APRIL 2016 • ISSUE 16
ISSN 2306-0735
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EDITORIAL
MALTESE ORIGINS
To communicate with us and
follow the latest in research news
www.twitter.com/thinkuom
S
ome research can change how a society perceives itself. Such
discoveries do not happen often. Over the last few years DNA
samples from hundreds of Maltese people have been sequenced.
The data has set in stone the origin of the Maltese people. Read about
To see our best photos
and illustrations
www.instagram.com/thinkuni
it in the first article (pg. 19) of our focus on The Maltese Genome.
The other focus articles talk about genes for health. A University of
Malta team found a novel mutation in local families connected to the
blood disorder thalassaemia (pg. 26), which can lead to death in the worst
cases. The researchers are trying to determin how to use this knowledge in
To view some great videos
www.youtube.com/user/ThinkUni
patients suffering from the condition. Other work focuses on heart disease
(pg. 32). Malta has one of the highest rates of heart attack-related deaths
in Europe. A Maltese study is trying to determine which gene alterations
common in Malta increase risk. Knowledge is power for treatment.
Marijuana is a controversial drug. Research worldwide, including in
Malta, has shown that it can potentially treat several conditions, explains
To read all our
printed magazines online
Prof. Giuseppe Di Giovanni (pg. 38). Malta has double the EU average of
www.issuu.com/thinkuni
early school leavers. Cassi Camilleri writes about local research seeking
solutions to this problem that is destroying communities (pg. 52).
Marie Claire Gatt talks about sea birds around the Maltese Islands (pg.
For our archive from the
University of Malta Library
44). These are vital for the Mediterranean Sea’s health. She reports on
research performed to see which areas are in dire need of protection.
www.um.edu.mt/library/oar
In this issue, students talk about digital art (pg. 16) and testing octopi
for heavy metal levels (pg. 15). While alumni discuss their work building
security apps. The fun section rounds up the issue with reviews, fun
CONTRIBUTE
science questions, and a 100 word idea to change Malta (pg. 67–71).
Edward Duca
EDITOR
edward.duca@um.edu.mt
@DwardD
Are you a student, staff, or
researcher at the University of
Malta? Would you like to contribute
to THINK magazine? If interested,
please get in touch to discuss your
article on think@um.edu.mt
or call +356 2340 3451
1
COVER STORY
CONTENTS
ISSUE 16 � APRIL 2016
TOOLKIT
MAQL
4
6
WITHOUT BORDERS
Science, art, academia: Star Trek
6
Malta Global Game Jam
8
DESIGN
10
Modern European sculpture
12
OPINION
Why practise Taijiquan?
12
Who owns you?
13
The enduring appeal of Star Trek
14
The Maltese Genome
16
Hundreds of Maltese people have had their
DNA sequenced. The research is trying to
identify the root of rare diseases common
in Malta. The data has also revealed the
origins of the Maltese people.
See editorial on pg. 18
18
STUDENTS
Octopus around Malta: safe to eat?
15
Transform everything
16
RESEARCH
Art for research's sake
How art is being used to fund
research at the University of Malta
17
CONTRIBUTORS
TOOLKIT ARTICLE
Dr Noel Aquilina
William Hicklin
WITHOUT BORDERS
ARTICLES
Dr Edward Duca
Prof. Victor Grech
DESIGN ARTICLE
Dr Edward Duca
Nikki Petroni
Dr Giuseppe Schembri
Bonaci
OPINION ARTICLES
Dr Jean Buttigieg
Alan Saliba Gauci
Prof. Victor Grech
STUDENT ARTICLES
Joshua Gili
Matthew Galea
RESEARCH ARTICLE
Sarah Spiteri
MALTESE GENOME
FOCUS
Dr Stephanie BezzinaWettinger
Dr Joseph Borg
Prof. Alex Felice
Clint Mizzi
Scott Wilcockson
FEATURE ARTICLES
Prof. Carmel Borg
Cassi Camilleri
Prof. Giuseppe Di Giovanni
Marie Claire Gatt
Stephen Grixti
Dr Milosh Raykov
Dr Ing. Nicholas Sammut
ALUMNI ARTICLE
Dr Nicholas MIcallef
Veronica Stivala
CULTURE ARTICLE
Valletta 2018 Foundation
FUN ARTICLES
Dr Mario Aquilina
David Chircop
Dr Jurgen Gatt
Alexander Hili
Dr Philip M. Magri
Costantino Oliva
COMIC STRIP
Dr Ġorġ Mallia
PHOTOGRAPHY
Dr Edward Duca
Jean Claude Vancell
Elisa von Brockdorff
ILLUSTRATIONS
Sonya Hallett
Marie Claire Gatt
Jean Claude Vancell
WEBSITE
Lars Lorenz
Jean Claude Vancell
THINK is a quarterly research magazine published by the Communications & Alumni Relations Office at the University of Malta
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2
MALTESE GENOME FOCUS
The hidden history of the Maltese genome
19
Blood, genes & you
26
Heartbreakers
32
44
19
FEATURE
Marijuana for epilepsy?
Maltese research on how
the drug can be used to
treat epilepsy
FEATURE
Time, space, & the ocean wanders
Seabirds around Malta are critical for
the Mediterranean Sea's health
FEATURE
FEATURE
Systematic failure,
persistence and success
Rockets that fail safely
Testing software to prevent disasters
like the 1996 Ariane 5 rocket launch
58
38
52
Malta has twice the number of early
school leavers as the rest of Europe.
How can this problem be solved?
ALUMNI
Shiny 'appy people
Security apps for good health
63
CULTURE
Maltese cultural participation:
What do the people want?
65
The results are in on the Malta cultural
participation survey
71
FUN
Reviews (Books, Film, Games)
THINK
I D E A S
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M A LTA
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R E S E A RC H
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P E O P L E
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U N I V E R S I TY
APRIL 2016 - ISSUE 16
EDITORIAL
Edward Duca EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
Scott Wilcockson FOCUS EDITOR
DESIGN
Jean Claude Vancell DESIGNER
COPYEDITING
67–70
100 word idea: Think critically, think Malta
71
What is more addictive: cannabis or coffee?
71
ISSN 2306-0735
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The right of the University of Malta to be identified as Publisher of this work has been asserted in accordance
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publishers will be pleased to include any necessary credits in any subsequent issues.
Veronica Stivala
PROOF READING
Patricia Camilleri, Daphne Pia Deguara
PRINTING
Gutenberg Press, Malta
3
Toolkit
TOOLKIT
4
Photography by Jean Claude Vancell
MAQL
T
he Mobile Air Quality Laboratory (MAQL) is the
outside our window? Or is it because of the new sofa
first of its kind on the Maltese Islands. Run by a
the family next door just bought? Or perhaps it is a result
team of geoscientists at the University of Malta, the
of the redecoration the building down the road recently
MAQL can assess the quality of the air by continuously
underwent. Such data is vital for scientists to be able to
monitoring particulate and gaseous air toxics.
figure out the root of a problem, to create a model of
​The particulates it can detect vary in size. The
personal exposure to the pollutants, and to develop safer
finer particles (PM1 and PM2.5) are usually the most
measures for the general public.
can also measure coarser sized particles (PM4 and
a clearer picture of the indoor air quality across
PM10). The suite of gaseous pollutants that can be
the Maltese Islands. It will help other scientists
checked are sulfur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon
interpret older data, and enable them to design
monoxide, ozone, Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs),
new studies. Medics can match such data with
organic and elemental carbon, and radon.
population studies and assess disease rates around
dangerous respirable fraction but the instrumentation
The MAQL is able to compare the air in indoor
The MAQL facility will help scientists develop
Malta. The MAQL can determine the sources of
and outdoor spaces while recording meteorological
pollution inside buildings with the help of lifestyle
conditions onsite. The comparison helps scientists
and meteorological data, providing enough
understand from where the pollution originates. Is there
information for the construction of dwellings
so much pollution in our environs because of all the cars
which have cleaner and safer air for everyone.
• Power consumption (including cooling system):
2.5 kW • Gaseous pollutants measurement frequency:
1 minute
• Particulate limit of detection: 1 ug/m3
• Gaseous pollutants limit of detection: < 0.5 ppb
• VOCs measurement frequency:
1 sample/30 minutes
• Cost: €0.60 million
Toolkit
QUICK SPECS
5
WITHOUT
BORDERS
Science, art, academia: Star Trek
T
he Star Trek academic symposium will be held
drew participation from many international scholars
at the Faculty of ICT, University of Malta, on
including American philosopher Jason Eberl, UK-
15 and 16 July 2016. This event will be a platform
based neonatologist and ethicist Neena Modi.
for both academics from various disciplines as
As a result of its success, this second event
well as Star Trek fans to meet and explore the
that marks the 50th anniversary from the launch
intersection between the humanities and the
of Star Trek: The Original Series is being organised.
sciences. There will be inspirational presentations
The event will be held under the auspices of the
from national and international speakers, with the
Humanities, Medicine and Sciences Programme
programme tailored to attract a wide audience.
(HUMS), a University of Malta programme set
Contributors will be encouraged to explore
up to explore and encourage the interfaces
contemporary issues in medicine, science, and
between the humanities, medicine, and sciences.
technology as well as philosophical, psychological,
The Science Fiction Symposium will appeal to
and sociological issues connected with the
scientists and fans of science fiction alike..
science fiction entertainment franchise Star Trek.
A similar symposium was held in 2014 and which
Without Borders
proved to be a worldwide first that successfully
6
For more information, visit:
www.startreksymposium.com
Without Borders
Art by Prof. Victor Grech
7
WITHOUT
BORDERS
Malta Global Game Jam
I
ndie games are seemingly unstoppable. As
ancient temple’s rite of passage. Hashtag
mainstream blockbuster AAA games stutter,
Master Race won the local event with a game
new niches are opening up with nearly half
about angels and demons. Internationally
of gamers being female and mobile revenue
over 28,000 people participated.
increasing rapidly. In Malta, an important piece
Apart from a fun weekend, the event
in the indie game developer puzzle is the Malta
is an opportunity for one to practice and
Global Game Jam, which brings coders, designers,
learn skills, to build networks and, in a few
artists, writers, and other creatives together to
cases, build promising new IP (Intellectual
create a game from scratch in just 48 hours.
Property). Participants form a small indie
Run in Malta by the Institute of Digital
Malta Global Games Jam, the game And Then We
considerably since its inception, pulling an
Held Hands saw success and as it was distributed
international crowd from all over Europe. The
internationally following a $60,000 Kickstarter
January event this year included London-based
campaign. The experience can be used to help
games and pop-culture writer Philippa Warr and
those already in the industry, or for those
Milan-based indie design duo We are Müesli.
wishing to enter the industry, gain confidence
After keynotes and workshops to hone
participants’ skills, 14 different games were created.
Without Borders
The worldwide theme was ‘ritual’. In third place
8
development team every year. Back in the 2013
Games since 2013, the yearly event has grown
to make more indie games or for them to
join a big company with proven experience.
Intense events like this play a vital role in
was the create-your-own-god game, Godowbows,
the building of a local game development
and the self-explanatory non-fun game, IKEA
scene that can soon see Malta join its
supply assistant. In second place the beautifully
international peers in producing top-notch,
designed The Passage immersed players into an
international and lucrative games.
9
Without Borders
DESIGN
Modern European sculpture
F
rench sculptor Auguste Rodin (1840–1917)
as a means of moulding his sculptures. He managed
is the progenitor of modern sculpture. He
to create a new aesthetic.
rebelled against idealised forms in order to express
The conference brought scholars from all over
the inner truths of humanity in his artworks.
Europe to discuss these and other European sculptors.
His successors went on to challenge his work,
The scholars debated topics from the mutation of
continuing to explore the aesthetic revolution he
the human form to an artist’s sense of heritage. The
had started. Key examples include Henry Moore
event focused on pioneering sculptors who went
(1898–1986), Alberto Giacometti and the largely
beyond their current socio-political context. It also
undiscovered Swiss sculptor Hans Josephsohn
helped place Malta’s own Kalleya deservedly on the
(1920–2012).
international map.
Design
These artists were studied alongside Maltese
10
sculptor Josef Kalleya (1898–1998) at the
The conference and exhibition were organised by
conference entitled ‘Peripheral Alternatives to
the Department of History of Art, Faculty of Arts,
Rodin in Modern European Sculpture’ (December,
University of Malta. The events were convened
2015). The international speakers created
by Dr Giuseppe Schembri Bonaci and curated
significant links between works by renowned
by Nikki Petroni. Other participants included Dr
sculptors and Kalleya, who has been poorly
Sophie Biass-Fabiani (Musée Rodin, Paris), Dr Jon
understood by his contemporaries and is unknown
Wood (Henry Moore Foundation, Leeds), Barbara
outside Malta. Kalleya developed unique methods
Vujanović (Atelijer Meštrović, Zagreb), Dr Julia Kelly
of creating photomontages alongside the innovative
(Loughborough University), and, Ulrich Meinherz
use of a knife to create powerful visceral incisions
(Kesselhaus Josephsohn, St Gallen).
Design
Top: Josef Kalleya, Study for City Gate, Valletta. Photograph of plaster model
(image courtesy of the Kalleya Family Archives)
Left: Josef Kalleya, L'Abbandono della Casa Materna. Photograph of lost
work (image courtesy of the Kalleya Family Archives)
Right: Josef Kalleya, I Santi, Bronze. Photo by Elisa von Brockdorff
Opposite page: Josef Kalleya, Pierrot, Bronze. Photo by Elisa von Brockdorff
11
Why practise Taijiquan?
Alan Saliba Gauci
I
n the 12th century, the Shaolin Monk Chang
and like Taoism, Tai Chi is based on the principle,
San Feng witnessed a battle between a snake
known as Wu Wei (effortless effort). This means
and a crane, during which the snake managed
that those who practise Tai Chi should be soft and
to conquer its opponent with its grace. The
flexible in the same way that water flows smoothly.
monk went on to formulate a set of movements,
Water can take the form of any container yet on its
which have become the basis of Tai Chi, a martial
art based on the pillars of Taoism, Confucianism
benefits. One study concluded that moderate Tai
being one with nature and the universe.
Chi practice helps older people maintain fitness,
while other studies showed that Tai Chi was good
a system of philosophical teachings that stresses
for a healthy and well-functioning heart, as well as
that all under the sky is one family. Everyone can
to regulate blood pressure levels.
be part of this great family regardless of their social
Taijiquan is based on the principle of Yin
status, political or religious creed. By practising Tai
and Yang, an element of Chinese philosophy
Chi together and sharing knowledge, participants
that describes how two contrary forces can be
learn and develop respect and obedience; qualities
complementary. Building on this belief, those who
stressed by Chinese teacher and founder of
practise the discipline try to achieve harmony
Confucianism, Confucius.
which in turn brings with it good health.
During my Tai Chi classes, I like to first develop
the technical aspects of a student’s movements in
order for them to have a solid foundation. This is
then followed by an emphasis on self-expression
through movement and concentration on these
movements. In the film Enter the Dragon, Bruce Lee
tells his apprentice ‘like a finger pointing away to the
moon. Do not concentrate on the finger or you will
miss all that heavenly glory.’ At first a movement
is just a movement. However, after constant
practice and analysis, the practitioner
realises that the movement has a rhythm
behind it and this charges them with
feeling, a process that resembles the way
a musician feels the beat/the rhythm
when performing.
THE BENEFITS OF TAIJIQUAN
Taijiquan is a good method to alleviate stress and
achieve good health. Rather than going to a gym,
where a lot of energy and effort are required, with
Tai Chi, a lot can be achieved without any force,
Opinion
Some scientific studies have shown Tai Chi’s
and Buddhism. Taoism upholds the importance of
Taijiquan shares concepts with Confucianism,
12
own it is formless and shapeless.
Who owns you?
Dr Jean Buttigieg
were invalid because they did not create or alter
have already been claimed
any of the genetic information encoded in the
as US Intellectual Property.
BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes. The location and order
But should anyone own our
of the nucleotides existed in nature before Myriad
genes? And what happens
found them. The company simply discovered what
when gene ownership can drastically prevent
the advancement of life-saving cures?
The US Patent Office’s most controversial patents
was already there and did not create anything new.
There is no worldwide consensus on whether
parts of the human genome should be granted
are on BRCA1 and BRCA2, both linked to the high
intellectual property protection. The Myriad
risks of ovarian and breast cancer. They are now
patents should alert us to the injustice of having
owned by Myriad Genetic Laboratories. In 1996,
a pharmaceutical company make money out of
Myriad Genetics developed and began marketing a
cancer predictive tests that could cost 10 times
predictive test for the presence of possible cancer-
less than what is charged. The same patents
causing mutations: the ‘BRCAnalysis’ test. The
stifled diagnostic testing and research that could
price of the test was US$3,000 but the company
have led to cures as well as limiting women’s
promised that it would eventually drop the price to
options regarding their medical care in Malta as
US$300. This never happened because its patent
in all other parts of the world. There are various
holder had the right to stop any other party from
international and regional agreements that have
duplicating the patented sequences. This single
described the human genome as being part of
test accounted for over 80% of Myriad Genetics’
humanity’s ‘common heritage’, including the 1998
multibillion dollar business.
UN Declaration on the Human Genome and
In 2009, the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU)
Human Rights. The Myriad patents controversy
decided to challenge the patenting of human genes
has shown that gene patenting does not work
on legal grounds. The ACLU was the representative of
to stimulate more research—one of the prime
20 medial organisations, geneticists, women’s health
arguments Big Pharma uses. It is time to explore
groups, and patients unable to be screened due to
other avenues that will both promote scientific
the prohibitive patents. The ACLU’s position was that
progress and technological development but
Myriad’s patents violated the patent law on the issue
at the same time protect the special nature of
of patent-eligibility.
human genes that make us who we are. No
The case went before the Supreme Court. By 3
June, 2013 it was declared that the Myriad patents
one should own our genes—they should be
exploited in the interest of everyone.
Opinion
O
ne fifth of human genes
13
The enduring
appeal of Star Trek
Prof. Victor Grech
I
am often asked why Star Trek appeals to me
to all since no deities are invoked. When people
lies with its founder, the humanist Gene
invoke God or gods this almost inevitably
Roddenberry. Humanism is defined as ‘a faith
precipitates arguments on which religion is
in and commitment to shared humanity’.
correct or true. Such conflicts are a principal
Secular Humanism is not an ideology or
source of past, present, and future contention.
fixed ethical system but a collection of general
Opinion
Television aliens can be read as ciphers and
guidelines that should allow humanity to
metaphors for humanity. Humanism could
increase its knowledge to further its collective
be interpreted as a belief system that is a
wellbeing. The philosophy seeks to establish
useful point of reference to explore human
moral principles that are independent of
differences. The medium of science fiction
any mystical sources, though they remain
combines these two, leading to open dialogue
conducive to the freedom and wellbeing of
and self-insight to bridge the artificial gulfs
the populace based on ethical reasoning. The
that separate us as individuals and as races.
term Secular Humanism explicitly rejects the
The Star Trek universe continues to offer
supernatural and the primacy of moral codes
‘an alternative, liberal future that not only has
based solely on religious convictions. Secular
eliminated poverty, racism, sexism, jingoism, and
Humanist philosophy offers an alternative to
colonialism, but also challenges contemporary
more traditional ethical and moral concepts.
society to rectify such unacceptable states of affair’.
Humanism is rooted in the oeuvre of the
14
Star Trek’s brand of secular Humanism appeals
and so many others. For me, the answer
Star Trek, like other science fiction, has an
philosopher John Locke, who asserted that
unshakeable ‘belief in the liberating power of
everyone has the natural right to ‘life, liberty,
the imagination’ to optimistically create utopian
and property’ as well as in the work of
worlds that help us realise ‘our limitations, and
philosopher Adam Smith, who addressed the
thereby to move beyond them toward a more
importance of private property and free trade.
inclusive awareness’ of humanity’s potential.
STUDENTS
Octopus around Malta: Safe to eat?
Joshua Gili
H
eavy metals can be toxic to humans. They need to be
liver. Each tissue was gathered into one pool by site,
monitored to ensure environmental levels do not go
then homogenised, dried, and acid-treated. Afterwards a
above dangerous levels. The European Commission has
technique called polarography was used to determine the
set acceptable maximum levels of metals allowed in food
levels of each metal. This data helped Gili decide whether
since most metals end up in humans through their diet.
metal accumulation in the tissue of octopi is affected by
But how do metals find their way into our food in the
first place? Heavy metals can enter the environment in
biometry, season, or geography.
In Malta, metal levels depended on where the octopus
a number of ways, including through volcanism, fossil
was caught. In general, the concentrations were lower
fuel burning, and antifouling paint use. The heavy metals
than other Mediterranean regions. The levels of cadmium
bind with biomolecules inside living tissue, and can build
and lead in the tentacles were below toxic levels as
up to dangerous levels. One prime example of how such
stated by the European Commission, indicating that local
metals end up in the food we eat can be seen in the case
octopus is safe to eat.
of the common octopus (Octopus vulgaris). The octopus is
susceptible to accumulating high levels of heavy metals
This research was performed as part of Joshua Gili’s
due to its high ingestion rate of benthic fauna.
Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Biology and Chemistry,
Joshua Gili (supervised by Prof. Victor Axiak) recorded
the concentrations of cadmium, copper, lead, and zinc
which he is reading at the Faculty of Science, University
of Malta.
in the common octopus. Specimens
were collected from
around Malta during
summer and winter.
The analysis was
performed on
two of the species’
tissues—the tentacles
and the digestive
Students
glands— which function
in a similar way to the human
15
Transform everything
Matthew Galea
D
igital technology opens up new possibilities
for the visual arts. It allows artists to
The multidisciplinary approach also allowed
Galea to investigate chemistry and physics as
go beyond the traditional constraints of art.
ways of generating content and engaging with the
Sculpture is a centuries-old tradition reliant on the
artefact. Galea produced an art installation that
relationship between the artefact, and its material
made use of the night sky, which itself has held
and space around it. In the past, sculpture was
multiple interpretations by humankind throughout
confined to being a physical act; it produced three-
time. The artwork transformed movement into
dimensional tangible objects that had little to do
audio and visual content.
with the digital world.
But this is just one side, if you would forgive the
Thanks to his research, Galea helped show how
hyperdisciplinary artefacts that fuse various art
pun, to sculpture. Sculpture can be viewed as a
forms are possible through digital technology.
mental process. It is the act of remediating things,
Computers can transform data into an image,
or rather reassigning meaning to objects. Marcel
audio, or text. Software can transform anything.
Duchamp’s infamous sculpture ‘Fountain’ (1917)
Digital technology can enhance artworks'
is perhaps a perfect example of this. Meaning is
interactivity with the audience, making visitors
a social and cultural construct created through
part of the artwork.
interactions by people with the objects and their
environment. Since meaning is fabricated by society,
To see the project’s outcome visit:
then it stands to reason how the same objects have
www.behance.net/gallery/27174125/Map-of-
held multiple interpretations through time.
the-Heavens
Students
Matthew Galea (supervised by Dr Vince Briffa)
16
This research was performed as part of a
explored these social and cultural constructs to
Master of Fine Art in Digital Art which Matthew
create novel artworks. To do so, he employed
Galea completed at the Faculty of Media and
skills from different disciplines including drawing,
Knowledge Sciences (MaKS), University of Malta.
painting, sculpture, music, and the other
It is partially funded by Master it! scheme. This
performing arts. But instead of expressing them
scholarship is part-financed by the European
individually he fused them into one art form.
Union—European Social Fund (ESF) under
The various art forms could be experienced
Operational Programme II—Cohesion Policy
collectively, for example, as a musical instrument,
2007–2013, ‘Empowering People for More Jobs
or a painting, or even through movement.
and a Better Quality of Life’.
Photos by John Ambrogio
Art for
research’s sake
Performing artists support medical research through the University of Malta’s Research,
Innovation and Development Trust
science and research.
the event, who passed away in 2013.
Jonathan Shaw, the producer of
the importance of supporting the
work that is being carried out in the
When it comes to
Teatru Unplugged, explains that ‘a part
field of cancer research […], work
raising funds for
of the proceeds or the money raised
that may not have an immediate
medical research, artists
through initiatives associated with
result, but by supporting it we are
and art lovers around the world
Teatru Unplugged has always gone to
supporting a long term plan.’
have always been at the forefront.
good causes,’ but ever since Nirvana
The most recent event was held
Concerts, art exhibitions, and art
passed away, Teatru Unplugged has
on Easter Sunday. RIDT presented
auctions have long been effective
focused specifically on cancer-related
Vivaldi’s The Four Seasons at St
platforms for raising funds for research,
causes.’ This year the organisers
Publius Church, Floriana, featuring
particularly medical research.
decided to go one step further, and
internationally acclaimed violinist
collaborated with RIDT. Shaw adds
Carmine Lauri together with a
the inception of the the University
that ‘we believe that investing in
14-piece string ensemble, under the
of Malta’s Research, Innovation and
research to help find possible or
direction of Prof. Mro Michael Laus.
Development Trust (RIDT), a growth
potential solutions to a problem is just
The concert was supporting Brain
has been observed in terms of
as important as helping those who
Awareness Week that aims to raise
support for and contribution towards
are currently facing that scenario. It
funds for research in brain-related
research from the art industry. This
is important to channel support to
studies, and was supported by APS
growth in support comes from both
the long-term solution at the root.’
Bank and the ADRC Trust.
the artists themselves as well as the
The 25th edition of Prelude to
Over the past four years, since
producers of artistic events. It is
Christmas, a concert for Christmastime
encouraging to see a culture change
held at the Mdina Cathedral by the
whereby research is being recognised
Amadeus Choir, raised funds for
as a cause worthy of support.
cancer research conducted at
Noteworthy examples of this are
the University of Malta. Mro
two music events that took place in
Brian Cefai, director of the
December 2015. The 18 edition
Amadeus Choir comments
of Teatru Unplugged was held at
that ‘as a choir we have been
the Manoel Theatre, Valletta and
raising funds for charitable
raised funds for cancer research.
causes for decades. This
The initiative also honoured Nirvana
year we decided to support
Azzopardi, one of the co-founders of
RIDT because we recognise
th
Research
A
rt is no stranger to
17
SP EC I AL
F EATURE
D
NA is what life is made of. Found in every cell of the human body, it has sent
criminals to jail and been the focus of controversial court cases. Dr Jean
Buttigieg discusses these legal and ethical issues (pg. 13). DNA has also
transformed the meaning of being human, with traits from disease to intelligence all
linked to it. DNA is changing the world.
Malta has not lagged behind in genetics research. One of the largest local research
groups has been investigating for decades the genetics behind haemoglobin switching
and the blood disorder thalassaemia. Their research is recognised worldwide (pg. 26).
They recently discovered a mutation, in some Maltese families, that led them to a
master regulator that could help bone marrow alleviate the disease. They are trying
to turn this knowledge into a treatment for sufferers worldwide. In the worst cases
thalassaemia is fatal.
Another large scale study is looking into heart disease (pg. 32). The morality rate in
Malta is higher than the European average. This is partly our lifestyle but there is also a
genetic component. The Maltese Acute Myocardial Infarction (MAMI) study is focused
on finding the genetic component behind three key heart-disease related problems.
The local studies on Maltese genetics are very ambitious (pg. 19). They have already
partially sequenced tens of people and plan to map the genomes of 4,000 Maltese
people, around 1% of the population. Malta would suddenly become one of the best
genetically documented in the world. This research has already borne fruit with a public
health genomics database, a biobank, and the origin of the current Maltese population
finally nailed.
The Malta Human Genome Project (MHGP—Grant Agreement R&I 2013-041) is
funded by the Malta Council for Science and Technology in the Health & Biotechnology
sector. Research consortium lead: University of Malta.
Maltese Genome Focus
Partners: Mater Dei Hospital, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands and Complete
18
Genomics Inc., California, Silicon Valley, USA.
The Hidden History
of the maltese genome
By reading someone’s DNA one can tell how likely they are to develop a disease or
whether they are related to the person sitting next to them. By reading a nation’s
DNA one can understand why a population is more likely to develop a disease or
how a population came to exist. Scott Wilcockson talks to Prof. Alex Felice,
Dr Joseph Borg, and Clint Mizzi (University of Malta) about their latest project
that aims to sequence the Maltese genome and what it might reveal about the
origins and health of the Maltese people. Illustrations by Sonya Hallett.
The first draft of the Human Genome has been
launched the largest biological project
invaluable to researchers all over the world who
in history. Over the course of 13 years,
sought to understand the intricacies of human
the Human Genome Project sought to
biology and evolution. Another major outcome was
decipher the sequence of human DNA;
the rapid surge in DNA sequencing technologies.
the chemical code found in every cell of
The first human genome took over 200 scientists
our bodies that contains the information to
13 years and $3 billion to complete. The newest
create an entire human being. The completion
technology, known as Next Generation Sequencing
of this project, and the subsequent boom
(machine-based sequencing technologies), now
in the field of genetics, has turned the
allows a small group of scientists to sequence one
21st century into the age of genetics.
person’s genome in a few weeks for around
Maltese Genome Focus
I
n 1990, geneticists all over the world
19
$1,000. Such a low price has fuelled
groups of populations. Caucasians
innovation—from reimagining medicine
have particular DNA variations
(into precision medicine that considers
that make them unique from East
The three-year Maltese Genome Project
a person's gene variations, environment,
Asian populations and vice versa.
was launched in 2015, based on nearly
and lifestyle) to teasing out the origins
Maltese Genome Focus
25 years of human genomic research
of humankind through projects like
genome falls short when one attempts
in Malta. It will map the genomes
The Cancer Genome Atlas and the
to study a specific population’s genetics.
of around 4,000 Maltese people, or
International 1,000 Genome Project.
Researcher Clint Mizzi explains, ‘there
1% of the population, in order to
have been a number of [genome
obtain an averaged or referenced
human genome does not paint a
sequencing] projects but how many
Maltese genome sequence. This
complete picture of every person alive
Maltese people were included? […]
means that the end result will not
today. While 99.9% of the sequence
Populations from different countries
be the sequence of any one person’s
of every human’s DNA is the same,
have different variants that appear in
genome but a representative example
the 0.1% which is slightly different
different percentages of the population,
of the entire Maltese population.
(called variations or mutations) makes
thus some [gene variants] may be
us unique. Borg explained, ‘all of our
found mainly in the Maltese population
will be invaluable to geneticists and
traits, such as eye colour and height,
[while] others are absent.’ This is why
clinicians to diagnose rare diseases
boil down to small variations in our
many countries worldwide are initiating
and investigate new therapies. Borg
DNA sequence. Importantly, diseases
their own genome projects. Now
describes how ‘if they embark on their
are also attributed to [gene] mutations
Malta has entered the foray with the
own genetics project and uncover a
and variants.’ While every person
Maltese Genome Project and a partial
mutation […], instead of having no
is genetically different, so are large
genome has already been completed.
idea how frequently it occurs [in the
While useful, the first draft of the
20
Thus, the current data on the human
A GENOME FOR THE PEOPLE
Having this kind of information
Maltese population] or what it does,
than exploring […] work that might be
reference genome to match everything
they will now have a reference they
futile, which can be very frustrating.’
up like a giant jigsaw puzzle. By
comparing the genomes, any variations
can look to.’ This knowledge will
CONVERTING PEOPLE
INTO BIG DATA
in the DNA sequence specific to the
Getting hold of a person’s DNA is quite
researchers can then focus their
easy: a cheek swab or some blood is
efforts on the specific gene variants
FORGETTING PAST
TECHNOLOGY?
all you need. Once the DNA has been
or mutations that are affecting the
prepared—which involves cutting it up
Maltese population. Mizzi stresses
into tiny fragments—it is placed in one
‘that bioinformatics does not stand
Malta has a long history of genetics
end of a DNA sequencing machine and
alone. […] The machines are not 100%
research. Older genetics technologies
left to run. These machines essentially
perfect, although there are a number
were less focused and much more
make a copy of the DNA fragments and
of [methods we use] to minimise the
vastly improve the understanding
of how particular gene variants
affect the Maltese population when
studying disease mechanisms.
