Multiple Access Links and Protocols
Two types of “links”:
 point-to-point
 PPP for dial-up access
 point-to-point link between Ethernet switch and host
 broadcast (shared wire or medium)
 old-fashioned Ethernet
 upstream HFC
 802.11 wireless LAN
shared wire (e.g.,
cabled Ethernet)
shared RF
(e.g., 802.11 WiFi)
shared RF
(satellite)
humans at a
cocktail party
(shared air, acoustical)
1
Multiple Access protocols
 single shared broadcast channel
 two or more simultaneous transmissions by nodes:
interference

collision if node receives two or more signals at the same time
multiple access protocol
 distributed algorithm that determines how nodes
share channel, i.e., determine when node can transmit
 communication about channel sharing must use channel
itself!

no out-of-band channel for coordination
2
Ideal Multiple Access Protocol
Broadcast channel of rate R bps
1. when one node wants to transmit, it can send at
rate R.
2. when M nodes want to transmit, each can send at
average rate R/M
3. fully decentralized:


no special node to coordinate transmissions
no synchronization of clocks, slots
4. simple
3
MAC Protocols: a taxonomy
Three broad classes:
 Channel Partitioning


divide channel into smaller “pieces” (time slots,
frequency, code)
allocate piece to node for exclusive use
 Random Access
 channel not divided, allow collisions
 “recover” from collisions
 “Taking turns”
 nodes take turns, but nodes with more to send can take
longer turns
4
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: TDMA
TDMA: time division multiple access
 access to channel in "rounds"
 each station gets fixed length slot (length = pkt
trans time) in each round
 unused slots go idle
 Example 6-station LAN:

1,3,4 have pkt, slots 2,5,6 idle
6-slot
frame
1
3
4
1
3
4
5
Channel Partitioning MAC protocols: FDMA
FDMA: frequency division multiple access
 channel spectrum divided into frequency bands
 each station assigned fixed frequency band
 unused transmission time in frequency bands go idle
 Example 6-station LAN:
1,3,4 have pkt, frequency bands 2,5,6 idle
frequency bands

6
Random Access Protocols
 When node has packet to send
 transmit at full channel data rate R.
 no a priori coordination among nodes
 two or more transmitting nodes ➜ “collision”,
 random access MAC protocol specifies:
 how to detect collisions
 how to recover from collisions (e.g., via delayed retransmissions)
 Examples of random access MAC protocols:
 slotted ALOHA
 ALOHA
 CSMA, CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
7
Slotted ALOHA
Assumptions:
 all frames same size
 time divided into equal
size slots (time to
transmit 1 frame)
 nodes start to transmit
only slot beginning
 nodes are synchronized
 if 2 or more nodes
transmit in slot, all
nodes detect collision
Operation:
 when node obtains fresh
frame, transmits in next slot
 if no collision: node can
send new frame in next slot
 if collision: node
retransmits frame in each
subsequent slot with prob.
p until success
8
Slotted ALOHA
Pros
 single active node can
continuously transmit
at full rate of channel
 highly decentralized:
only slots in nodes
need to be in sync
 simple
Cons
 collisions, wasting slots
 idle slots
 nodes may be able to
detect collision in less
than time to transmit
packet
 clock synchronization
9
Slotted Aloha efficiency
Efficiency : long-run
fraction of successful slots
(many nodes, all with many
frames to send)

