately will succeed. Public surveys show that around 80 per cent of people agree with assisted dying,
with strict safeguards” (Mahoney 1). A number of developments have shaped the argument over hastened
death in the United Kingdom since this historic debate in the House of Lords.
Current Developments
I think it’s time we learned to be as good at dying as we are at living.
Sir Terry Pratchett, English Novelist
Opponents of Hastened Death – Those opposed to death with dignity legislation have continued to
organize since the 2006 debate in the House of Lords. Baroness Ilora Finlay of Llandaff, a professor of
palliative medicine and crossbencher commented, “Assisted dying has become like trench warfare, with
charge and counter-charge and with spinning of argument and counter-argument” (Harris). Her
subsequent remarks echo those of Christine Odone, formerly a writer with the Catholic Herald. Odone
declared that, “A wealthy elite,” the “Chattering Class,” “will push vulnerable people to premature death”
(Odone The Telegraph).
Political Parties – The surest way to achieve social change in the UK is to persuade a political party to
adopt the issue (Satherly and Hehir). The leaders of Dignity in Dying contacted the office of Nick Clegg,
head of the Liberal Democratic Party, and asked for his support. A spokesperson replied that Clegg
supports the position of his party to allow mentally competent, terminally ill patients to secure legal lethal
prescriptions from their doctors, but also respects the right of individual Liberal Democrats to vote their
51
conscience.
The Liberal Democrats formed a coalition with the Conservative party in May 2010. Conservative
leader David Cameron took office as Prime Minister. Cameron told the Catholic Herald, ”My personal
view is that if assisted dying is legalized, there is a danger that terminally ill people may feel pressurised
into ending their lives if they feel they’ve become a burden on loved ones” (Schadenberg 1). Nick Clegg,
the Liberal-Democrat, assumed the office of Deputy Prime Minister. He will not support an issue liable to
damage an alliance that affords his party a measure of power, even though his party platform supports
hastened death.
Scotland - An Independent Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) Margo MacDonald, who has
Parkinson’s disease, introduced the End of Life Assistance Bill in the Scottish Parliament on 20 January
2010. The bill establishes a system that would permit registered medical practitioners in Scotland to assist
persons over 16 years of age that suffer from progressive conditions, permanent physical incapacitation or
terminal illness to end their lives.
The bill drew support from Friends at the End (FATE) an organization that promotes end-of-life
choices in Scotland. Sarah Wootton, Chief Executive of Dignity in Dying, lauded the opportunity to
discuss the topic and agreed with many aspects of the bill. However, she noted that her group supported
legislation that applied to people over 18. She cautioned that the bill contained no definition, “of what the
final act will be” (Wootton, Press Release).
Members of the Scottish Parliament from all parties spoke for and against the bill. MSP MacDonald
condemned the tactics of Care Not Killing, particularly postcards distributed through churches that
alarmed the elderly and disabled. She labeled their message “a catalogue of linguistic contortions” (BBC
News, Scotland 2). The Scottish Parliament rejected MacDonald’s bill by a vote of 85 to 16 on December
1, 2010.
High Profile Cases – Chris Broad, a popular cricketer, announced the death of his wife Michelle in
September 2010. She recognized the implications of the Suicide Law when she took her life after a
sixteen-month battle with a motor-neuron disease. Her actions focused attention on the plight of the
dying.
Debbie Purdy, who suffered from Multiple Sclerosis, wanted to know if the government would
prosecute her husband for aiding a suicide, if he accompanied her to the Dignitas Clinic in Switzerland.
The government had not prosecuted family members, but had charged some family members and kept
them waiting for a final disposition of their case. The Legal Lords heard the case and on 30 July 2009
ruled that Purdy had the right to have the prosecution guidelines clarified. The Director of Public
Prosecutions published new guidelines in February 2010 that directed the courts to judge each case on its
own merits.
Recent Developments – Sarah Wootton welcomed two new developments in July 2011. First, the
Government initiated Palliative Care Funding Review, outlined the state of end-of-life care in England,
and made recommendations for improvements. The National Institute for Clinical Excellence (NICE)
established quality standards for end-of-life care for adults. Wootton emphasized the need for further
research especially on the level of usage for Advance Decisions (“News”). Her group’s fight for changes
in the 1961 Suicide Act will not reach a conclusion any time soon. She is hopeful that education and
persistence will eventually bring victory.
A number of British celebrities have joined Death in Dying’s campaign for choice at the end-of-life.
Two actors, Kim Cattrall and Susan Hampshire, announced their support on 9 August 2011. Cattrall is a
Liverpool-born theatre and film actress. She played Samantha in Sex and the City and the lead in Whose
Life Is It Anyway? Hampshire is famous for her role as Fleur in the BBC drama, The Forsyth Saga
(“News” Dignity in Dying).
Conclusion
Keep Calm and Carry On.
1939 British War Poster
It is difficult to understand why a modern democratic industrialized and secular nation like the United
Kingdom cannot pass legislation favored by a vast majority of the people. The problem lies with the
52
structure of English government and the culture that produced it. The House of Commons passed a
private bill that settled the abortion issue in 1967. Lord Joffe’s private bill did not accrue similar support.
Assisted dying groups, like Dignity in Dying, lobby party conventions. However, parties allow their
parliamentarians to vote freely on issues of conscience thus making it difficult to gain the support of an
entire party.
Social change in the United States came about because of initiative petitions that bypassed state
legislatures in Oregon and Washington. It is possible for the House of Commons to call for a referendum
on topics like joining the European Union or on the method of electing members of parliament. It is
highly unlikely they would ever submit a referendum on death and dying. Hastened death came to
Montana because of a court decision. The supreme court of the UK may ask for further definition of the
law, but ultimately defers to the will of Parliament.
The culture of England compounds structural resistance to change. Proponents of hastened death
agitate for change while every day people confront death with fortitude and self-restraint. The people of
Britain face death “with a stiff upper lip” while the political process “muddles through” the emotional and
ethical challenges associated with end-of-life issues. They have no choice but to accept death under
Parliament’s terms for the foreseeable future.
The English value tradition. A country dedicated to the preservation of indigenous red squirrels is not
likely to significantly change the House of Lords. However, they will tinker with how to select peers,
especially Hereditary Lords and Lords Spiritual. Even so, the basic structure of the House of Lords will
remain intact. It is possible that Liberal Democrats might implement platform promises of electoral
reform for the House of Commons. However in the end, long established customs will prevail.
The English have stout hearts, some say made of oak. They want every one of Her Majesty’s subjects
to experience a “good” death. However, because of the structure of their government and their character,
they will continue to approach death in a contradictory and improvisational way.
References
Almond, Gabriel. Comparative Politics Today. Boston: Little, Brown and Co., 1974.
BBC News. “Lords Block Assisted Dying Bill.” 12 May 2006. <http://newvote.bbc.co.uk> Accessed 7
Mar. 2011.
BBC News Scotland. “Margo MacDonald’s End of Life Assistance Bill Rejected.” 1 Dec. 2010.
<http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland> Accessed 5 July 2010.
Blake, Daniel. “Church Launches Biggest Political Campaign.” Christian Today 20 Mar. 2006.
<http://www.christiantoday.com> Accessed 24 August 2011.
Carlile, Alex. Letter to the Editor, “The Slippery Slope Is No Fiction.” The Times 30 Oct. 2006.
<http://www.dyingwell.org.uk> Accessed 24 August 2011.
Fabian, Jordan. “Dem: Senate Thinks It’s ‘House of Lords.’” The Hill 25 Jan. 2010.
<http//thehill.com/blogs-briefingroom> Accessed 5 Mar. 2011.
Harris, James. “Sticks and Stones.” The Campaign for Dignity in Dying.” 17 Nov. 2010.
<http://dignityindying.blogspot.com/2010/11/> Accessed 10 Mar. 2011.
Harris, James and Davina Hehir. “Quantifying the Human Cost of the Status Quo.” London: Publication
of Dignity in Dying, undated: 2.
Hill, Daran. “The New Welsh Peers.” Waleshome. <http://waleshome.org> Accessed 26 June 30.
Joffe, Joel, Lord. “Remarks Before the House of Lords.” 3 Feb. 2010 at 6:18 PM. Record of Parliament
<http://www.publications.parliament.uk> Accessed 7 Mar. 2011.
---. “Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill Bill.” 12 May 2006 at 10:08 AM. Record of Parliament.
<http://www.publications.parliament.uk>
Accessed
22
Mar.
2011.
Jones, Robert Alun. Emile Durkheim. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 1986.
Luckhurst, Tim. “Psst…wanna be a Lord?” Los Angeles Times 2 Feb. 2007.
<http://articles.com/print/2007/feb/02/opinion/oe-luckhurst2> Accessed 24 August 2011.
Mahony, Emma. “Good Lord.” Financial Times 1 July 2011. <http.ft.com> Accessed 4 July 2011.
Mailer, Pauline. American Scripture. New York: Vintage Books, 1998.
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“News.” Dignity in Dying Website. <http://www.dignityindying.org.uk/news-2011.htm> Accessed
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August 1011.
Odone, Cristina. “Assisted Suicide.” The Telegraph 26 Oct. 2010. <http://blogs.telegraph.couk>
Accessed 10 Mar. 2011.
---. “Assisted Suicide: How the Chattering Classes Have Got It Wrong.” London: Center for Policy
Studies, Surrey (UK): 4 Print, 2006.
Pointer, Graham. Blog. “The Euthanasia Lord Is at It Again.” 16 Dec. 2009.
<http://www.wikio.co.uk/uk_politics> Accessed 22 Mar. 2011.
Press Release. Dignity in Dying UK. 11 May 2006. <http://www.digdnityin dying.org.uk.> Accessed 21
March 2011.
Satherly, Philip and Davina Hehir. Compassion in Dying, Personal Interview by Bill and Pat Kirtley, 7
Jan. 2010 at 10:30, 181 Oxford Street, London, UK.
Select Committee on the Assisted Dying for the Terminally Ill, House of Lords, Report HL Paper 86-II.
Vol. II: Evidence, London: The
Stationary Office Limited, 4 April 2005.
Schadenberg, Alex. “Cameron will oppose the legalization of assisted suicide.” Euthanasia Prevention
Coalition, 8 April 2010. <http://alexschadenberg.blogspot.com> Accessed 24 August 2011.
Tour of Parliament. 12 July 2002, Sociology Class, British Studies, Kenneth Clinton instructor.
University of Southern Mississippi.
Toynbee,
Polly.
“Goodbye
to
the
Bishops.”
The
Guardian
14
Mar.
2010.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/belief/2010/mar/14> Accessed 27 June 2011.
---. “Now the House of Lords Will Remain a Laughing Stock.” The Guardian 3 Feb. 2003.
<http://www.guardian.co.uk/politics/2003/feb/05> Accessed 5 Mar. 2011.
Turner-Wright,
Mel.
“Lord
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Swindon
Life
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June
2008.
<http://www.swinden.web.com> Accessed 5 Mar. 2011.
Tyler, Paul. “House of Lords Reform Bill Cannot Come Too Soon.” The Guardian 6 Nov. 2010.
<http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentsfree/2010/nov06> Accessed 5 Mar. 2011.
Wells, John. The House of Lords. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1999.
Wilson, Graeme. “Peers Split As Assisted Dying Bill Is Derailed.” The Telegraph 13 May 2006.
<http:/www.telegraph.co.uk/news> Accessed 7 Mar. 2010.
Wilson, Robert. The Houses of Parliament. Pitkin Guides. Norwich: Jarrold Publishing, 1994.
Wootton, Sarah. Press release, 29 May 2010. Dignity in Dying Responds to the End of Life Assistance
(Scotland) Bill. <http://www.dignityindying.org.uk> Accessed 5 July 2011.
---. “News.” Compassion in Dying. <http://www.compassionindying.org.uk/news.html> Accessed
6
August 2011.
Appendix A - Composition of House of Lords
Adapted from <www.parliament.uk> Home Page – UK Parliament, Accessed 29 June 2011.
Affiliation
Labour
Conservative
Liberal Democrat
Crossbenchers
Lords Spiritual
Other
Total
Life Peers
238
170
88
153
28
677
Hereditary Peers
4
47
4
31
24
2
88
54
Lords Spiritual
24
Total
242
217
92
184
24
30
789
Appendix B - Appointments to the House of Lords by Year Adapted from
<http://lh3.ggpht.com/_zlRiw3pyXg/TdjsbhxMgVI/AAAAAAAAEA> Accessed 7 August 2011.
Appendix C - Passage of a Bill by Parliament
Adapted from <www.parliament.uk> Home Page – UK Parliament. Accessed 29 June 2011.
House of Commons
1. 1st Reading
2. 2nd Reading
3. Committee
4. Report Stage
5. 3rd Reading
House of Lords
1. 1st Reading
2. 2nd Reading
3. Committee
4. Report Stage
5. 3rd Reading
55
Amendments
Royal
Assent
Protective Cultural Factors Fostering Academic Resilience in
“At-Risk” Mexican American Teenage Girls
Veronica Lopez-Estrada
The University of Texas-Pan American
This paper is based on a nested case study of a small sample of Latina teenage girls from a mid-sized
town located along the Texas-Mexico border. These girls had multiple at-risk characteristics for academic
failure, and yet, were succeeding despite challenging experiences and conditions in their lives. Protective
factors promoting academic resilience described in this paper are grounded in case study data
emphasizing a need for more qualitative research studies examining the complex interplay of multiple
risks and the “person-environment interactions that make vulnerability or resilience” (Garmezy, 1996).
Cultural factors and the process of identity self-construction (Polkinghorne, 1988) are emphasized in
discussion of the findings.
Demographic shifts in the United States over the past 50 to 60 years have impacted many institutions
throughout the nation; however, one of the most affected has been our public school system. Whereas in
the 1950’s, African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans, and Native Americans comprised
of only 15% of the under-18 age population; collectively, these groups make up 40% of American
children and youth, and are expected to reach half or more of the under-18 age segment within another
generation or so (Garcia, Jenson, & Cuellar, 2006). Of these racial/ethnic minority groups, Hispanics are
the largest and fastest growing group in the nation (President’s Advisory Commission on Educational
Excellence for Hispanic Americans, 2003), and it is anticipated that the under-18 Hispanic population will
increase to over 17 million by 2020 (U.S. Census, 2003).
Responding to these extraordinary demographic changes, researchers have focused on learning more
about the wide disparities that exist between White students and racial/ethnic minority groups in U.S.
schools (Fine, 1986; Oakes, 1985; Suarez-Orozco, 1987; De la Rosa & Maw, 1990; Fry, 2003; Garcia
et.al., 2006). Among all groups, Hispanics have had the highest high school dropout rate since 1972
(Alfaro, Umaña-Taylor, and Bámaca, 2006). In 2006, the National Center for Educational Statistics
(NAES) reported that 43% of Hispanic immigrants dropped out of school. As a result of these alarming
trends and statistics, a growing body of educational research on the Hispanic/Latino population has
emerged.
My interest in the topic of academic resilience stemmed from my experiences as a high school
English-Language Arts teacher in south Texas at a large, urban school district located less than 10 miles
from the Texas-Mexico border with a 98% Hispanic/Latino student population. I learned that most of my
students were living on or below the poverty line, and had been identified as “at-risk.” About 35% of my
students consisted of students who were seasonally employed as migrant farm workers in northern states
or who were recent immigrants from Mexico with varied levels of formal and informal schooling in their
native country, and little, if any, English proficiency. Migrant students regularly trickled into my classes
in late September through mid-October and moved “up north” in March and April to work as field
laborers with their parents.
The majority of my students were Spanish native speakers who struggled with English, and had
anywhere from 1st to 6th grade reading levels in their second language. Many of my students lived in
single-parent households, and it was not unusual for many to live with extended family members, such as
grandparents or aunts and uncles in multigenerational homes. About 15% were diagnosed as having
learning disabilities, such as attention deficit disorder, dyslexia, or hyperactivity. Many of my students,
56
mostly males, had records of truancy, disruptive behavior, and violence, and were considered “discipline
problems.” These particular students were, more often than not, gang members. Some had criminal
records and were periodically assigned to juvenile detention centers, bused to alternative schools, or sent
to boot camps. Typically, by the end of each year, five or six girls in my classes became pregnant, or
dropped out of school because they had given birth to a child. Some were married and ended up living
with their parents, boyfriend’s parents, or their in-laws, who were also poor, and had little, if any, formal
education. Like many high schools located in impoverished areas across the nation, I learned that some
of my students were homeless, while others struggled with parents who were addicted to drugs and/or
alcohol. Some of my students were being raised by their extended family members because their parents
were incarcerated, or they simply abandoned them as infants or young children.
Despite ubiquitous stressors in the lives of most of my students, however, every year there were
students who demonstrated academic resilience. I wondered why some students with similar backgrounds
of their less achieving peers thrived academically and under terribly adverse conditions, while others
seemed doomed to fall through the cracks. As their teacher, I wanted to know what I could do to foster
academic resilience with all of my students. Today, as a university professor of undergraduate education
students in the same region where I began my teaching career, I continue to be intrigued with this topic.
The Study
The purpose of this study was to examine ways that teenage Latina girls cope with ubiquitous stressors
and conditions in their lives that are commonly identified as at-risk indicators for academic failure as they
also experienced academic success. The border region in south Texas where the study takes place has a
90% Hispanic/Latino population with 35% of the population under the age of 17. The median family
income for a family of four is $32,203. This is well below the state average of $60,609 (U.S. Census
Bureau, 2010). Case study participants were chosen based on participant observation, teacher interviews,
responses to a questionnaire, and general receptivity to being part of this study. My goal was to document
the girls’ experiences in their own words during their transition year from middle school to high school—
the ninth grade. By documenting their personal struggles and strategies for academic success, and
generating greater awareness about risk and resilience, I looked forward to what I could discover in the
girls’ stories that might provide educators with insights and ideas for fostering personal and academic
resilience.
Several questions guided my research including the following: 1.What role does school play in the
lives of the students in this sample? 2) How do the students view themselves and their respective places in
the world? 3) To what extent are these students’ self-concepts connected or related to school success? 4)
To what extent are the students’ self-concepts shaped by their social identities at school, at home, and
with peers? 5) How do the resilient students in this sample cope with adverse life events and conditions
that enable them to retain academic competence?
Risk and Resilience
Half of all adolescents are at risk on the basis of conditions such as poverty, single parenthood, and
limited English speaking in the home (Pallas, McDill, & Natriello, 1989). Research on success of at-risk
students has been undertaken in order to identify protective factors or other conditions or contributors to
promoting resilience. Resiliency is the process of coping with disruptive, stressful, or challenging life
events in a way that provides the individual with additional protective and coping skills than prior to the
disruption that results from the event” (Richardson, Neiger, Jensen & Kumpfer, 1995). Disruptive life
events may consist of a single event of an individual, a few minutes of disruption, or years of struggle.
In this study, I focus on academic resilience as described by Morales and Trotman (2004), as “the
process and results that are part of the life story of an individual who has been academically successful,
despite obstacles that prevent the majority of others with the same background from succeeding” (p. 8).
Elsewhere, Morales (2008), also maintains “academic resilience is defined solely by exceptional
academic achievement in the face of adversity. As a result, discerning levels of happiness are not a
primary focus of academic resilience research; rather, the mental states of academically resilient
individuals are” (p. 152).
Method
57
I utilized the case study method (Stake, 1994; Merriam, 1988; Patton; 1990) for this qualitative study,
that may be described as a “nested case study” (Richardson, Casanova, Placier, & Guilfoyle, 1989)
insofar as I initially examined the largest unit in this research—the school, as an organization including
the instructional programs offered there, student, faculty and staff demographics, and cultural and
institutional norms and characteristics. Nested within this larger unit were case studies of particular
English-Language Arts classrooms where I was allowed to observe and interact with students and
teachers. Finally, nested in these particular classrooms were the smallest units for observation--the single
case studies of resilient students who were identified as having multiple at-risk characteristics, and yet
were experiencing school success and exhibiting academic resilience.
Participants
I used purposeful sampling in order to determine potential information-rich cases (Patton, 1990) for
this study. Selection was based on several criteria: first, by having multiple at-risk factors as identified by
De la Rosa & Maw (1990) including race/ethnicity, living in a poor household, begin raised by a single
parent, low parent education or income, and being home without parents for extended periods of time;
second, being identified as a high achieving student by their English teacher; third, having a history of
academic achievement (i.e., consistently maintaining a high GPA throughout their years in school); and
last, being a ninth grade student.
Procedures
After IRB approval, formal approval to gain access to the high school through the district
superintendent, informed consents from the principal, parents, and teachers, and student assent approvals,
I began the research that occurred during a nine-month academic year (from September to May). Four
methods of data collection were used to develop the nested case study including participant observation,
qualitative interviews, document analysis and questionnaires. Participant observation and qualitative
interviewing were major sources for data collection, whereas documents and questionnaires played minor
roles. By using open-ended informal conversational interviews and in-depth guided interviews for data
gathering, I was able to capture nuanced and detailed life experiences that helped me to craft triangulated
single case studies of three subjects.
I formally interviewed each subject three times. Each in-depth guided interview lasted from 60 to 90
minutes. I also interviewed their English teachers once per semester. These interviews lasted 45 to 60
minutes. Finally, I conducted one guided interview with each case study participants’ parent, and these
interviews also lasted 45-60 minutes. I observed the girls in their English Language Arts (ELA) classes
once every two weeks for one hour for three and one-half months in the fall semester. In the spring
semester, I observed less often, and focused on interviewing the various participants, transcribing data,
and analyzing data.
Data Analysis
Following I.E. Seidman’s (1991) data analysis process, which includes creating profiles and vignettes,
making thematic connections, and interpreting and analyzing the material, allowed me to report what I
saw, heard and felt. Multiple voices were then included in vignettes and profiles (Seidman, 1991) crafted
and organized in the participants’ own words, thus reflecting each case study participant’s consciousness
or mental worlds. Pseudonyms were used for all case study participants and the name of the town and the
school in the write-up of the case study. Given that displaying the entire nested case study is beyond the
space limitations of this article, what follows is a brief description of town, the school, and the three
Latina adolescent girls in the study.
Data Presentation
This study took place in deep, south Texas. Amistad City is the county seat of Arrowhead County and
has an estimated population of 77,100 residents (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010). The city is twenty miles
north of the Texas-Mexico border and is well positioned geographically to become a major player in the
south Texas border economy. U.S. Census (2010) estimates indicate that 89% of Amistad City’s
residents are Hispanic/Latino, and the average family of four lives on an annual income of $35,845—a
stark contrast to the national average of $60,609. Twenty-nine percent of families live below the poverty
line in Arrowhead County, while 37.3% of these poor families have children under the age of 18. The
58
national average of families living below the poverty line is 11.3% with 17.9% of these families have
related children under the age of 18.
At the time of the study, Amistad City High School was recognized for its strong emphasis on
academic excellence. It had a reputable theater arts department, dance team, and University
Interscholastic League team (U.I.L.), students who complete and succeed every year in extemporaneous
and dramatic speaking, writing, science, and mathematics competitions at district, regional and state
levels. In fact, in the year I conducted fieldwork, the school took pride being chosen to host the annual
state conference for the science team. The Fighting Coyote Band ranked among the top twenty in Texas,
and many students took the opportunity to take Advanced Placement (AP) courses. This curriculum
included courses in calculus, history, science, economics, English, and Spanish.
Amistad City High is a Title 1/Chapter 1 school, meaning the district receives federal funding for
compensatory education services earmarked for at-risk students in disadvantaged, low-income areas.
During fieldwork, I learned that 77.3%, or 1879 of 2454 students at this school, were labeled
“economically disadvantaged,” and almost 26% were classified as limited English proficient (LEP).
However, poverty and poor English did not quell the desires of the majority of seniors from planning to
go to college (80.7%). Of this group, 45.1% had advanced seals on their transcripts indicating their
acceptance to either a community college or a university.