Maltese population can be singled out.
With this information, the
labour intensive. They looked at
one gene at a time, forcing the
researcher to choose particular
genes, possibly missing the gene
linked to a disease or condition.
Modern whole genome sequencing
(next generation sequencing) is fast,
relatively inexpensive, and allows
This knowledge will vastly improve the
understanding of how particular gene
variants affect the Maltese population
when studying disease mechanisms.
researchers to look at every single
gene and all the DNA in between.
monitor which molecules are added
errors. […] So it is important to go back
So does this mean that next
in sequence to the growing chain of
to the laboratory to confirm results and
generation sequencing technology will
new DNA. This then allows you to
do experimental functional studies.’
signal the end for old technologies? On
determine the original sequence. Then
It is imperative to check that the
the contrary, Borg explains that ‘we are
it is someone else’s job to make sense
variants or mutations have an effect
at a stage where we usually sequence
of what comes out the other end.
on our biology. By working together,
the whole genome […] but if we can
Say 'hello' to the bioinformaticians!
researchers from different fields are
putting this knowledge to good use.
obtain enough data [about the Maltese
Clint Mizzi is a bioinformatician at
population], researchers no longer need
the University of Malta working on the
to sequence everything. Once we have
Maltese Genome Project. He explains
bright future for our understanding
the thousands of unique and non-
that ‘bioinformatics encompasses
of human physiology and what
unique [gene] variants, a researcher can
multiple disciplines […] involving an
treatment is best when our genes
study a Malta-specific [range of genes]
understanding of biology, computer
turn against us. But the field of
that can be more precise and less time
science, mathematics, statistics,
genetics is not only about working
consuming.’ Far from replacing the old
and some engineering. We apply
towards a better future. Hidden deep
technology, whole genome sequencing
mathematical sciences to biological
within our DNA are clues of our
can work alongside it to streamline
data.’ A single person can equate to
distant past. By reading the Maltese
research. ‘[Genome sequencing]
200–400 gigabits of raw data and
genome one can understand the
will help direct research to specific
Mizzi needs to make sense of it.
origins of the contemporary Maltese
can] tailor design experiments rather
Once Mizzi has the DNA sequence
fragments he aligns them to a
population and the evolutionary
forces that shaped their genome.
Maltese Genome Focus
genes,’ Borg explains, ‘[so a scientist
The age of genetics heralds a
21
Lebanese DNA
contributed less
than 5% to today's
Maltese DNA
MALTESE ORIGINS
specific parts of the mitochondrial
population, known as M and N, moved
DNA (known as haplogroups, that
into the Middle East and made their
The Mediterranean has enjoyed a
remain largely unchanged over
first steps toward global colonisation.
turbulent past with more civilisations
time so are shared worldwide)
and empires rising and falling than a
researchers are able to trace ancestry
entered Continental Europe. Felice
year's hot dinners. This question of
through the female lineage.
explains that ‘over a relatively short
‘where did the Maltese come from?’
The second is the Y chromosome.
Human DNA is broken up into 46
the pre-existing humanoids, mostly
To understand how this modern
chunks known as chromosomes, with
Neanderthals in Europe, due to some
nation arose needs a bit of history.
each parent contributing half. Gender
kind of Darwinian advantage.’ Some
is determined by two chromosomes
cross-breeding took place between
Africa, the environment was just
known as X and Y. XX makes a female,
the two humanoids but gradually
right for the beginning of humankind.
XY makes a male. The combination
Homo sapiens took over the planet
Modern humans (Homo sapiens)
depends on one's father. The Y
(except Antarctica). Malta was only
entered the world stage around
chromosome also has haplogroups,
colonised around 7,000 years ago.
200,000 years ago—exact dates are
making it a useful genetic marker for
still unknown. Evolutionary genetics
evolutionary studies on men's origins.
THE FIRST PEOPLE OF MALTA
THE VOYAGE OF HUMANITY
The first humans in Malta are presumed
This DNA is distinct from the rest of
Around 80,000 years ago humans
brought cattle and crops over that
our DNA found in the cell nucleus.
embarked on the most important
changed the Maltese landscape. After
Mitochondrial DNA is found in
journey in humanity’s history. They
more than a millennium, the culture of
small energy producing factories
left Africa. From the analysis of
this people took an interesting turn.
known as mitochondria—if they
mitochondrial DNA, humans 'exited
They built over 30 temple complexes,
stop working, death follows quickly.
from East Africa as a small group of
the oldest free-standing stone
These are inherited only from
male and female modern humans,’
structures in the world. This Temple
one's mother and only transmitted
explains Prof. Alex Felice. Two
Period saw the rise of a complex
through daughters. By looking at
splinter groups of the Eastern African
civilisation with a ritualistic and artistic
studies that look into our distant
past rely on two genetic markers.
The first is mitochondrial DNA.
Maltese Genome Focus
period of time […] humans replaced
has been debated for centuries.
A long time ago in South-East
22
By 40,000 years ago, humans had
to have been Sicilian farmers, who
culture (see Death of the Temple People
completely uninhabited; there is not a
day colonial areas based on haplogroups
in THINK, Issue 10, pp. 34–41).
very good record, but in principle there
in modern day Lebanese people. Late
For one and a half millennia the
was not a substantial population [...].
Stone Age farmers in Greece, Crete,
Temple People flourished, leaving
It was probably a mixture of the main
and Southern Italy had the same piece
behind their distinctive mark on
populations of the time,’ he continues.
of DNA. The Maltese population did
the Maltese and Gozitan landscape.
The Temple People were replaced
too, but this small genetic footprint
However, their departure left us with
by Bronze Age settlers. Then came the
could have been left behind by others
Malta’s greatest mystery: why did
Phoenicians around 700 bc, followed
like the Stone Age ancestors. The
they suddenly disappear around 2500
by the Carthaginian Empire in 332
methodology of this study turned out
bc?
bc,
to be flawed. Maltese history does not
then the Romans during the First
proposed, including environmental
Punic War in 218 bc. Malta's population
reflect a large Phoenician population
stress and their own religious fervour.
was thought to be very small, Felice
that could have lasted till today
The real reason is being unravelled
adds how there was ‘maybe a small
by the FRAGSUS project involving
urban presence in modern Mdina and
Maltese come from? Research carried
archaeologists, biologists, engineers,
[a few other places], but apparently
out in Malta points to just a few
and others from the Universities of
only a couple thousand at most.’
hundred miles north. A study published
So where do the contemporary
in the Annals of Human Genetics in
Cambridge, Belfast, and Malta.
DESCENT FROM
PHOENICIA OR SICILY?
2004, on which Felice collaborated,
[humanity’s presence in Malta] is like
In 2004, a National Geographic magazine
and identified common population
that of the dinosaurs. The Temple
interview sparked exciting revelations
groups. ‘Data on Mitochondrial DNA
People were here but they seem
on the origins of the Maltese people.
[from the ongoing Maltese Genome
to have been replaced by others,’
Early results of a Y chromosome study
Project] is also nearly complete but
comments Felice. For the next four
showed that 50% of Maltese men are
what we have also points in the same
millennia Malta constantly changed
of Phoenician origin. In 2008 the study
direction [as the previous study]:
hands, closely following the rise and fall
was published in The American Journal
that most contemporary Maltese
of the great Mediterranean Empires. ‘It
of Human Genetics. The researchers
males and females can trace their
is not correct to say that the island was
looked for Phoenician DNA in modern
ancestry to Sicily and [Southern]
Events like this seem to echo
throughout Malta’s history. ‘The
archaeological record is such that
looked at Y chromosome haplogroups
found throughout the Mediterranean
Maltese Genome Focus
A number of theories have been
23
THE PRICE OF PROSPERITY
of St John and second, as in the rest
Lebanese DNA, contributed less
‘So this is the [genetic and historical]
a certain degree of public hygiene
than 5% to today's Maltese DNA.
data on the recent origins of the
and prosperity […]. The populations
contemporary Maltese. This is
of Europe and Malta started to grow
NORMAN DOMINION
important for a number of reasons.
exponentially. It was during this time
Firstly it addresses questions such as:
that rare diseases accumulated’.
History reflects the DNA evidence.
Who am I? Where am I going? Where
The decline of the Roman Empire was
did I come from?’ Felice observes,
was estimated at 12,000 with 5,000
followed by Arab rule of the Islands for
adding, though, that ‘there are also
residing in Gozo. Within 10 years, the
at least two centuries from around
important questions [for Malta today]
estimate had almost doubled to 22,000
870. First under the Aghlabid
regarding public health’ that must be
in Malta and 6,500 in Gozo, including
Emirate and then the Fatimid
asked. For millennia ships have dropped
the Knights. Despite sieges and
Caliphate. Malta was either
anchor along the Maltese shore and
depopulations of Gozo, by 1814 the
uninhabited or there were very few
the ripples can still be felt today.
Island's population boomed to 41,000.
Italy around 1,000 years ago,’ reveals
Felice. Middle Eastern DNA, including
ad
of Europe, this was the beginning of
In 1528 the population of Malta
people. The turn of the first millennium
brought a documented influx of
people from Arab-ruled Sicily.
At the turn of the 11th century
a new set of players entered the
game. Adventurers from Northern
Who am I? Where
am I going? Where
did I come from?
France had gained a foothold in
Southern Italy and sought to expel
fallen out of favour with the Maltese
toward the end of the 18th century
The current population of Malta
due to the opulence of Grandmaster
stands at just over 420,000 and
Pinto’s reign. On 9 July, 1798
By 1091, Count Roger I landed in
originates from a small population that
Napoleon Bonaparte landed in Malta
Malta and established Norman rule.
settled here after the first millennium.
and, by the 12th of the month, Malta
Felice explains, ‘these [people] were
was added to the French Empire.
the Arab administration until 1127
visited by small groups, military
when Count Roger II of Sicily, the son
details of young men who stayed
memory of their evil French
of Roger I, finally displaced the Arab
for a short time […] and left genetic
overlords, rule under France was not
governors and established complete
memories in the form of gene variants
all that bad. Napoleon planned the
Norman dominion. Over the next few
and mutations […].’ This, he notes, is
building of hospitals and invested
centuries, the Maltese population grew
what we now recognise as Founder
in education. Unfortunately, the
with an influx of Sicilian and Norman
Effects. As the small population
new rules did not sit well with
settlers. Felice explains ‘there was
expanded over the centuries, these
the clergy who stood to lose their
[still] a strong Arab subculture in Sicily
newly introduced Founder Mutations
significant power over the Maltese.
and Southern Italy […]. If you go to the
became widespread across the
So they initiated a rebellion. The
small villages outside [Sicilian] towns
population for better or worse.
Maltese were induced to revolt 82
today they speak very differently to
Maltese Genome Focus
Nothing lasts forever; the Knights had
the Arab and Byzantine occupiers.
Malta continued to be governed by
24
EXPERIMENTING WITH
NEW MASTERS
The history of Malta continued to
Despite the Maltese collective
days after accepting French rule
modern Italians, not too different from
become more and more interesting
(see Malta: Stockholm Syndrome in
what we call Maltese. These [people]
with various groups and nations
THINK, Issue 13, pp. 48–55).
began to re-inhabit Malta, although
visiting over the centuries, which
there were only around 20,000 people
provided ample opportunities for these
in great suffering. Malta's population
up to ad 1500.’ Once again, Malta was
Founder Mutations to arrive and mix
plummeted by 18.7% around this
colonised by Sicilians who gradually
with genomes from distant countries.
time from 114,000 to 93,000 due to
latinised the island and brought their
Felice describes two major events
war, famine, and disease. By 1800,
unique Siculo-Arabic language that
that occurred after 1500: ‘first was
the French relented and the Maltese
evolved into modern Maltese.
the arrival of the Order of the Knights
won their freedom back. Without
The two-year-long siege resulted
Malta being involved in the
negotiations, it was handed back
to the Knights with the British
acting as protectorate. The
British amalgamated Malta into
their empire. The Maltese were
deemed incapable of governing
themselves leaving Malta to
enjoy 164 years of British rule.
BOTTLENECKS AND
FOUNDER EFFECTS
Events over the last millennia
have shaped the modern
Maltese people. The rise and
fall in population numbers
created genetic bottlenecks.
These events impacted genetic
diversity so much that rare
DNA mutations became
common spreading disease.
The problem is evident
today. ‘There are a number of
mutations that give rise to rare
diseases, those [found] in less
than one in 10,000 people. […]
So, there is this genetic burden,’
explains Felice. ‘In the 1990s
we set up, with the Department
of Health and the late Dr Joe
Louis Grech, the Laboratory
University of Malta] and the
blood disorders like thalassaemia. One
technology, over the next few years
Thalassaemia Clinic at St Luke's
study in 2007 by Felice and his team
research and diagnostics shall be
Hospital, now at Mater Dei Hospital,
focused on a mutation in the SPR gene
moving to whole genome sequencing.’
and we began to identify some of
that leads to a rare disorder known
With the Maltese Genome in hand,
these mutations.’ Interestingly, the
as Segawa’s Disease, a motor neuron
researchers will be able to figure out
research on these disease-causing
disorder with some similarities to
how to treat diseases widespread
mutations supports the Y chromosome
Parkinson’s Disease. A single mutation
locally while helping others worldwide.
and mitochondrial DNA studies
in the SPR gene was found in a high
Researchers will generate a complete
carried out in Malta: most of the
proportion of the population. Because
picture of where the Maltese came
Islands' genetic mutations are shared
of this discovery, babies are diagnosed
from and who they are today.
with Sicily and Southern Italy.
at birth and treated immediately
Some mutations that cause rare
diseases are disproportionately high
preventing severe disability.
Genetics is making great strides.
The study’s co-principal investigators
are Prof. Alex Felice and Dr Joseph
in the Maltese population and include
Felice adds that ‘because of the
Borg with Clint Mizzi and Dr
gangliosidosis, coeliac disease, and
efficiency and costs of the new
Nikolai Pace as close associates.
Maltese Genome Focus
of Molecular Genetics [at the
25
26
Maltese Genome Focus
BLOOD,
GENES,
& YOU
Over the course of nine months, an entire human body is sculpted from a
few cells into a baby. The blueprint is the information written into our DNA.
But what happens if there is a mistake in these blueprints? Decades worth of
research carried out in Malta and abroad have aimed to understand how these
errors lead to a disease common in Malta and prevalent worldwide.
Scott Wilcockson talks to Dr Joseph Borg (Faculty of Health Sciences,
University of Malta) to find out more.
Y
ou are unique. This is not just
Thalassaemia, which has become the focus of Dr
saying that to make you feel good
Joseph Borg’s research after he joined Prof. Alex
about yourself. Everyone is unique.
Felice's research group that has studied how a
Every person is moulded by their
genetic quirk could be used to treat this illness.
upbringing, experiences, and genes.
made a distinct person with a unique DNA
WHEN BLOOD TURNS BAD
sequence, randomly passing on the best and
Borg explained that ‘thalassaemia is an inherited
worst of themselves to the next generation.
blood disorder caused by an inability to produce
The information written into your DNA, or
sufficient amounts of haemoglobin, the [molecule]
genome, supplies the embryonic ‘you’ with the
in red blood cells that binds and transports oxygen
instructions to build your entire body and then to
to our various tissues and organs.’ The most
maintain it throughout your life. While all human
prominent form in the Mediterranean is Beta
beings possess a common set of genes—around
Thalassaemia. This is caused by mutations that
23,000 of them—our DNA is not exactly the same
affect the production of the beta-chain sub-unit
for all of us. We are all riddled with small variations,
of the haemoglobin molecule in blood cells.
or mutations, throughout our genomes. Many of
There are around 300 known mutations that
these mutations result in biological quirks that play
cause thalassaemia worldwide. In Malta, a single
a role in our individuality. For example, mutations
mutation in the beta-globin gene was found to be
in the OCA2 gene are a major determinant of
the main culprit in the late 1980s by Prof. Christian
eye colour. Other mutations can have more
Scerri (Faculty of Medicine and Surgery, University
profound effects on health and well being.
of Malta) and had been designated the very
Most diseases have some sort of genetic element,
catchy name of β+ IVS-I-6 (T→C). This mutation is
though the exact cause can vary. Some diseases,
common throughout the Western Mediterranean
like diabetes or cancer, are due to many genes
and accounts for two thirds of all Maltese cases.
malfunctioning and are known as multifactorial.