suppose: N nodes with
many frames to send,
each transmits in slot
with probability p
 prob that given node
has success in a slot =
p(1-p)N-1
 prob that
any node has
a success = Np(1-p)N-1
 max efficiency: find
p* that maximizes
Np(1-p)N-1
 for many nodes, take
limit of Np*(1-p*)N-1
as N goes to infinity,
gives:
Max efficiency = 1/e = .37
At best: channel
used for useful
transmissions 37%
of time!
!
10
Pure (unslotted) ALOHA
 unslotted Aloha: simpler, no synchronization
 when frame first arrives
 transmit immediately
 collision probability increases:
 frame sent at t0 collides with other frames sent in [t0-1,t0+1]
11
Pure Aloha efficiency
P(success by given node) = P(node transmits) .
P(no other node transmits in [t0-1,t0] .
P(no other node transmits in [t0,t0+1]
= p . (1-p)N-1 . (1-p)N-1
= p . (1-p)2(N-1)
… choosing optimum p and then letting n -> infinity ...
= 1/(2e) = .18
even worse than slotted Aloha!
12
13
Now, let’s improve things …
14
IEEE 802.11: multiple access
 avoid collisions: 2+ nodes transmitting at same time
 802.11: CSMA - sense before transmitting
 don’t collide with ongoing transmission by other node
 802.11: no collision detection!
 difficult to receive (sense collisions) when transmitting due
to weak received signals (fading)
 can’t sense all collisions in any case: hidden terminal, fading
 goal: avoid collisions: CSMA/C(ollision)A(voidance)
A
C
A
B
B
C
C’s signal
strength
A’s signal
strength
space
15
IEEE 802.11 MAC Protocol: CSMA/CA
802.11 sender
1 if sense channel idle for DIFS then
transmit entire frame (no CD)
2 if sense channel busy then
start random backoff time
timer counts down while channel idle
transmit when timer expires
3 if no ACK then increase random backoff
interval, repeat step 2
802.11 receiver
- if frame received OK
sender
receiver
DIFS
data
SIFS
ACK
return ACK after SIFS
(service model is connectionless, acked)
16
IEEE 802.11 MAC: Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• Make use of CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)
• Use set of delays generic called Interframe Space (IFS)
Algorithm Logic:
1. Station sense the medium
2. If medium idle, wait IFS, then if
still idle transmit frame
3. If medium busy or become
busy, defer and monitor the
medium until idle
4. Then, delay IFS and sense
medium
5. If medium idle, exponential
backoff and if then idle, station
transmit
• Binary exponential backoff
-> handle heavy load
17
IEEE 802.11 MAC: Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)
• Make use of CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)
• Use set of delays generic called Interframe Space (IFS)
Algorithm Logic:
1. Station sense the medium
2. If medium idle, wait IFS, then if
still idle transmit frame
3. If medium busy or become
busy, defer and monitor the
medium until idle
4. Then, delay IFS and sense
medium
5. If medium idle, exponential
backoff and if then idle, station
transmit
• Binary exponential backoff
-> handle heavy load
18
IEEE 802.11 MAC: DCF, cont’d
Priority-based scheme - use 3 values for IFS:
– SIFS (short IFS): shortest IFS used for immediate responses
such as ACK, CTS, poll response
– PIFS (point coordination function IFS): middle length IFS used
for issuing polls by a centralized controller
– DIFS (distributed coordination function IFS): longest IFS used
for regular asynchronous frames
19
Hidden Terminal Problem
Hidden terminal problem (ad-hoc and WLAN)
B
A
C
C’s signal
strength
A’s signal
strength
space
C
A
B
20
Hidden Terminal Problem
Hidden terminal problem (ad-hoc and WLAN)
B
A
C
C’s signal
strength
A’s signal
strength
space
C
A
B
21
Hidden Terminal Problem
Hidden terminal problem (ad-hoc and WLAN)
- medium free near the transmitter
- medium not free near the receiver
=> Packet collision
B
A
C
C’s signal
strength
A’s signal
strength
space
C
A
B
22
Hidden Terminal Problem
Hidden terminal problem (ad-hoc and WLAN)
- medium free near the transmitter
- medium not free near the receiver
=> Packet collision
Possible solution:
- MAC scheme using RTS-CTS scheme
B
A
C
C’s signal
strength
A’s signal
strength
space
C
A
B
23
Avoiding collisions (more)
idea:
allow sender to “reserve” channel rather than random
access of data frames: avoid collisions of long data frames