The racial distribution among students was 94.8% Hispanic/Latino, 5.0% White, 0.1% African
American, and .01% identified as Other. This distribution is comparable to other local schools. A
breakdown of students enrolled by program in the district report showed that 56% were placed in career
and technology education, 25.6% were enrolled in bilingual/ESL education, 15.0% were identified gifted
and talented (GT), and 9.4% took special education classes. As in most large U.S. schools, students were
segregated socially due to programs, academic tracks/ability grouping, and class divisions.
Narrowing the study is essential in case study research (Patton, 1990; Merriam, 1988); thus, I chose to
gain access to three ninth grade ELA teachers. As a former high school ELA teacher, myself, I knew they
were more likely to provide opportunities for their students to reflect about and share their own
experiences through literacy activities such as reader-response, writing assignments, and class
presentations. I expected to learn about students in a naturalistic sense by paying close attention to the
ways that students make sense of, connect with, and/or resist literature and literacy activities.
Additionally, writing assignments in ELA classrooms illuminate students’ worldviews, revealing much
about their self-concepts and academic abilities. Negotiating my role as a participant observer would
allow me to casually get to know students and begin to narrow down my choices for case study
participants after a few months of fieldwork.
After a three months of fieldwork as a participant observer in the various classrooms, and several
discussions with their teachers, I selected three potential case study participants—Mary Palacios, Lupita
Garza, and Rachel Longoria. I scheduled home visits with the student and their parent(s) at their
respective homes, explained the purpose and procedures of the study, and asked for their consent to
participate. After signed consent and assent forms were retrieved, guided interviews for participants and
parents were scheduled and conducted. Mary, Lupita, and Rachel had several things in common. All
were Latinas of Mexican descent, living in a poor/working-class household, being raised by a single,
divorced, or married but separated, parent, with a high school degree or lower, and were often home
without parents for extended periods of time. The following are brief descriptions of the girls extracted
from their crafted case studies.
Mary Palacios
A thin, petite, girl with light brown hair and a cheerful disposition, Mary described herself as a twin
who loved dance and drama told me she wanted to be “someone high in life.” She lived with her
divorced father who was in his late 30’s and who was recently engaged to be married, her twin sister,
younger brother, her father’s fiancé, and the fiancés daughter in a modest, three-bedroom rented
apartment. Mary told me her father was “more stable” than her mother, so she and her siblings decided it
was best to move in with him after living with their mother most of their young lives. When I asked
Mary what she meant by “more stable” she indicated that her father had a more secure job and her mother
59
did not. Also, she said her mother was “not as mature or responsible” as her father. “He is much more
responsible for taking care of us than my mom.” Mary’s mother was “not happy about it,” but Mary said,
she had to do what was best for her and her siblings. Mr. Palacios worked at a hardware store where he
was recently promoted to assistant manager. He described himself as being “old-fashioned” and believed
in setting curfews, bedtimes, and rules, and said that his relationship with Mary and his other children was
“a close one.”
Mary had gone through several traumatic life events in her life including being a sickly premature
baby who was on the brink of dying of pneumonia who “lived in the hospital” for most of her first year of
life. Additionally, just two years before the time of the study, she had been hospitalized for months,
dropping down to just 60 lbs. after being diagnosed with cat scratch fever. Mary described her home life
as stressful when her parents were headed toward getting a divorce and “getting used to the idea” that
both were engaged to marry other individuals. She admitted it was sometimes “very hard” to concentrate
on her schoolwork. Mary wasn’t always enrolled in more rigorous classes until now.
In elementary, I had good grades. And then, in junior high, I slacked off a whole lot with Cs and
Bs. And then, in high school, it’s gone up. Now I’m just aiming high for a little award in dance
team, the U.I.L. speaking team…. I just have to push myself.
Although she didn’t always feel like studying hard, she always “forced herself” to do her homework by
thinking: “Okay, what do I want to do when I grow up? Do I want to say ‘paper or plastic?’ or do I want
to have my own office with ‘Mary Palacios’ on my door? So I get to thinking, “Okay, I better do my
homework.” This year, as a freshman at the high school, Mary sought out opportunities to get involved in
extracurricular activities, and she to enroll in Honor’s courses for the first time. “I want to be someone
important in life, and I enjoy being on stage.” Mary made the dance team, the drama club, and the speech
club, and stated that “I know it sounds conceited, but I work pretty hard. That stage…. I like being
there.”
Lupita Garza
Another resilient student in Mrs. Chavana’s Honors class, stood out. She was a fair-skinned freckled
girl with curly brown hair and large hazel eyes who confessed that all she wanted was “a perfect life.”
Introducing Lupita Garza:
I’m growing up, you know? I have problems on my own in the outside world. Then I come
home and still deal with this! [parents who argue a lot, father’s violent outbursts]…. I would
think, for me, that I’d rather they not be together because then, I would not have too much
troubles…. But then again, it’s very hard to earn respect from the outside world when there’s not
two parents in the house. You know, it’s hard! And then, your friends, you know, they talk, “My
father, my mother”….so it’s pretty hard to get into those conversations when you don’t even have
a father at home.
Lupita Garza lived with her mother, Guadalupe, who was recently separated from Lupita’s father,
Jaime. Her father was the source of great strain in Lupita and her mother’s relationship because Lupita
didn’t have a positive relationship with her father, who she viewed as lazy and cold. Mr. Garza, who was
clinically disabled due to rheumatoid arthritis, had a history of being physically abusive to his wife and
older daughter, Mari. According to Lupita, he had never abused her because her older sister always
protected her. Lupita’s mother Guadalupe, in her mid-forties, owned and operated a fruit stand at a flea
market located in the outer part of Amistad City. She and her husband were married, but separated at the
time of this study. Although Mr. Garza was not living at their home, he was at the fruit stand every day
and tended the cash register when Mrs. Garza needed to run an errand or go home for a while. Guadalupe
described her daughter affectionately in Spanish which I translated to English:
My daughter is very intelligent, very beautiful and very…. I don’t know, I think she has all the
characteristics to be successful. I have told her, “You are going to have everything you ever
wanted, if you want it.” I have raised them [Lupita and her sister, Mari] in this style. I have
always said, “There are no limitations.” Let them be accustomed to the good things. Even
though we must sacrifice…. But they should accustom themselves to the good things. That way,
they do not accept a lower quality of life. This is my way of thinking.
60
Lupita was enrolled in Honors and AP courses at Amistad City High. She had a consistent
history of being in the more rigorous courses and earning high grades throughout her schooling. Her
aspirations for “the perfect life” would be actualized by “going to college.” In fact, as a freshman, she
was already seeking out information.
I want the perfect future, and a perfect family. I have my own mental picture (laughing). It’s
cause [sic] I’m a real perfectionist. I want everything to be right…. I definitely want to go to a
university…. I have my eyes set on University of Texas at Austin…. My mom is like, “Why do
you want to go to Austin when Amistad City University is a good school?” I’m interested in
U.T…. It’s between marine biology and biology. I love science…. [University of Texas] already
sent me everything about biology. They sent me everything [and] anything I need.
Rachel Longoria
A tall, slender girl with straight, shoulder-length brown hair and large, brown eyes caught my attention
in the Advanced Placement (AP) English class as the intelligent, critical thinker in the group. Rachel
Longoria, my third case study participant, described herself as:
…. very out-going, open-minded, and I work a lot…. I’m nice and helpful too. I’m talkative;
sometimes, I go overboard a bit…. I like helping people with their problems when I should stay
away…. It’s just that sometimes I get involved in other [people’s] problems that I really don’t
look into mine…. I don’t really go out and tell everybody my problems. I just think them out… I
just think for myself.
Her English teacher, Mrs. Chavana, observed:
I’ve never seen her bogged down about anything, so I imagine she’s going to bounce back from
anything that comes her way because she’s very strong about that, you know, and she’s not
hesitant about asking questions…. although she is very selective about her questions, you know.
Rachel’s mother, Minerva, was in her mid-forties, was separated from her husband and had been raising
her daughter alone for quite some time. Rachel’s father lived more than 200 miles away. Mrs. Longoria
explained:
We’re separated…. just separated. It’s been two years, no, almost three, since I’ve been working
at William’s Construction [and since he left]. It’s just hard to adjust because you start thinking,
“Gosh, what’s going on?” (laughs). And then you ask him to just tell you the truth, “What’s
going on?” And they keep telling you that they still love us, so what can you do? You just accept
it and you go on.
Financially, Mrs. Longoria said the family was “better off” when her husband was home and had his
own business, a small convenience store. “He had the store and we were doing better. Of course, I didn’t
have to work, really. Now, I have to work!” Unfortunately, the store went out of business, and Mr.
Longoria was out of work for several months before he found a job more than 200 miles away as a
security guard supervisor for a bank branch. Although he asked the family to move there, Mrs. Longoria
was unwilling to make the move because she didn’t want to live too far away from her extended family.
Mr. Longoria’s move and the financial constraints on the family did not seem to affect Rachel
emotionally or academically. Mrs. Longoria stated:
She dealt with it pretty good…. There was a time where she would come up and say, “I want to
buy those [designer] jeans” and all that stuff. And I said, “Sorry, I ain’t got all that money to buy
that.” It’s so expensive! And so she accepted it.
Mrs. Longoria described her daughter’s home life as “family oriented” and her relationship with her
daughter as a “good one…. It’s a close and a fairly good relationship.” She also described her parenting
as “real strict and real old-fashioned” because that is the way that she was raised.
I tell her, “You should be lucky because my family was really poor.” I mean, we were thirteen
[children] and only my dad worked, so I tell her to “be happy!”
When I asked Rachel about her plans for the future, she said that she would “probably go to college” but
that she did not want to go to any colleges in Texas.” Her mother was supportive but also said that
Rachel was going to have to figure out how to make it possible, to which Rachel replied, “ I have just
61
found that if you plan things out it really doesn’t work that way. So I guess my philosophy is that if
something happens, you deal with it…. Just take it as it comes.”
Conclusions and Discussion
As previously mentioned, I chose to focus on academic resilience as defined by Morales and Trotman
(2004), as “a process resulting from life stories of individuals who have been academically successful,
despite obstacles that may prevent the majority of others with similar stories or backgrounds from
succeeding” (p. 8). Specifically, my research focus was to study factors that determine academic
resilience in three “at-risk” teenage girls with similar life conditions and backgrounds as they managed to
experience academic success despite disruptive, stressful, or challenging life events.
This naturalistic, qualitative study reveals the complexity of academic resiliency as a process as it
explores the complex interplay of risk factors and identity construction in particular cases over time. By
crafting profiles from various data sources (Seidman, 1990), I generated 5 to 6 emergent themes from
each case study participant’s data. These themes were initially categorized into two broad categories-actions and conditions facilitating academic resilience. As I compiled a comprehensive list of themes
across the three case studies, these broad categories were refined into two more specific categories-beliefs and dispositions [see Table 1].
-Insert TableBased on my own life experiences, research, and literature on this subject, I expected the girls to have
personality traits and general dispositions towards academic success. These ideas were affirmed in the
results of this study. I also predicted that school would play a significant role in their lives, and it did.
All three girls indicated that their talents were acknowledged and appreciated at school. School played
out as a positive environment where they could temporarily escape the ubiquitous stressors of their home
lives such as dealing with divorce or separation, financial problems or instability, abandonment,
disconnection, or neglect by at least one parent, staying home alone for hours at a time, and in Lupita’s
case, witnessing verbal and physical abuse from her father toward her mother and older sister.
Consistent among the girls’ experiences was a sense of pride in their involvement in extracurricular
school activities and in taking Honors and/or Advanced Placement (AP) courses. The girls had positive
self-concepts that were substantially connected to their successful academic and school-related
experiences. All three girls had aspirations for attending a university and earning a minimum of a
bachelor’s degree. They all dreamed of becoming professionals and believed they could succeed beyond
high school. For example, Mary didn’t know what she wanted to do in life, but she knew she wanted to
have an office with her name on the door, and that visual was a powerful incentive for her to study hard
and to do her best in school. Lupita was interested in becoming a biologist or a marine biologist, and
Rachel desired to leave Texas after high school to attend an out-of-state university. She and the other
girls viewed higher education as the key to a better, and more stable, future. When I asked their parents if
they thought their daughters could accomplish those goals, all of them said they could, but all three
parents indicated they would have to do it on their own since they didn’t have the financial means to
assist them in paying for college. They acknowledged that their daughters would have to make it happen.
As Mr. Palacios stated,
I have no doubt my daughter can make it at a university one day, but she knows that it will be all
up to her. That’s why I’m so strict with her and her sister. I wish I had had that opportunity to go
to college when I was their age, but it didn’t work out that way. I had to work to help support my
family.
The case studies suggest that home, school, and peer interactions are a critical component in the
development of a positive self-concept. For adolescents who have multiple risk factors, “these personenvironment interactions make vulnerability or resilience” (Garmezy, 1996). At home, all three girls felt
they had at least one, responsible parent in their lives—a parent who was present and who took care of
them. They each had one active, or primary, parent who expected them to achieve academically and have
a better quality of life one day. The parents who participated in this study had marked differences in their
parenting styles, yet they all interacted with their daughters every day, in ways that made the girls feel
loved, cared for, and protected—even though none were very outwardly affectionate or expressive. As
62
Rachel’s mother, Mrs. Longoria, remarked, “Once in a while, she comes and says, “Mom, hug me!” and
she wants me to hug her and stuff (laughs)…. Settle down, girlfriend!” I tell her. We didn’t grow up with
a lot of hugging.”
The resilient Latina students in this sample coped with adverse life events and conditions and retained
academic competence in a particular manner that worked for each of them. For instance, although the
three girls had the shared experience of having stressful home lives, they were able to adapt and accept
situations that were beyond their control to various degrees and in different ways. For instance, although
Lupita adapted to having an abusive father, she had problems with the accepting part because he was
verbally and physically abusive to her mother and her older sister. Lupita shared that she was
disappointed and angry that her father did not fit the traditional role of a father who should be the
provider of the family, and yet he demanded to be treated and respected as such. Hers was a constant
struggle to understand why her mother allowed her father to dictate the rules of the household when he so
clearly did not deserve to do so. Lupita said her mother was “afraid a lot” and explained that her mother
accepted him because this was often just a part of being married. “My mother cannot see herself as a
happy divorced woman,” she observed, “and it’s hard, but what can I do? I have to accept it.”
Rachel took more time in seeking opportunities to learn and to grow because she needed more time to
reflect before making important decisions. Finally, Mary coped with personal problems differently than
Lupita and Rachel, who preferred to work out solutions to their problems on their own. Instead, Mary
tend to mask her feelings behind her “perkiness” unless the problems became too overwhelming, in which
case, she would talk to her twin sister or a close friend for emotional support.
Most of the general themes emerging from parent data were consistent with findings in the literature
which identifies three general protective factors within families of resilient children such as caring and
support, high expectations, and encouragement of children’s participation (Bernard, 1991). Although
most of the parental dispositions identified among the three parents in the study fell into those main three
categories, four themes did not. These include: 1) stress close family ties and unity, 2) do not buffer
stressful events or situation for their children, 3) instill traditional, cultural values in their children, and
4) model coping styles (see Table 2).
-Insert Table 2Remarkably, these parents continued to stress close family ties and unity despite their respective
marital or post-marital difficulties. The fact that one parent is divorced, another has a long-distance
marriage, and the last parent is separated but remains in an abusive marriage, did not give the girls license
for letting go of their relationships with their less caring or responsible parents. All three parents felt it
was important for the girls to maintain a relationship, even if it was minor, with their less present parent.
In addition, stressful life events and /or circumstances, whether financial, marital, familial, health-related,
etc… were never kept from the girls, despite the potential stress and anxiety these problems may have
caused. Although the parents acknowledged they all had experienced ups and downs in their family lives,
they all indicated that this was “a normal part of life,” and keeping their daughters from knowing
problems that affect the family was a bad idea. As Mrs. Garcia described her daughter’s childhood—
“normal as any home, with its highs and lows and everything, but just what is a life journey.” The parents
in this study attributed their respective daughter’s maturity for their ages as resulting, in part, because of
their inclination to be honest and open about their family issues, especially during difficult times and
stressful life events.
Another common thread among the parents is that they each instilled traditional cultural values in
their children. They raised their daughters to respect and comply with traditional Mexican American
family life which has two basic dimensions around which the interpersonal patterns within the family are
organized. According to Murillo (1976), “the first is respect and obedience to elders, and the second is
male dominance” (p. 21). Each of the girls’ relationships with their father was different; nonetheless,
they all shared something in common. They all loved their fathers. Whether “old-fashioned” and
authoritative, like Mary’s father who did not like to show his affection to his daughters, didn’t allow her
to date, or go out with friends unsupervised, and ran a strict household; or working in a city 200 miles
away and rarely visiting, like Rachel’s dad; or prone to verbal and physical violence, like Lupita’s father;
63
the girls articulated in one way or another, that they all accepted the way things were between their
parents despite less than ideal situations.
Murillo’s (1976) depiction of the traditional Mexican-American wife-mother is useful here in Lupita’s
and Mary’s case studies. He states that the “wife-mother is supposed to be completely devoted to her
husband. Her role is to serve the needs of her husband, support his actions and decisions, and take care of
the home and children” (p. 21). Mrs. Garza illustrates her devotion in the following:
I tell them, look mijitas, your father is good. Your father has never gave [sic] you a bad example.
Your father is sick and he can’t give you what you would like him to give you. And he’s not a
drunk. He doesn’t like that. He doesn’t have any vices at all, nothing like that…. We’re just
working people and we work and that’s all.
Lupita’s way of coping with her parents’ problems was to psychologically break away from her father.
This was a way of maintaining her emotional well-being. Berlin and Davis (1989) define this as a process
of breaking away from the family focus on the dysfunctional behavior as adaptive distancing (cited in
Bernard, 1991). Mrs. Garza, in turn respected Lupita’s decision to avoid Mr. Garza (a coping strategy she
herself used), and recognized Lupita’s need to spend more time doing her schoolwork.
Rachel’s case study also revealed her mother instilled traditional cultural values as well. Despite the
fact that Rachel’s father lived 200 miles away for over three years and visited less frequently than he used
to, Rachel’s home life was “family oriented” in her mother’s words. Describing herself as “real strict and
real old-fashioned,” Mrs. Longoria said she raised Rachel the way she was raised. Rachel dealt with
dramatic life changes, such as her parent’s long-distance marriage “pretty good and on her own” as Mrs.
Longoria explained, “because that’s the way we were all brought up. Like my mom and us, you know?
So that’s what I taught her… And so, that’s what she does.”
Mrs. Longoria, like Mrs. Garza, exemplified the Mexican-American wife-mother to the extent that
both women supported their husband’s decisions despite the emotional and financial burdens it placed on
them, and the strain it caused their children. Having taken the brunt of the financial responsibilities of the
household, and having raised her children alone over the past three years, Mrs. Longoria reflected:
Sometimes, I say, “I don’t know if I can keep doing this,” but then I say, “Hey, been doing it and
I can do it.” But it’s hard. . . . I guess my husband’s never given me any problems, so maybe
that’s one of the reasons he’s here [still married and part of their lives from time to time]. The
only thing is that he’s gone, but he helps me a lot [financially].
Implications for Future Research
Polkinghorne (1988) contends that “self is a construction built on other people’s responses and
attitudes toward a person and subject to change as these responses, inherently variable and inconsistent,
change in their character” (p. 150). By synthesizing diverse social responses among the people in their
environment, each of the girls developed a “resilient self” among the many selves that formed their
respective self-identities. In this study, the girls’ primary parents’ everyday demonstrations of resilient
behavior were related to traditional Mexican American family life (roles, responsibilities, acceptable
behavior).
Whether the primary parents’ coping mechanisms were positive, appropriate, and/or healthy is beyond
the purpose or scope of this study. However, this study reveals a need to explore protective cultural
factors among culturally diverse students who find constructive ways to cope with new challenges,
stressors, and risks that ultimately affect their academic performance in schools. By examining the
behaviors of resilient students who have multiple at-risk factors and yet who experience academic success
despite stressful and/or negative ubiquitous factors in their lives, parents and teachers may learn more
about what they can do to foster resilient behaviors and dispositions in youths that can be developed over
time. The study suggests a need for more research and professional development for educators on the
subject of academic resiliency.
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Forum, 72: pp. 142-167.
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Table 1
Latina Student Participant’s Beliefs and Dispositions
____________________________________________________________________________________
Beliefs
Dispositions
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Believe they can succeed academically
Find a way to cope with stressful life
(positive self-concept)
events and ubiquitous factors
that works for them
Believe a close family is important
Reflect before making important decisions
Believe in God and consider themselves
to be spiritual or religious
Accept and adapt to situations that to
situations that are beyond their
control
Believe they are responsible for their own
academic success and failure
(self-efficacy, internal locus of control)
Expect a positive personal future
Believe that education is the key to a positive
future
Optimistic about their future
See the “big picture”
Have a “close” relationship with at one parent
Seek opportunities to learn and to grow
Form positive friendships with like-minded
peers
Set short term and long term goals
_____________________________________________________________________________________
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Table 2
Latina/o Parents’ Dispositions
____________________________________________________________________________________
Do not buffer stressful events or situations for their children
Have high, yet realistic expectations for their children
Are present for their children when they need them
Support their children’s dreams
Value education
Provide a financially stable home
Set and enforce rules
Expect their children to do well academically
Instill traditional, cultural values
Model coping strategies
Communicate with their children regularly
Show pride in their children’s successes and talents
Stress close family ties and unity
_____________________________________________________________________________________
67
A Comparative Study of the Public’s Attitude toward
Labor Unions in Four Southern States: An Empirical Analysis
H. Ronald Moser
Cumberland University
Gordon Lipscomb Freeman Jr.
Middle Tennessee State University
Introduction
According to information recently released by the Federal Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2011 was not a
good year for union membership organizing efforts. The percentage of U.S. workers belonging to a union
decreased from 13.5 in 2000 to 11.8 in 2011.
The union membership rate has steadily declined from a high of 15.1 percent in 1983, the first year for
which comparable union data are available. The decline has been continuous, despite the fact that in
recent years AFL-CIO unions have been spending more than $40 million a year on worker-organizing
activities. The decline has been the subject of numerous scholarly studies analyzing the causes and
offering possible solutions. None of the published research has identified a single cause, but most writers
agree that the reasons can be grouped into the following four categories: (1) increased individualism of
workers and their attitude toward unions, (2) legal support for unions/existence of right-to-work laws, (3)
macroeconomic factors, and (4) employer opposition initiatives (Atleson, 1994; Denholm, 2004; Jarley
and Kuruvilla, 1994; Margalioth, 1998; Saporta and Lincoln, 1995; Devinatz, 2011). Some researchers
have argued that right-to-work laws actually have little impact on the percentage of workers joining
unions. Others argue that the existence of such laws is really a reflection of local attitudes toward unions.
They believe that the attitude of local workers is the primary factor in the decision to join a union. A
comprehensive study analyzing many articles on the topic concluded that the impact of right-to-work laws
remains significant but of a smaller magnitude than previously thought (Davis and Huston, 1993;
McFadden and Wagner, 2009).
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to investigate current attitudes toward labor unions and to compare them
to those expressed 11 years ago. The study was designed to determine (a) the public’s attitude toward
labor unions and (b) whether occupation, age, gender, and education of the respondents accounted for any
significant differences in attitudes toward labor unions in the states of Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, and
Florida from 2000 to 2011. The study investigates possible changes in attitudes of the public toward
labor unions over an 11-year period. It replicates a survey conducted in 2000 and uses the same
questionnaire to compare responses longitudinally.