Unfortunately, treatment options are limited. Borg
The multiple genetic mutations acting in concert
explains that ‘adult patients have to undergo lifelong
trigger disease progression. Others on the other
blood transfusions every month, or a bone marrow
hand are monogenic as they are triggered by
transplant in rare cases.’ Hope is in sight, however.
one gene mutation. One such disease is Beta
Studies are now focusing on a biological
Maltese Genome Focus
By fusing together their DNA, our parents have
27
Left to right: Dr Joseph Borg, Jeanesse Scerri, Stefanie Inguanez
quirk that could hold the key to
oxygen molecules. Following birth,
treating patients. In the 1990s, a study
babies are able to obtain plenty of
on the Maltese population carried out
oxygen on their own and switch from
by Prof. Alex Felice (Faculty of Medicine
primarily foetal to adult haemoglobin.
and Surgery, University of Malta) and
Intriguingly, the switch is not
his team identified another common
always complete. Borg described
mutation within the gamma-globin
how a small portion (less than 1%)
gene. This gene contains the blueprints
of all our haemoglobin is foetal even
needed to make another haemoglobin
in adulthood. However, some adults
protein known as the gamma-chain. In
adults the beta-chain is used to make
haemoglobin. In babies the gammachain is used instead in the developing
foetus and up to six months after birth.
A QUIRK OF NATURE
When a foetus is developing, oxygen is
provided through the mother’s blood
supply. Oxygen diffuses through the
mother’s placenta in the womb where
it is picked up by the baby’s red blood
Maltese Genome Focus
cells. The foetus needs to be able to
28
absorb as much oxygen as possible
and therefore uses a different type
of haemoglobin (foetal haemoglobin)
that has a stronger attraction toward
The relative
ease with which
researchers can
sequence all of a
person’s genes is
paving the way for
a much greater
understanding
of how diseases
develop and how
to treat them.
can have much higher levels because
of certain genetic mutations. This
phenomenon is known as Hereditary
Persistence of Foetal Haemoglobin
(HPFH). Felice first discovered a
Maltese person with HPFH, and now
whole families have been found.
Earlier, Prof. Maurice Cauchi (now
Melbourne, Australia) had discovered
the Hb F Malta I variant in the gammaglobin gene. The mutation is found
in around 2% of Maltese newborns.
Together with other variants they are
the most valuable quantitative markers
of the foetal to adult globin gene
switch unique to Maltese families.
Individuals who have two mutant
genes, one from each parent, can have
treatment. No more medicine. It would
to be foetal. One mutant gene
give them a better quality of life.’
leads to between 15–34% foetal
In 2010, this team published
This study revealed how the
mutation in the Maltese family
blocks the KLF1 protein from binding
haemoglobin. This particular quirk
(together with ERASMUS) a seminal
to DNA and doing its job. KLF1
of biology does not cause any ill
work in the world-leading journal
normally switches on the adult beta-
effects, as foetal haemoglobin
Nature Genetics. The work identified a
globin gene and turns off the foetal
functions well and individuals with
key factor that caused the haemoglobin
gamma-globin gene. By stopping
the mutation usually do not find
switch in the first six months of a
KLF1 from doing so the Maltese
out until they have it tested.
baby’s life. The study looked at an
mutation causes a lot more foetal
haemoglobin to be produced in adults.
This biological peculiarity is of
entire Maltese family, where ten out
great interest to researchers like
of 27 members exhibited HPFH with
Felice and Borg. ‘We wanted to use
varying degrees of foetal haemoglobin
a major regulator of the switch. Borg
the knowledge of this mechanistic
production ranging from 3–20% of
cautions however, that ‘after our
imbalance [in the switch] to
the total haemoglobin. Borg and his
publication, other groups identified
understand how best to treat those
colleagues sequenced the recruited
similar and also conflicting results
who suffer from blood disorders like
family’s DNA to identify the genetic
because of different KLF1 mutations
thalassaemia and sickle-cell disease.’
mutations causing this imbalance.
[...]. This [suggested] that KLF1 is
People with these disorders usually
They found that a single gene called
not acting alone.’ Another puzzle
have normal foetal haemoglobin
KLF1 was mutated in all family
was that foetal haemoglobin levels
but abnormal or insufficient adult
members with HPFH and, to date,
varied greatly in family members.
haemoglobin. Increasing the level
this mutation seems Malta-specific.
They ranged from 17–20% to only
of foetal haemoglobin in adulthood
This gene provides the blueprint
This exciting discovery identified
3–5%. The KLF1 mutation alone did
effectively cures these diseases.
to make the KLF1 protein. KLF1 is a
not explain the difference, which
Borg added how ‘if you can augment
transcription factor. It binds to specific
means it was not capable of driving
higher levels of foetal haemoglobin
parts of the DNA and turns genes
high foetal haemoglobin levels on
[in adults] you can render [patients]
on or off. KLF1 switches on genes
its own. Other factors and gene
independent of transfusions. No more
involved in red blood cell production.
mutations must be at play.
Maltese Genome Focus
around 58% of their total haemoglobin
29
INHERITANCE OF THALASSAEMIA
This leads us to the next stage of
the research. ‘We have now identified
three other Maltese families with the
PARENTS
same KLF1 mutation but with normal
[foetal haemoglobin] levels, less than
1%.’ Felice, Borg, Ruth Galdies, and
their team sequenced all of the DNA (a
Mother
a carrier
Father
a carrier
genome) of over 50 individuals. They
are now comparing the genomes of
these new families with the earlier
study. ‘KLF1 is a common factor [in
R
r
R
all families]. We can cancel it out and
r
see what [genes] we are left with. […]
We suspect we will be left with the
‘friends’ or ‘foes’ of KLF1 controlling
the [foetal haemoglobin] levels.’
The relative ease with which
researchers can sequence all
of a person’s genes is paving
R R
R
r
R
r
r
r
the way for a much greater
understanding of how diseases
develop and how to treat them.
MIMICKING BIOLOGY
Child
healthy
Child
a carrier
Child
a carrier
Child
with Thalassaemia
Gene therapy is a possible method to
treat diseases like thalassaemia. The
idea is to change the gene’s sequence
or activity within living people. Borg
describes new methods known as
gene editing that could be used to
Ruth Galdies
correct genetic defects to treat these
reactivates the production of foetal
disease types. ‘This could be used
haemoglobin in adults and blocks the
in the form of a vaccine [injected
formation of mutant haemoglobin,
into the patient which] then can
which keeps the disease in check.
MEDICINE MADE
JUST FOR YOU...
Personalised medicine is a rapidly
home in [and] turn off the [gene].’
Hydroxyurea has similarly been tried
growing idea that uses a person’s
Gene therapy is still experimental,
to treat thalassaemia. The results have
genetic information to determine
due to health and safety concerns,
been mixed, with some responding
the best drug cocktail. By knowing
but Borg believes that ‘we are not
better than others. The drug can also
a person’s genetics, an individual’s
too far away [from a treatment].’
have serious side effects and can kill
drug response can be estimated.
blood cells. It seems that the bone
The right treatment can be matched
technology are rapidly turning
marrow of thalassaemia patients
to the right patient without
science fiction into science fact.
is inflamed and highly sensitive to
wasting time and money, while
Once developed, gene therapy is
hydroxyurea. The dosage needs to
reducing threats to the patient’s
a giant leap over traditional drugs.
be carefully regulated to minimise
health—a dream that needs
‘What is beautiful is that with today’s
these effects, but also to ensure
more research to be realised.
technology, you can either choose to
that individuals are not needlessly
fully or partially [turn off a gene],’ Borg
exposed to the drug if they do not
information studied by geneticists
explains. ‘This may be very important
respond to it. This is where genetics
is migrating from labs into clinics.
because the complete absence of a
comes back to save the day.
Thanks to researchers like Felice,
The enormous wealth of
gene can have dire consequences.’
Borg, and the rest of the team the
For now, humanity will have to wait
ways in which diseases develop
till this technology develops.
are being understood. The aim is
Luckily, gene sequencing has started
to be used alongside conventional
medical treatment. Attempts to mimic
the effects of HPFH by elevating
foetal hemoglobin levels in adults
using drugs have been going on for
a while. Sickle-cell disease (a disease
similar to thalassaemia) is already
being treated. The drug Hydroxyurea
to tailor treatments for individual
By knowing a
person’s genetics,
an individual’s
drug response can
be estimated.
patients. We all share the same
99.9% of DNA. But that 0.1%
makes a big difference.
The study’s principal investigator
is Prof. Alex Felice with Jeanesse
Scerri, Ruth Galdies, and Dr
Joseph Borg as close associates.
Maltese Genome Focus
The advances in gene sequencing
31
Maltese Genome Focus
32
Illustration by Jean Claude Vancell
Every person possesses the same genes within every cell. Their DNA provides
the information to first create an entire functioning body and then keep it
running. While all humans share more than 99.9% of their DNA, it is the
subtle differences in our DNA that ensure individuality. Many differences are
superficial effects, like hair colour, but some can have disastrous health effects.
Scott Wilcockson talks to Dr Stephanie Bezzina-Wettinger (Faculty of Health
Sciences, University of Malta) about her research on these subtle differences and
how they can contribute to heart attacks.
B
y this time next year, around 17
‘Many years before a heart attack, the artery wall
million people will have been lost
develops what is known as an atheroma plaque,’
to heart or cardiovascular disease.
Bezzina-Wettinger explains. ‘This is where cells
Almost half of these deaths will
from the blood start to accumulate, begin taking
have been due to coronary heart
up fat, and secrete a lot of inflammatory molecules
disease, commonly resulting in heart attacks
[which have a number of roles, including attracting
(myocardial infarction)—the world’s leading
more blood cells and promoting blood clotting]. At
cause of death. While mortality rates are
some point the plaque can rupture, liberating its
steadily declining throughout Europe, the
contents into the bloodstream [which] can trigger
death rate in some countries, including Malta,
blood clotting. This can then either heal […] or end
remains much higher than the EU average.
up causing a [heart attack] because heart tissue
Unfortunately, our modern way of living
dies off [as] it is starved of oxygen and nutrients.’
threatens to turn the tide against reducing
Now a large collaborative study headed by
deaths. A growing love for junk food and a
Bezzina-Wettinger is investigating the genetics
loathing for vegetables is leading to high rates
that leave the Maltese susceptible to plaque
of obesity and diabetes, while alcohol, tobacco,
formation, known as atherosclerosis, and
and other drugs are abused of regularly.
subsequent heart attack. The Maltese Acute
Altogether, these lifestyle factors account for
Myocardial Infarction (MAMI) study is focused
around a third of all cardiovascular disease in the
on three key topics: inflammation, fatty lipid and
developed world. But this information is nothing
cholesterol deposition, and blood clotting. The
new. We have known about this for years.
idea is to search for genes that could in some way
contribute to each of these three processes.
These lifestyle factors act on our genetic make-up.
IT'S ALL IN THE GENES
Like most other conditions, cardiovascular disease
So genes are the instructional element of DNA and
has a genetic element. Back in 1994, a study into
can be imagined as a specific sequence of letters.
death by coronary heart disease in twins showed
These letters are read to provide the blueprints for
that genetics plays a role in our susceptibility and
the construction of proteins that regulate every
accounts for 40–60% of the variability between
aspect of our biology. While we all share the same
individuals. Research being carried out by Dr
set of genes, the exact sequence of letters can
Stephanie Bezzina-Wettinger and colleagues is
vary from person to person resulting in different
looking into how genetics can have a hand in
variants of the same genes. ‘All of us have literally
driving heart attacks in the Maltese population.
tens of thousands of [gene] variants,’ clarifies
Maltese Genome Focus
PREDISPOSED TO A BROKEN HEART?
33
or animal can come in multiple
different forms or shapes. The most
dramatic biological example is the
existence of males and females.
Genetic polymorphism refers to the
same gene existing in a population
in multiple variations. For example,
there are a small group of polymorphic
genes that determine your hair colour
and so, whether your hair is blonde,
brown, black, or red depends on which
gene variants you receive from your
parents. Bezzina-Wettinger explains
that many of the genes we know are
linked to heart attacks are polymorphic.
These are the focus of her research.
DISSECTING THE
MALTESE HEART
Previous studies carried out on other
nationalities worldwide have identified
groups of gene variants associated
with an increased risk of heart attack.
Dr Stephanie Bezzina-Wettinger
Bezzina-Wettinger, and the effect
that these variants have on us, if any
at all, depends on multiple different
factors. ‘The genetics of [heart attacks]
is very complicated. We talk about it
as a complex disease, [...] one caused
by a mixture of genes and [variants]
that interact with one another as
well as with the environment, such as
lifestyle and physiological factors like
diabetes.’ These interactions can make
Maltese Genome Focus
identifying the gene variants to blame
34
Malta has its unique genetic mix so
Malta has its
unique genetic
mix so these
studies could not
be blindly applied
to the Maltese
population.
these studies could not be blindly
applied to the Maltese population.
Bezzina-Wettinger explains that ‘we
knew a lot about the epidemiology
but in terms of the genetics, there
was nothing when we started.’
To study the Maltese population
they had to start from scratch.
Collecting all the material necessary
for population-based studies can
seem like a mammoth task and the
MAMI study is a substantial project
that involves collaboration over many
for complex diseases harder than usual
disciplines. The team consists of
and this is further complicated by the
clinicians, technicians, and cardiologists
fact that many of these gene variants
from Mater Dei Hospital, as well as
are quite common. These variations
geneticists from the University of Malta.
are known as polymorphisms. This is
Just over 1,000 participants were
the idea that a single type of object
involved, including around 400 who
had had a heart attack, 400 ‘control’
smoking, diabetes, high blood
along with the power to process,
participants who did not, and 200
pressure, and high cholesterol.
store, and analyse the vast amounts
relatives of heart attack victims. A lot
Regular consumption of alcohol can
of data this technology produces.
of data was obtained for every single
be associated with decreased risk
Bezzina-Wettinger’s team are using
patient, starting off with each answering
of heart attacks, but before running
a method known as Whole Exome
an extensive questionnaire that delved
to the bar to get another drink, you
Sequencing that focuses specifically
into all aspects of their daily lives.
should only be having a few drinks
on genes and misses out the DNA
This was accompanied by a number
a week. Too much alcohol has the
in between. ‘We take one group of
of biochemical tests to gauge their
exact opposite effect. Binging on six
proteins that we think are involved
general health, such as whether liver
drinks or more on a daily basis greatly
[in heart attacks] and look at all their
and kidney were functioning correctly.
increases your risk. Moderation is key.
genes—there can be something like
The next step will be to look into
the general lifestyle and health of the
the genetics. To do this, the team are
variants.’ This technology has enabled
patients involved in order to determine
using Next Generation Sequencing
Dr Ritienne Attard, a former Ph.D.
the lifestyle risk factors that predispose
technology that vastly decreases
student of Bezzina-Wettinger, to
the Maltese people to heart attack.
sequencing costs. Since the advent
compare the variation in sequences
of the Human Genome Project in
between members of the same family.
shown that the Maltese are not
the 1990s, our ability to sequence
By doing this, Attard hopes to identify
immune to the conventional risk
DNA is becoming increasingly easier,
gene variants that could predispose
factors for heart attack including
cheaper, and readily accessible,
individuals to heart attack.