 sender first transmits small request-to-send (RTS) packets
to base station using CSMA
 RTS may still collide with each other (but they’re short)
 BS broadcasts clear-to-send CTS to host in response to RTS
 RTS heard by all nodes because of broadcast property
 sender transmits (large) data frame
 other stations defer transmissions until it is done
Avoid data frame collisions completely
using small reservation packets!
24
Collision Avoidance: RTS-CTS exchange
A
AP
B
reservation collision
DATA (A)
defer
time
25
Hidden Terminal Problem [2]
Problems with RTS-CTS solution:
- possible collisions between CTS and RTS
- collisions between data packets due to multiple different
CTS granted to different neighboring nodes
- Also, adds delay and overhead …
26
Exposed Terminal Problems
Exposed terminal problem (ad-hoc and WLAN)
- medium free near the receiver
- medium busy near the transmitter
=> Waist of bandwidth
Possible solutions:
- directional antennas
- separate channels for control and data
27
Issues, medium access schemes
 Distributed
operation
 Synchronization
 Hidden terminals
 Exposed terminals
 Throughput
 Access delay
 Fairness
 Real-time traffic
support
 Resource reservation
 Ability to measure
resource availability
 Capability for power
control
 Adaptive rate
control
 Use of directional
antennas
28
Issues, medium access schemes
 Distributed
operation
 Synchronization
 Hidden terminals
 Exposed terminals
 Throughput
 Access delay
 Fairness
 Real-time traffic
support
 Resource reservation
 Ability to measure
resource availability
 Capability for power
control
 Adaptive rate
control
 Use of directional
antennas
29
Issues, medium access schemes
 Distributed
operation
 Synchronization
 Hidden terminals
 Exposed terminals
 Throughput
 Access delay
 Fairness
 Real-time traffic
support
 Resource reservation
 Ability to measure
resource availability
 Capability for power
control
 Adaptive rate
control
 Use of directional
antennas
30
31
802.11 frame: addressing
2
2
6
6
6
frame
address address address
duration
control
1
2
3
Address 1: MAC address
of wireless host or AP
to receive this frame
2
6
seq address
4
control
0 - 2312
4
payload
CRC
Address 4: used only
in ad hoc mode
Address 3: MAC address
of router interface to
which AP is attached
Address 2: MAC address
of wireless host or AP
transmitting this frame
32
802.11 frame: addressing
R1 router
H1
Internet
AP
R1 MAC addr H1 MAC addr
dest. address
source address
802.3 frame
AP MAC addr H1 MAC addr R1 MAC addr
address 1
address 2
address 3
802.11 frame
33
802.11 frame: more
frame seq #
(for reliable ARQ)
duration of reserved
transmission time (RTS/CTS)
2
2
6
6
6
frame
address address address
duration
control
1
2
3
2
Protocol
version
2
4
1
Type
Subtype
To
AP
6
2
1
seq address
4
control
1
From More
AP
frag
1
Retry
1
0 - 2312
4
payload
CRC
1
Power More
mgt
data
1
1
WEP
Rsvd
frame type
(RTS, CTS, ACK, data)
34
35
A few more about QoS
36
IEEE 802.11 MAC: Point Coordination Function (PCF)
•
•
•
•
Alternative access method on top of DCF
Polling operation by a centralized master
Use PIFS when issuing polls
For avoiding locking out the asynchronous traffic the
superframe is used
37
IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol
38
IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame Types
•
–
–
–
–
–
–
Six types of control frames
Power save - poll (PS-poll)
Request to send (RTS)
Clear to send (CTS)
Acknowledgment (ACK)
Contention-free (CF)-end
CF-end + CF-Ack
•Management frames
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
• Eight types of data frames
Carry user data
– Data
– Data + CF-Ack
– Data + CF-poll
– Data + CF-Ack + CF-poll
 Do not carry user data
–
–
–
–
Null Function
CF-Ack
CF-Poll
CF-Ack + CF-Poll
association request and association response
reassociation request and reassociation response
probe request and probe response
beacon
announcement traffic indication message
disassociation
authentication and deauthentication
39
IEEE 802.11e: Enhanced Distribution
Coordination Function (EDCF)
40
IEEE 802.11 MAC protocol: parameters
41
42
Two Popular 2.4 GHz Standards:
 IEEE 802.11 (WiFi)
Fast (11 Mbps)
 High power
 Long range
 Single-purpose
 Typically channel 1,
6, or 11
 Ethernet
replacement
 Easily available

