Vision Problems in the U.S.
Prevalence of Adult Vision Impairment and Age-Related Eye Disease in America
2008 Update to the Fourth Edition
Founded in 1908, Prevent Blindness America is the
nation's leading volunteer eye health and safety
organization dedicated to fighting blindness and
saving sight. Focused on promoting a continuum of vision
care, Prevent Blindness America touches the lives of
millions of people each year through public and
professional education, advocacy, certified vision
screening, training, community and patient service
programs and research.
These services are made possible through the
generous support of the American public. Together with a
network of affiliates, divisions and chapters, Prevent
Blindness America is committed to eliminating preventable
blindness in the U.S.
The National Eye Institute (NEI), a component of the National
Institutes of Health (NIH), supports and conducts research
aimed at improving the prevention, treatment, and
rehabilitation of diseases that affect the eye and vision. The
NIH, a Federal government agency, is part of the U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services. Research is
conducted on the NIH campus in Bethesda, Maryland, and
at universities, medical schools, hospitals, and other
institutions throughout the United States and abroad.
Vision Problems in the U.S.
© 2008, 2002 Prevent Blindness America
All rights reserved.
SECTION 1
VisionImpairment
andBlindness The term "blindness" can have many
connotations and is difficult to define precisely. To many people, blindness
refers to the complete loss of vision with no remaining perception of light.
However, this ultimate form of complete blindness is rare. Far more people
have permanent loss of some, but not all, of their eyesight. The severity of
vision loss can vary widely and may result in equally varying degrees of
functional impairment.
"Legal blindness" represents an artificial distinction and has little value for
rehabilitation, but it is significant in that it determines eligibility for certain
disability benefits from the federal government. In the United States, it is
typically defined as visual acuity with best correction in the better eye worse
than or equal to 20/200 or a visual field extent of less than 20 degrees in
diameter. These overly simple criteria for visual impairment are far from
comprehensive in defining the visual function deficits that can cause difficulties
for daily living tasks.
Vision impairment is defined as having 20/40 or worse vision in the better eye
even with eyeglasses. People with the least degree of vision impairment may
still face challenges in everyday life. For instance, people with vision worse than
20/40 cannot obtain an unrestricted driver's license in most states.
Almost everyone with blindness or vision impairment can benefit from vision
rehabilitation, which can help make the most of whatever vision remains.
Unfortunately, blindness and vision impairment represent a significant
burden, not only to those affected by sight loss, but to our national economy
as well. Prevent Blindness America's 2007 study, The Economic Impact of Vision
Problems: The Toll of Major Adult Eye Disorders, Visual Impairment and Blindness
on the U.S. Economy estimates the costs associated with adult vision problems
in the United States at $51.4 billion.
Blindness, as defined above, affects more than one million Americans age 40
and older (see table on pages 8 and 9). The visually impaired, including
those who are blind, total more than 3.6 million older Americans (see table
on pages 6 and 7). Blindness affects Blacks more frequently than Whites and
Hispanics (see chart on page 5). Hispanics, however, have higher rates of
vision impairment than other races. The prevalence of blindness and vision
impairment increases rapidly in the later years, particularly after age 75.
4
Vision Impairment and Blindness
Estimated Specific Prevalence Rates for Vision Impairment and Blindness
0.24
0.22
0.20
Prevalence Rate
0.18
White
0.16
Black
0.14
Hispanic
0.12
Other
Vision
Impairment
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
plu
Age
80
75
-7
9
4
-7
70
65
-6
9
4
-6
60
55
-5
9
4
-5
50
40
-4
9
s
0.00
0.10
0.09
0.08
White
0.06
Black
Hispanic
0.05
Other
0.04
Blindness
0.03
0.02
0.01
plu
Age
80
-7
9
75
4
-7
70
9
-6
65
-6
4
60
9
-5
55
-5
4
50
-4
9
s
0.00
40
Prevalence Rate
0.07
Vision Impairment and Blindness 5
Estimated Number of Cases of Vision Impairment
(including Blindness) in the U.S. Population Age 40 and Older by State, Race and Sex
State
Total U.S.