The study’s early results have
Maltese Genome Focus
100–200—and then we look for the
These tests provided an overview of
35
ADDING COMPLEXITY: THE
GENE-LIFESTYLE LINK
non-diabetic, and have low cholesterol,
What you have to keep in mind when
or [people with] high cholesterol the
studying the genetics of complex
risk goes up 6.6-fold. Now, only a part
diseases, like heart attack, is that you
of this is due to the [lifestyle factors]
can be looking at very common gene
because someone with the same
variants. ‘If you study the genetics alone
lifestyle factors but without this [gene
you don’t really get anything conclusive
variant] only has a four-fold increased
[….] You could start to see a genetic
risk.’ The difference between these two
[variant] that has no effect in the general
is down to the gene variant which does
population. But, for example, in smokers
nothing at all in a healthy individual.
with this [variant, you find] they will
Inherited genes play a role, but there is
have a higher risk. So we do see these
a chance to change the outcome with
kinds of gene-lifestyle interactions’. This
the lifestyle you choose for yourself.
the risk is the same as the base line
population. But in smokers, diabetics,
phenomenon is prevalent in all complex
diseases, including the plethora of
cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes,
and many common cancers. Thus we
can introduce the idea of one being
So is the Maltese population
predisposed to a particular illness.
particularly predisposed to heart
Maltese Genome Focus
The initial results of the MAMI
36
THE BEATING HEART
OF MALTA
attacks? Answering this question
genetics study show just this. Bezzina-
is not straightforward. The genetic
Wettinger describes one of the team’s
information obtained so far relates to
results whereby a single letter is
single families and is not representative
changed in the sequence of one gene.
of the entire population. While the
‘In [people] who are non-smokers,
genetic variants, or polymorphisms,
Inherited genes
play a role, but
there is a chance
to change the
outcome with
the lifestyle
you choose
for yourself.
Photo by Yevgen Belich / Shutterstock.com
that have so far been studied are
to reduce the incidence of heart attack
not there yet when it comes to heart
common, the frequency can vary
in the general population. However,
attacks. ‘The very fact that the influence
greatly from one population to the next.
we know the major risk factors in the
of a gene can change depending on
In addition, lifestyle factors can also
developed world with well-founded
the lifestyle of that individual makes
vary. For example, one nation’s average
gene-lifestyles links (smoking, obesity,
it far more complex... Eventually the
diet can be very different to that of
alcohol use, high blood pressure, and
major drivers [of heart attack] will be
the neighbouring country. Bezzina-
high cholesterol) and so these will
identified and treatments, either direct
Wettinger adds that ‘the prevalence
remain key targets in the fight to reduce
or preventative, will be developed.’
of diabetes is higher here and this
heart attack incidence. The advent
So while the age of personalised
[provides] a background within which
and growth of this field of research
medicine may have already begun,
some of these gene variants have an
now presents new possibilities when
our knowledge of the genetics of
effect.’ The results of the MAMI study
it comes to patient treatment or the
disease still has a way to go yet.
have yet to be fully published and
application of preventative measures.
Accompanying the arrival of
are quite complicated.
sequencing of the exomes of all 1,000
cheap Next Generation Sequencing
participants. This will markedly increase
technology, there has been an
This research by the University
the team’s ability to identify the gene
explosion in the field of personalised
of Malta forms part of the IAAMI
variants that increase risk to disease
medicine. This is the idea of tailoring
and NGS projects conducted in
and link them to the environment and
a patient’s treatment to the individual.
collaboration with Mater Dei
lifestyle of the Maltese population.
Everyone has a unique genetic
Hospital and funded through the
According to the World Health
makeup that can influence how they
National Research and Innovation
Organisation, there are over 300
react to treatments and drugs. This is
Programme (Malta Council for
risk factors associated with coronary
already being applied in some cases,
Science and Technology). The
heart disease including depression,
particularly in certain types of cancer,
study’s principal investigator is
low socioeconomic status, and illicit
to determine the best course of
Dr Stephanie Bezzina-Wettinger
drug use. This information could be
treatment for that individual. However,
with Dr Rosienne Farrugia and Dr
useful to policy-makers when aiming
Bezzina-Wettinger believes we are
Ritienne Attard as close associates.
Maltese Genome Focus
proposed future work includes the
Annoyingly, complex diseases
37
MARIJUANA
FOR EPILEPSY?
Feature
Marijuana has been used for centuries for medical reasons. In the early
20th century it was first linked to treatment for epilepsy. Over the last
few decades researchers have been unravelling the truth behind the
drug. Prof. Giuseppe Di Giovanni tells us more about using marijuana
for medical research and his own research on this controversial drug.
38
W
hen I was a high school
behind the increasingly claimed medical
student my dream was
benefits of marijuana is vital for scientists and
to become a university
now governments worldwide. At present, the
professor and carry out brain
medical uses of marijuana as treatments are still
research. I achieved my
controversial and anecdotal. All pharmaceutical
dreams but I did not plan to end up as a marijuana
drugs on the market need gold standard large
researcher.
double-blind controlled clinical studies that make
I only recently started studying the effects of
sure a drug is safe, or at least safe enough. To date,
chemicals found in Cannabis sativa, better known
no such clinical studies have been carried out
as marijuana. A few years ago, I was trying to
to examine the beneficial effects of cannabis in
establish a scientific collaboration with a friend
different disorders.
and colleague of mine, Dr Roberto Di Maio
Anecdotal evidence is not good enough for
(Neurology Department, Pittsburgh University),
treatments. In my laboratory, I am imposing some
who is interested in epilepsy and marijuana.
scientific rigour on what has become a very big
While researching the topic I found out that many
ad hoc experiment (Medical School, University of
epileptic patients have turned to marijuana to try
Malta). In Malta, the use of marijuana for research
to control their seizures. I had no idea of the extent
or medical reasons is allowed, but is strictly
of medical use of marijuana in the U.S.
controlled by national legislation. To get some
Medical marijuana has many powerful uses.
solid data, I focused part of my research on the
Apart from reducing epileptic seizures, medical
effect of cannabinoids (after the plant’s formal
marijuana can treat glaucoma, pain, and nausea in
name) on different types of epilepsy. I did not use
cancer and HIV patients, but it also protects the
the chemical found in marijuana called delta-9
brain from the effects of trauma, eases the spasms
tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), which induces
of multiple sclerosis, slows the growth of tumours
marijuana’s psychotropic effects, but a synthetic
and reduces brain damage in Alzheimer’s disease.
analogue named win 55,212-2, that is many times
It appears that marijuana is effective for all sorts of
more powerful than Δ9-THC. To understand how
disorders of the body, mind, and soul.
this chemical can help epilepsy sufferers I will
Considering the bounty of treatments linked to
explain how the condition arises.
the drug, it is unsurprising that today 23 U.S. states
are expected to follow suit and other countries will
probably also follow in America’s steps.
The situation is very different for the recreational
WHAT IT IS EPILEPSY?
Around 60 million people have epilepsy
worldwide—in Malta, the number is 3,000. The
use of marijuana. The drug has been decriminalised
common neurological condition is caused by
in many countries including Malta (up to 3.5 gr) but
recurring disruptions to the brain’s usual activity.
legalised in only a few parts of the world (four U.S.
The disruption is usually short-lived. The outward
states, the Netherlands, and Bangladesh) and is
signs of epilepsy are known as seizures. Some go
‘tolerated’ in many others. This is probably due to
unnoticed while others lead to involuntary muscle
generalised governmental policy. Marijuana is still
spasms and loss of consciousness. The type of
listed by the U.S. federal government as a Schedule
spasm depends on the part of the brain affected
1 drug, alongside LSD and heroin. This class has
and how far the disruption has spread.
no other drug that has already been accepted for
The brain is made up of billions of nerve cells that
medical use.
process information from our senses, thoughts,
Marijuana is moving onto centre stage.
Understanding the neurobiology and chemistry
memories, emotions, and actions, and any (or all)
of these activities can be affected by a seizure.
Feature
allow the use of medical marijuana. Other states
39
Epileptic seizure without the drug
Epileptic seizure with the new drug
Most seizures are over within a few
minutes or less, and the person
recovers quickly. Epileptic syndromes
are classified as either generalised
seizures, which affect the entire brain,
or partial seizures, which occur within
specific brain regions. Conventional
drugs are not fully effective in 30–40%
of patients meaning that research is
needed to find new treatments.
During my time in Palermo I started
to study temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE),
unexpected discovery. Synthetic
cannabinoids only had a modest effect
on the development of seizures. When
another chemical called serotonin
was activated, their effectiveness
multiplied, stopping the fits.
Not all types of epilepsy are created
equally. In temporal lobe epilepsy,
synthetic cannabinoids were even
more effective than the epileptic drug
phenytoin. The only problem that we
Unfortunately, marijuana can have
found with this treatment was that
results in partial seizure in humans. We
some serious cognitive side effects
the dose of cannabinoid impaired
showed the anti-epileptic role of nitric
that have been the major obstacle
the hippocampus, an important part
oxide—a gas produced naturally in our
in its medical use. Marijuana impairs
of the brain. The process it blocks is
brain. When I moved to Cardiff, I joined
perception, reaction time, and short-
needed for learning and memory. This
Prof. Vincenzo Crunelli’s (University
term memory. Marijuana can be
side effect was very frustrating; our
of Cardiff and now also University
addictive but only mildly so: 9% who
treatment was effective but could
of Malta) group. We unexpectedly
try it will become addicted, according
harm patients. Dr Stefania Butini
discovered that absence epilepsy is not
to a recent study. The same study listed
(University of Siena, Italy) synthetised
largely a neuronal disease, but a defect
alcohol at 15%, 17% for cocaine, 23%
a new compound that could block the
in glial cells (the part of the brain that
for heroin, and 32% for nicotine. So
breakdown of the natural cannabinoids
supports and modulates neurons)—
although marijuana may be addictive
our brain normally makes. The new
work we published in Nature Medicine,
for some, 91% of those who try it do
drug boosted the amount of our own
one of the world’s most important
not get hooked.
marijuana in epileptics’ brains. The
For our study, we first focused on
new compound was less effective
status epilepticus, a life-threatening
in stopping epilepsy but was longer-
condition in which one epileptic
lasting without major memory side
CANNABIS TO TREAT
EPILEPSY?
fit follows the other without the
effects. We are currently following
sufferer recovering consciousness.
this line of intervention, trying other
Dr Roberto Colangeli, a researcher in
drugs that increase the levels of our
Cannabis has been used to treat
my group, (now at the University of
own cannabinoids when and where
epilepsy for centuries (see table).
Calgary, Canada), conducted many
they are needed to avoid any possible
2009 I brought this research with me.
Feature
experiments that led to one important
the most common form of epilepsy that
journals. When I moved to Malta in
40
We unexpectedly
discovered that
absence epilepsy
is not largely a
neuronal disease,
but a defect
in glial cells.
MEDICAL MARIJUANA FOR EPILEPSY: THE
EVIDENCE
MEDIEVAL TIMES
Arab writer Ibn al-Badri Hashish reportedly uses marijuana to cure the
sick son of the Caliphate Council’s chamberlain in Baghdad.
side effects. This research could treat
millions of epilepsy patients safely.
THE BRAIN’S OWN
MARIJUANA
The active ingredient in marijuana
comes from a plant, whose extracts
would not normally have any affect
on the human brain. However, this
active ingredient is different. Why?
The answer is simple; it happens that
the active ingredient in cannabis is
very similar to that which the human
brain produces naturally. By taking the
drug you elevate the chemical levels,
switching on the brain to abnormal
highs. Other drugs like LSD, opium,
caffeine, and nicotine also have
analogues that are produced naturally
in our brains.
It seems incredible that everyone
produces a form of these drugs
in their own brain. As mentioned
previously, the brain’s own marijuana
compounds are called endogenous
cannabinoids or endocannabinoids. In
16TH CENTURY
German physician Leonhart Fuchs names the plant Cannabis sativa (A.D.
1542).
19TH CENTURY
British army surgeon William Brooke O’Shaughnessy introduces
marijuana into medical practice as a treatment for pain, nausea and
convulsions (A.D. 1842).
MODERN TIMES
• In a 1967 study by Martin Keeler and Clifford Reifler marijuana
smoking was associated with an increase in seizure frequency.
• In the 1980s, Δ9-THC (active ingredient in marijuana) was
characterised as an anticonvulsant in animal studies. Convulsions are a
common symptom in epilepsy.
• A 1990 epidemiological study by Mervyn Susser and colleagues found
that chronic marijuana use protects against seizures.
• According to a 2001 questionnaire conducted by Elisabeth Gordon
and Orrin Devinsky and completed by 215 epileptic patients using
marijuana regularly, 7.4% experienced a reduction, 2.3% an increase,
and 90.2% no change in seizure frequency.
• Recent studies by Robert DeLorenzo’s group (Virginia Commonwealth
University) show that endocannabinoids can block epilepsy (status
epilepticus and temporal lobe epilepsy) in cell culture and animal
models.
• In a 2014 survey, conducted by Orrin Devinsky on parents who had
children with epilepsy and who were at the time using cannabis
products, 16/19 respondents reported a reduction in seizure
frequency while taking medical marijuana; others reported beneficial
effects such as improved sleep and mood.
• In a 2015 retrospective survey, conducted by Craig Press and
colleagues on paediatric patients with different types of epilepsy who
were taking oral cannabis extracts, 57% of respondents reported
improvement in seizure duration and frequency.
1992 Raphael Mechoulam (Hebrew
University, Israel) discovered the first
endocannabinoid, naming it anandamide
(n-arachidonoylethanolamine or AEA)
after the Sanskrit word ‘ananda’ (bliss)
Piomelli (University of California, USA)
Feature
and ‘mide’ (chemical). In 1997 Daniele
41
discovered lipid 2-arachidonoyl glycerol
why cannabis does not threaten your
irritability are common, undesirable
(2-AG), the other major endocannabinoid
heart or breathing with no overdoses
side effects. This is because the brain
in humans. The endocannabinoids
ever recorded from cannabis use.
(classified as neurotransmitters) pass on
CB2, the other main cannabinoid
concentration of Δ9-THC reached
– after smoking a joint or eating
signals in our brains and bind to proteins
receptor, is found mostly in the
marijuana – is much higher than the
called receptors found in neurons. These
immune system. The immune system
normal level of endocannabinoids and
two cannabinoids bind to the CB1 and
triggers inflammation and studies
greatly magnifies the effect. The result
CB2 receptors that help to regulate
show that marijuana can reduce
is the well-known marijuana high.
appetite, mood, memory, and many
inflammation. Its presence there
I find it difficult to answer the
other functions.
interests scientists because the
question: is marijuana good or bad
immune system triggers inflammation,
for you? I do not think there will
type, are widely distributed in the
and studies show marijuana can have
ever be a black or white answer,
brain, with high concentrations in
an anti-inflammatory effect.
and it will always be somewhere in
CB1 receptors, the more common
regions of the brain linked to epilepsy,
The active ingredient in marijuana,
between. Although many scientists
and are involved in pain perception
Δ9-THC, can bind to these CB1/
agree that marijuana is safe enough
and forming new memories (the cortex
CB2 receptors to artificially trigger
to temporarily alleviate the symptoms
and hippocampus). There are low
the same mechanisms in the brain.
of certain medical conditions, both
levels of CB1 in the brainstem, where
The cascade of events releases
the short- and long-term use of the
cardiac and respiratory functions are
neurotransmitters (the molecules that
drug may harm the body and mind.
regulated. This is one of the reasons
brain cells use to communicate with
Marijuana’s continued popularity
among teenagers raises particular
I find it difficult
to answer the
question: is
marijuana
good or bad
for you? I
do not think
there will ever
be a black
or white
answer.
concern because the drug might
hinder the ongoing maturation of the
adolescent brain.
For medical use, trying to boost our
own marijuana (endocannabinoids)
levels will probably be safer. The best
approach will probably be by blocking
the enzymes that break it down.
Research is needed to develop these
new drugs to treat a host of different
brain disorders. Several research
groups in the world, including mine in
Malta, are seeking answers to reinvent
marijuana uses.
