Psychology
Approaches and Methods
in Psychology
Introductory Student Guide
[HIGHER]
STUDENT GUIDE
Introduction to the unit
What this unit is about
This unit is designed to introduce you to different approaches to the
study of human behaviour, different research methods for studying
human behaviour and the different types of research design used in
psychology.
You will learn about the aims, applications and limitations of each
approach, the advantages and disadvantages of each research method
and the relative merits of each experimental design.
Outcomes
On completion of this unit you will be able to:
• explain the main theoretical approaches to psychology
• compare the main research methods used in psychology
• explain experimental research design in psychology.
Prior experience
Access is at the discretion of the centre. However, you will normally be
recommended to have attained the following:
• Standard Grade English at credit level/Intermediate 2 Level English or
Communication 3
Progression and related study
On successful completion of the Approaches and Methods in Psychology
unit – D405 12 – 1 credit (40 hours), you may wish to progress to the
Cognitive Psychology unit – D400 12 – 1 credit (40 hours) then onto
the Social Psychology unit – D401 12 – 1 credit (40 hours), successful
completion of which will allow you to prepare for and progress to the
external assessment for the SQA Psychology (Higher).
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
Core skills
Core skills are the transferable skills needed for life and for lifelong
learning. They are not new and learning them doesn’t begin with
National Qualifications. They have been a recognised part of school/
college learning for some time. National Qualifications will build on and
develop the good work you’ve already done in school or college.
The core skills in National Qualifications are:
• Communication
• Numeracy
• Problem Solving (made up of critical thinking, planning and
organising, and reviewing and evaluating)
• Information Technology
• Working with Others.
Employers, colleges and universities increasingly give weight to the
importance of core skills. Through National Qualifications, students will
be able to develop core skills through a wide range of subjects in the
curriculum, learn how to transfer them and to apply them in new
situations.
Your tutor will keep you informed of how core skills are incorporated
into the unit/course you are currently studying.
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APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
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Open learning pack structure
No matter which open learning study section you are following, your
self study materials will be made up of the same component parts.
Your guide to the
course.
Introductory Guide
Designed to help you
study on your own.
Number of study
sections will vary
according to length of
unit.
study sections
Incorporate course content and the undernoted
!
Self Assessed Questions
!
Activities
?
Used to check
understanding of the
material covered in the
section. Answers at end
of study section.
Tasks to be completed
related to study
materials. Answers
follow on the page after
the Activity.
A
!
Tutor Assignment
T
Used to assess key
aspects of the study
sections and usually
found towards the end
of the study section.
!
Preparing for external
assessment
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
Your open learning pack consists of an Introductory Guide and eight
study sections as indicated below.
Introductory Guide
Pages: 3–30
Study Time: 1 hour
Section 1
A Look at Psychology
Pages: 83–106
Study Time: 2 hours
Section 2
The Behaviourist Approach
Pages: 107–144
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 3
The Cognitive Approach
Pages: 145–186
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 4
The Psychoanalytic Approach
Pages: 187–230
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 5
The Biological Approach
Pages: 231–276
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 6
The Humanistic Approach
Pages: 277–312
Study Time: 4 hours
Section 7
Research Using Experiments
Pages: 313–386
Study Time: 6 hours
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Section 8
Research Using Non-experimental Methods
Pages: 387–431
Study Time: 4 hours
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
How to use the pack
This pack has been designed to meet the outcomes within the SQA unit
‘Approaches and Methods in Psychology’. Whether you’re new to open
learning or not, the first step towards being a successful open learner is
to be familiar and comfortable with the learning materials. It’s well
worth spending a little of your initial study time scanning the study
sections to see how they’re structured, what the various features are
called and what they’re designed to do.
This will save you a lot of time and frustration when you start studying,
as you’ll then be able to concentrate on the actual subject matter itself
without the need to refer back to what you’re supposed to be doing
with each part.
Course study sections
Each study section of your open learning pack is structured in exactly
the same way:
• Contents page
• An introduction to the section
– what the section is about
– the objectives of the section
– suggested study time for the section
– other resources required which are not included in the pack
• Assessment information
– how, when, where, what assessment for the section will take place
• Subject content, including
– Activities (A), Self Assessed Questions (SAQ), Tutor Assignments
(TA)
– Feedback to SAQs (at the back of the study section and before the
Tutor Assignment)
– Comments on activities (immediately follow the activity)
– Advice on the return of Tutor Assignments, where appropriate
• Summary
– designed to reinforce what has just been done and generally
provides a quick reference to the contents of the section
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Approximate study time
While the time allocated to this unit is at the discretion of the centre,
the notional design length is 40 hours. The study times quoted on
pages 6 and 7 should therefore be used as a guide only.
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Symbols used in the pack
This open learning pack allows you to work on your own with tutor
support. As you work through the course, you’ll encounter a series of
symbols which indicate that something follows which you’re expected to
do. You’ll notice that you are asked to work through the study sections
by undertaking a series of Self Assessed Questions, Activities and Tutor
Assignments. An explanation of these symbols is given below.
Self Assessed Questions
?
This symbol is used to indicate a Self Assessed Question (SAQ). Most
commonly SAQs are used to check your understanding of the material
that has already been covered in the sections.
This type of assessment is self contained, that is everything is provided
within the section to enable you to check your understanding of the
materials.
The process is simple:
• You are set SAQs throughout the study section. These will be set as
short answer questions, true/false questions, multiple choice
questions and definitions of psychological terms.
• You respond to these, either by writing in the space provided in the
assessment itself, or in your own notebook.
• On completion of the SAQ, you turn to the back of the section to
compare the SAQ responses to yours.
• If you’re not satisfied after checking out your responses, turn to the
appropriate part of the study section and go over the topic again.
Remember that the answers to SAQs are contained within the study
materials. You’re not expected to ‘guess’ at these answers.
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Activities
A
This symbol indicates an activity which is normally a task that you’ll be
asked to do to improve or consolidate your understanding of the
subject in general or a particular feature of it.
You’ll be asked to read a passage and answer questions, revise a topic
already covered, complete sentences, relate your own experiences to
psychological approaches and carry out simple experiments.
The suggested responses to activities will follow directly after the
activity.
Remember that the SAQs and activities contained within your pack are
intended to allow you to check your understanding and monitor your
own progress throughout the course. It goes without saying then, that
the answers to these should only be checked out after the SAQ or
activity has been completed. If you refer to these answers before
completing the activities you can’t expect to get maximum benefit from
your course.
Tutor Assignment
T
This symbol means that a Tutor Assignment is to follow. These will be
found at the end of each study section. The aim of the Tutor
Assignment is to cover and/or incorporate the main topics of the section
and prepare you for unit (summative) outcome assessment.
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Assessment information
Doing well in any assessment involves:
• being clear about how you will be assessed
• knowing when your learning will be assessed
• as an open learning student, knowing where learning will be assessed.
How you will be assessed
Throughout each study section of the open learning pack, a series of
Self Assessed Questions (SAQs) and activities have been developed to
provide you with ‘on the spot’ feedback in terms of your progress within
the relevant section. If you haven’t arrived at the correct responses to
SAQs and activities, you should return to the relevant areas for further
study, before progressing within the section.
Upon successful completion of all SAQs and activities, you’ll be asked to
attempt a Tutor Assignment (TA). Each section usually finishes with a TA
and each assignment has been devised as a means of assessing your
progress on the knowledge and understanding required for your SQA
unit. Generally, the requirements of the TAs closely match the
outcomes of the unit.
If you’re in any doubt about the completion of TAs or any aspect of
assessment, you should contact your tutor for help.
When and where you will be assessed
When you feel you are thoroughly familiar with the learning materials,
have worked through the SAQs, activities and TAs, you will undertake
unit (summative) assessments. These unit assessments will be set and
marked by your tutor.
Unit assessments may be undertaken at the centre, or at a distance from
the centre, under supervision. The results of unit assessments are
recorded by your tutor and form the basis of your final results within
this unit. Your tutor will organise all the necessary paperwork and
inform you of your successful completion of the unit.
Your tutor will help you decide whether or not you are fully prepared
for your assessment and what procedures should be followed.
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APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
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What you have to achieve
All outcomes have to be assessed and the objective of this 40-hour unit
is that you will achieve outcomes 1,2 and 3 of SQA Unit D405 12 –
Approaches and Methods in Psychology.