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
6
Vision Impairment and Blindness
Total
Female
Male
White
Black
3,638,186
52,935
4,692
67,811
33,898
447,807
43,715
50,957
10,102
7,061
275,412
77,450
40,343
14,999
154,097
73,682
43,716
35,912
46,133
49,218
17,655
65,204
89,861
123,101
62,252
31,505
72,234
12,012
22,959
23,018
15,109
118,155
23,122
259,421
94,758
9,495
148,515
44,909
46,769
193,167
16,566
46,972
11,162
65,673
210,636
19,289
7,664
81,444
74,493
24,651
70,901
5,548
2,380,848
34,399
2,943
43,406
22,388
286,641
28,557
34,242
6,515
4,139
175,135
50,149
25,504
9,727
102,057
49,506
29,648
23,924
31,050
31,266
11,802
41,564
60,970
80,826
41,618
20,217
48,018
7,849
15,336
14,168
10,022
78,243
14,872
171,568
62,098
6,401
98,864
29,472
30,712
130,152
11,316
30,160
7,474
43,632
135,861
12,311
5,085
52,555
48,709
16,506
47,650
3,592
1,257,338
18,536
1,749
24,405
11,510
161,166
15,158
16,715
3,587
2,922
100,277
27,301
14,839
5,272
52,040
24,176
14,068
11,988
15,083
17,952
5,853
23,640
28,891
42,275
20,634
11,288
24,216
4,163
7,623
8,850
5,087
39,912
8,250
87,853
32,660
3,094
49,651
15,437
16,057
63,015
5,250
16,812
3,688
22,041
74,775
6,978
2,579
28,889
25,784
8,145
23,251
1,956
2,829,010
40,545
2,665
54,371
29,142
255,851
35,939
45,308
8,323
1,875
217,181
56,253
4,129
14,057
122,765
67,013
42,516
32,802
42,638
34,645
17,361
46,579
80,917
105,210
58,867
21,997
64,498
11,167
21,668
17,033
14,675
91,913
12,814
188,443
73,944
9,133
131,722
35,853
42,504
174,171
15,280
34,626
10,432
56,354
139,023
17,255
7,497
61,953
62,717
23,506
66,728
5,141
303,016
11,150
101
1,239
3,781
20,236
1,184
2,525
1,296
4,604
18,809
17,172
123
25
16,342
4,562
405
1,264
2,683
12,265
44
12,728
2,809
12,916
763
8,778
5,573
18
482
1,288
55
10,130
318
27,377
16,428
2
12,897
2,069
445
12,851
366
11,138
22
7,778
18,671
92
20
13,320
1,341
737
1,739
27
Hispanic
226,139
437
92
7,110
366
63,380
4,425
1,744
167
258
33,257
1,564
439
370
6,811
1,059
352
874
297
1,053
67
1,399
2,037
1,691
506
267
679
109
383
1,943
111
7,732
7,128
21,297
1,183
36
1,309
731
982
2,221
466
452
56
562
43,497
832
54
1,531
1,640
134
827
213
Other
280,021
803
1,834
5,091
609
108,340
2,167
1,380
316
324
6,165
2,461
35,652
547
8,179
1,048
443
972
515
1,255
183
4,498
4,098
3,284
2,116
463
1,484
718
426
2,754
268
8,380
2,862
22,304
3,203
324
2,587
6,256
2,838
3,924
454
756
652
979
9,445
1,110
93
4,640
8,795
274
1,607
167
White Female
White Male
Black Female
Black Male
Hisp. Female
Hisp. Male
1,904,562
27,655
1,649
35,084
19,774
169,324
23,866
30,950
5,574
1,236
140,165
38,552
2,588
9,167
84,373
45,902
28,976
22,152
29,162
23,506
11,623
31,384
55,684
71,256
39,656
15,193
43,752
7,298
14,605
10,679
9,763
62,757
8,375
128,590
50,473
6,164
89,823
23,914
28,121
119,480
10,552
23,482
6,989
38,560
92,856
11,105
4,988
41,816
41,526
15,850
45,238
3,344
924,448
12,890
1,016
19,287
9,368
86,527
12,073
14,358
2,749
639
77,016
17,701
1,541
4,890
38,392
21,111
13,540
10,650
13,476
11,139
5,738
15,195
25,233
33,954
19,211
6,804
20,746
3,869
7,063
6,354
4,912
29,156
4,439
59,853
23,471
2,969
41,899
11,939
14,383
54,691
4,728
11,144
3,443
17,794
46,167
6,150
2,509
20,137
21,191
7,656
21,490
1,797
156,904
5,977
42
570
2,026
10,025
549
1,310
657
2,506
9,398
9,146
46
8
8,416
2,313
193
624
1,393
6,315
18
6,503
1,425
6,511
342
4,584
2,919
7
235
573
21
5,251
144
14,876