Prof. Giuseppe Di Giovanni
(giuseppe.digiovanni@um.edu.
mt) is the Coordinator of the Malta
Neuroscience Network, who
Feature
Prof. Giuseppe Di Giovanni
42
one another). Suddenly,
organised the first Brain Awareness
they make the world
Week, from 14–20 March 2016, the
seem hilarious and
global campaign engaging the public
normal foods taste
with brain research. Prof. Di Giovanni
delicious. Under the
is also the Editor-in-Chief of Xjenza
influence of marijuana,
Online, the journal of the Malta
people generally
Chamber of Scientists www.mcs.org.
feel happy, relaxed,
mt/index.php/xjenza
and introspective,
This is the first article in the Malta
although paranoia and
Neuroscience Network (MNN) series.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS OF MEDICAL MARIJUANA
EPILEPSY
Multiple animal studies have suggested that Δ9-THC may inhibit the brain processes thought to cause seizures. Highquality human studies are lacking and this leaves many questions unanswered.
CANCER
The active ingredient in marijuana, Δ9-THC, and its synthetic derivatives have been approved by the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration to control nausea in cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy and to stimulate appetite in
patients with AIDS. Yet it may not be as effective as other recently developed drugs, so marijuana is not considered
as a first-line treatment for these symptoms. Numerous recent studies have suggested that cannabinoids might
directly inhibit cancer growth.
MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS (MS)
A large trial published in 2012 found that a cannabis extract significantly decreased muscle stiffness and other
symptoms associated with multiple sclerosis (MS). A smaller study found that smoking cannabis reduced spasticity
and pain in participants resistant to other treatments. Given the few therapies available for MS, a 2011 review
concluded that medical marijuana might help manage certain symptoms.
GLAUCOMA
Several studies have found that smoking marijuana lowers pressure inside the eye, relieving glaucoma-related
discomfort for about three to four hours. Other pharmaceutical drugs have now been found to be a better treatment
than medical marijuana.
PARKINSON’S DISEASE (PD)
Recent studies do not offer a complete understanding of the role of endocannabinoids and cannabinoid receptors in
Parkinson’s disease (PD). Research supports the notion that the endocannabinoid system plays an important role in
movement disorders like PD. The studies can lead to novel therapies.
STROKE
There is conflicting evidence on the usefulness of cannabinoids in the treatment of stroke—more research is needed.
Feature
PAIN AND INFLAMMATION
Marijuana is only slightly better than a placebo in reducing acute inflammation, and it may even increase the
perception of pain in some patients. When taken in combination with other medications, various cannabis-derived
drugs are moderately effective in reducing chronic pain.
43
44
Feature
Time, space,
& the ocean
wanders
Malta is one of the bird migration hotspots in the Mediterranean. As an
archipelago, the Maltese Islands have been a hotspot for seabird nesting since
time immemorial. Marie Claire Gatt talks about her research and a major EU
project determining sea bird colony location and which areas need to be saved.
Photography by Jean Claude Vancell.
Back to the cliff ledge. I have just been slapped
ledge at l-Aħrax tal-Mellieħa (Malta),
in the face by the wing of an unsuspecting
I listen intently to the ghostly calls of
Yelkouan as it returns to its nest hole. I pick up
the seabirds, Yelkouan shearwaters
the confused bird and pass it to Ben Metzger,
(Garni, Puffinus yelkouan), as they
who reads out the identification number on the
return to their nests after a day foraging at sea.
metal ring on its leg: EE01105. It is 2013 and
Like albatrosses in the southern hemisphere,
Metzger is the Head of Research at the EU LIFE+
shearwaters and petrels spend their life roaming
Malta Seabird Project, a conservation research
the seas and oceans, feeding on fish, squid, and
project led by BirdLife Malta. This male bird was
other marine animals, only approaching land
first handled in Malta in 2007 and fitted with this
during the breeding season to nest. Even then,
ring by seabird researcher John J. Borg; it has
these birds cover hundreds of kilometres at sea
been breeding yearly at the same location ever
every day just to feed.
since. Metzger and a team of colleagues and
Feature
S
itting in pitch darkness on a hidden cliff
45
700,000
The number of seabirds estimated to die
globally as fisheries bycatch every year
Light pollution from Madeira
volunteers (such as me) have been
building on past efforts by monitoring
the three seabird species which nest
on Malta’s coasts and islands: the
Yelkouan shearwater, its close relative,
the Scopoli’s shearwater (Ċiefa,
Calonectris diomedea), and the tiny
Seabird behaviour
is closely tied
to the rhythms
of marine life
petrel’s hunting efficiency was being
influenced by this predicted difference
in food availability across the lunar
cycle. To our surprise, it appeared as
though these birds were managing to
Filfla, Hydrobates pelagicus melitensis).
small, soot-coloured petrel which the
matter the moon cycle, during their
Around 10% of the world’s population
Portuguese call Alma-negra—black soul!
breeding period. This raised more
questions than it answered, as is
of the Yelkouan breed in Malta, while
LIFE AT SEA
typical of ecological studies, and more
of Filfla. I have been involved in this
Seabird behaviour is closely tied to the
them out. Other studies on bird activity
project since its start in 2011, and this
rhythms of marine life. The Bulwer’s
outside the breeding season seem to
experience inspired me to study the
petrel feeds on fish and squid species
suggest that Bulwer’s petrels can adjust
lives of this group of birds.
that occupy greater depths of the sea
their behaviour to get food when they
during the day compared to the night.
need it most.
as much as 50% of Mediterranean
Storm petrels breed in the rock scree
A year later and 2,850 km due west,
Feature
I investigated whether the Bulwer’s
catch just as many fish and squid, no
Mediterranean Storm petrel (Kanġu ta’
46
at night. While on Deserta Grande,
investigations were needed to figure
Seabirds are top predators in the
I am standing outside the remote
These fish and squid follow plankton
research station on Deserta Grande,
along their vertical migration up and
marine environment. They hold an
Madeira, surrounded by Bulwer’s
down the water column. The plankton
important place in the food web
petrels (Bulweria bulwerii) swiftly
seem to sink to the darker waters to
and reflect the health of the seas in
manoeuvring around me to join their
hide from predators, while returning to
their success. Unfortunately, they
partners in nest burrows among the
the surface at night to feed. They are
are also very vulnerable. Albatrosses,
rock scree. I have flown out to the
at their most abundant at the surface
shearwaters and petrels pair with a
Madeiran archipelago from Manchester
during the new moon period when
single mate throughout their life and
Metropolitan University to join the
there is no moonlight. Their predators
lay no more than a single egg every
research group of two biologists from
seem to follow them. Likewise, the
year. Both pair members take turns
Lisbon studying the ecology and
Bulwer’s petrel. It can only feed from
to incubate the egg for days at a time
behaviour of the Bulwer’s petrel—a
the sea surface so it hunts mostly
while the other parent is foraging.
Feature
Marie Claire Gatt
47
They nest in the same site all their life,
on Deserta Grande Island, I came
discourage the birds from approaching
returning every year to the same spot
across several Bulwer’s petrel’s eggs
the fishing gear, reducing seabird
from halfway around the world. The
that had been abandoned by their
bycatch by up to 99%. Other simple
chicks that make it then take between
parents; the birds may have either
mitigation measures include weighting
two to 12 years to reach sexual maturity
not found enough food in time to
lines to quickly sink beyond the reach
in the different species. All these facts
exchange incubation duties or died
of foraging seabirds. Conservatively,
add up to a low birth rate and a high
at sea. The major cause of incidental
700, 000 seabirds are estimated to die
dependence on a stable habitat. The
death is fishing gear. Fishermen do not
globally as fisheries bycatch every year.
loss of just a few birds can have a big
intentionally target birds but the birds
The situation in the Mediterranean is
impact on the population.
become entangled in their gear as they
not yet known.
Feature
While attached to their breeding
48
try to catch baited fish. A number of
Seabird numbers are also hit by
colony, seabirds depend on food being
modifications to fishing gear are starting
overfishing; 80% of fish stocks are
relatively close to their nest to be
to be implemented in the southern
overexploited. Overfishing, pollution,
able to regularly swap the incubation
hemisphere. These adjustments do
and the degeneration of our seas result
shift with their partner. When the
not badly hamper fishing fleets. For
in increased stress for seabirds—and
chick hatches they need to bring back
example, in South Africa streamer lines
fishermen—to catch enough fish. Ship
food at an even faster rate. While
on trawl cables were introduced that
traffic, dumping, sea pollution, and
Map: Marine Important Bird Areas
identified by the LIFE+ MSP
Scopoli at sea. Photo by Ben Metzger
N
5 10
20
Nautical miles
offshore windfarms can also harm
zone (EEZ) will hopefully soon be
seabirds where these activities overlap
incorporated into Malta’s Natura2000
with critical seabird areas.
network. But seabirds have no regard
Metzger’s team at the Malta
for national boundaries so their
Seabird Project have been tracking the
conservation depends on international
movements of Malta’s breeding seabirds
research teams and intercontinental
to map important flyways, feeding
initiatives to halt threats.
areas, and other communal hangouts
which need attention. Each EU country
is responsible for protecting and
RISKS ON LAND
managing marine habitats under the
Let us have another look at coastal
Natura2000 framework. In 2015, the
seabird colonies. Deserta Grande is
LIFE+ Malta Seabird Project presented
much like an oversized Filfla—it is a
the areas around Malta on which
16km-long ridge of stratified volcanic
Maltese breeding seabirds depend in
rock and bays of loose boulder scree.
various stages of their lives. Those that
Both islands are uninhabited nature
fall within Malta’s exclusive economic
reserves, with strict access control and
negligible direct human disturbance.
Seabirds hold an
important place
in the food web
and reflect the
health of the seas
in their success.
Unfortunately
they are also
very vulnerable
And both still belong to seabirds. The
Bulwer’s petrel colony on Deserta
Grande is probably the biggest in
the Atlantic, much like how Filfla
likely hosts the biggest population of
Mediterranean Storm petrels in the
world. If the quality of these land areas
deteriorated, the populations could
suffer a fatal blow. Shearwaters and
petrels only approach their coastal
breeding colonies under the cover
of darkness to escape predation
HOW TO
FOLLOW
SEABIRDS
Large-range at-sea
movements are difficult or
impossible to trace visually.
Cutting edge technology can
come to the rescue. Remote
data loggers are relatively
small devices that can be
attached to animals and use
one of a range of techniques
to record their position.
Device applications change
depending on their size and
weight, level of accuracy,
and battery life. The smallest
devices available use the
time of sunrise and sunset
to approximate seabirds’
position on the globe. The
most accurate devices
record GPS location via
satellite connection. As data
loggers continue to become
smaller, more accurate, and
cheaper, their applicability
to new questions and
smaller species increases.
and harassment by gulls. However,
the lighting up of promenades has
exposed some cliff lines and made
Feature
0
49
them unattractive to seabirds. Several
Seabird Project draws to an end,
their disappearance is for worldwide
historic breeding colonies in Malta have
BirdLife Malta has just launched a new
research to go hand in hand with
probably been abandoned because of
LIFE project—Arċipelagu Garnija—
political and social willpower to make
light pollution. Chicks ready to fly the
which will aim to protect birds on land.
sure that seabirds keep shearing
nest also wait for night-time to take
Metzger is now heading a fresh team
the seas.
off, unaided towards the horizon, but
to identify threats to the Yelkouan
street lights can, instead, attract many
Shearwater colonies scattered across
Members of the public can learn more
fledglings to fly inland.
the Maltese Islands. Arċipelagu
about the Maltese Islands’ seabirds
Garnija also wants to engage with
and enjoy them in their natural habitat
threat on land, particularly on islands.
the public and bring them on board.
during yearly pelagic trips organised
Rats are the most notorious. With
Small changes like not leaving litter
by BirdLife Malta:
no natural predators in Malta, their
for rats, reducing light pollution, and
www.birdlifemalta.org.
numbers can quickly explode by feeding
keeping sound disturbances low near
on our litter. Rats are intelligent, curious,
colony sites will go a long way to help
was partially funded by the Master
and agile, and are able to swim several
preserve seabird populations.
it! Scholarship Scheme (Malta).
Alien invasive species are a huge
hundred metres. Their presence at
These ocean wanderers captivate
Marie Claire Gatt’s Master degree
This scholarship is part-financed
breeding colonies spells disaster, as the
me. They have attuned themselves
by the European Union—European
rodents prey on eggs and chicks and can
to the ways of the seas for the past
Social Fund (ESF) under Operational
easily wipe out a breeding season.
35 million years. Now they are one of
Programme II—Cohesion Policy 2007-
the most endangered groups of birds
2013, ‘Empowering People for More
in the world. The only way to stop
Jobs and a Better Quality Of Life.’
But it is not all doom and gloom. It
is now 2016, and as the LIFE+ Malta
FLEDGING RECOVERY
Feature
In June and July many disoriented young Yelkouan shearwaters are found,
and in September and October, Scopoli’s shearwaters—sitting ducks for
anything that wants an easy kill. Should you come across a disoriented
seabird fledgling, please get in touch with BirdLife Malta on 21347 645/6.
The bird will be collected by a licensed bird handler, ringed, and released in a
safe place at the coast, giving it a second chance to roam the sea.
50
Feature
Ben Metzger
51
Systematic
Failure,
Persistence
and Success
Feature
A tale of early school leavers
52
In Europe, around one in 10 students (18-24 years old) is an ‘early school
leaver’. For Malta, it is one in five. A fifth of our local student population is
neither in school, nor in training, and with less than five SEC exams under their
belt, Malta’s public education investment (~6% GDP) is not seeing much fruit.
Cassi Camilleri speaks to Prof. Carmel Borg about what is needed to abandon
the antiquated system our communities are being marred by. Photography by
Elisa von Brockdorff.
T
here was once a time when a
of Society. But this is not to say that the journey
certificate meant a secure job. But
did not bring challenges with it—far from it.
that time is long gone. Education
Hurdles were present from the word go. ‘There is a
is increasingly expensive and
dearth of research when it comes to the correlation
time consuming. Many a time,
between early school leaving and wellbeing,’
graduates enter the job market with little to no
says Borg, hence work had to start from scratch.
experience, with most taking entry-level jobs
Piles of data from copious surveys conducted
that do not pay nearly enough to compensate
by local and major European and International
for the work they put into their studies.
Institutions, needed to be sifted through and
From this perspective, the high number
of dropouts and poor update of tertiary
education is unsurprising. It is a worldwide
analysed. What’s worse was that ‘they were not
even meant to study this correlation,’ says Borg.
Despite the difficulties, however, the project
phenomenon. The premise is simple: why not
has been going on for over a year and the
get on the job ladder early and work your way
first phase has been completed. Published in
up through dedication and experience?
December 2015, the report outlines a series of
In Malta, however, 20.4% of students become
emerging trends. Sadly, they are not positive.
‘early school leavers,’ meaning they finish their
their belt. Does the same reasoning above
STAY IN SCHOOL
still apply? Are the long-term effects of such a
The truth is that early school leavers are struggling.
decision as negligible as some might think?
According to the study, the low incomes prevalent
Prof. Carmel Borg and Dr Milosh Raykov
among this group are resulting in serious financial
(Faculty of Education, University of Malta)
difficulties for families, even restricting access
joined forces about a year ago to answer
to important learning tools, such as computers
these questions. They looked into the
and the Internet, for their own children. Money
effects of early school leaving on individuals’
problems are just the tip of the iceberg. Negative
emotional, social, and financial wellbeing.
emotions and a lack of optimism are widespread
A pioneering study, Borg and Raykov’s work
in their lives. They are less optimistic about their
was supported by the Observatory for Living with
futures and experience exhausting time-pressures.
Dignity, one of five research entities within the
They have little to no time to do things they
Maltese President’s Foundation for the Wellbeing
actually enjoy, and as a result they feel less
Feature
education with five ‘O’ levels or less under
53
‘Education
is simply the
soul of a
society as it
passes from
one generation
to another’
Gilbert Chesterton
happy, less calm, and less peaceful.
the problems in our education
a result, he left when he was 16 as
Feelings of social exclusion have also
system are multi-faceted.
soon as a business opportunity arose.
been reported, a direct result of their
perception of a low social status.