Types of assessment used for this course will be a written examination
paper and completion of a psychological investigation and report.
Opportunities for reassessment
If you don’t achieve the required standard for the award of ‘pass’ within
any assessment you’ll be informed of this and arrangements will be made
for you to be reassessed on the particular elements of the assessment
which need improving.
External assessment
You’ll need to pass the unit assessments for all the units in the Higher
course if you wish to gain a Higher course award. You must also
undertake an external assessment, where your work is assessed by
examiners independently, outwith centre unit assessments. This
external assessment will be set nationally by the Scottish Qualifications
Authority, the body which is responsible for all assessment in Scotland.
Part of the external assessment for the course is an examination and part
is an investigation and a research report which is submitted to SQA for
marking.
Extra time is allowed within each Higher course to allow you to prepare
fully for external assessment in addition to the time allowed to complete
the units of your course. The type of assessment to be used for this
course will be a written examination paper and completion of a
psychological investigation and report.
Courses will be graded A, B or C passes.
Your tutor will keep you fully informed of the external assessment
arrangements for the course you are studying.
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
Other recommended resources
There is no specific textbook for this unit. However, you may find it
useful to consult one of the following books in your library.
Hayes, N, Foundation of Psychology: An Introductory Text, London:
Routledge, 1994
Davenport, G C, Essential Psychology, London: HarperCollins, 1996
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Attendance/tutor contact requirements
When you enrol for this unit you’ll be given details of your tutor and
contact information, i.e. the day, time, telephone number/e-mail address
where you can make contact.
For easy reference, this information should be recorded on the tutor
details form below.
Your tutor will keep you informed as to if and when you’ll need to come
into the centre.
Tutor details form
Fill in the details of who your tutor is and how he/she can be
contacted.
Tutor’s name:
Address (for correspondence and assignments):
Telephone number:
Fax number:
E-mail address:
Times available for contact:
Day/Evening:
Times:
Attendance requirement if applicable:
Remember that your tutor is your main support throughout your
course, so if you have any problems, don’t hesitate to get in touch.
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
Glossary of terms – Section 2
Behaviourism
One of the approaches in psychology. It is based on conditioning. It
takes the view that only observable behaviour is appropriate for
scientific study and that internal mental process cannot be studied in
this way.
Classical conditioning
Learning that results from the association of two stimuli. Also
referred to as Pavlovian conditioning or respondent behaviour.
Discrimination
The ability to perceive differences between two or more stimuli.
Extinction
The gradual disappearance of a learned response.
Generalisation
Once a conditioned response has been established, similar stimuli will
also lead to the same conditional response.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behaviour, caused by reorganising
existing habits and skills. It is not change simply as a result of growth
or deprivation.
Negative reinforcement
Removal of an aversive stimulus, escape.
Neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, it is any stimulus that does not naturally
produce the unconditional response.
In operant conditioning, it is any stimulus which has no effect upon
behaviour.
Operant conditioning
Learning that happens when an organism associates its own
behaviour with the results of that behaviour. Also referred to as
instrumental conditioning.
Punishment
A procedure which uses aversive stimuli in order to decrease the
probability of a response.
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Reflex
An involuntary response which is unlearned and important for
survival. Examples include: blinking, fear, salivation.
Reinforcement
A stimulus which strengthens learning. Both positive and negative
reinforcement increases the probability of a response occurring.
Reinforcer
Any event or behaviour which acts as reinforcement.
Response
Any action originating from the organism, including movements,
thoughts or glandular secretions.
Reward
Something which increases the probability of the response occurring.
The same as positive reinforcement.
Shaping
Learning something through the use of progressive reinforcement.
Reinforcement firstly is given for behaviours that resemble the
desired response. Gradually reinforcement is only given for
behaviours that are more specific and increasingly similar to the
desired response.
Stimulus
Anything that affects the organism so that behaviour is changed in
some detectable way.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
An unlearned response.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Stimulus that elicits an unlearned response.
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
Glossary of terms – Section 3
Attention
The process by which we focus and concentrate on a selection of
information rather than all the information bombarding our senses.
Cognitive style
The difference between individuals in terms of the cognitive
approaches they tend to use, e.g. convergent/divergent thinking.
Concept
The mental representation of a group of things that share the same
attribute(s).
Convergent thinking
Producing one correct solution to a problem by bringing information
together, like deductive reasoning.
Divergent thinking
Creating one or more novel and unusual solutions to a problem. The
solutions must be appropriate and valuable. Sometimes also called
creativity or lateral thought.
Intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, think in abstract terms and deal
effectively with our environment.
Language
A set of symbols which are used to convey ideas to others.
Memory
The mental function of retaining data, the storage system which holds
the data, and the data which is retained.
Mental imagery
Mental pictures used to aid memory.
Perception
A system of detection which uses our senses to transmit information
from the outside world to the higher senses of the brain. Here it is
recognised, interpreted and integrated with existing information.
Schema
A structured cluster of concepts based on experience and used to
generate future expectations.
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Glossary of terms – Section 4
Anal stage
The second psychosexual stage of development in which children
derive pleasure from their faeces.
Castration anxiety
The anxiety experienced by a young boy during the Oedipus
complex. The fear of being castrated by his father as a punishment
for his feelings towards his mother.
Conscience
The part of the superego that is the source of feelings of guilt.
Displacement
A defence mechanism. Anxiety is displaced by blaming someone else
for something we have done.
Dream analysis
The interpretation of symbols in dreams as revealing what the person
really wants.
Ego
The part of the personality structure that deals with external reality
and controls the energies of the id.
Ego ideal
The part of the superego that is the source of feelings of pride.
Fixation
A lingering attachment to an early stage of pleasure seeking.
Free association
A technique to explore a person’s unconscious. The person is
encouraged to talk freely and say the first thing that comes into his
head.
Genital stage
The fifth psychosexual stage of development in which pleasure
derives from mature genital contact.
Id
The primitive part of the unconscious personality which is
responsible for extreme emotional reactions and demands for
immediate satisfaction.
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
Identification
The process whereby children take on the characteristics of the same
sex parent.
Latency stage
The fourth psychosexual stage of development during which the
libido is ‘dormant’.
Libido
The energy of the sexual instinct.
Morality principle
The superego’s insistence that the ego does not use unacceptable
ways to satisfy the id’s demand.
Oral stage
The first psychosexual stage of development in which children derive
pleasure from their mouths.
Phallic stage
The third psychosexual stage of development, in which interest is
focused on the genitals. The stage of development which involves
the Oedipal conflict.
Pleasure principle
The id’s demands for the immediate satisfaction of its instinctual
urges.
Psyche
The principles of emotional and mental life.
Rationalising
A defence mechanism. The justification of one’s action to reduce
anxiety.
Reality principle
The ego’s insistence that the id’s demands are satisfied in a realistic
way.
Repression
A defence mechanism. Pushing unpleasant thoughts into the
unconscious to reduce anxiety.
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Slips of the tongue
Errors of speech in which we unintentionally say what we really mean.
Superego
The third part of the personality which is concerned with morality
and conscience. It operates according to the morality principle.
Unconscious
A reference to mental activity that is not available to consciousness
because it concerns material which is too threatening or upsetting.
Glossary of terms – Section 5
ANS
The autonomic nervous system controls our internal bodily functions.
The ANS regulates our internal bodily environment by sending
information to our central nervous system, or brain and spinal cord,
which makes any necessary internal adjustments. The ANS is subdivided into two branches, the sympathetic branch, and the
parasympathetic branch. The sympathetic branch of our ANS moves
us to action in our world. What this means is that the sympathetic
branch of the ANS operates when we have to use, or expend, energy.
The parasympathetic branch of our ANS operates when we have to
restore this expended energy to our body. The sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches of our autonomic nervous system are thus
said to be antagonistic to each other. As one branch of the ANS pulls
in one direction, the other branch pulls in the other direction. This is
to return our body to our natural state of homeostasis, or internal
balance.
Bilateral
A function is equally represented by both sides of the brain.
Brain stem
The general area which connects the spinal column to the higher
brain.
Cerebellum
An area of the brain which is situated behind the medulla and which
coordinates voluntary movement, muscle tone and body balance.
Cerebral dominance
The side of the brain which has greater control over a particular
function. Also called hemispheric dominance.