Findings
The researchers drew a random sample of 6,000 residents from telephone books from the major
metropolitan statistical areas in Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, and Florida. Appropriate numbers from
each city were drawn according to the ratio of each city’s population to the total population of all urban
areas. The survey was conducted via the telephone, and 664 usable responses were received and used in
this study. The 2000 samples included 669 individuals from the same four states. This sample of 664
respondents represents a subset of the United States, more specifically a subset of the residents of
Tennessee, Kentucky, Georgia, and Florida. The data obtained from the 669 respondents in 2000 and the
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664 respondents in 2011 via the research instrument were analyzed by tabulating the frequency
percentages for each item on the questionnaire.
Impact of Demographic Characteristics on the Public’s Attitudes toward Labor Unions
The data obtained from the 2000 respondents and the 2011 respondents via the research instrument
were initially analyzed by tabulating the frequency percentages for each item on the questionnaire.
Significant differences in consumer attitudes were found with regard to age, gender, and education.
Cross-tabulations were performed between these demographic factors and the 18 attitudinal statements in
Section II of the questionnaire. Chi-square tests were then performed to detect any significant differences
between the cross-tabulations. The level of significance for all statistical tests was set at 0.05.
Age of the Respondents and the Public’s Attitudes
The sample was divided by age into two groups: respondents under 46 and respondents 46 and older
Table 1 shows the significant differences between the 2000 respondents and the 2011 respondents with
regard to attitudes toward labor unions based on age. As Table 1 indicates, no significant differences
were found in overall opinion between the 2000 and 2011 respondents for the 18 statements. A difference
was found, however, in the level of agreement or disagreement on certain statements. As Table 1 shows,
both the 2000 and the 2011 respondents agreed with statement 2 that present laws that regulate unions are
not strict enough: 54.6 percent of the older 2000 respondents agreed, while 43.8 percent of the younger
respondents agreed. More of the younger 2011 respondents were undecided (54.3 percent), whereas more
of the older 2011 respondents (41.3 percent) agreed with this statement. Significant differences were
found in overall opinion between the 2011 respondents with regard to statement 3 that unions should be
encouraged to grow larger. More of the younger respondents (45.6 percent) were undecided, whereas
more of the older respondents (42.8 percent) disagreed.
As Table 1 also indicates, significant differences were found in overall opinion between the 2011
respondents with regard to statement 5 that the gains that workers have made in this country are chiefly
due to labor unions: more of the younger respondents (45.0 percent) were undecided, while more of the
older respondents (36.5 percent) agreed. More of the older 2011 respondents (43.1 percent) disagreed
with statement 10 that it is proper for unions to campaign for political candidates to get them elected,
while more of the younger respondents (39.6 percent) were undecided. Both of the 2000 and 2011 age
groups generally disagreed with statement 12 that workers should form their own political party. Older
respondents in both 2000 (67.6 percent) and 2011 (50.7 percent) disagreed more strongly with this
statement than the younger respondents (62.4 percent in 2000 and 38.9 percent in 2011). Also, more of
the 2011 younger respondents (40.9 percent) were undecided compared to the older group (32.1 percent).
Both 2011 age groups disagreed with statement 6 that all workers covered by a union contract should be
required to join the union in order to keep their jobs, with the older group disagreeing more strongly (62.4
percent as compared to 52.3 percent). The older 2011 respondents agreed more strongly that it is proper
for unions to urge their members to vote (statement 8) than did younger respondents (68.9 percent as
compared to 58.3 percent). A larger percentage of the older 2011 respondents agreed (62.8 percent) than
the younger respondents (50.4 percent) with statement 9 that unions should not use any part of union dues
for political campaigns. More of the older 2011 respondents agreed with statement 14 that, even without
a union, companies should be willing to pay better wages and salaries when business conditions are good
than the younger respondents (78.4 to 72.1 percent), but the significant difference was mainly due to the
fact that, on a percentage basis, almost twice as many of the younger respondents were undecided
compared to the older group (20.1 to 10.8 percent). The 2000 and 2011 age groups generally agreed with
statement 16 that public employees (federal, state, and local) should be allowed to join unions. However,
more of the younger 2000 respondents were undecided (13.8 to 8.2 percent), and more of the older 2011
respondents disagreed (31.7 to 17.0 percent). Both younger and older 2011 respondents tended to agree
with statement 17 that public employees (federal, state, and local) should have the right to strike (45.4 and
39.0 percent). The significance of the result may be attributed to the larger percentage of disagreement
among the older respondents (37.5 compared to 23.5 percent of the younger group). Younger respondents
agreed slightly more with statement 18 that workers do not need unions to protect their interests than did
older respondents (40.5 to 40.1 percent). Again, the significance of the result may be attributed to the
69
larger percentage of disagreement among the older respondents (33.8 compared to 20.4 percent of the
younger group).
Gender of the Respondents and the Public’s Attitudes
The sample was divided into males and females. As shown in Table 2, the responses to only one
statement showed direct opposition between males and females. In response to statement 10 that it is
proper for unions to campaign for political candidates to get them elected, more of the 2000 females (48.6
percent) disagreed, while 48.3 percent of the males agreed. Responding to statement 3, that unions should
be encouraged to grow larger, more males disagreed (37.5 percent) and more females were undecided
(45.5 percent). Both the 2000 and 2011 male and female groups agreed with statement 1 that labor unions
should be closely regulated. The 2000 male group disagreed more strongly than the female respondents
(12.5 percent as compared to 1.4 percent). However, more of the 2011 group’s female respondents (32.0
percent) were undecided with respect to this statement than the males (20.4 percent). While both of the
2011 gender groups were undecided with statement 2 that present laws that regulate unions are not strict
enough, the percentage of females was larger (55.0 to 43.1 percent for the males). Both of the 2000
gender groups agreed with statement 4 that workers should be allowed to join unions. The level of
agreement was higher (86.2 percent) for males than for females (75.2 percent). More than 62 percent of
the 2000 females and 51.4 percent of the males agreed with statement 11 that unions should campaign for
public housing, minimum wage laws, equal employment opportunity, etc. Both of the 2000 gender
groups disagreed with statement 15 that strikes by workers should be outlawed. Disagreement for the
males was 64.8 percent, and disagreement for the females was 50.7 percent. Both of the 2011 gender
groups agreed with statement 16 that public employees (federal, state, and local) should be allowed to join
unions (53.6 percent for females and 52.2 percent for males). However, males (27.8 percent) disagreed
more strongly than females (17.5 percent). In response to statement 17 that public employees (federal,
state, and local) should have the right to strike, opinions of 2000 and 2011 groups diverged. The 2000
groups tended to disagree, with the level of disagreement stronger among the males (61.2 percent) than
the females (51.8 percent). On the other hand, the 2011 groups tended to agree (43.2 percent for females
and 42.9 percent for males), but the significant result was primarily due to more disagreement in the male
group with this statement (32.6 percent compared to 24.3 percent for the females).
Education of the Respondents and the Public’s Attitudes
The sample of 669 respondents in 2000 and 664 respondents in 2011 was divided into two groups
based on the respondents’ level of education, those without college degrees and those with college
degrees.
As shown in Table 3, three areas existed in which the largest proportion of each education group did
not express the same attitude. In response to statement 3 that unions should be encouraged to grow larger,
71.6 percent of the 2000 higher-education group and 50.0 percent of the lower-education group disagreed.
The percentage of the 2000 lower-education group agreeing was 29.1 percent compared to only 11.6
percent in the higher-education group. More of the higher-education respondents for the 2011 groups
(40.4 percent) disagreed with this statement, while more of the lower-education group (42.7 percent) was
undecided. Both of the 2000 groups agreed with statement 5 that the gains workers have made in this
country are chiefly due to labor unions. The level of agreement was 53.1 percent for the lower-education
group and 40.4 percent for the higher-education group. Disagreement for the higher-education group was
37.7 percent but only 28.1 percent for the lower-education group. However, both of the 2011 educational
groups were rather mixed regarding this statement. Although the highest proportion (34.3 percent) of the
2011 higher-education group disagreed with the statement, the primary contributor to the significant result
was the 43.5 percent of the lower-education group being undecided compared to only 33.2 percent of the
higher-education group. In 2000, more of the lower-education group (45.7 percent) disagreed with
statement 18 that workers do not need unions to protect their interests, while more of the higher-education
group (43.5 percent) agreed.
The largest proportion of each education group was in agreement with statements 2, 8, 9, 14, and 16.
Both of the 2000 educational groups generally agreed with statement 2 that present laws that regulate
unions are not strict enough, but the lower-education group disagreed more strongly (24.1 percent as
70
compared to 14.6 percent). More of the 2011 higher-education group agreed with statement 8 that it is
proper for unions to urge their members to vote (68.1 percent as compared to 58.7 percent). Also, more
of the 2000 lower-education group agreed with statement 9 that unions should not use any part of union
dues for political campaigns (75.4 percent as compared to 59.7 percent). More of the 2011 highereducation group (79.0 percent) compared with the lower-education group (72.0 percent) agreed with
statement 14 that, even without a union, companies should be willing to pay better wages and salaries
when business conditions are good. However, the main contributor to the significant result was the 20.4
percent of the lower-education group being undecided compared to only 10.0 percent of the highereducation group. More of the 2011 higher-education group (55.0 percent) agreed than the lowereducation group (51.7 percent) with statement 16 that public employees (federal, state, and local) should
be allowed to join unions, yet the most significant difference was in the undecided group (27.6 percent of
the lower-education group compared to only 19.2 percent of the higher-education group).
A majority of respondents disagreed with statements 6, 7, 12, and 15. In response to statement 6 that
all workers covered by a union contract should be required to join the union in order to keep their jobs,
both of the 2000 and 2011 groups disagreed with this statement, but the primary contributor to the
significant difference was in the proportions that agreed with the statement. In the 2000 sample, the
higher-education group disagreed more strongly (88.1 percent as compared to 65.3 percent), but the
lower-education grouped agreed more strongly (25.8 to 6.0 percent). The disagreement for the 2011
educational groups was 61.4 percent for the higher-education group and 52.6 percent for the lowereducation group. However, the significance of the difference in the agreement category (21.6 percent for
the lower-education group compared to 12.9 percent for the higher-education group) was more
pronounced due to the smaller expected frequencies. Both the 2000 and 2011 groups also strongly
disagreed with statement 7 that all workers covered by a union contract who are not union members
should be required to pay the equivalent of union dues in order to keep their jobs. The level of
disagreement for the 2000 group was 80.8 percent for the higher-education group and 63.6 percent for the
lower-education group. Here, the difference in the proportions in the agree category was even more
significant (28.1 percent of the lower-education group levied against 9.6 percent of the higher-education
group). Likewise, the higher level of disagreement for the 2011 group was 60.8 percent for the highereducation group with only 48.5 percent for the lower-education group. In response to statement 12 that
workers should form their own political party, 68.7 percent of the 2000 higher-education respondents
disagreed, while 61.3 percent of the lower-education respondents disagreed. For this statement, the
principal difference was in the proportions of the two education groups that agreed with the statement
(19.8 of the lower-education group compared to 10.0 percent of the higher-education group). The moreeducated 2000 respondents disagreed more strongly (66.6 percent) with statement 15 that a strike by
workers should be outlawed, while 56.9 percent of the less-educated respondents disagreed.
Regarding statement 17 that public employees (federal, state, and local) should have the right to strike,
65.9 percent of the more-educated and 52.0 percent of the less-educated respondents in 2000 disagreed.
Even though the largest proportions in 2011 education groups agreed with the statement (42.6 percent of
the higher-educated group and 42.5 percent of the lower-educated group), the significant result was due to
the more than nine percent differences in the undecided and the disagree categories.
Conclusions
The rapid change of attitudes based on changing demographic and cultural factors dictates a greater
need for understanding the changing needs of workers in a changing labor market.
The results in Table 1 indicate that, regardless of age, the public agreed that laws regulating unions are
not strict enough. While both the 2000 and 2011 age groups did not agree that workers should form their
own political party, both the 2000 and 2011 respondents agreed that all employees (federal, state, and
local) should be allowed to join unions.
As shown in Table 2, when asked whether it is proper for unions to campaign for political candidates
to get them elected, more of the 2000 females disagreed, while more of the males agreed, but both of the
2000 and 2011 gender groups agreed that labor unions should be closely regulated and that workers
should be allowed to join unions. Both of the 2000 gender groups strongly agreed that unions should
71
campaign for public housing, minimum wage laws, equal employment opportunity, etc. Both of the 2000
gender groups disagreed with the statement that strikes by workers should be outlawed, while more of the
male 2000 group disagreed with the idea that public employees (federal, state, and local) should have the
right to strike than the female group. However, more of the 2011 female and male groups agreed with
this statement. The results in Table 3 indicate that less-educated 2000 respondents disagreed with the
statement that workers do not need unions to protect their interests, while the more-educated respondents,
those with college degrees, agreed. All 2000 education groups agreed that present laws that regulate
unions are not strict enough and that the gains workers have made in this country are chiefly due to labor
unions. A higher percentage of the 2000 lower-educated group agreed that unions should not use any part
of union dues for political campaigns than the more-educated group. Both of the 2000 and 2011
education groups strongly disagreed with the statement that all workers covered by a union contract
should be required to join the union in order to keep their jobs, and both of the 2000 and 2011 groups did
not think that non-union members should be required to pay the equivalent of union dues in order to keep
their jobs. Both of the 2000 educational groups disagreed with the statement that strikes by workers
should be outlawed. Both of the 2000 educational groups disagreed with the idea that public employees
(federal, state, and local) should have the right to strike. However, both of the 2011 educational groups
agreed with this statement.
References
Anderson, Kay E., Doyle, Phillip M., & Schwenk, Albert E. (1990). Measuring Union-Nonunion
Earnings Differences, Excerpt, 113(6) (June): 1-2.
Atleson, James B. (1994). Commentary: Law and Union Power: Thoughts on the United States
and Canada, Buffalo Law Review, 42 Buffalo L. Rev. 463, (Spring).
Bureau of Labor Statistics (2011). Union Membership (Annual), U.S. Department of Labor, URL:
http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/union2.toc.htm. (January).
Davis, Joe C., & Huston, John H. (1993). Right-to-Work Laws and Free Riding, Economic Inquiry, 31,
52-59.
Denholm, David (2004). “Do Americans Support Labor Unions?” Capital Research Center, (June): 1-6.
Devinatz, Victor G. (2011). U.S. Trade Unionism under Globalization: The Death of Voluntarism and
the Turn to Politics, Labor Law Journal, (July): 16-29.
Jarley, Paul, & Kuruvilla, Sarosh (1994). American Trade Unions and Public Approval: Can Unions
Please All of the People All of the Time? Journal of Labor Research, 15, (Spring): 97-116.
Margalioth, Sharon Rabin (1998). The Significance of Worker Attitudes: Individualism as a Cause for
Labor’s Decline, Hofstra Labor and Employment Law Journal, 16, (Fall): 133-166.
McFadden, Terri, & Wagner, Geraidine (2009). Labor Unions Are Good for Workers and Society, Points
of View Reference Center Home, (Spring): 1-5.
Saporta, Ishak, & Lincoln, Bryan (1995). Managers’ and Workers’ Attitudes towards Unions in the U.S.
and Canada, Industrial Relations, 50, (Summer): 550-567.
72
Table 1
Differences in the Public’s Attitudes toward Advertising
by Labor Unions Based on Age
Agree
Attitude Response
Undecided
Disagree
Statement
and Age
Significance
Overall
Chi Square
Probability
2. Present laws that regulate unions are not strict enough.
2000
Younger
Older
2011 Younger
Older
160 (43.8)*
161 (54.6)
140 (38.4)
69 (23.4)
65 (17.8)
65 (22.0)
0.0002
116 (31.0)
112 (41.3)
203 (54.3)
110 (40.6)
55 (14.7)
49 (18.1)
0.0026
104 (27.7)
116 (42.8)
0.0001
3. Unions should be encouraged to grow larger.
2011 Younger
Older
100 (26.7)
72 (26.6)
171 (45.6)
83 (30.6)
5. The gains that workers have made in this country are chiefly due to labor unions.
2011 Younger
Older
84 (22.5)
99 (36.5)
168 (45.0)
85 (31.4)
121 (32.4)
87 (32.1)
0.0001
6. All workers covered by a union contract should be required to join the union in
order to keep their jobs.
2011 Younger
Older
64 (17.2)
49 (18.1)
114 (30.6)
53 (19.6)
195 (52.3)
169 (62.4)
0.0060
52 (14.4)
44 (16.5)
0.0008
8. It is proper for unions to urge their members to vote.
2011 Younger
Older
210 (58.3)
184 (68.9)
98 (27.2)
39 (14.6)
9. Unions should not use any part of union dues for political campaigns.
2011
Younger
Older
182 (50.4)
169 (62.8)
122 (33.8)
52 (19.3)
73
57 (15.8)
48 (17.8)
0.0003
Table 1 (continued)
Differences in the Public’s Attitudes toward Advertising
by Labor Unions Based on Age
Agree
Attitude Response
Undecided
Disagree
Statement
and Age
Significance
Overall
Chi Square
Probability
10. It is proper for unions to campaign for political candidates to get them elected.
2011
Younger
Older
102 (28.4)
90 (33.5)
142 (39.6)
63 (23.4)
115 (32.0)
116 (43.1)
0.0001
12. Workers should form their own political party.
2000
Younger
Older
49 (13.5)
52 (17.7)
87 (24.0)
43 (14.7)
226 (62.4)
198 (67.6)
0.0080
2011 Younger
Older
72 (20.2)
46 (17.2)
146 (40.9)
86 (32.1)
139 (38.9)
136 (50.7)
0.0124
14. Even without a union, companies should be willing to pay better wages and salaries
when business conditions are good.
2011 Younger
Older
259 (72.1)
210 (78.4)
72 (20.1)
29 (10.8)
28 (07.8)
29 (10.8)
0.0054
16. Public employees (federal, state, and local) should be allowed to join unions.
2000
Younger
Older
186 (51.2)
147 (50.0)
50 (13.8)
24 (08.2)
127 (35.0)
123 (41.8)
0.0370
2011 Younger
Older
190 (53.1)
138 (51.5)
107 (29.9)
45 (16.8)
61 (17.0)
85 (31.7)
0.0000
17. Public employees (federal, state, and local) should have the right to strike.
2011
Younger
Older
162 (45.4)
105 (39.0)
111 (31.1)
63 (23.4)
84 (23.5)
101 (37.5)
0.0006
73 (20.4)
91 (33.8)
0.0001
18. Workers do not need unions to protect their interests.
2011
Younger
Older
145 (40.5)
108 (40.1)
140 (39.1)
70 (26.0)
* Parentheses indicate row percentages.
74
Table 2
Differences in the Public’s Attitudes toward Advertising
by Labor Unions Based on Gender
Agree
Attitude Response
Undecided
Disagree
Statement
and Gender
Significance
Overall
Chi Square
Probability
1. Labor unions should be closely regulated.
2000
Male
Female
2011 Male
Female
356 (76.6)*
119 (84.4)
51 (11.0)
20 (14.2)
58 (12.5)
02 (01.4)
0.0005
229 (69.8)
182 (60.1)
67 (20.4)
97 (32.0)
32 (09.8)
24 (07.9)
0.0040
62 (19.0)
44 (14.6)
0.0120
113 (34.5)
137 (45.4)
123 (37.5)
88 (29.1)
0.0151
37 (08.0)
20 (14.6)
27 (05.8)
14 (10.2)
0.0087
2. Present laws that regulate unions are not strict enough.
2011 Male
Female
124 (37.9)
92 (30.5)
141 (43.1)
166 (55.0)
3. Unions should be encouraged to grow larger.
2011 Male
Female
92 (28.0)
77 (25.5)
4. Workers should be allowed to join unions.
2000
Male
Female
401 (86.2)
103 (75.2)
10. It is proper for unions to campaign for political candidates to get them elected.
2000
Male
Female
224 (48.3)
49 (35.5)
72 (15.6)
22 (15.9)
168 (36.2)
67 (48.6)
0.0184
11. Unions should campaign for public housing, minimum wage laws, equal
employment opportunity, etc.
2000
Male
Female
238 (51.4)
87 (62.6)
88 (19.0)
24 (17.3)
75
137 (29.6)
28 (20.1)
0.0466
Table 2(continued)
Differences in the Public’s Attitudes toward Advertising
by Labor Unions Based on Gender
Agree
Attitude Response
Undecided
Disagree
68 (15.1)
28 (20.9)
291 (64.8)
68 (50.7)
Statement
and Gender
Significance
Overall
Chi Square
Probability
15. Strikes by workers should be outlawed.
2000
Male
Female
90 (20.0)
38 (28.4)
0.0133
16. Public employees (federal, state, and local) should be allowed to join unions.
2011 Male
Female
167 (52.2)
156 (53.6)
64 (20.0)
84 (28.9)
89 (27.8)
51 (17.5)
0.0024
17. Public employees (federal, state, and local) should have the right to strike.
2000
Male
Female
129 (28.0)
40 (28.8)
50 (10.8)
27 (19.4)
282 (61.2)
72 (51.8)
0.0209
2011 Male
Female
137 (42.9)
126 (43.2)
78 (24.5)
95 (32.5)
104 (32.6)
71 (24.3 )
0.0277
*Parentheses indicate row percentages.
76
Table 3
Differences in the Public’s Attitudes toward Advertising
by Labor Unions Based on Education
Agree
Attitude Response
Undecided
Disagree
Statement
and Education
Significance
Overall
Chi Square
Probability
2. Present laws that regulate unions are not strict enough.
2000
Lower
Higher
168 (47.6)*
149 (49.5)
100 (28.3)
108 (35.9)
85 (24.1)
44 (14.6)
0.0055
3. Unions should be encouraged to grow larger.
2000
Lower
Higher
103 (29.1)
35 (11.6)
74 (20.9)
51 (16.8)
177 (50.0)
217 (71.6)
0.0000
2011 Lower
Higher
103 (28.4)
68 (24.3)
155 (42.7)
99 (35.4)
105 (28.9)
113 (40.4)
0.0098
5. The gains that workers have made in this country are chiefly due to labor unions.
2000
Lower
Higher
187 (53.1)
122 (40.4)
66 (18.8)
66 (21.9)
99 (28.1)
114 (37.7)
0.0041
2011 Lower
Higher
94 (26.0)
91 (32.5)
157 (43.5)
93 (33.2)
110 (30.5)
96 (34.3)
0.0265
6. All workers covered by a union contract should be required to join the union
in order to union in order to keep their jobs.
2000
Lower
Higher
92 (25.8)
18 (06.0)
32 (09.0)
18 (06.0)
233 (65.3)
266 (88.1)
0.0000
2011 Lower
Higher
78 (21.6)
36 (12.9)
93 (25.8)
72 (25.7)
190 (52.6)
172 (61.4)
0.0114
77
Table 3 (continued)
Differences in the Public’s Attitudes toward Advertising
by Labor Unions Based on Education
Agree
Attitude Response
Undecided
Disagree
Statement
and Education
Significance
Overall
Chi Square
Probability
7. All workers covered by a union contract who are not union members should
be required to pay the equivalent of union dues in order to keep their jobs.
2000
Lower
Higher
99 (28.1)
29 (09.6)
29 (08.2)
29 (09.6)
224 (63.6)
244 (80.8)
0.0000
2011 Lower
Higher
83 (23.4)
51 (18.7)
100 (28.2)
56 (20.5)
172 (48.5)
166 (60.8)
0.0082
53 (15.1)
41 (15.0)
0.0160
8. It is proper for unions to urge their members to vote.
2011 Lower
Higher
206 (58.7)
186 (68.1)
92 (26.2)
46 (16.8)
9. Unions should not use any part of union dues for political campaigns.
2000
Lower
Higher
263 (75.4)
179 (59.7)
29 (08.3)
36 (12.0)
57 (16.3)
85 (28.3)
0.0001
214 (61.3)
206 (68.7)
0.0026
12. Workers should form their own political party.
2000
Lower
Higher
69 (19.8)
30 (10.0)
66 (18.9)
64 (21.3)
14. Even without a union, companies should be willing to pay better wages and
salaries when business conditions are good.