8,839
1
6,590
1,029
212
6,872
173
5,901
7
4,106
9,491
34
6
6,835
587
402
862
10
146,112
5,173
59
669
1,755
10,211
635
1,215
639
2,098
9,411
8,026
77
17
7,926
2,249
212
640
1,290
5,950
26
6,225
1,384
6,405
421
4,194
2,654
11
247
715
34
4,879
174
12,501
7,589
1
6,307
1,040
233
5,979
193
5,237
15
3,672
9,180
58
14
6,485
754
335
877
17
145,130
268
55
4,487
215
40,605
2,774
1,138
101
178
21,797
931
278
214
4,130
626
212
534
178
710
44
921
1,332
1,025
300
165
422
68
224
1,191
71
5,059
4,524
14,506
687
23
810
430
587
1,400
311
275
36
342
27,729
516
34
983
977
85
493
130
81,009
169
37
2,623
151
22,775
1,651
606
66
80
11,460
633
161
156
2,681
433
140
340
119
343
23
478
705
666
206
102
257
41
159
752
40
2,673
2,604
6,791
496
13
499
301
395
821
155
177
20
220
15,768
316
20
548
663
49
334
83
Other Female
174,252
499
1,197
3,265
373
66,687
1,368
844
183
219
3,775
1,520
22,592
338
5,138
665
267
614
317
735
117
2,756
2,529
2,034
1,320
275
925
476
272
1,725
167
5,176
1,829
13,596
2,099
213
1,641
4,099
1,792
2,400
280
502
442
624
5,785
656
57
2,921
5,619
169
1,057
108
Other Male
105,769
304
637
1,826
236
41,653
799
536
133
105
2,390
941
13,060
209
3,041
383
176
358
198
520
66
1,742
1,569
1,250
796
188
559
242
154
1,029
101
3,204
1,033
8,708
1,104
111
946
2,157
1,046
1,524
174
254
210
355
3,660
454
36
1,719
3,176
105
550
59
State
Total U.S.
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Vision Impairment and Blindness 7
Estimated Number of Cases of Blindness
in the U.S. Population Age 40 and Older by State, Race and Sex
State
Total U.S.
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
8
Vision Impairment and Blindness
Total
Female
Male
1,035,100
16,232
1,336
18,145
9,929
120,684
11,857
14,564
2,999
2,547
75,132
24,022
11,464
4,169
44,885
21,210
12,359
10,205
13,225
15,414
4,935
20,140
25,531
36,295
17,664
10,009
20,958
3,360
6,490
6,339
4,245
33,721
5,509
73,787
28,636
2,671
43,417
12,786
13,123
55,869
4,691
14,639
3,145
19,383
55,635
5,308
2,142
24,595
21,081
6,942
20,147
1,527
652,292
9,709
829
11,464
6,296
74,639
7,621
9,607
1,834
1,171
45,801
14,186
7,213
2,718
28,444
13,947
8,412
6,729
8,740
8,802
3,322
11,796
17,166
22,859
11,819
5,734
13,558
2,211
4,322
3,772
2,830
21,461
3,417
46,436
17,533
1,817
27,980
8,251
8,633
36,829
3,185
8,544
2,120
12,307
33,747
3,388
1,433
14,815
13,720
4,630
13,488
991
382,808
6,523
507
6,681
3,633
46,045
4,236
4,957
1,165
1,376
29,331
9,836
4,251
1,451
16,441
7,263
3,947
3,476
4,485
6,612
1,613
8,344
8,365
13,436
5,845
4,275
7,400
1,149
2,168
2,567
1,415
12,260
2,092
27,351
11,103
854
15,437
4,535
4,490
19,040
1,506
6,095
1,025
7,076
21,888
1,920
709
9,780
7,361
2,312
6,659
536
White
794,099
11,254
744
15,143
8,108
72,218
10,088
12,841
2,322
530
60,705
15,676
1,163
3,944
34,594
18,802
12,001
9,252
11,889
9,659
4,856
13,122
22,854
29,571
16,620
6,102
18,072
3,129
6,097
4,705
4,124
25,922
3,575
53,031
20,611
2,574
37,008
9,989
11,972
49,057
4,334
9,630
2,941
15,700
38,825
4,826
2,101
17,338
17,705
6,539
18,797
1,435
Black
Hispanic
129,790
4,686
49
558
1,592
8,811
534
1,087
563
1,892
8,190
7,412
60
12
6,975
1,956
181
551
1,146
5,252
20
5,536
1,220
5,543
360
3,736
2,367
8
213
577
26
4,329
141
11,494
6,931
1
5,484
900
199
5,374
162
4,727
12
3,321
8,117
46
10
5,710
621
305
769
12
31,009
60
17
987
53
8,693
613
238
23
32
4,470
223
62
54
966
150
50
123
44
141
7
190
281