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INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
Contralateral
One hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
Cortex
The outermost layer of grey matter in the forebrain which controls
higher cognitive and intellectual behaviour.
Endocrine system
The system of glands which produce hormones.
Frontal lobe
The largest part at the front of the brain.
Hemisphere
One half of a sphere. The brain is separated into two hemispheres,
left and right.
Hippocampus
Located between the thalamus and the cortex, it is an area of the
brain which is involved in learning and storing new information in
memory.
Hypothalamus
An area of the brain situated below the thalamus. It integrates the
activity of an ANS. It is the cognitive centre for emotions, stress,
motivation and homeostasis.
Limbic system
An area of the brain which includes parts of the cortex and
hypothalamus. It is important in emotion and motivation.
Localisation
Particular areas of the cerebral cortex are associated with specific
physical or behavioural functions.
Medulla
Area of the brain which is situated at the base of the brain stem. It is
the centre which controls heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, blood
pressure, digestion, etc.
Occipital lobe
An area at the back of the brain which includes the visual cortex.
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Parietal lobe
A brain area between the frontal and the occipital.
Pituitary gland
An endocrine gland located in the brain. It is attached to the base of
the hypothalamus. It controls hormonal secretions and other ANS
glands.
Reticular activating system (RAS)
An area found in the core of the brain stem. It is related to sleep,
arousal, consciousness and attention.
Temporal lobe
An area of the brain which is situated on the side, below the occipital
lobe. It contains the auditory cortex for hearing and balance. It also
contributes to memory, language, emotion and perception.
Thalamus
An area of the brain which lies under the corpus callosum. It receives
sensory data, performs some processing and passes the data on to the
cerebral cortex.
Glossary of terms – Section 6
Basic needs
The most compelling human needs such as food and the avoidance of
pain. In Maslow’s theory these are at the base of a hierarchy of needs
and other requirements, even for physical safety, will be ignored until
they are satisfied.
Client-centred therapy
A form of psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers, based on a
humanistic approach, in which the individual is considered to be the
only person who can develop solutions or approaches to their
problem. The role of the therapist is to facilitate such development.
Empirical
Such as can be measured. Empirical observations are those that can
provide a level of objective data, which can be assessed in one form
or another.
Hierarchy
A structured form of organisation constructed in levels, with each
level overshadowing or dominating the lower ones.
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Humanistic psychology
An approach within psychology which emphasises the whole person
and their scope for change.
Personality
Those relatively enduring features which account for a person’s
characteristic way of behaving. Some uses of the term ‘personality’
refer to patterns of behaviour rather than their causes. Some
theories are concerned with the way the structures underlying
personality are formed, i.e. Freud. Other theories try to find a
biological basis for personality, i.e. Eysenck’s theory of types, while
still others measure different aspects of people, i.e. Cattel’s traits.
Glossary of terms – Section 7
Bias
A prejudice, a leaning in one direction only.
Biased sampling
Some participants are more or less likely to be selected than they
should be, given their frequency in the population. This leads to
systematic errors in the data.
Control group
The participants who receive no treatment and act as a comparison
with the experimental group for control purposes.
Counterbalancing
An experimental procedure for controlling irrelevant factors,
especially order effects.
Dependent variable
The variable we look at to see if there are any changes produced by
our manipulation of the causal variable. It is the variable we measure.
Experimental group
The group of participants who receive the experimental treatment.
Experimenter effect
An experimenter has expectations about the outcome of an
experiment and may indirectly and unconsciously communicate these
to the participant. This affects the participant’s behaviour.
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Field experiment
An experimental manipulation of an independent variable that takes
place in a natural setting rather than in the more artificial setting of
the laboratory.
Hypothesis
A formal, unambiguous statement of what you predict. The research
will either prove or disprove this prediction.
Independent measures
Comparison is made between two unrelated groups of participants.
The participants are in groups not pairs. One group receives the
experimental treatment, the other doesn’t. Their performance on
the dependent variable is compared.
Independent variable
The variable we suspect is the causal variable.
Laboratory experiment
An investigation where the experimental manipulation of the
independent variables takes place within such conditions that careful
control of variables is possible.
Natural experiment
An investigation where the allocation of participants to the different
experimental conditions is outside the control of the investigator,
and is manipulated by some outside agency.
Opportunity sampling
Selecting participants because they are available.
Order effects
When participants are tested on two (or more) conditions (A and B)
their performance may be improved or depressed by certain factors
such as practice, fatigue or boredom.
Population
Total number of cases about which a specific statement can be made
(sometimes called the target population).
Quota sampling
The population is divided into sections or strata. A fixed number of
samples are taken from each section. Also called stratified sampling.
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Random sampling
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected, therefore it is an unbiased sample. Can be achieved with
random number tables or numbers drawn from a hat.
Research
An attempt to study a problem systematically.
Research design
The overall plan of action to maximise meaningful results and
minimise ambiguity using research techniques. Control is an
important feature of design.
Research method
A way of doing things in a systematic manner.
Sample
Part of a population selected such that it is considered to be
representative of the population as a whole.
Scientific method
A series of procedures which produce an objective body of facts.
Variable
Something/anything that varies in a given situation.
Volunteer sampling
Participants who become part of an experiment because they volunteer when asked. This is not random.
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Before moving on to the study sections, you may want to check your
general understanding of the open learning materials for your unit.
You can do this by attempting the following activity.
A1
For this activity, you will need to refer to this Introductory
Guide to your course.
(Tick boxes where appropriate.)
1
The title of the unit I am about to study is:
2
The unit number is:
3
80 hours
This unit should take me: 40 hours
to complete, although I may complete it before or after this.
4
3
4
5
more
I will require to undertake 2
outcome assessments successfully in order to receive my SQA
certificate.
5
I have checked out from the Introductory Guide of my unit
what form my assessments will take. Yes
No
6
My tutor’s name is:
7
I can contact my tutor on: Day/Evening:
from: Time:
Tel no:
E-mail address:
Yes
No
8
I feel happy about starting to study my unit.
9
If not, I will contact my tutor or learning centre for further
No
information before I begin. Yes
10
I will make myself thoroughly familiar with the requirements
No
of this unit before moving on. Yes
Many of the responses to this activity will be unique to you, but if
you’re still unsure of any of the above you should contact your tutor.
Good luck with your studies!
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Student evaluation questionnaire
All centres are very interested in the views of students who have used
these learning materials. Your feedback and comments will assist us in
evaluating and, where necessary, improving this pack for future student
use.
We would be grateful if you would spend a little time completing and
returning this form to your tutor.
Please answer all of the questions as fully and frankly as possible. Please
rate the materials by placing a tick in the appropriate box and adding
relevant comments in the space provided.
Thank you for your assistance.
1.
Sufficient advice was given in the
materials on how to use the pack
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
2.
The content was set at an
appropriate level for me
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
3.
The language used was at an
appropriate level for me
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
4.
I understood clearly what was
expected of me for each Study
Section
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
5.
The content of each section was
enough to allow me to meet these
expectations
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
continued overleaf
28
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
INTRODUCTORY STUDENT GUIDE
6.
There were enough appropriate
activities in the pack
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
7.
There were enough appropriate
Self Assessed Questions (SAQs)in
the pack
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
8.
Feedback to activities and SAQs
was included to let me monitor
my progress
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
9.
All the information I required
regarding assessment was
included
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
10.
Advice was included to assist me
if I was having any problems
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
11.
The pack was organised in such
a way that it was easy to follow
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
12.
This pack is appropriate for use
with a minimum of contact with
my tutor
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
13.
Overall I would rate this pack as:
Very
Good
Good
Poor
Very
Poor
Name
Centre
Date
Thank you once again for your assistance. Please give completed
forms to your tutor.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
29
30
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
Psychology
Approaches and Methods in
Psychology
Tutor Guide
[HIGHER]
Important note
Under no circumstances should the suggested
responses to the Tutor Assignments included in
this Guide be circulated to students or put on
any Intranet/Internet to which students might
have access.
TUTOR GUIDE
TUTOR GUIDE
National unit specification
General information
Unit: Approaches and Methods in Psychology (Higher)
Number: D405 12
Course: Psychology (Higher)
Summary
This is a mandatory component unit of Higher Psychology. It can also be
offered as a free-standing unit.