2011 Lower
Higher
254 (72.0)
214 (79.0)
72 (20.4)
27 (10.0)
27 (07.6)
30 (11.1)
0.0012
62 (18.6)
42 (14.0)
190 (56.9)
199 (66.6)
0.0439
15. Strikes by workers should be outlawed.
2000
Lower
Higher
82 (24.6)
58 (19.4)
78
Table 3 (continued)
Differences in the Public’s Attitudes toward Advertising
by Labor Unions Based on Education
Agree
Attitude Response
Undecided
Disagree
Statement
and Education
Significance
Overall
Chi Square
Probability
16. Public employees (federal, state, and local) should be allowed to join unions.
2011 Lower
Higher
182 (51.7)
149 (55.0)
97 (27.6)
52 (19.2)
73 (20.7)
70 (25.8)
0.0383
17. Public employees (federal, state, and local) should have the right to strike.
2000
Lower
Higher
118 (33.7)
67 (22.4)
50 (14.3)
35 (11.7)
182 (52.0)
197 (65.9)
0.0012
2011 Lower
Higher
149 (42.5)
116 (42.6)
113 (32.2)
62 (22.8)
89 (25.4)
94 (34.6)
0.0099
161 (45.7)
106 (35.2)
0.0224
18. Workers do not need unions to protect their interests
2000
Lower
Higher
132 (37.5)
131 (43.5)
59 (16.8)
64 (21.3)
*Parentheses indicate row percentages.
79
Entry Level Assessment Center (ELAC) Predictors for
Success as Law Enforcement Officers: A Pilot Study
Patrick Oliver
Michael W. Firmin
Cedarville University
On multiple levels, predicting future success of aspiring law enforcement officers has proven
challenging. Aamodt (2004) notes that significant challenges face researchers attempting to make
accurate and meaningful predictions regarding police officer successful outcomes, based on empirical
findings and data. Meta-analyses have shown varying levels of success, but the practical barriers of
multiple variables, sampling issues, data collection consistency and follow-through, politics in some
locales, and a lack of agreed upon final outcomes have made the endeavor to be particularly challenging.
Sproule and Berrley (2001) indicate that use of multiple measures typically enhances the predictive
value of the screening techniques when selecting police officers. That is, rather than depending on a
single variable (e.g., psychological testing), the use of multiple methods, such as ratings, observations,
and behavioral performances, overall provides more accurate predictions of who will and will not
ultimately success in law officer roles. Additionally, collecting data at various points in time also tends to
enhance predictability—compared to appraisals a single point in time. And finally, length of criterion
time affects predictability. That is, predicting who will succeed in the police officer job often is more
difficult when attempting to forecast success, as the years of service increase, such as ten years after an
initial hire.
White (2001) notes that multiple modalities of appraisal impact the predictive value of law
enforcement selection. That is, not only do multiple measures enhance the selection process, so does the
utilization of multiple techniques. For example, role playing exercises can capture a different subset of
information than can, say, pencil & paper psychological testing. Similarly, the administration of a
polygraph can yield a different quality of information regarding a potential recruit than does, say, a
written questionnaire. The wider the modalities utilized in screening procedures, the theory goes, the
better the police agency will be able to tap data of most significant use. Non-evasive appraisal methods,
such as questionnaires or past employment records (Day, Davis, & Hill, 2009), when available and
feasible to implement, have some advantages over evasive appraisal methods, including expense, time to
administer, practice effects, and reliability of information obtained.
De Meijer, Born, Terlouw, and Van Der Molen (2008) draw attention to the fact that multicultural
sensitivity is essential to consider when conducting future police officer selection. Various ethnic groups
and culture groups share traditions, customs, and practices that deserve appropriate sensitivity when
making appraisals regarding who and who will not succeed in future law enforcement positions (Shiraev
& Levy, 2004). Researchers also must be cognizant of potential past and present discrimination or
prejudice that explicitly or tacitly may impact police officer success.
Our present study undertakes an appraisal of a program designed to predict success in future law
enforcement officers. We utilized a variety of both methods as well as modalities, and data was collected
at various cross-sections of time. Our sample consisted mostly of Caucasian police officer hires, due to
the nature of the available, although it included minority officers from three cultural backgrounds. As a
pilot study, we utilized one time period as the basis for appraising the criterion for success, due to the
grant requirement and need to report initial results. Nonetheless, we consider this a pilot study, with
80
tracking the officers in subsequent years as a possibility for future research as part of an ongoing,
longitudinal project.
Method
Participants
Five pilot agencies were selected for participation based on their various sizes and types as a
reasonably representative sample of Ohio’s law enforcement. This variance was also based on the
hypothesis that all law enforcement agencies regardless of agency size or type screen for a consistent set
of job-related attributes. The following departments participated: Columbus Division of Police (CPD),
Ohio State Highway Patrol (OSHP), The Ohio State University Police Department (OSU PD), the
Montgomery County Sheriff’s Department (MCSD), and the Zanesville Police Department (ZPD). These
agencies agreed to participate in the study because they believe that their respective hiring accuracy
potentially could be improved from knowing the results of the study. Each department was provided with
access to the research findings and recommendations.
A group of newly hired law enforcement candidates from each pilot agency participated in this
research project (n=109). The average age of candidates from the sample was in 28 years old.
Demographics included mostly males (95), Caucasian (92), with a high school education (68). Some
candidates possessed an associate or baccalaureate college degree (37), prior law experience (26),
previous military experience (12). Minority candidates included African Americans (9), Hispanic (3), and
Asian-American (2).
Procedure
The project objective was to determine whether the use of an Entry Level Assessment Center (ELSA)
could predict enforcement candidate performance on particular job related dimensions. We hypothesized
that candidates who received assessment center “readiness” ratings of 59% or better would be later rated
as better as better officers during basic training, field training, and up to the conclusion of their
probationary period, than would candidates who received lower rankings. This assessment was made by
comparing the consultant’s ELSA ratings to ratings made by each candidate’s FTO or supervisor during
their performance evaluations on job related dimensions.
A group of Ohio law enforcement management consultants developed a profile of each law
enforcement candidate’s knowledge, skills, abilities, behaviors, and traits—utilizing an Entry Level
Assessment Center (ELAC). The law enforcement agencies then evaluated their candidates during each
candidate’s time of service up to the conclusion of their one-year probationary period.
The ELAC was developed from research grant funding as a means of appraising common successful
behaviors and traits for law enforcement officers regardless of agency size or type. The candidates were
evaluated after having been hired, but before basic academy and/or field training. The overall evaluations
by assessors were compared to basic training, field training, and job performance.
Through the ELAC, each candidate participated in Written Problem-solving, Fact-finding, and
Leaderless Group exercises in a single day. Between three and six assessors evaluated each candidate’s
performance in each exercises, using a Dimensions Inventory (DI). The order of participation in the three
exercises varied across candidates. Subsets of the candidate’s knowledge, skills, and abilities also were
evaluated by each assessor on the Knowledge, Sills, and Abilities Inventory (KSA). In the field, each
candidate was rated weekly, throughout his or her probationary period by his or her respective FTO or
supervisors, on both the DI and KSA. Most of the field evaluations were conducted by the FTO’s.
Instruments
Written Problem Solving Exercise (WPSE). The purpose of administering the WPSE was to test the
candidate’s skill in perceiving a problem and then being able to gather sufficient data to document a
solution to the issue. Critical to this process was the candidate’s formal writing ability and the capability
of translating mental processes into a documented form. The WPSE was designed for the candidate to
formulate situational data and related facts into a workable plan of action in a specific time frame.
Fact-finding Exercise (FFE). The purpose of the FFE was to give the candidate an opportunity to
demonstrate his or her problem-solving and decision-making abilities. The exercise provided the
candidate with facts, information, or situational data which must be analyzed and/or interpreted. The
81
candidate was required to form opinions, make recommendations, and reach conclusions on the
information provided. The candidate must make implement his or her recommendations within the
designated time frame.
Leaderless Group Exercise (LGE). The LGE involved the candidates held a timed group discussion in
which they attempted to reach a joint solution to one or more problems which were given to them by
assessors. In these settings, the candidates displayed their potential organizational abilities through
personal influence of others, the willingness to listen to the ideas of others, and the ability to negotiate a
workable solution. An essential element of this exercise was a candidate’s demonstrated ability to
interact with others in a positive manner. The group discussion allowed assessors the opportunity to
observe and evaluate candidate behavior in a group setting.
Dimensions Inventory (DI). The DI is a five-item instrument intended to assess the extent to which a
candidate exhibits the desired behavior in the dimensions of Commitment to Service, Interpersonal
Sensitivity, Problem Resolution, Written & Oral Communication, and Situational Proactive Control.
Each item was assessed on a 5-point scale with anchors ranging from “inadequate” to “outstanding.” A
“not able to rate” option also was provided. The inventory was used in order to rate candidates’
performance in each of the ELAC exercises as well as in the field. Reliability of the DI was assessed via
Cronback’s Coefficient Alpha. Analyses were conducted, both overall and also for each exercises, with
relatively high levels of internal consistency (overall=.87; range=.79-.90).
Knowledge, Skills, and Abilities Inventory (KSA). The KSA is a 16-item inventory intended to assess
qualities thought to be requisite for successful performance as a law enforcement officer. Each item of
the instrument is based on a 5-point rating scale, ranging from “much less than acceptable” to “much
more than acceptable.” A “not able to rate” option also was provided. The instrument was used to rate
each candidate’s level of the desired knowledge, skills, and abilities during the ELAC and in the field.
Reliability of the instrument was assessed via Chronbach’s Coefficient Alpha and was found to be
relatively high (.90).
Potential Research Data Patterns
Data for the officers from the five respective agencies were collected both at the ELAC, at the
Academy, and in the field. ELAC data consisted of assessor ratings of each candidate’s responses to each
of the three training exercises, as well as an assessment of each candidate’s knowledge, skills, and
abilities. Ratings of candidates on the desired behavioral dimensions continued in the field, as did
candidates’ knowledge, skills, and abilities. Additionally, candidates’ final probationary period
evaluations were collected for Ohio State Highway Patrol (OSHP). Similar evaluations were not
available for other agencies.
Table 1 presents the average number of assessments made for the candidates of each agency, both
during the ELAC and in the field. The training exercises are identified as “Fact Finding,” “Written
Problem Solving,” and “Leaderless Group.” Continued field assessment of the desired behaviors and
traits is identified as “Post-test Dimensions.” The EALC evaluation of a candidate’s knowledge, skills,
and abilities is identified as “KSA Pre-test.” Continued field assessment of a candidate’s knowledge,
skills, and abilities is identified as “KSA Post-test.” As is evident from Figure 1, a relatively large
amount of data was collected, both during the EALC and in the field.
Analysis of the data indicate possible limitations in the Post-Test Dimensions and KSA Post-test data
(i.e., collected in the field). During the data entry phase of the research project, three patterns of
responses were noted. The first, Pattern A, involves FTOs or evaluators responding “0” (not able to rate)
to most of the items on an instrument. This pattern of responding reduces the amount of information that
potentially can be obtained from an instrument. On instruments with a substantial number of items, the
amount of lost information is likely to be relatively small. On an instrument with a small number of
times, however, the amount of lost information, when a single items is marked “0,” can be more
substantial.
Pattern B involves FTOs or evaluators responding with the same value across all items. For example,
on a five-item form, a FTO or evaluators might respond with, say, 3, 3, 3, and 3. Naturally, responding in
this fashion would make the task of completing forms on multiple candidates relatively quick and easy.
82
However, it also reduces the ability to differentiate among candidates. Pattern C involved what appeared
to be some inconsistencies in responses over time. FTOs or evaluators sometimes rated the same
candidates on multiple occasions. Although it was difficult to quantify, to what extent it may have
occurred some FTOs or evaluators seemed to respond in patterns when rating the same candidate (it was
more unlikely among candidates). This sometimes involved general upward trends for officers who
improved with training, inverted Us for officers for those who peaked at some point in training, and those
with U-shaped patterns (officers experienced a low point during the training period).
Of the three types of response patterns, A and B appear to have occurred the most frequently and had
the most significant impact on the data. In particular, Pattern A occurred for 53% of the PostDimensional data and for 30% of the Post-test KSA CPD data. This means that significant proportions of
the data were simply “missing” for CPD candidates. In fact, 13 candidates had 100% of their PostDimensions data missing, four had 80% missing and six had 60% - 70% missing. For any candidate, such
high proportions of missing data resulted in an unreliable potential picture of that candidate’s
performance. Consequently, candidates with more than 40% of their respective post-test Dimensions or
KSA Inventory data missing were excluded from all subsequent analysis.
Results
The goal of the research study was to determine to what degree scores from the ELAC potentially
could predict law enforcement candidate performance on job related dimensions. To answer this
question, we developed “percentage rank” scores for each candidate for both the Dimensions and KSA
data. The Dimension Percentage Rank (DPR) scores were obtained in a multi-step process. For each
candidate and each training exercise, sum scores were obtained by adding together the five items on the
DI. The sum scores were then converted to percentage scores, by dividing each sum score by the number
of values that comprised that score—multiplied by five, the maximum range of the DI scale.
This protocol produced multiple percentage scores for each candidate, one for each rater for each
exercise. Within each exercise, the percentage scores were averaged across assessors, resulting in one
percentage score for each exercise. Finally, a DPR score was obtained by averaging each candidate’s
three exercise percentage scores. Assessment center KSA, Post-test Dimension, and Post-test KSA
percentage rank scores were obtained in a similar fashion. These scores indicate how, on average, the
assessors perceived the candidate.
Percentage rank scores for the OSHP final evaluation data were obtained in a different percentage
fashion. These data consisted of ratings of “Below Expectations,” “Meets Expectations,” and “Exceeds
Expectations” on eight dimensions: Quantity of work produced, Quality of work produced, Timeliness,
Team effort/Cooperation, Directing and coordinating the work of others, Dealing with demanding
situations, Adhering to procedures, and Communicating with others. For each candidate, each rating was
converted to a numerical score with below expectations equal to 1, meets expectations equal to 2, and
exceeds expectations equal to 3. For each candidate, the eight numerical ratings were then summed and
converted to percentage rank scores, following the procedure presented earlier. These scores indicate
how the candidates were perceived by their FTSs or evaluators and the end of the one-year probationary
period.
Once percentage rank scores were calculated for all available data, a three-categorized selection scale
was derived, based on the following percentage rank ranges: Less than 59% = “Not ready,” 59% - 75%
“Currently Ready,” and greater than 75% “Very Ready.”
Once ELAC, field percentage rankings, and the final probationary rankings were calculated, they were
compared. Figures 2 and 3 present the results for the assessment/FTO rankings.
Figure 4 presents these ratings for individual departments. Figure 6 presents the results for the
assessor/probationary period rankings.
Figures 2 and 3 present the Dimensions and KSA Inventory Information, both overall and for each
departmental designation, for candidates who remain employed with their respective law enforcement
agencies. Column 2 of both tables presents the number of candidates (n) rated as being not ready,
currently ready, and very ready by the ELAC assessors. The highlighted values on the diagonal represent
ratings where FTO and ELAC rating are the same.
83
The Overall Ratings sections of Figures 2 and 3 show the overall level of agreement is not high for
either the Dimensions (48%) or the KSA information (51%). Further, the Not Ready dimension of both
tables indicates that the not ready designation accounts for most of this disagreement, with FTOs or
evaluators rating over 80% of the candidates seen as not ready by the ELAC assessors as either Currently
Ready or Very Ready. A much greater level of agreement occurred when ELAC assessors rated a
candidate as currently ready. Here, agreement ranges from approximately 70% to 81%.
The same trends are repeated in the Departmental Designation Ratings sections of figures 2 and 3.
Again, the overall level of agreement is not high, ranging from 44% to 50% for AOD and OSHP,
respectively, for KSA information. The greatest level of ELAC assessor/FTO or evaluators disagreement
occurred to the Not Ready designation. A range of 73% to 92% of those candidates rated Not Ready by
the assessors were rated as either Currently Ready or Very Ready by the FTOs.
As might be expected, much greater levels of agreement occurred when the ELAC assessors rated a
candidate as Currently Ready. The percentages of agreement ranged from 68% (OSHP Dimensions) to
91% (OSHP KSA information). The Very Ready category results continued with the same kind of
“mixed” picture of agreement/disagreement. For the Figure 2 Dimension data, complete agreement was
obtained regarding the number and percentages of candidates who were Very Ready, whereas, for Figure
3 KSA data, there was complete disagreement. In both instances, the number of candidates identified as
Very Ready was small (1 and 2, respectively).
Figures 4 and 5 present the Dimensions and KSA data for each department. As might be expected,
CPD and OSHP demonstrate the same agreement/disagreement trends present in Tables 2 and 3. MCSD,
OSU PD, and ZPD vary somewhat from these trends: Irrespective of assessment center assessor ratings,
candidates in these agencies were rated as Currently Ready or Very Ready by their respective FTOs or
evaluators.
As previously noted, 24 candidates separated from service to their respective agencies. Available
information indicated that these separations occurred for various reasons: Ten candidates separated for
personal reasons, four were due to injury, two were due to firearms qualification failure, and two
separations were due to administrative dismissals. Given that an important function of any hiring
assessment process is the identification of individuals not likely to succeed, attention is warranted
regarding how effective the ELAC process was at identifying individuals who were likely to self-select
out or to be terminated from service.
Figure 6 presents the correspondence between the ELAC assessors’ ratings for both the Dimensions
and KSA Inventories and the candidates’ reasons for separating. Generally, the process seems to have
accurately identified the people in this candidate pool who were likely to fail. Of the four candidates who
separated because of firearms disqualifications and/or administrative removal, three were identified as
Not Ready in both the Dimensions and KSA data. Additionally, candidates rated as Currently Ready or
Very Ready by ELAC assessment center assessors tended to separate almost exclusively for personal
reasons or injury.
Figure 7 presents the correspondence between the assessment center assessor’s ratings and the final
probationary evaluations for currently employed OSHP candidates for both the Dimension and KSA data.
As was true for the FTO or evaluators ratings, the overall level of agreement is not high, for either the
Dimensions (43%) or the KSA (54%) data. Again, the Not Ready category accounts for most of this
disagreement. A range of 90% to 95% of the candidates rated as being Not Ready on the Dimensions and
KSA data by the assessment center assessors were rated as being Currently Ready at the end of their
probationary period. More agreement occurs when the assessors rate candidates as being Currently
Ready or above. The percentages of agreement ranged from 85% (Dimensions) to 90% (KSA data).
Discussion
We hypothesized those candidates who received percentage rank scores of 59 % or higher would be
rated as better officers by their FTOs or evaluators than were candidates who received lower percentage
rank scores. The results of this study provide support for this hypothesis. When candidates receive such
scores, there is general agreement that they are ready for law enforcement service across both the
Dimensions and KSA data, thus supporting the hypothesis.
84
However, when candidates receive ELAC percentage rank scores less than 59%, FTOs and
probationary supervisors strongly disagree with these assessments. Indeed, FTOs or evaluators agreed
that these candidates were not ready for law enforcement service less than 19% of the time. Probationary
supervisors disagreed even more, indicating that, at most, these candidates were not ready for service 11%
of the time.
A number of possible explanations exist for the disparity between ELAC and FTO/supervisor ratings
of the not ready for service category. One possible explanation is that the disparity reflects the differing
amounts of information available to assessor and FTOs/supervisors. FTOs and supervisors deal with the
candidates over extended periods of time. Consequently, these individuals’ evaluations are based on
larger samples of behavior. FTOs and supervisors may also be considering factors associated with
successful performances that are not identified by the assessment center instruments.
A second, possible explanation is that the disparity may reflect a difference in focus. Traditionally,
law enforcement screening procedures have focused on identifying candidates who demonstrate aberrant
behaviors that are likely to result in job failure. FTOs or evaluators carry this screening process into the
field where they, too, focus on identifying individuals who display aberrant behavior. The ELAC
approach applied in this study had a very different focus. Assessment center assessors sought to identify
and select individuals who possessed the traits, behaviors, knowledge, skills, and abilities thought likely
to lead to success as law enforcement officers. Both of these perspectives are necessary, but they are not
necessarily complementary. To this degree, they likely will lead to different decisions about who will and
will not make a good law enforcement officer. This, if high levels of agreement are to occur (predicting
law officer success), and then there must be prior agreement among all those involved in selection and
training regarding the primary area(s) of focus.
A disparity also was evident between the assessors’ and FTOs’/supervisors’ ratings for the Currently
Ready category. As high as 23% of the candidates, who were judged as being Currently Ready by the
assessors, were judged as being Not Ready by the FTOs/supervisors. Again, the amount of available
information and focus of evaluation are likely to underlie this disparity. What the disparity also suggests,
however, is that judgments as to who is likely to be a successful officer cannot be made on the basis of
ELAC data alone. The assessment center provides an informed prediction as to which candidates will be
successful. This prediction must then be substantiated by continued field training and evaluation.
Together, these two processes are likely to result in the selection of better officers than is relying on either
process alone.
Finally, it appears that ELAC rankings may be useful in identifying candidates who are likely to
require administrative separations from service. In these data, approximately 75% of those who separated
for firearms qualification failure or administrative removal received ELAC rankings of Not Ready.
Additionally, those candidates who received assessment center assessor rankings of Currently Ready or
Very Ready separated almost exclusively for personal reasons or injury. Studies of much larger groups of
candidates would need to occur before a definite link could be established between ELAC rankings and
administrative separations from service.
Limitations and Future Research
All good research identifies the limitations of a study and reports weaknesses of the research (Price &
Murnan, 2004). While the present sample of 109 individuals was sufficient for the level of analysis
presented in the present article, we consider it entirely a pilot study. The present funding grant allowed
for a sample of Ohio agencies and future research should focus on larger, regional samples—or optimally,
a national sample of law enforcement agencies. While we believe the present study possesses a measure
of external validity (to the degree that other police agencies reflect the demographics of the present one),
clearly a broader sample will allow for more robust generalizations.
As noted, most of the participants in the present sample were Caucasians. Future researchers should
expand the study, utilizing samples with more substantial numbers of minority representation. Obviously,
minority groups differ significantly among one another on multiple dimensions (Mio, Barker-Hackett, &
Tumabing, 2006). Consequently, researchers should give attention to potential difference among various
minority groups, rather than simply comparing differences between “minorities” and “non-minorities.”
85
We note the potential of the Hawthorne effect at work with the present research participants. This is a
phenomenon occurring in some research endeavors when subjects know beforehand that a study is being
conducted. Sometimes they do not act the same as they would in other situations, when they believe they
are not being studied. Naturally, potential ethical principles require careful exploration whenever subjects
do not provide upfront, informed consent. University IRB boards may not approve such research designs,
although the possibility should be investigated in any event.
And finally, as previously noted Patterns B and C had some level of impact on the findings in the
present study. Future researchers should be more keenly aware than we were at the time of data
collection for the potential of eventual “missing data” among supervisors and others working in the field.
Naturally, law enforcement officers and supervisors lead busy professional lives and experience a variety
of competing demands for their time. Eliciting full cooperation, including plenary support from agency
administration, should be part of the study’s design from the outset, when securing population samples.
As previously noted, we compensated for missing data, at points, via removing cases with 40% (or
greater) of participants with missing data. Future researchers are counseled to lower the amount of
unusable data in future studies.
References
Aamodt, M. (2004). Research in law enforcement selection. Boca Raton, FL: Brown Walker
Press.
Day, G., Davis, R., & Hill, B. (2009). Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 24, 108-112.
De Meijer, L, Born, M., Terlouw, G., & Van Der Molen, H. (2008). Criterion-related validity of Dutch
police-selection measures and differences between ethnic groups. International
Journal
of
Selection and Assessment, 16, 321-332.