 Bluetooth
Slow (1 Mbps)
 Low power
 Short range
 Flexible
 Frequency hopping

 Cable
replacement (e.g.,
device-to-device)
43
Example
 What technology/device?
44
Example
Figures from:
A. Mahanti et al., ”Ambient Interference Effects
in Wi-Fi Networks”, Proc. IFIP Networking, 2010.
 Many devices and technologies sharing the
medium … resulting in different degrees of
interference
45
Example: Channel Utilization
 Channel utilization: The
% of time a transmission
is present from a known
RF source, in a given
channel
 Channels 1 and 6,
utilization peaked near
60%, while for channel
11 it was over 90%.
 Channel 11 spikes caused
due to microwave ovens,
cordless phones, and
other fixed-frequency
devices.
Figure from:
A. Mahanti et al., ”Ambient Interference Effects
in Wi-Fi Networks”, Proc. IFIP Networking, 2010.
46
47
Background: Cellular network technology
 Overview
 1G: Analog voice (no global standard …)
 2G: Digital voice (again … GSM vs. CDMA)
 3G: Digital voice and data
• Again ... UMTS (WCDMA) vs. CDMA2000 (both CDMA-based)
• and … 2.5G: EDGE (GSM-based)
 4G:
LTE, LTE-Advanced …
• OFDM (OFDMA for downlink and SC-OFDM for uplink)
 Trends
 More
data, packet-based switching, shared channel,
directional (spatial reuse), multi-antenna, etc.
 Other goals: Seamless with other technologies, QoS
for multimedia, etc.
48
Components of cellular network architecture
MSC
connects cells to wired tel. net.
 manages call setup (more later!)
 handles mobility (more later!)

cell
covers geographical
region
 base station (BS)
analogous to 802.11 AP
 mobile users attach to
network through BS
 air-interface: physical
and link layer protocol
between mobile and BS

Mobile
Switching
Center
Public telephone
network
Mobile
Switching
Center
wired network
Wireless, Mobile Networks
6-49
Cellular networks: the first hop
Techniques for sharing
mobile-to-BS radio
spectrum
 combined FDMA/TDMA:
divide spectrum in
frequency channels, divide
each channel into time
slots
frequency
bands
 CDMA: code division
multiple access
 SDMA: space division
multiple access
time slots
50
2G (voice) network architecture
Base station system (BSS)
MSC
BTS
G
BSC
Public
telephone
network
Gateway
MSC
Legend
Base transceiver station (BTS)
Base station controller (BSC)
Mobile Switching Center (MSC)
Mobile subscribers
Wireless, Mobile Networks
6-51
3G (voice+data) network architecture
MSC
G
radio
network
controller
Gateway
MSC
G
SGSN
Key insight: new cellular data
network operates in parallel
(except at edge) with existing
cellular voice network
 voice network unchanged in core
 data network operates in parallel
Public
telephone
network
Public
Internet
GGSN
Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN)
Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN)
Wireless, Mobile Networks
6-52
3G (voice+data) network architecture
MSC
G
radio
network
controller
Public
telephone
network
Gateway
MSC
G
SGSN
Public
Internet
GGSN
radio interface
(WCDMA, HSPA)
radio access network
Universal Terrestrial Radio
Access Network (UTRAN)
core network
General Packet Radio Service
(GPRS) Core Network
public
Internet
Wireless, Mobile Networks
6-53
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 used in several wireless broadcast channels