This unit is designed to introduce candidates to the variety of
psychological approaches and research methods that characterise the
discipline of psychology. It enables candidates to explain main
psychological approaches and their associated methods of research and
recognises the importance of the experimental method in psychology.
It should stimulate curiosity, interest and enjoyment in psychology for
candidates who have no prior knowledge of psychology while also
allowing candidates progressing from Intermediate 2 further to develop
interest, knowledge and understanding already established.
The unit is designed to meet the needs of:
• candidates undertaking a Higher course in Psychology
• candidates undertaking a Scottish Group Award at Higher or
Advanced Higher
• candidates who seek a grounding in approaches and methods in
psychology.
Outcomes
1.
2.
3.
Explain the main theoretical approaches in psychology.
Compare the main research methods used in psychology.
Explain experimental research design in psychology.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
33
TUTOR GUIDE
Recommended entry
Entry is at the discretion of the centre; however it would be beneficial if
candidates had achieved one of the following:
• a Standard Grade in a social subject at grade 1 or 2 or an equivalent
Intermediate 2 course or units
• Intermediate 2 Psychology
• any other relevant qualification at an appropriate level
and Standard Grade English at grade 1 or 2 or Communication at
Intermediate 2.
Credit value
1 credit at Higher.
Core skills
This unit gives automatic certification of the following:
Complete core skills for the unit
None
Core skills components for the unit
Critical Thinking H
Additional information about core skills is published in Automatic
Certification of Core Skills in National Qualifications (SQA, 1999).
34
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Statement of standards
Acceptable performance in this unit will be the satisfactory achievement
of the standards set out in this part of the unit specification. All sections
of the statement of standards are mandatory and cannot be altered
without reference to the Scottish Qualifications Authority.
Outcome 1: Explain the main theoretical approaches in
psychology.
Performance criteria
(a) Aims of the main theoretical approaches in psychology are
explained clearly and accurately.
(b) Applications of the main theoretical approaches are explained
clearly and accurately.
(c) Limitations of the main theoretical approaches are explained
clearly and accurately.
Note on range for the outcome
Main theoretical approaches: biological, behaviourist, cognitive,
psychoanalytic, humanistic.
Evidence requirements
To demonstrate satisfactory attainment of this outcome, candidates
should produce written or oral responses to cover all performance
criteria. They are required to do so for all areas of the range statement.
Relevant example(s) should be used to illustrate at least one application
for each approach.
Written/oral responses will typically be restricted responses to specific
questions.
Outcome 2: Compare the main research methods used in
psychology.
Performance criteria
(a) The main research methods are explained clearly and accurately.
(b) The advantages and disadvantages of the main research methods
are explained clearly and accurately.
(c) Research methods used in the main theoretical approaches are
identified correctly and example(s) given.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
35
TUTOR GUIDE
Note on range for the outcome
Main research methods: experimental – survey method, interview
method, observation studies, case studies, correlation studies.
Main theoretical approaches: biological, behaviourist, cognitive,
psychoanalytic, humanistic.
Evidence requirements
To demonstrate satisfactory attainment of this outcome, candidates
should produce written or oral responses to cover all performance
criteria. They are required to do so for all areas of the range statement.
One advantage and one disadvantage should be given for each research
method. One research method should be identified for each approach.
Written/oral responses will typically be restricted responses to specific
questions.
Outcome 3: Explain experimental research design in
psychology.
Performance criteria
(a) Null and experimental hypotheses are described clearly and
accurately.
(b) The concept of sampling is defined clearly and accurately.
(c) Experimental designs are compared with respect to their merits.
Note on range for the outcome
Experimental designs: independent groups; repeated measures.
Evidence requirements
To demonstrate satisfactory attainment of this outcome, candidates
should produce written or oral responses to cover all performance
criteria. They are required to do so for all areas of the range statement.
Two reasons should be given why sampling is used.
Written/oral responses will typically be restricted responses to specific
questions.
36
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Introduction to the unit
What this unit is about
This unit is designed to introduce the student to different approaches to
the study of human behaviour, different research methods for studying
human behaviour and the different types of research design used in
psychology.
The student will learn about the aims, applications and limitations of
each approach, the advantages and disadvantages of each research
method and the relative merits of each experimental design.
Outcomes
On completion of this unit the student will be able to:
• explain the main theoretical approaches to psychology
• compare the main research methods used in psychology
• explain experimental research design in psychology.
Prior experience
Access is at the discretion of the centre. However, the student will
normally be recommended to have attained the following:
• Standard Grade English at Credit level/Intermediate 2 level English or
Communication.
Progression and related study
On successful completion of the Approaches and Methods in Psychology
unit – D405 12 – 1 credit (40 hours), the student may wish to progress
to the Cognitive Psychology unit – D400 12 – 1 credit (40 hours), then
on to the Social Psychology unit – D401 12 – 1 credit (40 hours),
successful completion of which will allow the student to prepare for and
progress to the internal assessment for the SQA Psychology (Higher).
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
37
TUTOR GUIDE
Core skills
Information on the automatic certification of any core skills in this
course is published in Automatic Certification of Core Skills in National
Qualifications (SQA, 1999).
Students who are successful in achieving this unit will be automatically
awarded the core skill ‘Critical Thinking’ at Higher level.
38
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Open learning pack structure
No matter which open learning unit the student is following, the self
study materials will be made up of the same component parts.
Students’ guide to the
course.
Introductory Guide
Designed to help
students study on their
own. Number of study
sections will vary
according to the length
of unit.
study sections
Incorporate course content and the undernoted
!
Self Assessed Questions
?
!
Activities
Used to check
understanding of the
material covered in the
section. Answers at end
of study section.
Tasks to be completed
related to study
materials. Answers
follow on the page
after the activity.
A
!
Tutor Assignment
T
Used to assess key
aspects of the study
sections and usually
found towards the end
of the study section.
!
Preparing for external
assessment
Students will only receive this
section if they intend to sit
the Higher
Given to student with
first study section of the
final unit for the
Higher.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
39
TUTOR GUIDE
Introduction to this pack
This open learning pack covers the syllabus requirements for the SQA
National Unit, Approaches and Methods in Psychology, at Higher Level.
The pack consists of an Introductory Guide and eight study sections as
indicated below.
Introductory Guide
Pages: 3–30
Study Time: 1 hour
Section 1
A Look at Psychology
Pages: 83–106
Study Time: 2 hours
Section 2
The Behaviourist Approach
Pages: 107–144
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 3
The Cognitive Approach
Pages: 145–186
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 4
The Psychoanalytic Approach
Pages: 187–230
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 5
The Biological Approach
Pages: 231–276
Study Time: 5 hours
Section 6
The Humanistic Approach
Pages: 277–312
Study Time: 4 hours
40
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Section 7
Research Using Experiments
Pages: 313–386
Study Time: 6 hours
Section 8
Research Using Non-experimental Methods
Pages: 387–431
Study Time: 4 hours
Course study sections
• Each study section of this open learning pack is structured in exactly
the same way:
• Contents page
• An introduction to the section
– what the section is about
– the objectives of the section
– suggested study time for the section
– other resources required which are not included in the pack
• Assessment information
– how, when, where, what assessment for the section will take place
• Subject content, including
– Activities (A), Self Assessed Questions (SAQ), Tutor Assignments
(TA)
– Feedback to SAQs (at the back of the study section and before the
Tutor Assignment)
– Comments on Activities (immediately follow the Activity)
– Advice on the return of Tutor Assignment, where appropriate
• Summary
– designed to reinforce what has just been done and generally
provides a quick reference to the contents of the section
Approximate study time
While the time allocated to this unit is at the discretion of the centre,
the notional design length is 40 hours?
The study times quoted on pages 40 and 41 should therefore be used as
a guide only.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
41
TUTOR GUIDE
Symbols used in the pack
This open learning pack has been designed to meet the outcomes of the
SQA Unit ‘Approaches and Methods in Psychology’.
There are eight distinct study sections, each relating to an outcome of
the unit. The study sections allow students to work on their own with
your support. As they work through the sections, they will encounter a
series of symbols indicating that something follows which they are
expected to do. An explanation of these symbols is given below.
Self Assessed Questions
?
This symbol is used to indicate a Self Assessed Question (SAQ). Most
commonly SAQs are used to check the students’ understanding of the
material that has already been covered in the sections.