236
72
37
93
17
55
276
18
1,059
971
2,864
171
3
181
106
139
308
64
64
5
79
5,974
117
4
213
234
18
118
30
Other
80,202
232
526
1,457
176
30,962
622
398
91
93
1,767
711
10,179
159
2,350
302
127
279
146
362
52
1,292
1,176
945
612
134
426
206
125
781
77
2,411
822
6,398
923
93
744
1,791
813
1,130
131
218
187
283
2,719
319
27
1,334
2,521
80
463
50
White Female
White Male
Black Female
Black Male
539,404
7,752
466
9,864
5,560
48,163
6,758
8,843
1,571
354
39,507
10,852
734
2,596
23,985
12,994
8,254
6,305
8,211
6,614
3,280
8,918
15,863
20,209
11,298
4,263
12,374
2,066
4,146
2,980
2,767
17,843
2,359
36,502
14,208
1,754
25,455
6,721
7,993
33,947
3,017
6,597
1,989
10,851
26,169
3,132
1,412
11,815
11,827
4,454
12,865
943
254,695
3,502
278
5,279
2,548
24,055
3,330
3,998
751
176
21,198
4,824
429
1,348
10,609
5,808
3,747
2,947
3,678
3,045
1,576
4,204
6,991
9,362
5,322
1,839
5,698
1,063
1,951
1,725
1,357
8,079
1,216
16,529
6,403
820
11,553
3,268
3,979
15,110
1,317
3,033
952
4,849
12,656
1,694
689
5,523
5,878
2,085
5,932
492
47,246
1,784
13
174
605
3,029
168
397
200
735
2,848
2,795
15
1
2,529
694
59
188
418
1,900
5
1,989
432
1,955
108
1,374
875
1
71
173
6
1,580
42
4,457
2,647
1,966
311
64
2,040
52
1,773
2
1,239
2,881
11
1
2,055
182
118
265
2
82,544
2,902
36
384
987
5,782
366
690
363
1,157
5,342
4,617
45
11
4,446
1,262
122
363
728
3,352
15
3,547
788
3,588
252
2,362
1,492
7
142
404
20
2,749
99
7,037
4,284
1
3,518
589
135
3,334
110
2,954
10
2,082
5,236
35
9
3,655
439
187
504
10
Hisp. Female
15,923
29
8
494
24
4,456
305
125
11
19
2,369
102
31
23
459
69
23
60
21
77
4
100
148
112
33
18
45
8
26
132
9
558
493
1,594
76
2
89
48
65
154
35
29
2
37
3,043
57
2
109
109
9
55
14
Hisp. Male
Other Female
Other Male
15,086
31
9
493
29
4,237
308
113
12
13
2,101
121
31
31
507
81
27
63
23
64
3
90
133
124
39
19
48
9
29
144
9
501
478
1,270
95
1
92
58
74
154
29
35
3
42
2,931
60
2
104
125
9
63
16
49,719
144
342
932
107
18,991
390
242
52
63
1,077
437
6,433
98
1,471
190
76
176
90
211
33
789
723
583
380
79
264
136
79
487
48
1,480
523
3,883
602
61
470
1,171
511
688
81
145
127
180
1,654
188
18
836
1,602
49
303
32
30,483
88
184
525
69
11,971
232
156
39
30
690
274
3,746
61
879
112
51
103
56
151
19
503
453
362
232
55
162
70
46
294
29
931
299
2,515
321
32
274
620
302
442
50
73
60
103
1,065
131
9
498
919
31
160
18
State
Total U.S.
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Vision Impairment and Blindness 9
Estimated Prevalence Rates of Vision Impairment and Blindness
for Persons Age 40 and Older by State
The map above reflects estimated state-by-state prevalence rates of
vision impairment, including blindness. The overall national rate is 2.80%.
When this rate is applied to the total U.S. population age 40 and older
of approximately 130 million, the result indicates that more than
3.6 million older Americans are blind or visually impaired. Eighteen
states and the District of Columbia have rates above the national
average, while 32 states have rates at or below the average. Hawaii and
Rhode Island have the highest rates at 6.83% and 3.27% respectively.
Alaska has the lowest rate at 1.77%. The largest majority of states
(36 states and DC) are within the 2.5% to 3.5% range. Differences
between states are likely due to demographic differences in age,
race and/or gender distribution.
10
Vision Impairment and Blindness
State
Total U.S.