*Names have been changed to protect the person’s identity
Feature
In his famous TED talk titled
Twenty-one year-old Elisa*was not
‘Changing Education Paradigms,’ Ken
ready to make decisions about which
Robinson deconstructs current models,
subjects she wanted to pursue at the
taken lightly,’ says Borg, especially
pointing out how we are trying to fit
age of 11. She ended up making the
when looking at the state the
within an educational ideal conceived
wrong decisions then abandoning
current student population is in. By
during the industrial revolution.
her course to start work at 19.
international standards, around 5–6%
Schools function like factories,
of pupils are doing exceptionally
Robinson explains, and this system is
changing its pupils,’ says Borg. And this
well. But a staggering 45% are
out of date. This kind of schooling is
statement refers to both early school
doing very badly. This is a ticking
about conformity, not learning, and
leavers and the students who stay
time bomb of early school leavers
Borg agrees wholeheartedly. Different
on. The bulk of our education system
just waiting to go off. What is even
children have different needs and
is devoted to exam preparation and
more worrying is that the majority
skills and most institutions, both in
regurgitating information. Even at
of the people making up the 45%
Malta and other countries, operate
University level, ‘there is [generally]
cohort are students from a lower
within a standardised curricular
very little critical thinking,’ Borg
socio-economic status. To have these
regime, streaming, and testing that
claims, with ‘very little happening
staggering gaps across social strata in
ignore individual needs. ‘How can you
beyond accumulating knowledge’.
such a small country is ‘ethically and
speak of inclusion, social diversity, and
morally unacceptable,’ says Borg.
justice when you have an educational
leaving is not a problem to be
process that is largely informed by an
placed squarely on the shoulders of
anti-educational routine?’ he asks.
educational institutions. The issues
This is ‘a struggle which cannot be
54
Prof. Carmel Borg and Dr Milosh Raykov
This is what has made education
a personal mission for Borg. ‘Those
who know me well are aware that my
Interviews with a number of former
‘Our schooling system is short-
All this being said, early school
leading up to early school leaving are
complex and lead down many avenues.
agenda is focused on social justice,
students, though not early school
equity, and inclusion in education,’
leavers by definition, reinforced the
says Borg. ‘I believe in social justice
above. Now 22 years old, Adam* was
leaving school such as chronic health
and I believe education is a very
frustrated in school because he felt
issues and genuine learning difficulties
important instrument in achieving it.
classes were too easy for him and his
which might have been inadequately
teachers failed to challenge him. As
addressed. One’s community also
The urgency is obvious but
There can be personal reasons for
contributes. An economically or socially
depressed community sees greater
A RAY OF HOPE
involving preventative, intervention,
and compensatory measures.
Preventative measures see
numbers of early school leavers.
Malta’s current status with regards
Family is another factor. Chronic
to early school leaving is far from
professionals in communities working
intergenerational unemployment, very
enviable, but it is not all bad. As a result
directly with families. This would
low expectation from parents—all these
of Borg and Raykov’s work, long-term,
help deal with problems like chronic
play a role in an individual’s decision
steadfast solutions are being proposed.
intergenerational unemployment and
whether to stay on at school or not.
The approach is three-pronged
very low family expectations. Such
‘Many times,’ Borg says, ‘all of
these issues are present in their
own right and combine, creating
dropouts and early school leavers.
There isn’t just one reason.’
One more element contributes
considerably to early school leaving.
Around 5–6% of
pupils are doing
exceptionally well.
But a staggering
45% are doing
very badly
The economy. When economies do
well, early school leaving rises. This
might seem counterintuitive but it
is not. A prospering economy is able
low level skills and competencies
because there are more jobs.
However, such early school leaving
levels cannot be sustained. Eventually,
skill gaps emerge which need to be
filled by foreigners. The currently
booming e-gaming industry in Malta
is the perfect example. Struggling
to find local talent, foreigners are
brought in to take up the new roles.
But this is a band aid, a temporary
solution. A powerful economy cannot
grow and prosper on low skill, low
income, and precarious jobs.
ASKING THE RIGHT QUESTIONS
The research undertaken by Prof. Carmel Borg and Dr Milosh Raykov
is multidimensional in nature, trying to shed light on the social,
economic, and emotional wellbeing of early school leavers. It attempts
to answer the following questions: What are the work experiences, job
characteristics and social status of early school leavers? How does the
decision to leave school early affect happiness levels and quality of life?
And what is the impact of early school leaving on mental and physical
health?
The work also has a wider scope, determining the economic
repercussions of early school leaving and how that would affect not
only an individual’s living conditions but also the country as a whole.
Can a country and its economy progress with high levels of early school
leaving?
Feature
to absorb many more people with
55
conditions can be countered by high
in its programme already, thanks to
but more work needs to be done to
quality day care and preschool. As
its foundation courses, allowing those
retain students. ‘A high percentage of
children grow older, schools need
with no qualifications to start school
the people who sign up for MCAST
to remain relevant. This means that
again. In itself, this is a great initiative
foundation courses are gone by
the end of the year,’ says Borg.
vocational education will have to
‘We need to break that cycle of
occupy a prominent position within
secondary education to cater for
people who want to work in more
practical fields. The needs of high
academic achievers need to be met
through alternative programmes
within mainstream schooling.
Intervention measures come into
play when an individual risks leaving
school. These students, such as teen
mothers, need solid support networks.
Investing in student and parent afterschool programmes would greatly help.
Compensatory measures focus on
reintegrating people back into some
Feature
form of education after leaving school.
56
MCAST has a second chance element
Malta has now
hit a plateau.
This could have
something to
do with the fact
that the number
of females
becoming early
school leavers
is rising fast
failure and disappointment. What we
cannot do is continue reproducing
the same systems and hoping that
they will lead to a different result.’
Change is sorely needed. The good
news is that the wheels are already
in motion to make that happen.
The Youth Guarantee programme,
launched in April 2014 by the Maltese
government, is the first port of call.
The programme, which is also being
implemented throughout Europe,
works with young people to provide
support, motivational training, and
guidance on employment. It also
recognises the effectiveness of
a combination of off-the-job and
on-the-job training, giving trainees
the opportunity to garner practical
training either in a simulated workshop
or in a real working environment.
According to the programme’s report
on the 2015 scheme, dropouts were
prevalent. Of the 606 applications
early school leaving,’ notes Borg. In
saw it at 43.1%, Malta has now hit a
received, 418 opted out. What was
fact, their research is being welcomed
plateau. This could have something
noted from the scheme echoes
with open arms by the Directorate for
to do with the fact that the number
Borg’s words: ‘the rates still highlight
Lifelong Learning. Borg is also certain
of females becoming early school
how essential it is to further invest
that these authorities will step up to
leavers is rising fast. ‘At best, we
in similar initiatives to try and reach
the plate and sponsor more studies
might hit the 10% mark by 2025. But
this cohort and re-engage them in
in the years to come. This is essential.
this too seems unlikely,’ says Borg.
education, training, or employment.’
In Malta, research gaps go hand in
But the task is far from easy.
hand with policy gaps. ‘We need
So where does this leave
the Maltese public?
Malta is trying. It ranks high
to produce more knowledge upon
At the second phase of Borg and
in education investment. In fact,
which we can design good policy.’
Raykov’s research, popular wisdom
according to the latest figures from
Across Europe, the aim is to bring
and research will come together as
the World Bank (2012), about
down early school leaving to 10%
the pair interview a number of early
6.8% of its GDP (Gross Domestic
by 2020, but Malta will not achieve
school leavers. ‘We will be digging
Product) goes towards education.
this goal, according to Borg. While
deep, excavating narratives, and
figures show that the rate declined
biographies,’ Borg says. They will be
considerably over recent years, 2004
looking into personal experiences
‘Education authorities are highly
aware and genuinely concerned about
and mining for further solutions
to reduce early school leavers.
This three-year project has a long
FURTHER READING
way to go, but it has the legs to go the
•
Eurostat. (2015). Early leavers from education and training.
Retrieved from http://ec.europa.eu.
sense of duty in Borg and Raykov. ‘We
•
Ministry for Education and Employment (MEDE). (2014). A strategic
plan for the prevention of early school leaving in Malta. Malta:
Ministry for Education and Employment.
distance fuelled by the deep-rooted
are structurally responsible for the
predicament of early school leavers’
says Borg, ‘and if we don’t act now
by investing in quality primary and
then we will pay for it at a later stage.’
Feature
secondary education for our children,
57
Feature
ROCKETS
THAT FAIL
SAFELY
58
Ariane 501 a few seconds before break up
Spacecraft failures are spectacular. These unfortunate events are seared into the
public memory. One reason why rockets can fail are software bugs. If a rocket’s
computer system fails, that infamous blue screen leads to lost work hours,
billions of Euro, and lives. Researchers from the Faculty of ICT and Faculty of
Engineering (University of Malta) tell THINK about their collaboration with
the European Space Agency (ESA) to test novel satellite software architecture to
prevent rocket failure.
J
une 1996, Ariane 5 Flight 501. Twenty
position. The control system was compensating
years ago, the world braced itself for the
for a wrong turn that had not taken place, which
very first flight of a giant rocket that was
destroyed the launcher in the process.
capable of hurling a pair of three-tonne
satellites into orbit. Standing proudly
A little bug and a big bang: around €6b worth
of research and development had fallen victim
at the European spaceport in French Guyana,
to a few wrong lines of code. This glitch is
the rocket represented ten years of progress in
infamously considered to be one of the most
launcher technology and was meant to catapult
expensive software bugs in history. Garbage
European space science to the forefront.
in, garbage out, as fiery bits of debris ended up
Less than a minute into the flight, the mighty
Ariane 5 suddenly veered off course and broke up.
littering the swamps of French Guiana.
The crash inquiry concluded that the
Naturally, when rockets fail, they fail spectacularly.
development programme ‘did not include adequate
They always do. Ariane 501, the Titanic of
analysis and testing of the inertial reference system
European launchers, turned into a massive fireball
or of the complete flight control system.’ Suitable
on its maiden voyage—a sad day for European
testing could have detected the potential failure
space science.
and the appropriate fixes would have contributed
The crash inquiry report, published a few months
to a more robust control system—perhaps robust
after the incident, revealed that the launcher broke
enough to gracefully deal with unanticipated
up when it abruptly swerved off course under the
situations, such as a misleading altitude input.
command of the flight control system. The culprit
(IRS), the system that calculates the altitude of
the launcher: a few erroneous lines of code had
SYSTEM ROBUSTNESS AND THE SPACE
SECTOR
tried to stuff a 64-bit number into a 16-bit space.
Some bugs do not fly, and this was definitely one
This resulted in invalid altitude information being
of them. Designing robust systems that can deal
communicated to the flight control computer,
with such glitches pays off. These software issues
which interpreted it as valid altitude input causing
are, of course, not just limited to the space sector.
three powerful nozzles to swing to an extreme
The same vulnerabilities may crash your word
Feature
was a small bug in its Inertial Reference System
59
processor. The worst scenario in our
everyday lives is hours lost leading
to a very bad day. In space, things
are a bit different. Considering the
number of man-hours of delicate and
intricate work involved in design and
development, it sometimes means
that, kilo for kilo, satellites would cost
less were they to be made out of solid
gold. Provided the spacecraft has
surpassed the critical phase of launch,
unrecoverable satellite subsystems
may result in the loss of control of the
orbiting satellite. Years of work and
millions of Euro are turned into a lump
of orbiting junk—now that really is a
bad day.
Nowadays, spacecraft software
design needs an extensive
dependability and robustness testing
Top: Grixti (second from the left) together with other ISU colleagues at the RF Testing chamber at
MDA, Montreal. Below: Grixti with the Artemis Jr lunar rover prototype designed by the Neptec
Design Group for NASA and the Canadian Space Agency
campaign. The stakes in the space
sector are too high to get it wrong. But
how would you check how robust a
piece of software is?
Simply put, the answer is: by
making it fail. And by ‘causing it to
fail’, software glitches can be detected
before they lead to failure during space
flight. Developers may detect and fix
bugs they had overlooked during the
initial design phase. One way of doing
this is to intentionally inject faults
within the software being tested and
Considering the number of manhours of delicate and intricate work
involved in design and development,
it sometimes means that, kilo for
kilo, satellites would cost less were
they to be made out of solid gold
observe how it responds or stops
Feature
responding.
60
Nicholas Sammut and Prof. Ing. David
of a collaboration between the Faculty
Zammit Mangion) spent six months
of ICT, the Faculty of Engineering
SPACE FLIGHT MALTA
at the ESA (European Space Agency)
(both at the University of Malta) and
working on the research project. He
the European Space Research and
To try to make rockets fail safely,
tested the robustness of ESA’s novel
Technology Centre (ESTEC).
Stephen Grixti (supervised by Dr Ing.
satellite software architecture as part
At ESTEC, the research heart of
the ESA in the Netherlands, and later
WEIGHTLESS AT LAST
at UoM, ESA’s satellite software was
tested by scientists trying to make it
Space science and technology research projects open unique
fail—and unfortunately (or fortunately)
opportunities. Sammut reminisces about a unique experience when a
it actually did fail! Grixti found a
collaborator from the Centre National D’Etudes Spatiales (CNES) invited
number of critical design flaws that led
him to a free parabolic flight. These flights are performed by aircraft such
ESA contractors to re-evaluate their
as the Airbus A300 aircraft that briefly leads to near-weightlessness as
systems to avoid the same kind of fault
they shoot up to very high altitudes simply to hurtle back down to earth.
that had led to the destruction of the
They are used to conduct microgravity experiments for scientists to
Ariane 501.
understand the behaviour of matter in the absence of gravity. Apart from
Through this study, a black-box
robustness testing methodology
research, such flights usually serve as training for astronauts.
‘During the microgravity flight, you first feel twice your weight, and you
was tailored to inject faults within
can hardly lift your own hand. Then all of a sudden you are completely
the separation kernel of a Time and
weightless, floating around freely and upside down. If you just hit the
Space Partitioned (TSP) spacecraft
wall a little, you are sent hurtling towards the other side of the cabin,’
on-board software. The devised
comments Sammut as he reminisces about his wonderful experience.
testing architecture was then used to
Microgravity Parabolic Flights on the CNES Airbus A300 Zero-G
investigate the robustness of ESA’s
plane last approximately 2.5 hours with 15 parabolas totalling five
own EagleEye spacecraft. EagleEye
minutes of weightlessness. Parabolic arcs are performed to create a
is an ESA testbed representative of
weightless environment, allowing passengers to float, flip, and soar as if
typical Earth observation satellites—
they were in space.
that is, the satellites that snap those
‘It has been a lifelong dream to be an astronaut,’ states Sammut. ‘Now
beautiful Earth photos from around
I know what it feels to be an astronaut for a day, or rather, for five minutes.’
800 km. The case study detected a
number of issues with robustness at
the satellite’s software core. It picked
up on a glitch that led to the system’s
catastrophic failure.
A PASSION FOR SPACE
TECHNOLOGY
Grixti looks back at his research
experience and recollects many
fulfilling memories. Every time an
ESA satellite was launched, a large
crowd would gather and the event was
Those present could sense a mixture of
tension, passion, and excitement
Dr Ing. Nicholas Sammut during the
parabolic flight on the CNES Airbus
A300 Zero-G plane
Feature
streamed live from the launch site.
61
among the onlookers. These
mission, but one giant leap for science.
inspired by world renowned specialists
way through his project, Grixti was
and astronauts within an environment
But perhaps the best cocktail of
sponsored to attend a two-month
of collaboration.
passion, pride, and champagne came
space studies course in Montreal,
in November 2014 with the Rosetta
Canada. This was organised by the
technology is exciting, but actually
mission making the news all over the
International Space University (ISU),
living it through such collaborations
world. Philae, a lander the size of a
a community of space professionals
takes the experience to an entirely
washing machine, was released from
from all over the world that harbours
different level. That is what successful
the Rosetta satellite and made the
a healthy network of influential space
rocket launches do all the time, and
first ever comet landing. Rosetta and
experts, which includes political figures
once they lift off they are difficult to
Philae had been travelling for 10 years
and numerous astronauts.
access. Robust systems are critical
spacecraft; it was their baby.