This type of assessment is self contained, that is everything is provided
within the section to enable students to check their understanding of
the materials.
This process is simple:
• The students are set SAQs throughout the study section. These will
be set as short answer questions, true/false questions, multiple choice
questions and definitions of psychological terms.
• They respond to these, either by writing in the space provided in the
assessment itself, or in their own notebook.
• On completion of the SAQ, they turn to the back of the section to
compare the SAQ responses to theirs.
• If they are not satisfied after checking out their responses, they
should turn to the appropriate part of the study section and go over
the topic again.
Remember that the answers to SAQs are contained within study
materials. Students are not expected to ‘guess’ at these answers.
42
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Activities
A
This symbol indicates an activity which is normally a task the student will
be asked to do which should improve or consolidate understanding of
the subject in general or a particular feature of it.
Students will be asked to read a passage and answer questions, revise a
topic already covered, complete sentences, relate their own experiences
to psychological approaches and carry out simple experiments.
The suggested responses to activities will follow directly after the
activity.
Remember that SAQs and activities contained within the pack are
intended to allow students to check their understanding and monitor
their own progress throughout the course. It goes without saying then,
that the answers to these should only be checked out after the SAQ or
activity has been competed.
Tutor Assignment
T
This symbol means that a Tutor Assignment is to follow. These are
usually found at the end of each section. The aim of the Tutor
Assignment is to cover and/or incorporate the main topics of the study
section and prepare the student for unit (summative) outcome
assessment.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
43
TUTOR GUIDE
Assessment information
How students will be assessed
Throughout each study section of the open learning pack, a series of
Self Assessed Questions (SAQs) and activities have been developed to
provide the student with ‘on the spot’ feedback in terms of their
progress within the relevant Section.
Upon successful completion of all SAQs and activities, the student will
be asked to attempt a Tutor Assignment (TA). Each section usually
finishes with a TA and each assignment has been devised as a means of
assessing students’ progress on the knowledge and understanding
required for their SQA unit to date. Generally, the requirements of the
TAs closely match the outcomes of the unit.
When and where students will be assessed
As a tutor, you should summatively assess each student after successful
completion of the appropriate TA, using your own centre’s
instrument(s) of summative assessment. All assessments will be
conducted at the centre where appropriate.
The summative assessments are recorded by you, the tutor, and form
the basis of the student’s final results within the unit. The student has
been informed that you will complete all the necessary paperwork and
inform them of their successful completion of the unit.
Depending on the policy of your open learning centre, summative
assessment may be undertaken at the centre, or at a distance from the
centre, under supervision.
Most often assessment is undertaken by the learner at the centre under
the supervision of a tutor. However, for the open learner who lives
some distance from the centre, an invigilation system may be set up at a
recognised support centre local to the student (community education
centre, training centre, etc.).
What students have to achieve
All outcomes have to be assessed and the objective of this 40-hour unit
is that the student will achieve Outcomes 1, 2 and 3 of SQA Unit D405 12
– Approaches and Methods in Psychology.
44
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Types of assessment used for the course in Psychology (Higher level)
will be a written examination paper and completion of a psychological
investigation and report.
Opportunities for reassessment
If the student doesn’t achieve the required standard for the award of
‘pass’ within any assessment, they should be informed of this and you
should arrange for the student to be reassessed on the particular
elements of the assessment which need improving.
Alternative instruments of summative assessment should be available and
utilised where necessary.
External assessment
To gain the Higher course award, the student must achieve all the
component units of the course as well as the external assessment. The
external assessment will provide the basis for grading attainment in the
course award.
When units are taken as component parts of a course, students will have
the opportunity to demonstrate achievement beyond that required to
attain each of the unit outcomes. This attainment may, where
appropriate, be recorded and used to contribute towards course
estimates and to provide evidence for appeals. Additional details are
provided, where appropriate, within the exemplar assessment materials.
Further information on the key principles of assessment are provided in
the paper Assessment (HSDU, 1996) and in Managing Assessment
(HSDU, 1998).
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
45
TUTOR GUIDE
Tutor Assignment – Section 1
T1
1.
Give a definition of psychology.
2.
Distinguish between the behaviourist approach and the
psychoanalytic approach.
3.
How do psychologists gather psychological knowledge?
4.
What is meant by the ‘scientific method’ in psychology?
5.
Why did the cognitive approach fall into decline in the early
twentieth century?
6.
Contrast the biological approach with the humanistic approach.
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
46
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 1
1.
Psychology is the scientific study of the mind and behaviour.
2.
The behaviourist approach studies only what can be directly
observed – behaviour, whereas in the psychoanalytic approach the
focus is on stimuli which trigger behaviour.
3.
Psychologists gather psychological knowledge in a systematic way,
carrying out research.
4.
The ‘scientific method’ refers to producing evidence, through
studies, which can be verified.
5.
The cognitive approach fell into decline at that time because the
method used to investigate mental processes was not objective.
6.
The biological approach focuses on how the physical systems of the
body influence both our mental processes and behaviour, whereas
the humanist approach focuses on the individual and the
motivation for personal fulfilment.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
47
TUTOR GUIDE
Tutor Assignment – Section 2
T2
1.
Explain the aim of the behaviourist approach.
2.
What are the limitations of the behaviourist approach in
accounting for human behaviour?
3.
How is the behaviourist approach used by psychologists or other
professionals when working with people? Give one example of
this.
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
48
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 2
Students should cover the main points.
1.
The behaviourist approach aims to study the effects of the
environment and learning on individual behaviour.
• Classical conditioning refers to learning by association.
Ivan Pavlov discovered that dogs salivated in response to a bell
which had been associated with the presence of food.
• Operant conditioning refers to learning by reinforcement.
• Positive reinforcement increases behaviour through reward.
• Negative reinforcement increases behaviour through the
avoidance of something unpleasant or painful.
• Punishment decreases behaviour in the short term by
administering something unpleasant or painful.
• Schedules of reinforcement are important in operant
conditioning as it was established that reinforcement does not
have to be given after each instance of behaviour.
Variations in the time period in which reinforcement is given
lead to the desired behaviours still being produced.
2.
The limitations of the behaviourist approach are that:
• not all behaviour can be explained by conditioning
• it is deterministic and does not consider people as individuals
with free will and the ability to control their own behaviours
• findings from laboratory studies on animals may not explain
human behaviour.
3.
Students should explain clearly one of the following applications:
Reinforcement in cocaine users – Mestel and Concar (1994)
Aversion therapy – Weing and Menustik (1983)
Systematic desensitisation
Operant conditioning in pigeons – Simmons (1981)
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
49
TUTOR GUIDE
Tutor Assignment – Section 3
T3
Read this description and then answer the questions that follow:
Two psychologists disagreed about who would behave best in
school. The first psychologist said that the children who usually
received a lot of praise from their teacher would behave best. The
second psychologist said that those children who were always kept
busy revising and thinking about how to solve things would behave
best.
1.
What psychological approach does:
(a) the first
(b) the second
psychologist favour?
2.
What is the aim of the cognitive approach?
3.
What is the aim of the behaviourist approach?
4.
In what sense is:
(a) the cognitive approach
(b) the behaviourist approach
limited?
5.
Give one example of the use of the cognitive approach.
6.
How is the behaviourist approach used by psychologists or other
professionals when working with people?
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
50
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 3
1.
(a)
(b)
2.
The cognitive approach aims to explain behaviour in terms of the
internal mental or mediational processes we have.
Mediational processes are
•
•
•
•
•
Behaviourist approach
Cognitive approach
memory which stores and retrieves information
perception which organises information
attention which selects and represents information
language which represents information symbolically
thinking which uses information to produce ideas.
We take in information from our environment and the mind
actively processes it in order to produce a response. In this way,
cognitive psychologists see the mind as being like a computer.
3.
It aims to explain that behaviour is conditioned.
4.
(a)
The cognitive approach is limited in that:
• it does not account for the influence of emotion, family
conditions or education on behaviour, i.e. it is not holistic
• comparing the human mind to a computer leads to a view
of human thinking as machine-like and mechanistic
• the focus on laboratory investigation means that behaviour
in such an artificial setting may not be representative of
behaviour in real life situations.
(b)
The limitations of the behaviourist approach are that:
• not all behaviour can be explained by conditioning
• it is deterministic and does not consider people as
individuals with free will and the ability to control their
own behaviours
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
51
TUTOR GUIDE
• findings from laboratory studies on animals may not
explain human behaviour.