(cellular, satellite, etc) standards
unique “code” assigned to each user; i.e., code set
partitioning
all users share same frequency, but each user has
own “chipping” sequence (i.e., code) to encode data
encoded signal = (original data) X (chipping
sequence)
decoding: inner-product of encoded signal and
chipping sequence
allows multiple users to “coexist” and transmit
simultaneously with minimal interference (if codes
are “orthogonal”)
54
CDMA Encode/Decode
sender
d0 = 1
data
bits
code
Zi,m= di.cm
-1 -1 -1
1
-1
1 1 1
-1 -1 -1
slot 1
-1
slot 1
channel
output
1
-1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
d1 = -1
1 1 1
channel output Zi,m
-1 -1 -1
slot 0
1
-1
-1 -1 -1
slot 0
channel
output
M
Di = S Zi,m.cm
m=1
received
input
code
receiver
1 1 1 1 1 1
1
-1 -1 -1
-1
1 1 1
1
-1
-1 -1 -1
-1
1 1 1
-1 -1 -1
slot 1
M
1
1
-1
-1 -1 -1
slot 0
d0 = 1
d1 = -1
slot 1
channel
output
slot 0
channel
output
55
CDMA: two-sender interference
56
Practical chipping codes …
 Orthogonal even under offset?
 No synchronization …
 Random sequence; high probability low cross-correlation
 Different chip lengths?
 different rates, take advantage of silence, more calls
57
LTE and LTE-Advanced




ITU, IMT-advanced, 3GPP, and LTE-Advavnced ...
All traffic is IP-based
Base station called enhanced NodeB, eNodeB or eNB
Downlink (OFDMA) vs uplink (SC-OFDM)
58
LTE downlink (OFDMA-based)
Figure from:
3GPP TR 25.892; Feasibility Study for
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
(OFDM) for UTRAN enhancement (Release 6)
 Data symbols are independently modulated and
transmitted over a high number of closely spaced
orthogonal subcarriers.
 Availible modulation schemes for E-UTRA downlink:
QPSK, 16QAM, and 64QAM
 OFDM signal is generated using Inverse Fast
Fourier Transform (IFFT) digital signal processingƒ
59
Figure from:
S. Parkvall, “LTE – The Global Standard for
Mobile Broadband”, presentation, Ericsson Research
 Time domain structure:
 10 ms frame consisting of 10 subframes of length 1 ms
 Each subframe consists of 2 slots of length 0.5 ms
 Each slot consists of 7 OFDM symbols (6 symbols in case
of extended CP)
 ƒResource element (RE)
 One subcarier during one OFDM symbol
 ƒResource block (RB)
 12 subcarriers during one slot (180 kHz × 0.5 ms)
60
 Scheduling decisions done in the base station
 Scheduling algorithm is a vendor-specific, but
typically takes into account




Radio link quality situation of different users
Overall interference situation
Quality of Service requirements
Service priorities, etc.
61
Downlink vs uplink
 Parallel transmission on
large number of
narrowband subcarriers
 Avoids own-cell
interference
 Robust to time dispersion
 ƒ
Bad power-amplifier
efficiency
 Single carrier properties
 Better battery lifetime at
phones/sender (reduced
power-amplifier power)
 More complexity at
receiver (equalizer needed)
 Lower throughput
62
Current LTE status
 GSA Fast Facts based on their "Evolution to LTE
Report" (updated September 2014):





526 operators are investing in LTE in 156 countries
Over 21% of operators are deploying LTE-Advanced
technologies. 16 operators have commercially launched
LTE-Advanced systems.
66 operators in 35 countries are investing in VoLTE
studies, trials, deployments
10 operators have commercially launched HD voice service
using VoLTE
GSA forecasts there will be at least 350 commercially
launched LTE networks by end 2014
 More material later ... (e.g., eMBMS and MIMO)
63