Mio, J. S., Barker-Hackett, L., & Tumabing, J. (2006). Multicultural psychology. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Price, J. H., & Murnan, J. (2004). Research limitations and the necessity of reporting them. American
Journal of Health Education, 35, 66-67.
Shiraev, E., & Levy, D. (2004). Cross cultural psychology (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Sproule, C. F., & Berley, S. (2001). The selection of entry-level corrections officers:
Pennsylvania
research. Personnel Management, 30, 377-418.
White, R. (2001). Ask me no questions, tell me no lies: Examining the uses and misuses of the
polygraph. Public Personnel Management, 30, 483-493.
Figure 1
Average Number of Assessments Per Candidate for Each Law Enforcement Agency
Law
Enforcement
Agency
Dimension Assessments
Fact
Written
LeaderFinding
Problem
less
Solving
Group
Post-Test
Dimensions
KSA
Pretest
KSA Assessments
KSA
Total
PostNumber of
test
Assessments
CPD
4.84
4.95
4.88
4.44
4.49
9.67
19.12
MCSD
5.00
5.00
5.00
28.50
5.00
30.00
43.50
OSHP
3.05
3.00
3.00
1.10
3.00
3.84
10.16
OSU PD
3.00
2.60
3.00
9.00
2.80
9.00
17.60
ZPD
12.00
6.00
0.00
0.00
6.00
13.00
18.00
86
Figure 2
Correspondence of Dimensions Inventory Assessment Center Assessor and FTO or evaluators Ratings for
Currently Employed Candidates
Assessment Center Assessor
Ratings Dimension Inventory
Ratings
Rating Category
n
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
27
33
1
FTO/ Supervisor Dimension Inventory
Not Ready
n (%)
Currently Ready
n (%)
Very Ready
n (%)
Overall Ratings
5 (18.52)
5 (15.15)
0
16 (59.26)
23 (69.7)
0
6 (22.22)
5 (15.15)
1 (100.00)
Department Designation Ratings
AOD
Not Ready
12
1 (8.33)
Currently Ready
14
2 (14.29)
Very Ready
1
0
OSHP
Not Ready
15
4 (26.67)
Currently Ready
19
3 (15.79)
Very Ready
0
0
Note: Data for four currently employed candidates are missing.
9 (75.00)
10 (71.43)
0
2 (16.67)
2 (14.29)
1 (100.00)
7 (46.67)
13 (68.42)
0
4 (26.67)
3 (15.79)
0
Figure 3
Correspondence of KSA Inventory Assessment Center Assessor and FTO Ratings for Currently
Employed Candidates
Assessment Center Assessor
KSA Ratings
Rating Category
n
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
36
43
2
FTO/ Supervisor KSA Inventory Ratings
Not Ready
n (%)
Currently Ready
n (%)
Very Ready
n (%)
Overall Ratings
6 (16.7)
7 (16.28)
0
24 (66.67)
35 (81.40)
2 9100.00)
6 (16.67)
1 (2.33)
0
Department Designation Ratings
AOD
Not Ready
17
13 (76.47)
3 (17.65)
Currently Ready
22
5 (22.73)
16 (72.73)
Very Ready
1
0
1 (100.00)
OSHP
Not Ready
19
11 (57.89)
3 (15.79)
Currently Ready
21
2 (9.52)
19 (90.48)
Very Ready
1
0
1 (100.00)
Note: Data for four currently employed candidates are missing.
87
1 (5.88)
1 (4.55)
0
5 (26.32)
0
0
Figure 4
Correspondence of Dimensions Inventory Assessment Center Assessor and FTO Ratings for Currently
Employed Candidates by Department
Assessment Center Assessor
Dimension Inventory Ratings
Rating Category
n
FTO/ Supervisor KSA Inventory Ratings
Not Ready
n (%)
Currently Ready
n (%)
Columbus Police Department
7 (77.78)
1 (11.11)
2 (15.38)
10 (76.92)
0
0
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
9
13
1
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
Montgomery County Sheriff’s Department
1
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
Very Ready
n (%)
1 (11.11)
1 (7.69)
0
1 (100.00)
0
1 (100.00)
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
15
19
0
Ohio State Highway Patrol
7 (46.67)
4 (26.67)
3 (15.79)
13 (68.42)
0
0
4 (26.67)
3 (15.79)
0
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
Ohio State University Police Department
2
0
2 (100.00)
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 (100.00)
0
Zanesville Police Department
Not Ready
1
0
0
Currently Ready
0
0
1 (100.00)
Very Ready
0
0
0
Note: Data for four currently employed candidates are missing.
88
0
0
0
Figure 5
Correspondence of KSA Inventory Assessment Center Assessor and FTO Ratings for Currently
Employed Candidates by Department
Assessment Center Assessor
KSA Inventory Ratings
Rating Category
n
FTO KSA/ Supervisor Inventory Ratings
Not Ready
n (%)
Currently Ready
n (%)
Columbus Police Department
10 (76.92)
3 (23.08)
5 (25.00)
15 (75.00)
0
1 (100.00)
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
13
20
1
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
Montgomery County Sheriff’s Department
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
Ohio State Highway Patrol
11 (57.89)
3 (15.79)
2 (9.52)
19 (90.48)
0
1 (100.00)
Very Ready
n (%)
0
0
0
1 (100.00)
1 (100.00)
0
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
19
21
1
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
Ohio State University Police Department
2
2 (100.00)
0
1
0
1 (100.00)
0
0
0
0
0
0
Zanesville Police Department
Not Ready
1
1 (100.00)
0
Currently Ready
0
0
0
Very Ready
0
0
0
Note: Data for four currently employed candidates are missing.
0
0
0
89
5 (26.32)
0
0
Figure 6
Correspondence of Assessment Center Assessor Ratings and Reasons for Separation
Assessment Center Assessor Dimension
Inventory Ratings
Rating Category
n
Personal
n (%)
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
Reasons for Separation from Service
Injury
n (%)
Dimensions Inventory Information
3 (50.00)
0
7 (58.33)
4 (33.33)
0
0
6
12
0
KSA Inventory Information
Not Ready
7
4 (57.14))
0
Currently Ready
9
4 (44.44)
4 (44.44)
Very Ready
2
2 (100.00)
0
Note: Data for four currently employed candidates are missing.
Firearms
Qualifications
Failure
n (%)
Administrative
Removal
n (%)
2 (33.33)
0
0
1 (16 (16.67)
1 (8.33)
0
1 (14.29)
1 (11.11)
0
2 (28.57)
0
0
Figure 7
Correspondence of Assessment Center Assessor Dimensions and KSA Ratings with FTO final
Probationary Evaluations for Currently Employed Candidates
Assessment Center Assessor
Ratings
Rating Category
n
Not Ready
Currently Ready
Very Ready
22
20
0
FTO/ Supervisor Final Evaluations
Not Ready
n (%)
Currently Ready
n (%)
Dimension Inventory Ratings
21 (95.45)
1 (4.55)
3 (15.00)
17 (85.00)
0
0
Very Ready
n (%)
0
0
0
KSA Inventory Ratings
Not Ready
18
16 (88.89)
0
2 (11.11)
Currently Ready
22
2 (9.09)
0
20 (90.01)
Very Ready
1
0
1 (100.00)
0
Note: Data for one candidate is missing for the Dimensions data. Data for two candidates are missing for
the KSA data.
90
Comparative Qualitative Study of Public and Private Sector Managers'
Attitudes and Perceptions of Presenteeism and Absenteeism in the Caribbean
Roger Radix
Fernando Mora
St. George’s University, Grenada
James A. Johnson
University of Central Michigan
Introduction
Presenteeism or attending work while ill is a relatively new concept in business, which is not as well
understood or researched as absenteeism. The reasons for practicing presenteeism are several and varied
and include for example, feelings of responsibility towards the workplace or organization or fear of
negative consequences such as being laid off. Productivity in the workplace can be affected by both
absenteeism and presenteeism. However in many cases presenteeism is estimated to cost more than
absenteeism (Cser, 2010). In the USA, productivity loss by presenteeism is estimated to cost $150 Billion
between 2001 and 2002 (Hemp, 2004).
From an employee perspective, presenteeism is important in that it might exacerbate existing medical
conditions, damage the quality of work life, and lead to impressions of ineffectiveness at work, due to
reduced productivity. On the other hand, under some circumstances, presenteeism might be viewed as an
act of organizational citizenship, as well as a demonstration of loyalty, and as a result, garner praise. From
the organizational viewpoint, focusing on the relatively invisible presenteeism, compared to absenteeism,
makes its management an important source of competitive advantage (Hemp, 2004). Also, many
organizational policies and practices, which have been designed to reduce absenteeism, may in fact
promote increased presenteeism (John, 2009).
To examine presenteeism, we have engaged it from the viewpoint of public and private sector
managers, who according to Zeger van der Wal (2009) share common values, and where they diverge the
differences are not stark. Although this work was done in the Netherlands, the study’s lead author expects
that it should apply in the United States (and other countries) with a long history of collaboration between
the two sectors. The study showed no large differences in values (incorruptibility, accountability,
impartiality and reliability) between the public and private sectors. The performance however (expertise,
effectiveness, innovativeness, efficiency and especially profitability) was clearly dominated by private
sector managers. There has been a long held view that in the Caribbean that public sector workers are not
as motivated and productive as private sector ones. Most Caribbean public sector workers enjoy an almost
permanent employment status and cannot be as easily dismissed. The authors believe that this may affect
absenteeism and presenteeism. This view was supported by comparing workers from the two sectors in a
German study. Private sector workers in Germany are more easily dismissed whereas public sector
workers especially after the age of forty are almost “un-dismissible”. The results showed that average
annual sick days increased by 3.3 days in employees, who reached the age of forty (Riphahn, 2003).
Another study, Lyons et al. (2006) found no difference in general values of workers from the two sectors
but some differences in work values and organizational commitment. In the UK, New Public
Management (NPM) initiatives have had the objective of making managerial behaviour in public sector
organizations more similar to that in the private sector, in an effort to achieve better workers commitment
and performance (Poole, 2006).
91
In the Caribbean although some research has been done on absenteeism, little has been done either on
presenteeism or on values of managers or workers in the public and private sectors. This study is part of a
larger one, which will also look at workers perception of presenteeism and absenteeism, its relationship to
managers’ attitudes and values and its consequences for workers behavior, organizational commitment
and productivity.
Population
Caribbean workers and managers
The Caribbean stretches from Florida in the north to Venezuela in the south and is bordered on the
west by Central America and on the eastern or Atlantic side by a string of islands from the Bahamas and
Jamaica to the north, the Virgin Islands and the Leeward islands near the middle and the Windward
Islands (which includes Grenada) in the south. The tropical climate has average temperatures between 80
and 90 F throughout the year. The Caribbean has a rich mix of indigenous Carib, African, Indian and
European peoples and cultures. Grenada, where the study was done, has a small (approximately 100,000
people) population and GDP of 644 million USD, with an economy based on agriculture, tourism and
light manufacturing.
Absenteeism and presenteeism are expected to be important factors in the Caribbean, where a relaxed
lifestyle and easygoing “Carnival” attitude is often seen. Although this lifestyle is part of our history and
culture, natives and visitors alike, often complain about the seemingly low organizational performance.
Though workers are often blamed, there is much that management can do to empower workers and
improve productivity. This view is supported by Carter (1997) who in his workforce survey found that
less than a quarter of the Jamaican workforce could be considered to be motivated. Managers in that
survey also described their main problem with workers as “poor attitude”. On the other hand many
workers in the survey felt that managers cared little for them, communicated poorly with them and tended
to reward workers who carried news and did favors for the manager. This situation remains largely
unchanged in some parts of the region. A Barbados study (Ramsey, Punnett and Greenidge, 2007) also
confirmed the finding by other researchers that job satisfaction was related to workers absenteeism.
Another study, in Trinidad and Tobago, found that poor productivity was related to outmoded
management practices and that many managers function only as administrators, a relic from colonial
times, rather than true managers, who need to be innovative and to deal appropriately with change
(Dalgleish, 2008).
Context, culture and beliefs are also major determinants in attitudes and meanings. Caribbean male
workers are often trapped in a concept of masculinity which holds men as providers and which cause
them great stress when they are unable to provide, and they often adopt behavior such as hiding their
unemployment (Lewis, 2003). Such workers when faced with job insecurity, for example, may engage in
presenteeism to protect their jobs (Johns, 2009).
The reports of Caribbean tertiary institutions such as University of the West Indies (UWI) show that
females have now surpassed males in enrolment and recent graduation classes have had as high as 80%
female graduates. Though women are still at some disadvantage in the society, they are entering into the
traditional male jobs, such as construction and farming and these developments are resulting in some
insecurity for the traditional “macho” Caribbean men. At the same time these cultural and gender
influences would tend to impact on workers motivation and performance and can cause tension in the
workplace. As part of the larger study, further issues of gender and culture in the Caribbean managers and
workers will be addressed.
Method
The study is limited by its small sample size and was done with a convenience sample. The interviews
were not recorded because of the principal investigator’s view that persons in Grenada who are old
enough to remember our 1979 Revolution (when phones were bugged and people were afraid to speak
freely) are still likely to be weary of, and uncomfortable about being tape recorded and thus may be
somewhat hesitant and less frank in their answers.
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Eleven senior Caribbean managers, five from private sector, four from public sectors and two from the
university sector (ages between 35 and 65) were interviewed by the lead author, who has experience in
interviewing for counseling and psychological evaluation. Participants were known to the lead
investigator beforehand. They were selected with a view, to give representation to both sexes and to
different types and sizes of businesses in the private sector as well as different ministries and departments
in the public sector. All managers were native Grenadians who live and work in Grenada. This made
possible a good interconnection and made the interview more friendly, allowing participants to freely
share their experiences. All managers had formal training equivalent to at least an associate degree with at
least two having completed MBA’s. All had many years of experience managing their family or
commercial business or as a manager in the public or university sector for at least five years. They were
interviewed by the lead author in their own office, in many cases during regular working hours which
allowed for participant observation of their work style and habits
Results
A questionnaire guided the interview in ten areas of interest that we felt were important to elicit
information, based on the review of the literature and our own experience on the subject. This lead to four
major categories that were used to analyze the interviews:
Managers’ knowledge, attitude and perception of management style, where managers were assigned to
categories of Task focused, People focused or People/Task focused based on the interpretation of the
manager’s descriptions of their management styles and the way they described their interaction with their
workers. People focused managers are more concerned about the wellbeing of workers, whereas Task
focused managers are more concerned about getting tasks done. Task focused managers are less likely to
tolerate absenteeism and this may encourage workers to practice presenteeism Managers’ perception of
worker’s attitude and productivity. This looked at managers’ perception of attitude and productivity in
workers and the cultural factors which influence these. This is related to the level and quality of the
communication between management and workers and the results of Carter’s Jamaican study is very
instructive in this regard.
Managers’ perception of worker’s Health, which looked at managers’ perception of issues
surrounding worker’s health and related cultural factors affecting workplace productivity. Most managers
realize the importance of the health of workers. However while some managers are concerned about the
effect of health in relationship to tasks that presently need to be done, other managers are more focused
on the person and how to promote better health for employees. By focusing on the health and wellbeing
of employees however, the people focused managers will often secure both better health and better job
satisfaction and this is expressed in improved performance of employees.
Managers’ perception of absenteeism and presenteeism; This looked at managers’ attitudes towards,
and perceptions of absenteeism and presenteeism and related socio-cultural factors. We looked at how
managers view workers who practice presenteeism and absenteeism and its relationship to the managers’
own view and practice, and his or her style of management. These were also related to the social
environment and to the workplace culture. For example absenteeism may be less tolerated in the private
than in the public sector.
Managers’ Knowledge, attitude and perception of management style
The study did reveal some differences in our interpretations of styles of managers in the different
sectors. Six of the eleven managers interviewed appeared to be mainly Task focused (56%), four seemed
People focused and one partly by exclusion was People/Task focused who described himself with these
words: “Open door manager but concerned about time frame. Not autocratic, collaborative”. In the
private sector four out of five were Task focused (80%), in the public sector two out of four Managers
were Task focused (50%). In the university sector both managers appeared to be People focused. The
managers thought to be Task focused described themselves with expressions such as the ones shown in
Table I.
People focused managers expressed views including: “I am not a boss, I am a teacher” or “I manage
with people in mind”, or “I get (personally) involved but also delegate. I like to get other’s opinion and
appreciate feedback”.
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Only three managers expressed concern for the management’s responsibility in influencing appropriate
organizational culture to help worker’s performance. “Manage people, (and) manage their anger or their
academic (qualifications) will not serve you well. Human Resources should help a person to understand
who he is. You will get more out of them”. Only one private sector manager however appeared to provide
the organizational culture necessary to empower his workers and achieve acceptable levels of
performance.
Managers’ perception of Workers attitude and productivity:
Regarding their perception of workers productivity, however there appears little difference by
sector. Ten of eleven Managers were dissatisfied with productivity of workers. Eight thought that workers
“did the minimum and were in it for (pay from) the job”. Seven, thought workers were lacking in pride,
were not motivated or focused. Only one manager was satisfied with the level of performance and
productivity which he described as “very good”, he did admit however to having occasional employee
problems in “punctuality, time management and productivity”. Generally, productivity was described by
most managers as “unacceptable”. Workers were described as “not focused and having poor attitude to
work and not interested in training”. In the words of one manager “If the manager is away then they are
laid back, he has to be present and push them”. According to another manager, “generally, persons have
the capability and academics but (are) not motivated; production is not what it should be”. As one male
manager put it “workers are not creative. If you say to move that chair, then they will move the chair and
nothing more, they will not give any ideas”. Few managers mentioned the role of working conditions,
including: “Lack of proper tools and equipment, the physical environment, too hot or cold”.
Managers’ perception of Workers health:
Ten managers thought that workers health was of great importance. Nine expressed a number of
concerns connected with workers health. Seven, thought that workers were not taking care of their health
and six were concerned about the impact of health on productivity. Many managers expressed various
concerns about workers health including, lack of education, non compliance with medication, insufficient
pay, unhealthy lifestyles, inadequate diet and exercise and the effects of illness; on family, the community
and on workers time away from work. Six expressed concerns of the effect of health on productivity
“health generally from the common cold to more severe illnesses affects business operations.” And
that,” loss of time to the business is the biggest loss”. Or, “if they are unwell they are unable to
produce”. Only one manager expressed that he had little problems with workers health, “Not much
problems with health; an occasional sick leave”.
Although male managers were concerned with health issues, female managers expressed a betterdefined concern for the workers and their health. One manager expressed the following about her
workers:
Most are young people not paying attention to diet and exercise. Not cooking healthy meals. Buy (fast
food) meals… They don’t pay attention to health and do not eat properly. They leave home without
breakfast but buy sandwich and soft drinks from the vendors. They don’t bring food from home. They visit
the doctor but only buy some of the medication and seldom complete the prescribed treatment. That is
why they don’t get good results and have repeated health problems.
Private sector managers appeared more concerns about workers and their health than did public
managers.
Managers’ perception of Absenteeism and Presenteeism
There was no significant difference in public and private sector managers’ perception towards
absenteeism or presenteeism but at least one public sector manager thought that absenteeism was more
tolerated in that sector. He explained that workers were “allowed two days away from work without an
excuse” and that “manager’s attitude was lax and there was no punishment” for persons abusing sick
leave in the public sector. Four managers thought that important reasons for absenteeism were: family and
health reasons. Four named physical environment, pressures at (and organization of) work and job
dissatisfaction as causes. Four mentioned cultural events, public holidays and public events and three,
poor pay and lack of recognition. Only one manager (private sector) thought that absenteeism was not a
significant problem. Most managers thought it was a serious problem: “absenteeism creates more
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problems; you cannot plan if you don’t know if they will turn up and they don’t call”. Four managers
thought that family and health reasons were most responsible for absenteeism, often in females, “with
women it is usually about their health or to do with their children” but in male workers, substance abuse
was also mentioned: “with men it is usually drinking or using drugs but that does not happen often”. One
public sector manager however expressed the view that persons were not truthful about reasons for
absenteeism and family and illness represented excuses, which they expected the manager to be
sympathetic towards. Four managers interviewed, believed that cultural events and holidays such as
Carnival, Christmas and religious holidays were a significant reason for absenteeism: “after big holidays,
Christmas, Carnival or Easter, they may also come to work sluggish”. But an equal number of managers
did not believe these activities had a serious affect. Only two managers, (one each from public and private
sectors), raised the question of bad management practices in relation to employee’ absenteeism. This
included “unfair treatment from managers”.
The term presenteeism was not recognized by any of managers although they were all familiar with the
concept when it was explained to them. Presenteeism in workers was thought by seven managers to be
influenced by “commitment to job.” Three named “job enhancement and learning job skills”. “Daily and
hourly paid” was identified by three managers as another cause and also was “guilt about being absent
from work”. More than 80% of managers also admitted to practicing presenteeism themselves (because of
responsibility). This is not surprising, as managers, professionals, customer service workers and sales
personnel are known to frequently practice presenteeism (Ashby, 2010). Most managers admitted that
their staff practiced presenteeism and they believed that this showed the workers dedication to the job.
Gender differentiation was established in some cases: “they (women) show interest in the job, sometimes
you offer to send them home and they say they can manage. Men would go home if offered the
opportunity”. This could also be interpreted as a possible expression of job insecurity in women and
therefore requires further investigation in Caribbean workforces. Ten out of eleven managers thought that
presenteeism was not much of a problem to their organization: “I don’t think that presenteeism is
prevalent in Grenada at this time”. Only one manager thought that it was as important as absenteeism:
“both affect work, six of one and half dozen of the other”.
Managers generally had a more positive attitude towards workers showing presenteeism and described
them as “dedicated and showing commitment and responsibility”. “They realize their absence will affect
the business” and they wanted to “show interest in the job and want to build a career”. One manager
suggested that workers practice presenteeism when they had used up their allotted sick leave days.
Another public sector manager suggested that that new workers or workers on probation were more likely
to practice presenteeism because of the “probationary period, and not yet in the workplace culture”. Two
managers mentioned that “friendships on the job” caused presenteeism, as workers when they feel unwell
would come to work because of the support of friends on the job rather than staying home alone. Other
workers were thought to practice presenteeism because of, “wanting favors from the boss” or because of
“management’s attitude to sick leave”. Having a “bad situation at home”, was also identified as a factor
contributing to presenteeism. Table II shows some of the causes for absenteeism and presenteeism
derived from this qualitative study.
Discussion
It was interesting that the only manager that seemed satisfied with productivity was a private sector
manager who had carefully mentored his employees, allowed them to participate and encouraged them to
think of their employment “not as a job but as a career”. He would “guide and supervise” his staff and
said that he was able to “delegate work even to newer members of staff”. During the interview it was
noted the manager’s routine of meeting with staff at the start of the day before he took some time off, for
a “health conscious breakfast”, before engaging with work. His company also organizes an annual
community event to promote sports and exercise and healthy lifestyle. This manager has demonstrated a
good example of the use of organizational culture to foster positive attitudes and improve workers
behavior.
The perception that presenteeism is not a problem is curious given the fact that many workers have
found presenteeism to be responsible for higher losses than absenteeism (Ashby, 2010). It is likely that
95
managers having practiced presenteeism hold it in high esteem. If so they may be reluctant to accept it as
negative. Another view is that as many of the managers interviewed are involved in small and medium
sized family businesses and moderate sized government departments, some with less than 25 workers.
Workers can rotate and are familiar with jobs done by other workmates and in such cases presenteeism
means, only loss of part of a worker’ productivity. In larger organizations with highly skilled teams
needing different specialists, presenteeism may be disruptive not only to an individual but to several
highly skilled members of the team. A more likely explanation however is that managers are not
knowledgeable about presenteeism and its impact on workplace productivity.