5.
One of the following applications should be explained clearly:
•
•
•
•
6.
Visual illusions
Eyewitness testimony – Elizabeth Loftus
Selective attention – Eysenck (1984)
Computer modelling
Students should explain clearly one of the following applications:
Reinforcement in cocaine users – Mestel and Concar (1994)
Aversion therapy – Weing and Menustik (1983)
Systematic desensitisation
Operant conditioning in pigeons – Simmons (1981)
52
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Tutor Assignment – Section 4
T4
Read this description and then answer the questions that follow:
A man who was said to be suffering from depression could not
remember his name or the name of any of his family. During
therapy, he said that he often dreamed about being a world-famous
celebrity. At the next therapy session, he said he could remember
his son’s name. His son’s name was Harry, but he distinctly said
‘Hates me’.
1.
What psychological approach is being used to help this man?
2.
What does the psychoanalytic approach aim to do?
3.
Give two examples of how the psychoanalytic approach is used to
help people.
4.
What limitations do we associate with the psychoanalytic approach?
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
53
TUTOR GUIDE
Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 4
1.
Psychoanalytic approach.
2.
Students should include the following aims:
• Psychoanalysis aims to explain behaviour in terms of personality.
According to Freud the personality is made up of the id (the
unconscious part which demands instant gratification), the ego
(the rational aspect of the personality) and the superego which
operates as our ‘conscience’. The superego and the ego modify
the pleasure-seeking id with the ego, keeping the balance
between the superego and id.
• When there is an imbalance between the three aspects of the
personality, an individual will experience anxiety. Defence
mechanisms are unconscious ways of reducing this anxiety.
Some defence mechanisms are repression, displacement,
regression and denial.
3.
Two of the following applications should be explained accurately:
Contemporary psychotherapy
Cognitive therapy
Play therapy
4.
The limitations of the psychoanalytic approach are that:
• it cannot be tested scientifically as there is no way to measure
‘instincts’ or ‘urges’
• again, the ‘unconscious’ is invisible so its existence can never be
scientifically established
• Freud’s theories were based on a biased sample so it is difficult
to apply these generally
• it is a pessimistic and deterministic approach with Freud’s
emphasis on the nature of an individual’s development being
fixed within the first five years of life.
54
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Tutor Assignment – Section 5
T5
Here is a description for you to read carefully. After you have done so,
attempt the questions below.
Joan, a 34-year-old mother of three, was diagnosed with Hodgkin’s
disease. This is a form of cancer that attacks the immune system.
Joan’s doctors were pessimistic about the outcome of her illness,
but Joan insisted that she would beat her illness and soon be well
again. Her doctors were so concerned at her refusal to
acknowledge her illness that they asked a therapist to visit her.
Joan was not willing to speak to the therapist but instead embarked
on a determined programme to keep up her spirits. A large part of
this plan involved viewing classic comedy films in her hospital
room. Joan firmly believed that laughter was the best medicine of
all and watched at least three such films a day, enjoying them fully.
She said that they helped take her mind off the pain. In the end,
Joan recovered fully.
1.
Which psychological approach best explains Joan’s recovery?
2.
What other psychological approach is relevant here?
3.
How do the aims of the cognitive approach and the biological
approach differ?
4.
Explain two uses of the biological approach in health care.
5.
Why is the biological approach limited? Give two reasons.
Why?
Why?
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
55
TUTOR GUIDE
Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 5
1.
Biological approach
By watching comedy films and laughing Joan is using relaxation
techniques. Relaxation reduces anxiety which enabled Joan to
control her own pain.
2.
The cognitive approach
Cognitive techniques can be used to counteract the experience of
pain. Thought processes can be developed and used whenever
pain is present. Joan put into practice a programme of laughter
which refocused her attention and helped her manage her pain.
3.
The cognitive approach seeks to explain behaviour in terms of
mental processes while the biological approach explains behaviour
in terms of physiological processes.
4.
Two of the following should be explained accurately:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
5.
Understanding psychosomatic illness
Identification of stressors – Seyle (1956)
Relationship between stress and ill-health
Biofeedback
Imagery
Relaxation techniques
Cognitive techniques
Two of the following should be explained:
• it is reductionist, i.e. it reduces behaviour to a simple set of
physiological activities which possibly do not account for higher
mental processing self awareness
• it cannot provide complete explanation for memory, emotion,
stress, learning and so on
• reducing individuals to genetics again does not give a complete
picture of the complexity of an individual’s behaviour and does
not allow for the influence of experience.
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APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
TUTOR GUIDE
Tutor Assignment – Section 6
T6
Here is a personal description provided by a client during therapy.
Read it and then answer the questions that follow.
‘Being an adult hasn’t really changed anything about how I feel
most of the time. When I went to college, I really wanted to study
Drama but to please my father I took a business course. He said
that I needed to study something so I could get a proper job. And
now I’m stuck with this boring job which I hate! I need to discover
for myself what I want. I don’t want to spend the rest of my life
trying to please other people.’
1.
What psychological approach would be most helpful to use here?
2.
Distinguish between humanistic and the psychoanalytic methods of
therapy.
3.
What does the humanistic approach aim to do?
4.
Describe two uses of the humanistic approach.
5.
Explain two limitations of the humanistic approach.
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
57
TUTOR GUIDE
Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 6
1.
Humanistic
2.
Humanistic methods of therapy provide a warm, accepting
atmosphere where people can raise their self esteem by
recognising their own strengths and limitations. The aim of clientcentred therapy is to enable the clients to make decisions and take
control of their own fate.
Psychoanalytic methods of therapy focus on bringing repressed
feelings and motives out of the unconscious and into our
conscious awareness. Psychotherapy tries to help people
understand the motives behind their behaviour and helps them
deal with these strong emotions and desires more rationally and
realistically.
3.
The following points should be explained:
• The humanistic approach focuses on the uniqueness of the
individual. It aims to explain behaviour in terms of motivation
and the fulfilment of different needs.
• Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is an account of how individuals are
motivated to act at any one particular time. According to the
humanistic approach, people will always behave in a way which
allows them to meet the needs in the hierarchy and ultimately
achieve self-actualisation.
• Deficiency motivation is the tendency to maintain a physical or
psychological balance. Physiological, safety, social and esteem
needs are deficiency motives.
Growth motivation refers to the tendency to self-actualise, to
aim to strive for personal growth and fulfilment. If this is not
achieved people will feel restless and dissatisfied with life.
4.
Students should accurately describe two of the following
applications:
•
•
•
•
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Client-centred counselling
Social skills training
Peer group assessment
Assertiveness training
APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
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5.
Two of the following limitations should be explained:
•
•
•
•
Lack of evidence that humans operate on hierarchical level
Does not account for all behaviour
Most people will never achieve self-actualisation
Maslow’s theory is based on clinical experience so is reliant on
individual experiences as data – data is therefore unscientific
• Little empirical evidence for Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
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Tutor Assignment – Section 7
T7
Read this description and then answer the questions that follow:
A psychology lecturer wanted to find out if psychology students
learn better when they study alone or when they study in groups.
He obtained a sample by selecting students at random from the
departmental list of all psychology students.
He then gave these students some material to study – the students
studied the material together in groups or when they were by
themselves. All students were given a short assessment afterwards.
The assessment tested how much they had learned from the
materials they were given.
Here are the results of the study:
Subject no.
1
Test Scores
Studied in group
Studied alone
30%
40%
2
3
50%
20%
20%
70%
4
5
20%
60%
80%
70%
6
7
10%
40%
30%
50%
8
9
20%
60%
60%
10%
10
70%
50%
Now answer the questions on the next page.
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1.
This psychologist selected his sample using random sampling.
Give two reasons why sampling is necessary in a study such as this.
2.
Identify the independent variable and the dependent variable for
this experiment.
3.
Write a suitable hypothesis for this study.
4.
What advantages would a repeated measures design offer this
experimenter?
5.
(a)
(b)
What are the main drawbacks in choosing repeated measures
here?
Can these drawbacks be overcome?
6.
What advantage would an independent subjects design have?
7.
(a)
(b)
8.
What are the main drawbacks to using independent subjects
here?
Can these drawbacks be overcome?
Which of the two designs would you select if you were the
researcher? Explain your answer fully.