Alabama
Alaska
Arizona
Arkansas
California
Colorado
Connecticut
Delaware
District of Columbia
Florida
Georgia
Hawaii
Idaho
Illinois
Indiana
Iowa
Kansas
Kentucky
Louisiana
Maine
Maryland
Massachusetts
Michigan
Minnesota
Mississippi
Missouri
Montana
Nebraska
Nevada
New Hampshire
New Jersey
New Mexico
New York
North Carolina
North Dakota
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania
Rhode Island
South Carolina
South Dakota
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington
West Virginia
Wisconsin
Wyoming
Rate
0.0280
0.0256
0.0177
0.0282
0.0270
0.0304
0.0229
0.0303
0.0264
0.0300
0.0323
0.0218
0.0683
0.0255
0.0280
0.0268
0.0313
0.0295
0.0244
0.0253
0.0263
0.0260
0.0302
0.0270
0.0273
0.0252
0.0274
0.0262
0.0294
0.0233
0.0242
0.0293
0.0273
0.0297
0.0254
0.0316
0.0280
0.0283
0.0285
0.0319
0.0327
0.0249
0.0316
0.0245
0.0237
0.0243
0.0245
0.0244
0.0269
0.0270
0.0279
0.0231
State
Alaska
Georgia
Colorado
Wyoming
Nevada
Texas
New Hampshire
Utah
Kentucky
Virginia
Tennessee
Vermont
South Carolina
Mississippi
Louisiana
North Carolina
Idaho
Alabama
Maryland
Montana
Maine
Delaware
Indiana
Washington
Arkansas
Michigan
West Virginia
Minnesota
New Mexico
Missouri
Wisconsin
Illinois
Ohio
Arizona
Oklahoma
Oregon
New Jersey
Nebraska
Kansas
New York
District of Columbia
Massachusetts
Connecticut
California
Iowa
North Dakota
South Dakota
Pennsylvania
Florida
Rhode Island
Hawaii
Rate
0.0177
0.0218
0.0229
0.0231
0.0233
0.0237
0.0242
0.0243
0.0244
0.0244
0.0245
0.0245
0.0249
0.0252
0.0253
0.0254
0.0255
0.0256
0.0260
0.0262
0.0263
0.0264
0.0268
0.0269
0.0270
0.0270
0.0270
0.0273
0.0273
0.0274
0.0279
0.0280
0.0280
0.0282
0.0283
0.0285
0.0293
0.0294
0.0295
0.0297
0.0300
0.0302
0.0303
0.0304
0.0313
0.0316
0.0316
0.0319
0.0323
0.0327
0.0683
Vision Impairment and Blindness 11
Acknowledgements
Funding for Vision Problems in the U.S. and the 2008 Update to the Fourth Edition, was provided through a subcontract
from the National Eye Institute, National Institutes of Health, and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.
Research described in this report was conducted by dozens of scientists from all over the world. We gratefully
acknowledge the invaluable contribution of data from their work.
Prevalence estimates for Vision Problems in the U.S. were created under a grant from Prevent Blindness America to
Johns Hopkins University. We offer our appreciation to the investigators:
Principal Investigator
David S. Friedman, MD, MPH
Assistant Professor of Ophthalmology
Wilmer Eye Institute
Johns Hopkins University
Co-investigators
Nathan Congdon, MD, MPH
Assistant Professor of Ophthalmology
Wilmer Eye Institute
Johns Hopkins University
John Kempen, MD, PhD
Assistant Professor of Ophthalmology
Wilmer Eye Institute
Johns Hopkins University
James M. Tielsch, PhD
Professor
Bloomberg School of Public Health
Johns Hopkins University
Dr. Tielsch also serves on the board of directors
of Prevent Blindness America and was project leader
for this publication.
The investigators were assisted by staff at ORC Macro International, including:
Benita J. O’Colmain, MPH, PhD
Wanda Parham, MPA
Arlen Rosenthal, MA
Adrienne Y. Semidey, MA
Saundra Townsend
Ceres Wright, BS
Text written by
John A. Shoemaker
2008 Updates to the Fourth Edition provided by:
Kevin D. Frick, PhD
Associate Professor
Bloomberg School of Public Health
Johns Hopkins University
Christine S. Spencer, ScD
Associate Professor
School of Public Affairs
University of Baltimore
Cover design
donated by
Saatchi & Saatchi Healthcare
Illustrations
Soumya Netrabile
National Eye Institute
2020 Vision Place
Bethesda, MD 20892-3655
(301) 496-5248
www.nei.nih.gov
Prevent Blindness America
211 West Wacker Drive
Suite 1700
Chicago, Illinois 60606
800-331-2020
www.preventblindness.org