Though the managers in the study were quite experienced, they were not aware of the term
presenteeism. The authors also had difficulty locating Caribbean studies on presenteeism and this
suggests a scarcity of information in this area. This study is therefore important to raising awareness of
presenteeism in Caribbean managers. Our qualitative study has shown some aspects that are involved in
the practice of absenteeism and presenteeism as Johns (2009) pointed out in his proposed research
agenda. Issues range from job demands, security, policies, and characteristics of management to more
personal ones such as culture, gender and individual’s perceptions about health. How a Caribbean worker
reacts in the presence of a health problem will be determined by these factors in a very complex way,
which is yet quite difficult to establish. Future studies will focus on the nature of Caribbean organizations,
the perceptions of health by workers and managers and the influence of gender issues.
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96
Table I. Self-description of Task focused managers
Always aim to accomplish everything that I set out to do
Dedicated to improving the business and focused on the customer, without the customer there is no
business
Hands on manager, active, not delegating, let me show you how it is done
Aggressive manager, creative, keeps moving, if you keep still you will get left
Proactive, make sure task is done 100%, participation and follow-up
Giving direction to the organization and achieving targets
Table II: Perceived main causes of absenteeism and presenteeism by Caribbean managers
Absenteeism
(1) Family and health reasons
(2) Job Satisfaction and Environment
(3) Cultural and public events
(4) Poor pay and lack of recognition
Presenteeism
(1) Commitment to Job
(2) Job skills and job enhancement
(3) Daily and Hourly pay
(4) Guilt about being absent
97
Third Party Interventions for Preventing Sexual Assault,
Cultivating Empathy, and Comforting Survivors: Proactive Responses
in the Context of Escalating, Intimate Partner Aggression
José I. Rodríguez
Truc M. Ha
California State University, Long Beach
Carl R. Atler
East Los Angeles Community College
This study examines a sexual assault intervention delivered by interACT, a nationally recognized and
university-based, peer-education performance troupe that has gained the attention of researchers
interested in the developmental benefits of this proactive approach (Rodríguez, 2009; Rich & Rodríguez,
2007; Rodríguez, Rich, Hastings & Page, 2006). Research on this performance-based intervention
demonstrates that empathy is a key factor, helping college students develop prosocial responses to
potential sexual assault victims and survivors (Rodríguez, et al., 2006). The interACT performance is a
powerful, socio-political intervention that does more than induce empathy toward sexual assault survivors
(Rodríguez, 2009). For example, college students who view or participate in these performances also
report that they can console sexual assault survivors by delivering comforting messages (Rich &
Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006). The development of these types of communication skills
among college students are important because studies show that perceived lack of social support after
trauma is a key predictor of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) (Brewing, Andrews, & Valentine,
2000). In addition, symptoms of PTSD are also predictable when sexual assault survivors experience
antisocial reactions from others (Ullman & Filipas, 2001). For these reasons, proactive programs—like
interACT— that focus on cultivating empathy as well as the enactment of comforting responses to sexual
assault disclosures represent critically important performance-based interventions worthy of further,
developmental research.
Significance of Sexual Assault
Researchers define sexual assault as “forced sexual aggression or contact with or without penetration
against a victim” (Black, Weisz, Coats, & Patterson, 2000, p. 589). Regrettably, the incidences of sexual
assault on college campuses across the country are extremely high (Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000;
Mohler-Kou, Dowdall, Koss, & Wechsler, 2004). For example, studies demonstrate that one out of four
women attending college steadily report surviving sexual assault or attempted rape (Fisher, Cullen, &
Turner, 2000; Mohler-Kou, et al., 2004). Research also shows that date or acquaintance rape is an
especially common form of assault among college students. (Berkowitz, 1992; Holcomb, Sarvela,
Sondag, & Hatton-Holcomb, 1993). Based on this alarming research evidence, we consider sexual assault
a prevalent and acute form of violence, resulting in severely caustic and visceral trauma. In the weeks,
months, and years following sexual assault, survivors may experience depression, anxiety, suicidal
thoughts or attempts, and poor self-esteem (Butterfield, Barnett, & Koons, 2000). To counteract these
noxious effects and prevent rape, the interACT troupe delivers an empathy-based, sexual assault
intervention. This program fosters a “proactive” audience stance—the most participatory form of peereducation performance (Pelias & VanOosting, 1987).
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Background and Significance of interACT
The interACT program was developed in 2000. Over the years, interACT has provided sexual assault
intervention performances for universities, domestic abuse shelters, juvenile detention facilities, afterschool programs, housing projects, and rehabilitation centers for substance abuse. On campus, interACT
performs for specific classes (e.g., interpersonal communication, gender, health communication), and
campus events. Unlike other models, the interACT troupe presents complicated, realistic scenes about
domestic violence, intimate partner aggression, and sexual assault. Moreover, interACT invites audience
members to enact possible, ethical interventions on stage with highly trained peer educators, reflecting the
cultural diversity of an urban campus.
Theoretical Foundations: Self-Efficacy Theory
The effects of performance and vicarious experience on subsequent health-related behavior are
documented well in the literature (Bandura, 1995, 1997, 2000). To date, however, only one study of
proactive, sexual assault interventions has examined the role of these factors in helping college students
create specific beliefs about the ability (self-efficacy) to help a survivor in the aftermath of sexual assault
(Rodríguez, et al., 2006). We argue that research on the creation of these specific beliefs is important for
understanding and measuring the effectiveness of proactive performances—like interACT. For instance,
even relatively minor, successful actions that help people believe that they have what it takes to be
effective can facilitate further achievement beyond their present level of performance, and help them
succeed in novel situations as well as activities (Bandura, Adams, Hardy, & Howells, 1980; Williams,
Philip, & John, 1989). Consistent with this research evidence, we argue that the interACT scenes help
college students believe that they can affect change by either enacting (performance experience) or
viewing (vicarious experience) behavior that may prevent rape or help sexual assault survivors. In
particular, during a proactive interACT performance, audience members are taught to believe in their
ability to: 1) prevent sexual assault (preventive self-efficacy) even when faced with difficult antagonists,
2) respond prosocially to sexual assault survivors (responsive self-efficacy) even when the protagonist is
uncooperative, 3) understand the plight of sexual assault survivors (perspective taking), 4) connect with
the feelings of distress that occur in sexual assault episodes (emotional synchrony), 5) show concern for
the welfare of sexual assault survivors (empathic concern), and 6) comfort someone who has been
assaulted sexually. The concept of perceived self-efficacy—as articulated in self-efficacy theory
(Bandura, 1995, 1997)—is useful for examining these particular effects.
According to Bandura, “perceived self-efficacy refers to beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments.” (Bandura, 1997, p. 3). Two of the
most important sources of perceived self-efficacy are performance experience and vicarious experience.
Performance experience refers to the ability to control one’s behavior as a direct result of one’s efforts
and actions in the world. Vicarious experience refers to the ability to control one’s behavior as a
consequence of the observations one makes about the actions of others as well as the results of those
actions.
Researchers argue that the interACT intervention provides college students with both performance and
vicarious experience during the enactment of the scripted and improvisational scenes (Rodríguez, et al.,
2006). For example, students are presented with performance experiences by inviting them to come on
stage and enact a variety of behaviors that can prevent sexual assault (e.g., attempting to change a
situation so that an assault is thwarted, using humor to diffuse the situation) and help comfort a sexual
assault survivor (e.g., taking the role of a helpful friend who listens, and letting a survivor know that her
story is believable). College students who watch the performance of this behavior are simultaneously
presented with vicarious experiences because they see their peers, on stage, enacting empathic and
comforting behavior intended to facilitate change during highly charged simulations of potential sexual
assault episodes.
Using self-efficacy theory, we predict that these instances of performance and vicarious experiences—
in the interACT scenes—are likely to lead to greater perceived self-efficacy (Bandura, 1995, 1997). That
is, college students can report an enhanced ability to prevent sexual assault (preventive self-efficacy) and
respond prosocially to a survivor after an assault (responsive self-efficacy) even when faced with
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contextual or social opposition (i.e., difficult antagonists and protagonists). Based on this reasoning, our
first hypothesis is that college students in the interACT condition are more likely than those in the
didactic lecture group or the control group to report greater perceived preventive self-efficacy and
responsive self-efficacy.
We examined college students’ perceived self-efficacy in terms of the reported ability to engage in:
perspective taking, empathic concern, emotional synchrony, and comforting for several, important
reasons. First, researchers have asked for the development and use of more specific and rape-related
measures of empathy (Berg, Lonsway, Fitzgerald, 1999; Berkowitz, 2002). This study is a response to
that particular request. Second, we wish to replicate the findings of earlier quasi-experimental research
(Rich & Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006), and share these results with a broader community of
colleagues interested in college student development. Third, our goal is to confirm that performance and
vicarious experience, involving empathic and comforting actions can be induced and assessed effectively
using a classic experimental design, in a college setting. In this way, our study on the efficacy of
proactive performance can be replicated by other researchers, health educators or peer-education troupes
interested in producing effective, empathic interventions with college students.
Empathy and Comforting Communication
A growing body of research shows that empathy is a valued, prosocial behavior that facilitates
altruistic and helpful responses in a plethora of social situations (see Batson, Ahmad, Lishner, & Tsang,
2002 for a review). Thompson (2007) argues, “Empathy in a moral sense is a basic cognitive and
emotional capacity underlying all moral sentiments and emotions one can have for another” (p. 401).
Batson and his colleagues define empathy “as an other-oriented emotional response elicited by and
congruent with the perceived welfare of someone else” (Batson, et al., 2002, p. 486). These researchers
also argue “If the other [person] is perceived to be in need, then empathic emotions include sympathy,
compassion, softheartedness, tenderness, and the like” (Batson, et al., 2002, p. 486). For Decety (2005),
“…in addition to emotional sharing and self-awareness, a key aspect of human empathy is the ability to
consciously adopt the perspective of the other” (p. 153). Decety (2005) also argues that “Another process
associated with empathy is the sense of agency…” (p. 153). Using these conceptual foundations—in the
context of sexual assault—we define empathy as an intersubjective experience involving other-regarding
moral sentiments or emotions, eliciting perceived visceral concern for the welfare of a vulnerable person
or persons, with the intent of preventing or alleviating rape-related suffering.
Three factors central to the study of empathy are: perspective taking (adopting the viewpoint of
another), emotional synchrony or imaginal involvement (feeling emotions that are parallel to those of
another person), and empathic concern (caring for the welfare of another) (Davis, 1983). These factors
have been linked to comforting communication in responses to simulated sexual assault disclosures (Rich
& Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006). Researchers have also examined the relationship between
empathy and comforting by investigating the verbal messages that individuals can devise and deliver to
assist potentially distraught survivors of rape (Rich & Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006). In the
context of sexual assault disclosures, comforting occurs when individuals respond with helpful
communication behavior, such as listening or saying, “I believe you” with the intent of alleviating the
suffering of an emotionally distressed survivor.
The interACT scenes provide audience members with performance and vicarious experiences of
effective, empathic, and comforting responses that may be enacted during potential sexual assault
episodes. These experiences help college students adopt beliefs about their ability to engage in
perspective taking, emotional synchrony, and empathic concern in these specific situations. Conversely,
students who are not exposed to the interACT scenes are not as likely to adopt beliefs about their ability
to engage in perspective taking, emotional synchrony, and empathic concern in situations that involve
rape. Rodríguez et al. (2006) show that these three factors (perspective taking, emotional synchrony, and
empathic concern) are predictors of comforting. Following this reasoning, our second hypotheses is that
college students in the interACT condition are more likely than those in the didactic lecture group or the
control group to report greater perceived ability to engage in perspective taking, emotional synchrony,
empathic concern, and comforting. Furthermore, our third hypothesis is that college students’ perceived
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ability to engage in perspective taking, emotional synchrony, and empathic concern are predictive of their
perceived ability to comfort.
Methods
Participants
One hundred four participants where recruited from a general education, mass lecture course at a large
urban U.S. university. These students were randomly assigned to participate in one of the three conditions
(interACT performance, sexual assault lecture and interviewing lecture) with comparable numbers in each
condition (n = 34-35). There were 34 males and 70 females; 37 freshmen, 29 sophomores, 24 juniors, and
14 seniors. Participants ranged in age from 17-27, with an average age of 19.78 years. There were 38
Euro-Americans, 9 African-Americans, 29 Latinas/os, 16 Asian-Americans, 1 Middle Eastern-American,
9 others, and 2 declined to state ethnicity. With regard to gender, there were 99 heterosexuals, 2 bisexuals,
and 3 unsure. Participants were offered two points of extra credit, which they could have earned by
completing an alternative activity (e.g., in-class analysis, reflection paper or portfolio assignment).
Design and Procedures
We designed an experiment using a posttest-only, control group design, with an experimental
condition (the interACT performance), a didactic lecture on sexual assault, and a control group (a lecture
on interviewing). In the experimental condition, participants first were told that the researchers were
interested in “getting your opinions and reactions to a demonstration or lecture,” and then were exposed
to the proactive performance by interACT. Following the performance, as in all conditions, participants
completed the same posttest measures (preventive self-efficacy, responsive self-efficacy, perspective
taking, emotional synchrony, empathic concern, and comforting). In the same way, the purpose of the
study was explained before all participants were dismissed. To control for potential time effects and to be
aligned with the parameters of existing proactive sexual assault interventions, all of the conditions were
50 minutes in length (Rich & Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006). This element is important—for
comparative purposes—because the length of rape intervention programs vary greatly (Anderson &
Whiston, 2005). For instance, Schuster (1983) reported that sexual assault interventions vary between 30
to 120 minutes in length.
In the didactic lecture condition, participants listened to a standard lecture on sexual assault. The
lecture was created originally for an established psychology course on gender that was taught regularly on
campus. This didactic material included information about: rape myths and facts, rape statistics, domestic
abuse, risk reduction, definitions of rape, as well as campus and national resources. A veteran female
member of interACT—who actually performed in the interACT condition—delivered this lecture to
control for possible presenter effects.
In the control condition, participants listened to a lecture on interviewing. This lecture was created
originally for an established course on interviewing that was taught regularly on campus. This material
included information about: interviewing techniques, patterns of questions, as well as effective and
ineffective responses to questions. The same veteran member of interACT delivered this lecture to
control for potential presenter effects.
Instrumentation
Preventive & Responsive Self-efficacy
To measure preventive self-efficacy, audience members were asked to respond to eight items like “I
can mange to stop a verbally abusive situation between two of my friends from turning into a sexual
assault even if I have to take one of my friends home with me,” and “I can manage to stop a verbally
abusive situation between two of my friends from turning into a sexual assault even if I have to stay in the
same room with them until they calm down.” Similarly, perceived responsive self-efficacy was assessed
by four items such as “I can mange to say ‘I believe you’ to a friend who tells me that s/he has been
sexually assaulted even if I feel confused,” and “I can manage to listen to a friend who has been sexually
assaulted even if I have to ‘bite my tongue.’” In all cases, participants responded to the items using a
standard (Bandura, 1997) eleven-point self-efficacy scale (0 = I cannot do at all, 10 = Highly certain I can
do), with higher scores reflecting more of the variable assessed.
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Empathy & Comforting Measures
The perspective taking instrument was comprised of seven items such as “I can understand the point of
view of a person who has been sexually assaulted,” and “I can understand what a person feels after being
sexually assaulted,” For all empathy and comforting measures, participants responded to the items using a
nine-point Likert scale (1 = Disagree Strongly, 9 = Agree Strongly), with higher scores reflecting more of
the variable assessed. The emotional synchrony measure had eight items like “I can sense in my body
what a person might feel after being sexually assaulted,” and “I can sense the suffering that a person may
feel after being assaulted sexually.” We measured empathic concern with nine items such as “I can
experience concern for the welfare of a person who has been sexually assaulted,” and “When I see how a
person who has been sexually assaulted is treated, I can feel like I want to protect her or him.” Our
measure of perceived ability to comfort a potential survivor of sexual assault had nine items such as “I
think that I can comfort a sexually assaulted person by listening to her or him,” and “I think that I can
comfort a sexually assaulted person by saying, ‘I believe you’.”
Results
Measurement Models
A factor analysis was performed using Varimax rotation and Generalized Least Squares Extraction to
assess the dimensionality of these measures. Three criteria were used to evaluate the factor structure of
each instrument: (1) eigenvalues had to exceed 1.0, (2) the scree test had to show that any additional
factor was making a reasonable improvement in the variance accounted for, and (3) an indicator for a
given factor had to have a primary factor loading of .50 or higher (Burgoon & Hale, 1987; Coombs &
Holladay, 2004). This procedure showed that the measurement model for each instrument fit the data
well.
Preventive Self-efficacy
The preventive self-efficacy items loaded onto a single factor, which had an eigenvalue of 6.04,
accounting for 75% of the variance. The scree test also suggested that a single factor solution should be
retained. These items had factor loadings ranging from .78 to .91, with a reliability of .95.
Responsive Self-efficacy
The responsive self-efficacy items loaded onto a single factor, which had an eigenvalue of 6.41,
accounting for 58% of the variance. The scree test also suggested that a single factor solution should be
retained. These items had factor loadings ranging from .65 to .99, with a reliability of .90.
Perspective Taking
The perspective taking items loaded onto a single factor, which had an eigenvalue of 5.97, accounting
for 85% of the variance. The scree test also suggested that a single factor solution should be retained.
These items had factor loadings ranging from .81 to .96, with a reliability of .97.
Emotional synchrony
The emotional synchrony items loaded onto a single factor, which had an eigenvalue of 6.25,
accounting for 78% of the variance. The scree test also suggested that a single factor solution should be
retained. These items had factor loadings ranging from .74 to .95, with a reliability of .96.
Empathic Concern
Empathic concern items loaded onto a single factor, which had an eigenvalue of 6.49, accounting for
72% of the variance. The scree test also suggested that a single factor solution should be retained. These
items had factor loadings ranging from .70 to .93, with a reliability of .95.
Comforting
These items loaded onto a single factor, which had an eigenvalue of 5.92, accounting for 66% of the
variance. The scree test also suggested that a single factor solution should be retained. These items had
factor loadings ranging from .57 to .92, with a reliability of .93.
Statistical Analyses
We conducted an ANOVA analysis to test hypothesis one and two. The test of hypotheses one showed
that respondents in the interACT condition (M = 61.88, SD = 14.79) reported greater perceived
preventive self-efficacy than those in the lecture group (M = 51.41, SD = 15.37) and control group (M =
49.44, SD = 13.29), [F(2, 102) = 7.22, p < .01, partial eta-squared = .13] and post-hoc tests showed that
102
the interACT mean was significantly different from each of the other means (Tukey HSD, p <.05).
However, the lecture group and the control group means did not differ significantly from each other
(Tukey HSD, p >.05). Dunnett’s test indicated that perceived preventive self-efficacy in the interACT
group differed significantly from the control group (p < .01). Perceived preventive self-efficacy in the
lecture group did not differ significantly from the control group (p > .05).
Audience members in the interACT condition (M = 34.06, SD = 5.73) also reported higher perceived
responsive self-efficacy than those in the lecture group (M = 28.68, SD = 7.31) and control group (M =
27.68, SD = 7.38), [F(2, 102) = 8.54, p < .001, partial eta-squared = .15] and post-hoc tests confirmed that
the interACT mean was significantly different from each of the other means (Tukey HSD, p <.01). Again,
however, the lecture group mean and the control group mean did not differ significantly from each other
(Tukey HSD, p >.05). Dunnett’s test indicated that perceived responsive self-efficacy in the interACT
group differed significantly from the control group (p < .001). Perceived responsive self-efficacy in the
lecture group did not differ significantly from the control group (p > .05). These results are consistent
with the first hypothesis.
The test for hypothesis two demonstrated that audience members in the interACT condition (M =
53.63, SD = 10.91) reported higher levels of perspective taking than those in the lecture group (M =
43.20, SD = 12.30) and the control group (M = 33.42, SD = 18.83), [F(2, 102) = 17.91, p < .001, partial
eta-squared = .27] and post-hoc tests confirmed that each mean was significantly different from each
other mean (Tukey HSD, p <.05). Dunnett’s test indicated that perspective taking in the interACT group
differed significantly from the control group (p < .001). Perspective taking in the lecture group also
differed significantly from the control group (p < .01).
Individuals in the interACT condition (M = 55.62, SD = 14.02) reported more emotional synchrony
than those in the lecture group (M = 44.32, SD = 17.34) and control group (M = 38.50, SD = 20.55), [F(2,
102) = 8.40, p < .001, partial eta-squared = .15] and post-hoc tests demonstrated that the mean for the
interACT condition was significantly different from each of the other means (Tukey HSD, p <.05).
Conversely, the lecture group and the control group means did not differ significantly from each other
(Tukey HSD, p >.05). Dunnett’s test indicated that emotional synchrony in the interACT group differed
significantly from the control group (p < .001). Emotional synchrony in the lecture group did not differed
significantly from the control group (p > .05).
Respondents in the interACT condition (M = 72.20, SD = 10.29) also reported greater empathic
concern than those in the lecture group (M = 61.91, SD = 15.32) and control group (M = 61.34, SD =
16.24), [F(2, 102) = 6.45, p < .01, partial eta-squared = .12] and post-hoc tests showed that the interACT
mean was significantly different from each of the other means (Tukey HSD, p <.01). However, the
lecture group and the control group means did not differ significantly from each other (Tukey HSD, p
>.05). Dunnett’s test indicated that empathic concern in the interACT group differed significantly from
the control group (p < .001). Empathic concern in the lecture group did not differed significantly from the
control group (p > .05).
Individuals in the interACT condition (M = 69.54, SD = 9.87) reported higher perceived ability to
comfort than those in the lecture group (M = 54.85, SD = 12.90) and control group (M = 49.60, SD =
17.51), [F(2, 102) = 19.31, p < .001, partial eta-squared = .28] and post-hoc tests confirmed that the
interACT mean was significantly different from each of the other means (Tukey HSD, p <.001). Once
again, however, the lecture group mean and the control group mean did not differ significantly from each
other (Tukey HSD, p >.05). Dunnett’s test indicated that perceived ability to comfort in the interACT
group differed significantly from the control group (p < .001). Perceived ability to comfort in the lecture
group did not differed significantly from the control group (p > .05).These results are consistent with the
second hypothesis.
We performed a multiple regression analysis to test hypothesis three, where perspective taking,
emotional synchrony, and empathic concern were independent variables and perceived ability to comfort
was the dependent variable—in the interACT condition. Results showed that the predictor variables
affected audience members’ perceived ability to comfort [R = .69, F(3, 34) = 9.53, p < .001]. The
magnitude of the effect for perspective taking was substantial and consistent with prior research [B = .21
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(Rodríguez, et al., 2006)], but not significant [the standardized regression coefficient, B = .20, t(34) = .92,
p > .05]. Similarly, the magnitude of the effect for emotional synchrony was substantial and consistent
with prior research [B = .15 (Rodríguez, et al., 2006)], but not significant [the standardized regression
coefficient, B = .12, t(34) = .66, p > .05]. The effect for empathic concern was significant, consistent with
prior research [B = .45 (Rodríguez, et al., 2006)], and most substantial of all [the standardized regression
coefficient, B = .45, t(34) = 2.25, p < .05]. The lack of significance for two of these effects is due to the
relatively small sample size (Hunter & Schmidt, 1990). In earlier work (Rodríguez, et al., 2006), these
effects were significant with a larger sample (n = 185). Most importantly, the magnitude of the effects for
our current study are well within sampling error of zero and consistent with theory (Hunter & Schmidt,
1990; McPhee R, Babrow, 1987; Rodríguez, Plax, & Kearney, 1996). Therefore, these results are aligned
with hypothesis three.