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
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Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 7
1.
The student should mention:
• random sampling ensures that each student in the study had an
equal chance of being selected
• in this way the sample is unbiased.
2.
Independent variable – study method, i.e. alone or with others.
Dependent variable – how much students had learned (test
scores).
3.
Possibilities include:
Experimental, two-tailed hypothesis
Student’s learning will be affected by the presence of others.
Null hypothesis
Student’s learning will not be affected by the presence of others.
Experimental, one-tailed hypothesis
Students will learn more when studying alone than when studying
in groups.
Null hypothesis
Students will not learn more when studying alone than when
studying in groups.
4.
Advantage – improved test scores would be due to studying
method (the independent variable) and not subject variables.
5.
(a)
(b)
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Main drawback – increased test scores could be due to
practice/order effects.
Can be overcome by counter-balancing, i.e. reversing the
order of the conditions.
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6.
Advantage – improved test scores due to study method rather than
order/practice effects.
7.
(a)
(b)
8.
Main drawback – improvements in scores may have been
caused by subject variables.
Can be overcome by random allocation of subjects to
conditions.
The student could choose either research design as long as the
explanation justified that choice.
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Tutor Assignment – Section 8
T8
1.
Explain what is meant by the survey method of research.
2.
Give two advantages and two disadvantages of the survey method
of research.
3.
What is a case study and why is a case study used?
4.
What possible advantages and disadvantages does a case study
have?
5.
What is the observational method of research?
6.
Give two advantages and two disadvantages of the observational
method.
7.
Explain what is meant by the interview method of research.
8.
What advantages and disadvantages do interview methods have for
researchers?
9.
Explain what correlation is.
10.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of correlation based
research?
Submit this to your tutor for marking.
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Confidential
Suggested responses to Tutor Assignment – Section 8
1.
Asking for information from a large sample including factual
information and or beliefs/opinions. The data is then analysed.
2.
Two advantages of surveys, e.g. two from
• large number of people
• relatively cheap/easy to do
• information not usually obtainable
Two disadvantages of survey, e.g. two from
• low response rates are common
• sample may be biased
• people may lie to ‘please’/‘fool’ researcher
3.
Detailed investigation of a group with information obtained from
records, interviews and/or psychological tests used to get detailed
information that otherwise was not available.
4.
Advantages – unique situations, detailed information.
Disadvantages – cannot generalise, often incomplete data.
5.
Investigates behaviour in a non-intrusive way. Important to control
for bias.
6.
Advantages – useful for children/animal research and investigating
specific types of behaviours.
Disadvantages – e.g. ethical issues, controls, time consuming.
7.
Asking questions of individuals which can be informal or
structured.
8.
Advantages – rich detailed information, not threatening, can be
individualised.
Disadvantages – difficult to generalise, desire to please interviewer
so not realistic answers, difficult to analyse.
9.
Aim is to examine extent to which two variables are related. May
not establish why they are linked.
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10.
Advantages – obtain data for further research, useful where other
research is not possible (ethical issues).
Disadvantages – does not demonstrate cause and effect, may be
affected by other factors (time of day), simple rather than complex
relationships.
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Other recommended resources
There is no specific textbook for this unit. However, students may find
it useful to consult one of the following books in their library.
Hayes, N, Foundations of Psychology: An Introductory Text, London:
Routledge, 1994
Davenport, G C, Essential Psychology, London: HarperCollins, 1996
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TUTOR GUIDE
Attendance/tutor contact requirements
When a student enrols for this unit they will be given details of their
tutor and information on contact details, i.e. the day, time, telephone
number/e-mail address, where they can make contact. They will retain
this information on a tutor details form as indicated below.
Tutor details form
Tutor’s name:
Address (for correspondence and assignments):
Telephone number:
Fax number:
E-mail address:
Times available for contact:
Day/evening:
Times:
Attendance requirement if applicable:
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Glossary of terms – Section 2
The students have been provided with the following glossaries of terms
used throughout the pack:
Behaviourism
One of the approaches in psychology. It is based on conditioning. It
takes the view that only observable behaviour is appropriate for
scientific study and that internal mental process cannot be studied in
this way.
Classical conditioning
Learning that results from the association of two stimuli. Also
referred to as Pavlovian conditioning or respondent behaviour.
Discrimination
The ability to perceive differences between two or more stimuli.
Extinction
The gradual disappearance of a learned response.
Generalisation
Once a conditioned response has been established, similar stimuli will
also lead to the same conditional response.
Learning
A relatively permanent change in behaviour, caused by reorganising
existing habits and skills. It is not change simply as a result of growth
or deprivation.
Negative reinforcement
Removal of an aversive stimulus, escape.
Neutral stimulus (NS)
In classical conditioning, it is any stimulus that does not naturally
produce the unconditional response.
In operant conditioning, it is any stimulus which has no effect upon
behaviour.
Operant conditioning
Learning that happens when an organism associates its own
behaviour with the results of that behaviour. Also referred to as
instrumental conditioning.
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Punishment
A procedure which uses aversive stimuli in order to decrease the
probability of a response.
Reflex
An involuntary response which is unlearned and important for
survival. Examples include: blinking, fear, salivation.
Reinforcement
A stimulus which strengthens learning. Both positive and negative
reinforcement increase the probability of a response occurring.
Reinforcer
Any event or behaviour which acts as reinforcement.
Response
Any action originating from the organism, including movements,
thoughts or glandular secretions.
Reward
Something which increases the probability of the response occurring.
The same as positive reinforcement.
Shaping
Learning something through the use of progressive reinforcement.
Reinforcement firstly is given for behaviours that resemble the
desired response. Gradually reinforcement is only given for
behaviours that are more specific and increasingly similar to the
desired response.
Stimulus
Anything that affects the organism so that behaviour is changed in
some detectable way.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
An unlearned response.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Stimulus that elicits an unlearned response.
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Glossary of terms – Section 3
Attention
The process by which we focus and concentrate on a selection of
information rather than all the information bombarding our senses.
Cognitive style
The difference between individuals in terms of the cognitive
approaches they tend to use, e.g. convergent/divergent thinking.
Concept
The mental representation of a group of things that share the same
attribute(s).
Convergent thinking
Producing one correct solution to a problem by bringing information
together, like deductive reasoning.
Divergent thinking
Creating one or more novel and unusual solutions to a problem. The
solutions must be appropriate and valuable. Sometimes also called
creativity or lateral thought.
Intelligence
The ability to learn from experience, think in abstract terms and deal
effectively with our environment.
Language
A set of symbols which are used to convey ideas to others.
Memory
The mental function of retaining data, the storage system which holds
the data, and the data which is retained.
Mental imagery
Mental pictures used to aid memory.
Perception
A system of detection which uses our senses to transmit information
from the outside world to the higher senses of the brain. Here it is
recognised, interpreted and integrated with existing information.
Schema
A structured cluster of concepts based on experience and used to
generate future expectations.
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Glossary of terms – Section 4
Anal stage
The second psychosexual stage of development in which children
derive pleasure from their faeces.
Castration anxiety
The anxiety experienced by a young boy during the oedipus complex.
The fear of being castrated by his father as a punishment for his
feelings towards his mother.
Conscience
The part of the superego that is the source of feelings of guilt.
Displacement
A defence mechanism. Anxiety is displaced by blaming someone else
for something we have done.
Dream analysis
The interpretation of symbols in dreams as revealing what the person
really wants.
Ego
The part of the personality structure that deals with external reality
and controls the energies of the id.
Ego ideal
The part of the superego that is the source of feelings of pride.
Fixation
A lingering attachment to an early stage of pleasure seeking.
Free association
A technique to explore a person’s unconscious. The person is
encouraged to talk freely and says the first thing that comes into his
head.
Genital stage
The fifth psychosexual stage of development in which pleasure
derives from mature genital contact.
Id
The primitive part of the unconscious personality which is
responsible for extreme emotional reactions and demands for
immediate satisfaction.
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Identification
The process whereby children take on the characteristics of the same
sex parent.
Latency stage
The fourth psychosexual stage of development during which the
libido is ‘dormant’.
Libido
The energy of the sexual instinct.
Morality principle
The superego’s insistence that the ego does not use unacceptable
ways to satisfy the id’s demand.
Oral stage
The first psychosexual stage of development in which children derive
pleasure from their mouths.
Phallic stage
The third psychosexual stage of development, in which interest is
focused on the genitals. The stage of development which involves
the oedipal conflict.
Pleasure principle
The id’s demands for the immediate satisfaction of its instinctual
urges.
Psyche
The principles of emotional and mental life.
Rationalising
A defence mechanism. The justification of one’s action to reduce
anxiety.
Reality principle
The ego’s insistence that the id’s demands are satisfied in a realistic
way.
Repression
A defence mechanism. Pushing unpleasant thoughts into the
unconscious to reduce anxiety.
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Slips of the tongue
Errors of speech in which we unintentionally say what we really mean.
Superego
The third part of the personality which is concerned with morality
and conscience. It operates according to the morality principle.
Unconscious
A reference to mental activity that is not available to consciousness
because it concerns material which is too threatening or upsetting.
Glossary of terms – Section 5
ANS
The autonomic nervous system controls our internal bodily functions.
The ANS regulates our internal bodily environment by sending
information to our central nervous system, or brain and spinal cord,
which makes any necessary internal adjustments. The ANS is subdivided into two branches, the sympathetic branch, and the
parasympathetic branch. The sympathetic branch of our ANS moves
us to action in our world. What this means is that the sympathetic
branch of the ANS operates when we have to use, or expend, energy.
The parasympathetic branch of our ANS operates when we have to
restore this expended energy to our body. The sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches of our autonomic nervous system are thus
said to be antagonistic to each other. As one branch of the ANS pulls
in one direction, the other branch pulls in the other direction. This is
to return our body to our natural state of homeostasis, or internal
balance.
Bilateral
A function is equally represented by both sides of the brain.
Brain stem
The general area which connects the spinal column to the higher
brain.
Cerebellum
An area of the brain which is situated behind the medulla and which
co-ordinates voluntary movement, muscle tone and body balance.
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Cerebral dominance
The side of the brain which has greater control over a particular
function. Also called hemispheric dominance.
Contralateral
One hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body.
Cortex
The outermost layer of grey matter in the forebrain which controls
higher cognitive and intellectual behaviour.
Endocrine system
The system of glands which produce hormones.
Frontal lobe
The largest part at the front of the brain.
Hemisphere
One half of a sphere. The brain is separated into two hemispheres,
left and right.
Hippocampus
Located between the thalamus and the cortex, it is an area of the
brain which is involved in learning and storing new information in
memory.
Hypothalamus
An area of the brain situated below the thalamus. It integrates the
activity of an ANS. It is the cognitive centre for emotions, stress,
motivation and homeostasis.
Limbic system
An area of the brain which includes parts of the cortex and
hypothalamus. It is important in emotion and motivation.
Localisation
Particular areas of the cerebral cortex are associated with specific
physical or behavioural functions.
Medulla
Area of the brain which is situated at the base of the brain stem. It is
the centre which controls heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, blood
pressure, digestion, etc.
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Occipital lobe
An area at the back of the brain which includes the visual cortex.
Parietal lobe
A brain area between the frontal and the occipital.
Pituitary gland
An endocrine gland located in the brain. It is attached to the base of
the hypothalamus. It controls hormonal secretions and other ANS
glands.
Reticular activating system (RAS)
An area found in the core of the brain stem. It is related to sleep,
arousal, consciousness and attention.
Temporal lobe
An area of the brain which is situated on the side, below the occipital
lobe. It contains the auditory cortex for hearing and balance. It also
contributes to memory, language, emotion and perception.
Thalamus
An area of the brain which lies under the corpus callosum. It receives
sensory data, performs some processing and passes the data on to the
cerebral cortex.
Glossary of terms – Section 6
Basic needs
The most compelling human needs such as food and the avoidance of
pain. In Maslow’s theory these are at the base of a hierarchy of needs
and other requirements, even for physical safety, will be ignored until
they are satisfied.
Client-centred therapy
A form of psychotherapy developed by Carl Rogers, based on a
humanistic approach, in which the individual is considered to be the
only person who can develop solutions or approaches to their
problem. The role of the therapist is to facilitate such development.
Empirical
Such as can be measured. Empirical observations are those that can
provide a level of objective data, which can be assessed in one form
or another.
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Hierarchy
A structured form of organisation constructed in levels, with each
level overshadowing or dominating the lower ones.
Humanistic psychology
An approach within psychology which emphasises the whole person
and their scope for change.
Personality
Those relatively enduring features which account for a person’s
characteristic way of behaving. Some uses of the term ‘personality’
refer to patterns of behaviour rather than their causes. Some
theories are concerned with the way the structures underlying
personality are formed, i.e. Freud. Other theories try to find a
biological basis for personality, i.e. Eysenck’s theory of types, while
still others measure different aspects of people, i.e. Cattel’s traits.
Glossary of terms – Section 7
Bias
A prejudice, a leaning in one direction only.
Biased sampling
Some participants are more or less likely to be selected than they
should be, given their frequency in the population. This leads to
systematic errors in the data.
Control group
The participants who receive no treatment and act as a comparison
with the experimental group for control purposes.
Counterbalancing
An experimental procedure for controlling irrelevant factors,
especially order effects.
Dependent variable
The variable we look at to see if there are any changes produced by
our manipulation of the causal variable. It is the variable we measure.
Experimental group
The group of participants who receive the experimental treatment.
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Experimenter effect
An experimenter has expectations about the outcome of an experiment and may indirectly and unconsciously communicate these to the
participant. This affects the participant’s behaviour.
Field experiment
An experimental manipulation of an independent variable that takes
place in a natural setting rather than in the more artificial setting of
the laboratory.
Hypothesis
A formal, unambiguous statement of what you predict. The research
will either prove or disprove this prediction.
Independent measures
Comparison is made between two unrelated groups of participants.
The participants are in groups not pairs. One group receives the
experimental treatment, the other doesn’t. Their performance on
the dependent variable is compared.
Independent variable
The variable we suspect is the causal variable.
Laboratory experiment
An investigation where the experimental manipulation of the independent variables takes place within such conditions that careful
control of variables is possible.
Natural experiment
An investigation where the allocation of participants to the different
experimental conditions is outside the control of the investigator,
and is manipulated by some outside agency.
Opportunity sampling
Selecting participants because they are available.
Order effects
When participants are tested on two (or more) conditions (A and B)
their performance may be improved or depressed by certain factors
such as practice, fatigue or boredom.
Population
Total number of cases about which a specific statement can be made
(sometimes called the target population).
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Quota sampling
The population is divided into sections or strata. A fixed number of
samples are taken from each section. Also called stratified sampling.
Random sampling
Every member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected, therefore it is an unbiased sample. Can be achieved with
random number tables or numbers drawn from a hat.
Research
An attempt to study a problem systematically.
Research design
The overall plan of action to maximise meaningful results and
minimise ambiguity using research techniques. Control is an
important feature of design.
Research method
A way of doing things in a systematic manner.
Sample
Part of a population selected such that it is considered to be
representative of the population as a whole.
Scientific method
A series of procedures which produce an objective body of facts.
Variable
Something/anything that varies in a given situation.
Volunteer sampling
Participants who become part of an experiment because they
volunteer when asked. This is not random.
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Tutor evaluation form
Your feedback and comments will assist us in evaluating and, where
necessary, improving this package for future student and tutor use.
We would be grateful if you would spend a little time completing and
returning this form.
Please answer all of the questions as fully and frankly as possible. Please
rate the materials by placing a tick in the appropriate box and adding
relevant comments in the space provided.
Thank you for your assistance.
1.
The content is pitched at the
appropriate level for the target
student
Very
Good
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2.
The content is accurate and
up-to-date
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3.
The content meets the
requirements of the stated
outcomes/aims/objectives
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4.
The content is sufficient to allow
the student to achieve the stated
outcomes/aims/objectives
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5.
The learning approaches are
appropriate
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continued overleaf
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APPROACHES AND METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY (H)
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6.
The language is suitable for the
target student
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7.
Sufficient and significant activities,
SAQs and Tutor Assignments
are included
Very
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8.
Appropriate feedback has been
included
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9.
The assessment methods are
appropriate
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10.
The standards of assessment are
acceptable
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11.
The pack is structured in such
a way as to allow students
to find their way through the
materials
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12.
This pack is appropriate for use
with a minimum of tutor contact
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