Discussion
Consistent with prior investigations, this study shows that the interACT proactive performance is
appropriately suited to help college students see and experience the significant consequences of sexual
assault by presenting an embodied, interactive human drama in the college classroom (Rich & Rodríguez,
2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006). As self-efficacy theory (Bandura, 1995, 1997, 2000) would help us
explain, the embodied nature of this process provides performance, as well as vicarious experience—
critical elements that are absent in typical didactic presentations (e.g., lectures on sexual assault). We
believe that the richness of this embodied instruction is important because students, especially in the
college classroom, are accustomed to more didactic presentations, such as lectures or videos. Thus, the
opportunity to perform and watch others perform provides a visceral, lived experience that not only
heightens the perceived importance of sexual assault interventions, but also casts “would be” spectators—
in the audience—as possible agents of prosocial change. These unique, performance-centered features
provide instances of enhanced intersubjectivity (vicarious experience) between troupe actors, spectators
coming on stage as actors, and audience members observing the presentation. Previous research shows
that these performance-based elements are central to embodied instruction as well as social change in the
university classroom (Rich & Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006). Equally important, these features
of performance and vicarious experience in the interACT condition provide a sound theoretical
explanation for the effects that we observed in this study (Bandura, 1995, 1997, 2000).
This study also has important implications with regard to the induction and assessment of perceived
self-efficacy in terms of sexual assault prevention and responsiveness to survivors. Previous research has
focused on documenting empathic and comforting responses induced by the interACT performance, (Rich
& Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al., 2006) and not on measuring prevention or responsiveness with
items that reflect specific situational constraints or challenges associated with rape. In our current study,
preventive self-efficacy and responsive self-efficacy were induced effectively and measured using items
that reflect beliefs about one’s ability to behave prosocially in challenging, rape-related situations (e.g., “I
can manage to stop a verbally abusive situation between two of my friends from turning into a sexual
assault even if I get ‘yelled at’ when I make my first effort,” for preventive self-efficacy; and “I can
manage to comfort a friend who has been assaulted sexually by saying ‘it’s not your fault’ even if I know
that s/he was intoxicated during the situation,” for responsive self-efficacy).
The constraining, challenging and highly contextualized features of these preventive and responsive
self-efficacy items are important because they tap the richness, complexity and difficulty of potential
communicative action in situations involving rape. Like the antagonists and protagonists in the interACT
scenes, these items reflect the complicated and uniquely situated features of lived experience during
potential responses to sexual assault episodes. Thus, they present audience members with problems and
dilemmas “in context” thereby inviting embodied responses to specific, rape-related issues. This level of
specificity is important because researchers have called for the development of more precise and raperelated measures to assess the effectiveness of empathy-based interventions (Berg, Lonsway, &
Fitzgerald, 1999; Berkowitz, 2002). To the best of our knowledge, our items reflect a first attempt at
assessing the effectiveness of inducing specific, rape-related self-efficacy beliefs after actual performance
and vicarious experiences with simulated situational challenges characteristic of sexual assault episodes,
104
in the college classroom. The results of this unique assessment demonstrates that the interACT
performance can induce prosocial, self-efficacy beliefs about the ability to prevent sexual assault as well
as respond effectively to disclosures by potential survivors. These results are of particular importance
because meta-analytic studies show that self-efficacy beliefs impact motivation, intentions, and
performance over time (Bandura & Locke, 2003).
Our current study also confirms that proactive sexual assault interventions with empathy-based
instructional features are effective for college audiences (Rich & Rodríguez, 2007; Rodríguez, et al.,
2006). In particular, the strong relationship between empathic concern and comforting in this study, as
well as earlier research (Rodríguez, et al., 2006), shows that a concern for others (empathy) is inducing
college students to report a perceived ability to comfort in response to sexual assault disclosures enacted
during the interACT scenes. These findings bode well for health educators, researchers, peer educators, as
well as potential sexual assault survivors. That is, this study shows that using proactive performances
effectively can cultivate prosocial, communication-based responses to sexual assault disclosures in a
context where these skills are needed most urgently—college campuses.
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interACT troupe.
106
Education and Immigration in California: Key Trends
Nena Tórrez
California State University San Bernardino
First-generation immigrants account for 25 percent of California youth. An additional 25 percent of
California youth (age 13 to 24) are the second-generation children of immigrants. Adding these
generations means that half of all California youth are foreign-born, or are California natives with at least
one foreign-born parent. The size of the Mexican-American youth segment of the state’s population is
now so large as to constitute either a stumbling block, or a vital building block for the foundation of a
brighter future for California. The goal of dealing with foreign immigration should be to help build a
better future for Californians. This paper shows that the children of immigrants are a key resource as
they become more settled (through the second and third generation). Indeed, the ethnic and age
composition of California has changed dramatically. For example, California has transitioned from 82
percent White in 1960 to 40 percent White in 2010. The Hispanic or Latino ethnic group share in 2010
was 38 percent and will likely become the largest ethnic group in California by the next decennial census
in 2020. (U.S. Census, 2010)
Over half of California’s Immigrants are from Mexico and Latin American. Connecting the aging and
retirement of California’s Baby Boomers to the educational attainment of the children of these Mexican
immigrants, this paper demonstrates why immigrants are needed as a direct result of demographic shifts
taking place over the next two decades. Some pundits portray immigration as out of control and
accelerating. They take a negative view and assert that immigrants are not assimilating and that they are
not needed, or wanted. Like previous waves of immigrants to California, the newcomers and their
children face discrimination, along with social and legal barriers to a better future. This paper will
support a more positive view and side with a growing group of U.S. citizens who support immigrants’
rights and support a renewed commitment to the educational success of the children of immigrants as part
of the changing demographic composition of California and the rest of the United States.
California’s immigrant population has increased rapidly in recent decades. Between 1970 and 2010,
the number of California residents born abroad increased more than fivefold, from 1.8 million to almost
10 million. Many of these foreign‐born residents, also known as immigrants, have become naturalized
U.S. citizens (46%). California has a higher proportion of immigrants than any other state. The percent
of the state’s population that is foreign-born has steadily grown over the past few decades, and is
currently at its highest level over the past century. (U.S. Census, 2010)
California has a much higher share of immigrants in its population than the United States as a whole
(27% vs. 13%), and a higher population share than any other state (New York, with 21%, has the secondhighest share). While many states are receiving rapidly increasing shares of Mexican immigrants,
California remains the number one destination for immigrants entering the United States. California is
home to one in four of the nation’s immigrants, compared to only one in ten of the nation’s U.S.‐born
population. Nearly half of all Californians today are first- or second-generation immigrants. As that
share of the California population continues to grow, it is increasingly important to understand the
significance of intergenerational progress for immigrant groups.
The vast majority of California’s immigrants (90%) are from Latin America (55%) or Asia (35%).
California has sizeable populations of immigrants from dozens of countries. The leading countries of
origin are Mexico (4.3 million), the Philippines (783,000), and China (681,000). California Counties with
the highest percentages of foreign born immigrants are Santa Clara (36%), Los Angeles (36%), and San
Francisco (34%). Most immigrants in California are working-age adults. Three of every four immigrants
107
in California are between the ages of 25 and 64 (working-age), compared to less than half (45%) of
U.S.‐born residents in the state. Immigrants are 40 percent of the state’s population between the ages of
25 and 44.
Between 2000 and 2010, international migration accounted for 1.8 million new residents in California,
compared to 2.9 million due to natural increase (more births than deaths). So, the children of immigrants
are concentrated in the younger cohorts. This coincides with the entry of the baby boomers (U.S. natives
born between 1946 and 1964) into the old-age dependency group. It is this older group that will
increasingly see its economic welfare tied to the productiveness and creativity of the first and second
generation children of foreign-born immigrants in California. In fact, Latinos already are the largest
plurality of children (ages 13 to 24) in California at 41 percent, as compared to Whites at 37, Asians at 11
percent and African Americans at 7 percent. Statewide, 80% of children, ages 5-17, in immigrant
families speak a language other than English at home; nearly three-fourths are fluent in two languages.
Across the state, Spanish, Vietnamese and Chinese are the most common non-English languages spoken
at home. Latinos are the largest racial and ethnic group among youth and more than half have a foreignborn parent. (U.S. Census: American Community Survey, 2009)
This paper delineates the ethnic transition consisting of two distinct trends. The first trend is the
growth in the proportion of the working-age population consisting (to a large extent) of the children of
Mexican immigrants. The second trend is the aging of the California Baby Boomers, whose exit from
working-age to the old-age dependency will cause accelerated financial strains on private pension funds,
Medicare and Social Security entitlement spending. This older, mostly White cohort will increasingly see
its economic welfare tied to the productiveness and creativity of the first and second generation children
of foreign-born, Mexican immigrants in California.
California should recognize the need to promote a renewed commitment to educational success of this
fourth wave of Mexican-American immigrants. Because a large number of these immigrant parents have
a limited education, lack of improvement in educational attainment from one generation to the next would
have serious implications for the state economically as well as socially. Unlike a good portion of Asian
children of immigrants, 30 percent of California’s children of immigrants of Mexican ancestry are
growing up in families where neither parent has completed high school, and as many as 95 percent of
these children never achieve a bachelor’s degree. Among these children at risk of low educational
achievement, Mexican Americans make up a large share (68%). Many Mexican-American youth
experience academic struggle and leave schools without acquiring the skills necessary to compete in the
U.S. knowledge intensive society. This group has the highest high school drop-out rate, the lowest
college attendance rates, and may live at or below the poverty level caused by labor exploitation in the
lowest echelons of the service sector economy of large central cities.
In California the share of Whites with a Bachelors degree (BA) is 37 percent, Blacks with a BA is 18
percent, and among Asians the figure is 45 percent. In stark comparison, this percentage for Latinos
shows only 8 percent with a BA. A practical overall strategy would be to increase generational
investment in education to provide replacement workers from homegrown Mexican-American children of
immigrants. This would accommodate needed expansion in the middle class. Only if California
acknowledges the problem and provides the policies and educational resources necessary will California’s
Immigrants and their children help to fill these jobs and support the rising number of seniors
economically. Improving educational achievement for Mexican-American children is tied to the fact that
1.4 million children in California live with adults who don’t speak English.
Children of non-English-speaking parents do worse in school and are more likely to drop out. Onequarter of California’s students have yet to master English. While learning a new language, English
Learners (ELs) have less time and ability in school to devote to learning other academic subjects or
befriending English-speaking classmates. As a result, EL students are at risk for poorer academic
performance and isolation from their peers. English Learners from Mexican-American households are
less likely to meet California’s Academic Achievement Standards. Mexican American children of
immigrants are more likely to grow up in linguistically-isolated households and they are less likely to
speak English well themselves, which translates to more time spent mastering English skills in school,
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limiting their capacity to learn other subjects. Statewide, only 42% of second- through 11th-graders meet
state proficiency targets in English Language Arts. English Learners fare even worse than their peers.
By contrast, Students who meet the state’s academic proficiency standards on the California Standards
Test have achieved basic educational goals, and are more likely to graduate, and are better prepared to
participate fully in school and to make informed choices about their futures. Rather than visualizing the
benefits that various immigrant groups could bring to their schools, much of the general public's
impression of immigrants is negative — that they are a burden on California’s public schools. To the
contrary, dual language children of Mexican immigrants, who have been redesignated as fluent in
English, perform better than students whose primary language is English. (Garcia, 2010, p. 6)
Intergenerational progress has not stalled, but rather, some second- and third-generation immigrants
have made substantial educational progress when compared with their parents. Nevertheless, the low
educational attainment of Mexican Americans overall remains a concern. The challenge of dealing with
low educational progress underscores the need for a renewed commitment to restore public investment in
education, specifically targeting California’s Mexican- American youth. The immigrant education issue
does not receive much attention. Other problems seem to be more important. However, neglecting
California’s knowledge- intensive industries is not a wise strategy. Innovation in a variety of technical
areas has been a by-product of a well-designed education system and a solid higher education system
In this section of the paper it should become evident that California holds a real advantage over other
parts of the U.S. in knowledge-intensive industries such as computer software design, and industrial
research and development (R&D) outlays. The Bureau of Labor Statistics predicts that 40 percent of
California jobs will require at least a college degree in 2025. Industrial Research and Development
(R&D) in California totaled $50.6 billion, which represents almost 25 percent of the national total. This
amount is twice its population share. No other state receives more R&D funding. No other state receives
more foreign direct investment.
Attending to the educational pipeline problem for the fourth wave as it settles in California is vital to
sustaining the “knowledge-based” economy that has been the key to California’s economic success. The
UC Technology Transfer Program is first among U.S. universities, both in terms of the number of patents
granted and in the number of successfully commercialized inventions — more than 1,000 inventions a
year. The state has 40 federal laboratories – more than any other state. Three out of the ten NASA
centers are located in California – again, more than any other state. In respected global rankings of
universities, the University of California (UC) system supplies at least 10% of the top 50 institutions
worldwide. In Academic Rankings, seven of the UC's 10 campuses rank in the top 50. In Britain's Times
Higher Education World University Rankings, the UC system has five campuses in the top 50. This is an
extraordinary achievement for a publicly financed system of higher education.
Furthermore, the
graduates who are educated in the California system of higher education go on to push the frontiers of
technology, amassing a percentage of research and development (R&D) expenditures which is twice as
large as California’s share of the total U.S. population. (Baldwin, 2011)
Public schools (K-12), Community Colleges (where the greatest share of Mexican-American students
attend), the California State University and University of California have all seen huge budget cuts, and
face the prospect of crippling cut backs. This short sighted lack of vision is eroding a world-class
education system that has taken half a century of care and investment to bring to magnificence. The
reason for the lack of urgency about addressing the demographic transition is in large part, due to several
myths about Mexican-American immigrants and their second and third generation offspring. It is
important to expose five myths about immigration, as noted by Meyers (2007).
Progress toward practical policy could be more likely if people would critically examine the following
five misconceptions concerning the Mexican immigrants:
1. Immigration is accelerating and out of control.
2. Immigrants are all newcomers.
3. Immigrants are unchanging over time, and Mexican-Americans are segregated and poor.
4. Immigrants are foreigners and so are their children.
5. Immigrants are a burden and not needed.
109
Although California is still the leading U.S. destination of foreign immigrants, its dominance has
declined. The number of immigrants has begun to level off in California and it has been slowing in most
other states as well. Immigration had been accelerating up until about 2000, feeding the alarmists view
that the U.S. has a porous border with ever greater numbers of “illegal” Mexican immigrants coming
every year. Yet, between 2008 and 2010, California received 17% of the immigrants arriving in the
United States. In contrast, between 1985 and 1990 California received 31% of the nation’s immigrants.
Immigrant job prospects are better in other parts of the U.S. because the recession has hit California
especially hard and immigrants know that housing costs are lower in other states.
Figure 1 (see Appendix) shows that as immigration slows and levels out, along with the tendency of
Mexican-Americans to stay planted in California, the percentage of native Californians increases for all
age groups. This is important because it means that California will be relying less on importing talent.
This rise of a homegrown, native population implies that California will be more self-reliant on educating
its own children to produce an educated workforce than was true in past decades. (Meyers, 2007)
In other parts of the U.S. where Mexican immigrants are relatively new, immigrants can accurately be
characterized as newcomers and they are less assimilated. However, in locales where immigrants are
longer settled, such as California, they have achieved much greater socioeconomic advancement.
Meyers (2007, p. 15) finds that in “California the share of Latino immigrants who are homeowners rises
from 16.4 percent of those who have been in the United States for less than 10 years to 64.6 percent of
those who have been here for 30 years or more. Similarly, English proficiency more than doubles from
33.4 percent of those who have been in the country for less than 10 years to 73.5 percent of those who
have been here for 30 years or more.” The longer settled immigrants resemble other waves of immigrant
assimilation.
Failure to examine how much immigrants typically advance over time leads to the false conclusion
that they are trapped in poverty and impose an economic burden on society. Moreover, U.S. society is
itself changing, and the aging of the Baby Boom generation will create growing demands for younger
workers. The ratio of seniors (age 65 and older) to working-age adults (25 to 64) will soar by 67 percent
between 2010 and 2030. The rapid rise in the senior ratio will precipitate not only fiscal crises in the
Social Security and Medicare systems, but workforce losses due to mass retirements that will drive laborforce growth perilously low. Immigrants and their children will help to fill these jobs and support the
rising number of seniors economically. At the same time, immigrant homebuyers are also crucial in
buying homes from the increasing number of older Americans. Immigrants will clearly be important in
leading us out of the current housing downturn.
Our immigration policy debates should be aimed at making a better future. For this to be successful we
must adopt a forward-looking perspective about immigration, evaluating how immigrants change as they
settle longer in America, and how they will fit into a changing America. The most dramatic and knowable
changes ahead are driven by the massive retirements of the Baby Boomers.
This makes it even more critical that California make a renewed commitment to the educational
success of this the youthful fourth wave of Mexican-American immigrants. More than half of all
California youth ages 13 to 24 have a foreign born parent. Because a large number of these immigrant
parents have a limited education, lack of improvement in educational attainment from one generation to
the next would have serious implications for the state economically as well as socially.
For many states immigration is a new occurrence. Most immigrants are newcomers and are therefore
less educated. In California, by contrast, immigrants are longer settled. Many Mexican-American
immigrants and their families have achieved much greater socioeconomic advancement. In California,
immigrants are entrepreneurial and are more likely to create their own jobs (or be self-employed) than
native born workers. For the working age population (age 25 to 64) Latino and Asian immigrants together
have a self-employment rate of 12%, which is one and a half times the rate for non-immigrant Latinos and
Asians. Immigrants stand out as some of California’s most notable entrepreneurs—technology giants
Google, Sun Microsystems, eBay and Yahoo are all companies founded or co-founded by immigrants.
(Meyers, 2007)
110
Immigrants comprise more than one-third of California’s labor force (34%). They figure prominently
in the agriculture, manufacturing, and repair and personal service industries. In terms of occupations,
immigrants make up the majority of those involved in farming, fishing, and forestry (82%), grounds
cleaning and maintenance (63%), and production jobs (54%).
Recent data shows signs that the longer California’s Mexican-American Immigrant families are settled
the more they resemble other waves of immigrant assimilation. For example, in California the share of
Latino immigrants who are homeowners rises from 16.4 percent of those who have been in the United
States for less than 10 years to 64.6 percent of those who have been here for 30 years or more. Similarly,
English proficiency more than doubles from 33.4 percent of those who have been in the country for less
than 10 years to 73.5 percent of those who have been here for 30 years or more (Meyers, 2007). The
pessimistic outlook on immigrant assimilation is more commonly found in states where immigration has
only recently begun to increase, but such new experience does not afford a reliable projection of the
future.
Failure to examine how much immigrants typically advance over time leads to the false conclusion
that they are trapped in poverty and impose an economic burden on society. Moreover, California society
is itself changing, and the aging of the Baby Boom generation will create growing demand for younger
workers. The ratio of seniors (age 65 and older) to working-age adults (25 to 64) will soar by 67 percent
between 2010 and 2030. The rapid rise in the senior ratio will precipitate not only fiscal crises in the
Social Security and Medicare systems, but workforce losses due to mass retirements that will drive laborforce growth perilously low. Immigrants and their children will help to fill these jobs and support the
rising number of seniors economically. At the same time, immigrant homebuyers are also crucial in
buying homes from the increasing number of older Americans. Immigrants will clearly be important in
leading us out of the current housing downturn.
The recent debates over immigration reflect a controversy about two different visions for the future of
America. On one side of the debate advocates such as Huntington (2004) believe that immigration has
increased and is out of control, that immigrants do not assimilate sufficiently, and that we simply do not
need these new residents. Given this perspective, we need to get control of the Mexican border and
vastly reduce the flow of immigrants. On the other side of the debate, there are those like Kasinitz (2010)
that believe that immigrants’ rights need to be supported, that America is a nation of immigrants, and that
many sectors of our economy need these newcomers. We need to look more closely at recent trends to
see how they might change our view of the future.
This paper is suggesting a much brighter future than many have feared, but also challenges that will
be met with a renewed commitment to investment in education. There are two narratives now being told
about immigration and the future of America. Each has some basis in fact, although one is based on
newer trends and is more optimistic than the other. Each also leads to different policy conclusions that
tend to reinforce the premises underlying the narrative. Research suggests replacing the five
misconceptions about immigration with the following revised statements:
1.) Immigration is not out of control. It is leveling off and will be stabilized.
2.) Immigrants are not all newcomers. In California, children of immigrants are assimilating as
length of settlement increases.
3.) Immigrants are valuable resource, and Mexican-American youth will expand participation in the
educational pipeline provided there is a renewed commitment to help them.
4.) Immigrants are not foreigners , and the second and third generations need to be homegrown as
migration to California is slowing. The past trends are changing.
5.) Immigrants are not a burden. They are needed replace the aging Baby Boomers as the old-age
dependency ratio increases an estimated 67 percent. Without these fourth wave immigrants
entering the middle class, the California economy would be unbalanced.
Increased access to higher education benefits the older generation at least as much as it would
immigrant youth because there exists a mutual dependence of California Boomers and the children of
immigrants.
111
Expanded access to college education (through the Dream Act) produces a stronger base of
taxpayers, with a 3-to-1 or better return on public investment in skills for children of
immigrants in California.
• Expanded access to college education also is needed to address the declining skills created
when our most educated generation—the baby boomers—retire from the workforce.
• Finally, expanded college education is needed to strengthen the housing market by cultivating
higher-earning home buyers who are better able to pay a good price to older sellers.
If current trends persist (assuming trend growth over the next 20 years), compared to zero immigration
in California, the current volume reduces the rise in the senior ratio by 29% in 20 years and 47% in 40
years. In addition, there were some trend estimates (before the 2008-2009 recession) and these
projections show that California will need more educated workers. Estimates are 35 percent of the
California workforce will have a college degree, whereas close to 40 percent of the jobs will require
college-level training. Even if the estimate was not taking the household debt problem into consideration,
and its impact on reducing overall consumer spending, the state is projected to need 1 million more
college graduates than it can produce. This estimate includes replacement jobs as well as jobs created by
economic sectors associated with knowledge-based and information-based products and services to be
exported to the rest of the world. Half of the forecast jobs are replacement jobs. So, even if the
California economy is slowly growing, there will be a need for one-half million more college graduates in
California than graduates to fill them. (Baldwin, 2011)
California has the capacity to harness the power of demographic transition, thus turning a “problem”
like immigration into an opportunity to extend the knowledge-based sectors, those areas where California
has had a clear advantage because of its commitment to fund world-class institutions of higher learning.
The narrative of despair is spawned from changes that occurred over the last 20 years. It magnifies
those trends and rolls them forward into the future, begging a response that would choke off immigrant
settlement. The alternative narrative of hope interprets the current trends differently. The forecast is less
growth in immigration and more assimilation. Homegrown California natives will escape the education
gap, enjoying quality education that yields positive benefits to follow in the next 20 years. If we look
more closely at recent trends to see how they might change our view of the future, there is room for
optimism.
•
References
Alba, R. and Nee, V. Remaking the American Mainstream (Harvard University Press, 2003).
Baldwin, P. “What is the UC worth?” Los Angeles Times, Op-ed, Feb. 23, 2011.
García, Eugene E. Education and Achievement: A Focus on Latino “Immigrant” Children. Urban
Institute, 2010.
Hertz, T. Understanding Mobility in America, Center for American Progress, (Washington D.C., 2008)
Hungtington, S. “The Hispanic Challenge.” Foreign Policy, 141 (March-April, 2004).
Kasinitz, P., Waters, M. Mollenkopf, J. and Holdaway, J. Inheriting the City, (Harvard University Press,
2010).
Myers, D. (2007). Immigrants and Boomers: Forging a New Social Contract for the Future of America.
New York: Russell Sage Foundation
Portes, A. and Rivas, A. “The Adaption of Migrant Children,” Future Child, Spring; 21(1) (Princeton,
2011), pp. 219-46.
U.S. Census Bureau, American Community Survey (ACS), 2009.
U.S. Census Bureau; Census 2010, Summary File 1;
using American FactFinder;
<http://factfinder.census.gov>; (20 February 2011)
112
Appendix
_________________
Figure 1: Percent
California Native
(Born in California)
AGE 1970 2008
< 15 74.6
88.9
15‐24 52.9
72.8
25‐34 33.1
47.4
35‐44 26.2
38.7
45‐54 21.6
38.2
55‐64 18.2
33.5
65‐74 14.7
24.0
75‐84 13.9 24.6
Total 43.1
53.3
____________________
113
Papa John’s Pizza and American Pie Pizzeria: A Comparative Analysis
Maria Dong
Victoria Martin
University of West Georgia
Introduction
We performed a comparative study between competing restaurants in Carrollton, Georgia. Data from
392 respondents was analyzed using t-tests, correlations and regressions, and Importance-Performance
analysis.
American Pie Pizzeria (APP) and Papa John’s Pizza (PJ) are two restaurants within a two-mile radius
of the University of West Georgia (UWG) campus. These businesses are similar in that they serve similar
food (pizza), but differ in their styles of service and respective atmospheres. The goal of the project was
to determine areas of potential improvement for both businesses based on UWG student responses, and to
answer some of the businesses’ questions about their respective consumer bases. We interviewed the
managers of both businesses and identified the businesses’ needs.
Methodology
We collected data using a direct-structured questionnaire through the innovative marketing carnival
technique. The marketing carnival gave students an opportunity to answer restaurant-focused questions in
a fun and competitive environment. In doing so, the students could choose between two games – a ring
toss and a ball toss – and answer the questions provided in the survey.
The Direct – Structured Questionnaire:
The questionnaire was developed based on the clients’ needs, and was aimed at understanding the
student market in terms of importance and performance of restaurant variables as well as demographic
and segmentation variables. The importance-performance variables were Nutritional Value, Specials,
Distance from Campus, Menu Variety, Environment, Price, and Taste; the demographic and segmentation
variables were gender, class, heavy user (amount spent on meals), heavy user (times eaten out per week),
and Dining Dollar use.
The Marketing Carnival:
The Marketing Carnival games were designed so each ring or ball corresponded to an answer. In the
ball toss, the respondent tried to throw the ball into a hole on the board, while in the ring toss, the
respondent tried to land a ring on a pole. The colors and numbers of the rings and balls each corresponded
to a Likert Scale value – the number 5 corresponded to the highest rating (strongly agree), and the other
ratings (agree, neutral, disagree, and strongly disagree) followed as such. The student picked the color of
the ring/ball that reflected his/her answer to one of the two overall rating questions for each business after
finishing the survey. (See Figure 1) There were three possible levels of performance: the best level was a
perfect shot in the hole or on the pole, the second was a nearly perfect shot, and the third was a shot that
did not land on the board or hit the pole. The respondent was given two chances, and received a prize that
corresponded with his/her performance.
Data Analysis and Results
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to code and analyze the data. In this
section, we present the results of the statistical analysis. It is divided into three sub-sections: General
Analysis, Papa John’s Analysis, and American Pie Pizzeria Analysis.
Data Summary
Using the Marketing Carnival methodology, data was collected from 392 respondents, 98% of whom
were students. Approximately 59% of the respondents were female. Using a one-proportion hypothesis
114
test, we found that our gender proportions were not statistically significantly different from, and thus
representative of, the UWG student population. Some other interesting findings were: most students,
56%, eat out 2-4 times a week, meaning the businesses have a readily available market in the student
population; and roughly 74% of the students spend between $4-8 on a meal, which shows that the
businesses’ menu options fit into the budget of most students.
UWG has a system of Dining Dollars, where students prepay a certain amount of money onto their
UWG ID and use that money at places that accept Dining Dollars. Dining Dollars are not widely spent off
campus; only one of our businesses, PJ, accepts Dining Dollars, but 81% of respondents answered that
they would spend Dining Dollars if they were offered at more off-campus locations. This means that APP
could benefit from the Dining Dollar system by potentially expanding their consumer base to students
with Dining Dollars.
PJ’s advertising strategy proved effective, as 65% of students responded in agreement to often seeing
or hearing advertising for PJ. Comparatively, only 17% of the students stated that they had seen or heard
advertisements for APP, and 42% were unsure about their advertisements in general. From this, we gather
that APP should improve their marketing and advertising strategies to better incorporate the student
population.
Importance Dimensions
Price and Taste were rated highest, meaning the student population sees these factors as most
important when rating a restaurant, and a high performance in these areas will encourage revisiting. Menu
Variety and Environment importance ratings are also included in the overall likelihood of students
revisiting the restaurant, which we will see later in the regressions. (See Figure 2)
Segmentation Using Independent Sample t-Tests
Independent sample t-tests showed significant differences at the 0.05 level between the responses of
the following groups: (a) Gender: Females were found to have rated Importance of Taste, Environment,
Price, Specials, and Distance from Campus higher than males did. This is consistent with our prior
understanding of student behavior, most notably the Taste, Environment, and Price variables. (b) Class:
Upperclassmen respondents (juniors and seniors) rated Importance of Alcohol significantly higher than
did underclassmen respondents (freshmen and sophomores), which is very reasonable, as the drinking age
in the U.S. is 21. (c) Heavy User ($): Respondents willing to spend more than $6 on average for a meal
were considered “heavy users.” Heavy users were rated the Importance of Price lower than did non-heavy
users. In a sense, this is consistent with the definition of heavy user in this case, since heavy users are
willing to spend more, and are therefore less concerned with price. Non-heavy users, on the other hand,
are less willing to spend money and pay more attention to price. (d) Dining Dollars: Respondents with
Dining Dollars rated Importance of Distance from Campus, Availability of Dining Dollars, and
Availability of a Full Course Meal higher than respondents without Dining Dollars. These results are
rational, because students with Dining Dollars can only spend the Dining Dollars at restaurants near or on
UWG’s campus, so distance should be more important to students with Dining Dollars. Also, the
availability of Dining Dollars at local restaurants should logically be more important to students with
Dining Dollars than to students without, because the availability wouldn’t matter to students without
Dining Dollars. Finally, availability of a full-course meal was most likely more important to respondents
with Dining Dollars because students are most likely going to utilize their funds with a complete meal
rather than a snack.
Correlation Analysis
There were several observed significant correlations (P. Corr. < .001) among importance variables;
space restrictions preclude sharing of tables and more detailed information. Most of these served to
generate or refine our hypotheses for the regression analyses, which are reported later in the paper. One
particularly interesting finding was that the importance of Nutritional Value directly correlated to the
importance of Menu Variety (0.352). The importance of a Full Course Meal showed a correlation to the
importance of Franchise Popularity (0.333). This demonstrates that students prefer a menu that is both
diverse and nutritionally sensitive. It also shows that the restaurants offering full course meals should be
more popular in student opinion.
115
Papa John’s Analysis:
Importance-Performance Analysis
An Importance-Performance Analysis was done using “normalized” scores – i.e., the importance score
for each attribute was divided by the mean importance score and then divided by the standard deviation to
obtain a normalized score so that all the scores had a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.0. (See
Figure 3) The same was done for the performance scores. The graph shows each attribute plotted on
Importance-Performance axes using these normalized scores, and the conclusions were drawn as shown in
the boxes on the graph. The performance on most attributes was consistent with the importance, with the
possibility of some overkill on Specials. However, PJ’s Environment showed a relatively low
performance on an important attribute; thus PJ should consider investing more time and money into
creating a more pleasant atmosphere.
One Sample t-Tests
With a 95% confidence interval, we performed a hypothesis test of one mean to determine if the
overall recommendation and overall rating of PJ were each greater than 3.6. When the 2-tailed
significance was lower than 0.050, we concluded that the overall recommendation and overall rating of PJ
were both greater than 3.6. This meant that these overall ratings for PJ reflected a positive student attitude
towards the business. The ratings were higher, or more positive, demonstrating the students’ high
approval of the business.
Segmentation Using Independent Sample t-Tests
Independent sample t-tests showed significant differences at the 0.05 level between the responses of
the following groups: (a) Heavy Users ($): Non-heavy users rated PJ Taste higher than did heavy users.
This is consistent with our prior understanding of student behavior because according to our data, PJ was
rated relatively highly for their prices, meaning that students generally thought PJ’s prices to be low. So
to non-heavy users, the PJ performance rating of Taste may also take into account the performance rating
of price, and the taste may seem like a “better deal” to non-heavy users than to heavy users. (b) Dining
Dollars: Respondents with Dining Dollars gave higher performance ratings of PJ Taste, Environment, and
Distance than did respondents without Dining Dollars. Respondents with Dining Dollars were also more
likely to recommend PJ to their friends. This is consistent with our prior understanding of student
behavior, since PJ is cheaper (Dining Dollar payments do not include tax) and more readily available to
students with Dining Dollars than to students without.
Correlation Analysis
There were several observed significant correlations (P. Corr. < .001) among importance variables;
space restrictions preclude sharing of tables and more detailed information. Overall Rating best correlates
with: Taste (0.639), Environment (0.484), Price (0.446), and Menu Variety (0.525). Additionally,
Recommendation to Friends best correlates with the same aforementioned variables as well as Overall
Rating (0.659), signifying the relationship between the trial and adoption stages of the adoption process.
We note that all of the attributes (Taste, Environment, Price, etc.) are highly correlated with one another.
This is an indicator that, when we do regressions, we need to avoid potential problems of multicollinearity
if all or most of these variables appear as independent variables in the same regression analysis.
Regression Analysis
Papa John’s: Overall Rating:
The R2 value equals 0.523, which means that the combination of the following variables explains
52.3% of the variance in the dependent variable. The regression equation shows that the Overall Rating of
PJ = 0.310 + 0.403*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.239*Performance on Menu Variety +
0.151*Performance on Distance from Campus + 0.128*Performance Rating on Environment or
Atmosphere. PJ is advised to pay the most attention to Taste, followed by Menu Variety and
Environment, respectively. The restaurant should focus more in supporting the taste of the items on the
menu, adding more options to the menu, and bettering the décor and cleanliness of the establishment.
Papa John’s: Recommendation to Friends:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.459) shows that the Likelihood of Recommending to Friends = 0.111
+ 0.482*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.168*Performance Rating on Distance from Campus +
116
0.157*Performance Rating on Menu Variety + 0.144*Performance Rating on Specials. PJ should focus
more in supporting the taste of the items on the menu, adding more options to the menu, and increasing
the number of specials offered.
Papa John’s: Likelihood of Taking Significant Other:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.170) shows the Likelihood of Taking Significant Other = 0.533 +
0.265*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.203*Performance on Environment + 0.165* Performance Rating
on Distance from Campus. PJ is advised to focus more in supporting the taste of items on the menu and
bettering the décor and cleanliness of the restaurant to increase the likelihood of students bringing their
significant other with them.
Papa John’s: Likelihood of Taking Parents:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.231) shows that the Likelihood of Taking Parents = 0.723 +
0.273*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.273*Overall Rating. PJ is advised to pay the most attention to
Taste. The restaurant should focus more in supporting the taste of the items on the menu to increase the
likelihood of students bringing their parents to the restaurant.
Papa John’s: Likelihood of Taking Friends:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.309) shows the Likelihood of Taking Friends = 0.795 +
0.330*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.122*Performance Rating on Distance from Campus +
0.362*Overall Rating. PJ is advised to focus more in supporting the taste of the items of the menu to
increase the likelihood of students bringing their friends to the restaurant.
Papa John’s: Likelihood of Taking a Group or Organization:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.222) shows the Likelihood of Taking a Group/Organization = 1.361 +
0.542*Performance Rating on Taste. PJ is advised to focus more in increasing the taste of items on the
menu to increase the likelihood of students bringing their group or organization to the restaurant.
American Pie Pizzeria Analysis:
Importance-Performance Analysis
An Importance-Performance analysis was done using normalized scores for APP. (See Figure 4) The
performance on most attributes was consistent with the importance, and there were no attributes in the
High Importance-Low Performance quadrant; however, Price was only marginally in its quadrant in the
graph above, showing room for improvement in its performance.
One Sample t-Tests
With a 95% confidence interval, we performed a hypothesis test of one mean to determine if the
overall recommendation and overall rating of APP was greater than 3.15. Because the 2-tailed
significance was less than 0.050 for both variables, we concluded that the overall recommendation and
overall rating of APP were both greater than 3.15.
The restaurant needs to rate higher on these two dimensions, as the overall ratings and
recommendation suggest the students are higher in the adoption process. More directly stated, students
who recommend APP to friends most likely have a higher opinion in the restaurant, and have adopted the
restaurant. If the restaurant performs better overall, they should see a higher influx of student visitations.
Segmentation Using Independent Sample t-Tests
Independent sample t-tests showed significant differences at the 0.05 level between the responses of
the following groups: (a) Class: Upperclassmen (juniors and seniors) responded that they were more
likely to take a significant other to APP than underclassmen (freshmen and sophomores) responded. This
is reasonable because upperclassmen had a higher chance of recognizing APP after their longer duration
at UWG. (b) Heavy Users ($): It was found that heavy users also frequented APP more often than nonheavy users. This is rational, since APP average menu prices were found to have been higher than PJ.
Because heavy users are more willing to spend money, they would therefore also be more willing to eat
more often at APP. (c) Heavy Users (times out per week): More heavy users were regulars at APP than
were non-heavy users. This is reasonable, because people who eat out more often are more likely to come
across more restaurants that aren’t immediately adjacent to UWG’s campus, such as APP. As for
performance segments, heavy users had also seen more advertising for APP than did non-heavy users.
This is also logical, because heavy users that go out more often are more likely to see more advertising for
117
more general audiences, while non-heavy users at UWG see less general advertising and more advertising
directed at UWG.
Correlation Analysis
There were several observed significant correlations (P. Corr. < .001) among importance variables;
space restrictions preclude sharing of tables and more detailed information. We note that all of the
attributes (Taste, Environment, Price, etc.) are highly correlated with one another. This is an indicator
that, when we do regressions, we need to avoid potential problems of multicollinearity if all or most of
these variables appear as independent variables in the same regression analysis. We found that Overall
Rating best correlates with: Taste (0.789), Environment (0.813), and Menu Variety (0.802). Additionally,
Recommendation to Friends best correlates with the same variables, as well as Overall Rating (0.807),
again signifying the relation between the trial and adoption stages of the adoption process.
Regression Analysis
American Pie Pizzeria: Overall Rating:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.776) shows Overall Rating of APP = -0.053 + 0.315*Performance
Rating on Environment or Atmosphere + 0.270*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.253*Performance on
Menu Variety + 0.192*Performance on Specials. APP is advised to focus on supporting the taste of the
items on the menu, increasing the variety of items on the menu, and offering more specials to increase the
overall student opinion.
American Pie Pizzeria: Recommendation to Friends:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.713) shows the Likelihood of Recommending to Friends = 0.146 +
0.371*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.290*Performance Rating on Menu Variety + 0.231*Performance
Rating on Environment or Atmosphere +0.180*Performance Rating on Specials - 0.109*Performance on
Nutritional Value. The restaurant should focus more of its resources in supporting the taste of the items
on the menu, bettering the décor and cleanliness of the establishment, increasing the number of specials
offered, and diversifying the number of healthy options as well as more options in general on the menu to
increase the likelihood of students recommending the restaurant to friends.
American Pie Pizzeria: Likelihood of Taking Significant Other:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.553) shows the Likelihood of Taking Significant Other = 0.217 +
0.436*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.258*Performance on Menu Variety + 0.207*Performance Rating
on Distance from Campus. APP is advised to focus more of its resources in supporting the taste of the
items on the menu and increasing the number and choice of items on the menu to increase the likelihood
of students bringing their significant other to the restaurant.
American Pie Pizzeria: Likelihood of Taking Parents:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.598) shows the Likelihood of Taking Parents = 0.325 +
0.324*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.254*Performance Rating on Environment + 0.170*Performance
on Price + 0.143*Overall Rating. APP is advised to focus more in supporting the taste of items on the
menu, bettering the décor and cleanliness of the establishment, and lowering prices to better match the
average amount students spend on a meal to increase the likelihood of students bringing parents to the
restaurant.
American Pie Pizzeria: Likelihood of Taking Friends:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.629) shows the Likelihood of Taking Friends = 0.448 +
0.416*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.362*Overall Rating + 0.195*Performance Rating on Distance
from Campus - 0.119*Performance on Nutritional Value. APP is advised to focus more in supporting the
taste of items on the menu and offering healthier options on the menu to increase the likelihood of
students bringing friends to the restaurant.
American Pie Pizzeria: Likelihood of Taking Group or Organization:
The regression equation (R2 = 0.633) shows the Likelihood of Taking Group/Organization = 0.416 +
0.307*Performance Rating on Environment + 0.238*Performance Rating on Menu Variety +
0.193*Performance Rating on Taste + 0.186*Overall Rating - 0.179*Performance Rating on Nutritional
Value + 0.130*Performance Rating on Price. APP is advised to focus more in bettering the décor and
cleanliness of the establishment, increasing the number and variety of items on the menu, supporting the
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taste of items on the menu, offering healthier food choices, and lowering the price to better match the
average amount students spend to increase the likelihood of students bringing groups or organizations to
the restaurant.
Limitations
The primary limitation of the project was the marketing carnival because it relied on a convenience
sample, instead of a completely random sample, to fill out the questionnaire. The second limitation was a
lack of respondent focus towards the end of the survey, which likely resulted from the length of the
survey. Additionally, we also found that many students were not familiar with APP, and those who
answered did so based on their assumptions of the restaurant or provided a neutral rating on all
performance ratings for APP. Finally, some respondents found some wording in the survey to be
misleading, particularly the questions involving “nutritional value,” “specials,” and “menu variety”.
Overall Conclusions and Recommendations: Papa John’s Pizza
The restaurant should seriously consider investing more time and money into creating a more pleasant
atmosphere for its customers and establishing a better sit-down area in the restaurant. We found that the
current student approval of PJ was relatively high, and that non-heavy users and Dining Dollar users rated
PJ higher than did other respondents. As for correlations to PJ Overall Rating, the strongest correlations
were Taste, Price, Environment, and Menu Variety.
In every regression, Taste was of great importance. The most important regression, Recommendation
to Friends, showed that the restaurant should focus more in supporting taste, add more options to the
menu, and increase the number of specials offered.
In light of our conclusions, we recommend that PJ focuses in creating a more pleasant atmosphere,
establishing a better sit-down area, expanding menu variety, increasing the number of specials,
maintaining their food-making methods, and continuing accepting Dining Dollars.
As for the menu variety, the restaurant is primarily a pizza provider, with bread sticks and few
desserts, but the restaurant should try to expand the variety of the dimensions other than pizza, such as
side dishes and types of desserts. The Dining Dollar system has also proved to be very useful, as the
system has garnered high ratings from Dining Dollar users.
Overall Conclusions and Recommendations: American Pie Pizzeria
APP’s advertising is ineffective, as only 17% of respondents said that they had often seen or heard
advertising for APP. The current student approval rating is very close to neutral, further signifying student
unawareness or with APP. Upperclassmen and heavy users (based on both amount spent per meal and
times eaten out) were found to have rated aspects of APP higher than did other respondents. Taste and
Overall Rating were strongly correlated for APP, further demonstrating that if a consumer enjoys the taste
they will rate the restaurant higher and recommend it to others. The atmosphere was also highly
correlated to its overall rating.
According to the correlations, the variables most strongly correlated to Overall Rating of APP were
Taste, Environment and Menu Variety, indicating need for focus in these aspects of APP. In the
regressions, Taste was always an important factor, and other important variables included Environment,
Specials, Nutritional Value and Menu Variety.
In the light of the preceding analysis, APP would most likely benefit from increasing their advertising
campaign, reaching out towards university students, keeping the “family friendly” environment, offering
a lower priced menu for students or offering a discount for students, and possibly joining the Dining
Dollar system. APP is also advised to offer a discount for students or provide a money conscious section
of their menu. In doing so, the restaurant would improve on their price dimension, which has shown room
for improvement throughout the report.
Comparison
The overall ratings and likelihood of recommending the restaurants to friends were higher for PJ then
for APP, but this is most likely the result of the lack of student awareness of APP.
Both PJ and APP should focus on their advertising campaigns as well as the taste of their food items
and menu variety. PJ performance was not as good as APP’s, as PJ had more areas of overkill (where
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importance was low and performance was high) than did APP. The two were very similar in their
performances of Taste, Price, Nutritional Value, and Menu Variety.
Both businesses will see more business if they continue to pursue the Dining Dollar System. That is,
APP should see more business if they join the system and PJ has this segment of the market already. That
being said, the student and university relationships with the businesses are crucial in maintaining the
likelihood of the business thriving.
Figure 1:
The Marketing Carnival Game
Figure 2:
Importance Dimensions
Importance Dimensions
10 feet
5
4
3
2
1
1 2 3 4 5
10 feet
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Figure 3:
Papa John’s Importance/Performance Analysis
Figure 4:
American Pie Pizzeria Importance-Performance Analysis
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Film Review
"2016: Obama’s America"
Ben Miles
In 2010 conservative commentator Dinesh D’Souza wrote the book, The Roots of Obama’s Rage. Now
the author has created a documentary film based on that treatise; it’s titled 2016: Obama’s America. The
premise of this polemic is that President Obama is motivated not by the so-called American Dream, as
envisioned by the founders, and not the dream so eloquently articulated by Martin Luther King Jr. Rather,
Obama is provoked and moved by his own dream.
Conveniently, D’Souza uses as his main exhibit Obama‘s own memoir, Dreams From My Father, to
distinguish the President’s dream from the more traditionally patriotic dream ensconced in the ideals of
life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness. According to D’Souza, a primary hint lies in the book’s moniker.
It’s called Dreams From My Father, not Dreams Of My Father. Couple that with what D’Souza calls the
Kenyan-born senior Barack Obama’s Anti-Colonial disposition and D’Souza claims he’s on to something
that incriminates President Obama as an adherent to the Anti-Colonialism that allegedly defined his
father’s world view and that is an endemic perspective throughout the Third World.
The problem is, D’Souza develops this Anti-Colonial theory with regard to Obama’s global vision and
then insists that it’s the only explanatory framework in which the ascent of President Obama fits. D’Souza
points out that every other U.S. President has had a traceable rise to political power. Barack Obama, says
D’Souza, comes out of nowhere. Though D’Souza is no Birther – he’s confident that the President was
born in Hawaii, in 1961 – he seems equally certain that his Kenyan heritage and the years he spent as a
child living in the Islamic country of Indonesia (due to his mother’s second marriage to an Indonesian
citizen) has influenced him in a radical fashion, making him a qualitatively different sort of American
leader, one that cannot be trusted to uphold the values and virtues upon which the country has been built.
Written and directed by D’Souza (along with John Sullivan), the nearly 90-minute film makes use of
personal photos from Obama’s biographical file (images of Obama’s childhood, as well as his tenure as a
college student – and, of course, his time spent as a young adult in Africa are on ready display here).
Moreover, an array of talking heads are featured making (in many cases)unsubstantiated claims
concerning Obama’s allegiances – as if saying it’s so makes it so. Also, questionable re-enactments of
certain episodes from Obama’s life story give a sort of tabloid sensibility to the proceedings.
Taking an interesting angle on the matter of Obama’s worldview, D’Souza parallels his own life with
that of the president’s – both men were born in 1961, both attended Ivy League universities, and both of
them are authors with a familiarity of life lived in a Third-World country. This supposedly lends
credibility to D’Souza’s expertise in Third-World perspectives. But while D’Souza’s first effort at
filmmaking demonstrates his talent for storytelling and “creative” journalism, it also establishes him as a
first-class propagandist. In fact, this film is so compelling fear based and so full of intriguing conjecture
that D’Souza, merely on the basis 2016: Obama’s America, can immediately join the ranks of Leni
Riefenstahl and Michael Moore as a master of cinematic agitprop.
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