THE RESEARCH EXPERIENCE
through testing like those found by
control room was streamed live in the
The whole research project was
Ariane 5 Flight 501 in 1996.
auditorium and once the landing was
a memorable journey. The value
announced the tense, never-ending
gained does not only come from the
The University of Malta research team
silence broke into cheers, claps, and the
technical experience and the excellent
would like to thank Prof. Edward Gatt
winning sound of popping champagne
results achieved, but from meeting
from the Faculty of ICT, and the Flight
bottles. Again, there was an infectious
people from different cultures in an
Software Systems section in ESTEC
sense of achievement and belonging.
international setting. By venturing
for their support throughout the
This was one small step for the Rosetta
outside of their comfort zone up and
research project.
enough to be stationed at ESA when
this landing happened. The Rosetta
Feature
Reading about satellites and space
for space travel. Finding critical flaws
in space and Grixti was fortunate
62
coming scientists can learn and be
There was more to come. Half-
researchers felt responsible for that
UoM researchers could have saved the
Shiny,
‘appy
people
Dr Nicholas Micallef is fascinated by technology and has an outgoing personality. He recently
made a name for himself thanks to his invention of a security app. Veronica Stivala writes
about how he fought disappointment and skepticism to reach new heights.
which gets to ‘know’ its user and
and ‘always likes to meet people. Also’,
grew up in a family of
realises if someone else is using the
he adds, ‘I’m always up for a pint’.
four and despite his
phone. The app has opened up a
having lived in Scotland
series of opportunities for Nicholas,
spent six years as a software
for the past six years
In between his degrees, Micallef
but, he reveals, while his fascination
engineer. In this position he focused
they have always been a very close
for technology has never waned,
on enhancing and supporting
family. ‘Our parents always pushed
his ideas were not always well-
e-commerce solutions. This saw
us to study and to do well in school’,
received and he first experienced a
him improving the way computer
Micallef notes, adding how grateful
series of disappointing rejections.
systems worked, by tailoring them
he is knowing that ‘if it wasn’t for
When he was in secondary
to people’s needs as well as fixing
the problems they encountered.
their constant support, we would
school learning Computer Studies,
not have made it to University or
Micallef became fascinated with
been so successful in our careers’.
how people interact with tech. ‘At
of leaving home for Scotland to read
that stage we were taught about the
for an M.Sc. in Computer Science
successful career as a lawyer, Micallef
technicalities of computers and we
(University of Edinburgh), followed by a
embarked on an academic path: a
also had our first experiences with
Ph.D. The decision to leave was fueled
B.Sc. in Information Technology—
programming languages. However,
by a desire to find new opportunities
Computer Science and Artificial
I always felt that there was more
so when he encountered a plethora
Intelligence (Faculty of ICT, University
to it and that people’s perceptions
of rejections, he was understandably
of Malta) followed by a Ph.D. on phone
of technology were quite different
left feeling disappointed.
security and sensors (Interactive
to those of the technical people
and Trustworthy Technologies, (ITT)
that designed them’, he explains.
were accepting all the setbacks we
The link between people and
encountered when trying to publish
While his twin brother pursued a
Glasgow Caledonian University).
He later took the difficult decision
‘I think the most difficult moments
His research team’s work quickly
technology continues to be a thread in
our work. We faced fierce criticism
caught the attention of the media
Nicholas’s scientific oeuvre. But then
from traditional security researchers
and has been featured on the BBC,
Nicholas is a people person. He doesn’t
because our research was redefining
New Scientist, and the Daily Mail.
quite fit the bill of the stereotypical,
the boundaries of the area that they
In short, they had developed an app
introverted, misanthropist scientist
were not open to. In the end
Alumni
D
r Nicholas Micallef
63
we managed to overcome this
discussed how this app could be
mostly interested in researching how
problem and published some of the
implemented in our phones. They
it could be used in different health-
work, but we still have some work
also plan to have a long-term study
related scenarios. One example is to
which is unpublished’, he notes.
of about three months to understand
find the right time to remind Type 2
whether using the app over a longer
diabetes patients to check for foot
make Nicholas a stronger person:
period of time would change users’
ulcers and infections, which, if left
‘at the beginning this was difficult
perceptions. These discussions are still
untreated, could lead to amputations.’
to accept, but as time went by this
at an early stage and their feasibility
helped me learn to accept rejections.
is still being discussed. They are
a post-stroke exercise rehabilitation
Also, these situations helped me
now looking into other uses for the
app to help stroke survivors remember
to look for positive criticism, take
app. He explains, ‘right now, we are
to exercise frequently. This app can
But these reactions all served to
it on board, and always continue
improve the state of post-stroke
working hard without giving up.’
rehabilitation and plans to evaluate
And so he did. While at the ITT, he
developed the famous mobile app
called Ambient Unlocker that ‘watches
how you use your phone to build a
portrait of your ‘normal’ behavior’
(BBC). To start, he had to first identify
the research gap in the field. Followed
by throwing himself hook, line, and
sinker into mountains of reading and
a large amount of analysis, Nicholas
identified a lacuna in the protection
of phones from unauthorised access.
They first tested the app. They
collected three weeks of sensor
data from 10 users in an empirical
study. Next they ran security
studies to understand the strengths
and weaknesses of the app. This
strengthened the app’s safeguards.
Finally, to assess how the app works
under real life conditions they
conducted a three-week user study on
20 users. Ambient Unlocker was born.
The most rewarding moment
came when Micallef was analysing
the feedback he had collected from
his last user study, because this
supplied him with the evidence
required to prove that this app can
actually improve people’s everyday
interaction with technology.
Alumni
Micallef and his team have
64
Apart from this, he is working on
We faced fierce
criticism from
traditional
security
researchers
because our
research was
redefining the
boundaries of the
area that they
were not open to
whether it can actually help improve
stroke survivors’ arm impairments.
Becoming an expert in improving
people’s everyday interactions with
technology is Nicholas’s ultimate goal.
‘Eventually, as I start getting more
senior positions I expect the focus of
my work to shift from implementation
and evaluation to designing and
defining the overall user experience
strategy.’ This means his role will
eventually shift from a hands-on
role to a more managerial one.
Perhaps one day, we will all
be using Micallef’s app to keep
thieves at bay or to remind us
when to take our medication?
MALTESE CULTURAL PARTICIPATION:
What do the
people want?
participation to create a body of research that
fact beyond contention – and
will shed light on participation in the sector. The
whose vast range of cultural
research will help artists, cultural practitioners, and
activities attract different people
policy makers.
with varied interests. But how
Last year, the Valletta 2018 Foundation conducted
does this fit in the context of Valletta being the
the first in a series of surveys that are looking into
European Capital of Culture (ECoC) in 2018?
cultural participation in Valletta. The survey, carried
Before delving into the many questions that
out in collaboration with the National Statistics
surround this, one needs to perhaps address
Office, asked 1,138 respondents about their
what we understand by the term ‘culture’ – are
preferred cultural activity. The top three cultural
we talking about traditions or art? Cultural
activities the Maltese public enjoyed were citywide
participation in Malta is often believed to be
activities such as Notte Bianca, followed by Carnival,
low, and a Eurobarometer survey carried out in
and visits to museums and historical sites.
2013 confirmed that the Maltese are among the
The events took place in Valletta and registered
least active participants in culture in Europe.
more active participation from residents than
However, culture is not something that can be
from those living outside the city’s walls. Valletta
given a clear-cut definition. The term can refer to
residents are more likely to have attended artistic
anything from art exhibitions to the more popular,
exhibitions and events when compared to non-
traditional festi (feasts). Such feasts are not taken
Valletta residents (18% vs 12%). People from
into consideration by many surveys like the
the island’s Northern Harbour region (the area
Eurobarometer.
around Marsamxett Harbour and neighbouring
The Valletta 2018 Foundation’s research
areas) placed second after Valletta residents in
department has therefore embarked on a five-
their likelihood to have attended some form of
year research process (2015–2019) whereby it
cultural event in the capital. On average, 35% of
aims to understand the factors that affect cultural
residents from the Northern Harbour region
CULTURE
M
alta is rich in culture—that is a
65
have attended some form of cultural
never attended) and the Regatta (96%
Valletta Participation Survey, the
activity in Valletta, compared to an
never attended).
Foundation has also carried out an indepth, qualitative analysis of its cultural
average of 15% from other regions.
The general consensus of the
These statistics give the impression
respondents was that Valletta is a
programme. This research shows that
that physical proximity plays an
cultural city which is improving in
the Valletta 2018 Cultural Programme
important role in the degree of cultural
terms of its cultural offerings as well
not only includes projects related to
participation. People commented
as its image. However, attendance
the visual arts and feasts in Valletta, but
on the pleasant atmosphere and the
for Valletta’s cultural events is still
also other community projects, aiming
sense of unity events created while
relatively low with people showing a
to eliminate barriers that prevent
others said that such events make for a
lack of interest in cultural activities
cultural participation and that allow for
different kind of family outing.
(38% of respondents claimed that
the co-creation of cultural activities
The Maltese people also seem
they do not attend cultural events as
and audience development. The study
to enjoy the performing arts. Other
they are simply “not interested”). This
shows how the Foundation is taking a
popular activities include going to the
statistic is a concern in the light of
contemporary approach in developing
cinema or attending film screenings,
the fact that Valletta will be capital of
cultural projects, by looking at a long-
artistic exhibitions and events, live
culture in just two years. It is the role of
term development process and aiming
music and live theatre events. These
the Foundation to use these findings to
for a long-lasting legacy. This research
are followed by the Valletta parish
find new opportunities that can boost
shows how that, to date, the Valletta
feasts—more traditional activities
cultural participation and encourage
2018 Cultural Programme has focused
tied to the city itself. Dance is not as
engagement with cultural activities.
on community and interdisciplinary
appreciated as other performing arts
This data can also help other entities
projects, as well as projects involving
disciplines, with a staggering 94% of
and practitioners in the sector.
music and film.
The Foundation has developed a
respondents claiming they had never
Both the Valletta Participation
attended a dance performance. The
varied cultural programme, which is
Survey and the qualitative analysis of
only other activities less well-attended
open, engaging, and accessible. To
the Valletta 2018 Cultural Programme
are passion plays in Easter time (95%
complement the aforementioned
will continue to be carried out in
the coming years. Such studies
explore the relationship between the
REASONS FOR ATTENDING CULTURAL ACTIVITIES*
cultural programme and participation
countrywide in order for changes in
the level of cultural participation in the
42.2%
18.8%
16.9%
8.2%
6.5%
5%
Other
Different outing for the whole family
National pride/tradition
Well-organised
Enjoy arts and culture
CULTURE
Don't know (2.5%)
66
Nice atmosphere and
unity
* Graph taken from the Valletta Participation Survey
Maltese Islands can be compared.
The Valletta 2018 Evaluation and
Monitoring research process is a
five-year project (2015–2019) that is
looking into the impacts of Valletta
2018 on the country. The Valletta
Participation Survey is a study
carried out in collaboration with the
NSO that takes place on a biannual
basis. The qualitative study, titled
‘A Comprehensive Analysis of the
Valletta 2018 Cultural Programme’
is being carried out by Daniela
Blagojevic Vella.
BOOK REVIEW
by Dr Jurgen Gatt
The State of Africa
MARTIN MEREDITH
et me start this book review with a prediction.
private coffers of corrupt officials, and the tyrants
As your eyes ran over the title of this page
who replaced them. Finally, the book leads to
just a few seconds ago, a flurry of thoughts and
an unbiased account of the emergence of Africa
images raced through your mind: hunger, illness,
onto the world stage and discusses the various
HIV/AIDS, Boko Haram, migrants, elephants,
problems which still plague most of its countries.
gazelles, and lions, slavery, Joseph Conrad’s novel
The State of Africa is at its most enjoyable in its
about the horrors of the Belgian Congo, Heart
stark portrayal of the characters of the early African
of Darkness. These images, I argue, are about as
liberation movement. The image of Senghor—a
representative of Africa as the moustache and
poet cum politician of Senegal—is particularly
the baguette are of France. While clichés might
powerful. The author does not shirk from
hold an element of truth, they surely reflect
recounting, often in great and painful detail, the
a profound unfamiliarity with France if one
ensuing downfall of most of Africa’s early heroes
thinks only of these caricatures. The state of our
as they assumed political power. The account
ignorance about Africa—a continent of some
is highly selective. Yet, in a series of powerful
30 million square kilometers that houses well
stories and stark images, the book effectively
over a billion people—is immeasurably worse.
conveys—in just over 700 pages—exactly what
Martin Meredith’s excellent book The State of
its title promises: a picture of the current state
Africa has an easy-to-read style and a fast pace,
of the African continent and enough historical
and it attempts to remedy this all-too-common
depth for one to conceive how it came about.
deficiency in our understanding of the continent.
This book fulfils an important function. As the
The book reviews the history of some 70 years of
vast continent struggles to find its footing, the
African history. Starting with the first uneasy and
nations of Africa are gaining greater relevance in
bloody stumbling steps toward decolonisation,
our ever-shrinking world. The North’s ignorance
the work chronicles the first experiments with
of its southerly neighbours has for too long been
one-state African socialism, the burgeoning
lamentable. Now it is becoming inexcusable.
Fun
L
67
FILM REVIEW
by Dr Philip M. Magri
Knight
of Cups
Year of release: 2015
Director: Terrence Malick
Production company: Dogwood Films,
Waypoint Entertainment
Certification: 18
A
n artist often works to break
shorn almost entirely of dialogue,
worked without even providing a
down the boundaries of a medium.
which progresses only through
script, allowing the actors to play
The artist’s only tools are personal
voice-overs? Is it possible to deliver
themselves in some of the scenes.
vision, an unrelenting belief in their
a love story exclusively through its
The result is an expressionistic
work, and the need to convey it to an
poetic spirit, providing the illusion
and highly self-reflexive portrait of
audience. Then again, an artist must also
that the camera possesses a life of
a decadent character inhabiting a
understand that the shock-value of their
its own by allowing it to flow freely
decadent world. Rick reads like a
work might not only lie in the artistic
around the characters? Is it possible
character penned by Bret Easton
content but in the manner in which they
for cinema to draw a bridge between
Ellis, whose Patrick Bateman was also
technically attempt to rewrite the rules,
the intimate microcosm of a particular
portrayed by Bale in Mary Harron’s
regulating their mode of expression.
man and the impersonal macrocosm
filmic adaptation of American Psycho
Today’s cinema is focused on the
of the collective? Is it possible for
(2000). More than Sorrentino in his
spectacular, from the competitive
cinema to still ponder upon existential
La Grande Bellezza, Malick is here
use of special effects to weak plots
notions such as reality, freedom,
clearly concerned with how even
meant for sheer entertainment. And
destiny, religion, and astrology?
intimate emotions can be misleading.
yet, the cinematic medium has so
Fun
His character Rick craves love and yet
is destined to emerge, solitary and
leads the audience down this unbeaten
broken, from all his relationships. Rick
winner of the Palme d’Or Cannes Film
track. Impressively, Malick enlisted
treats his own life as a movie script,
Festival), and To the Wonder (2012),
big-budget actors like Bale (in a role
merely seeking from his love interests
director Terrence Malick’s recent Knight
that is in diametric opposition to his
a temporary element of drama that
of Cups is a portrait of Rick (played by
‘Dark Knight’), Cate Blanchett, and
might set the ball rolling for something
Christian Bale), a scriptwriter in Los
Natalie Portman. The movie includes
more meaningful, which never manifests
Angeles. Malick continues his artistic
cameos by Antonio Banderas and
itself. Love appears and disappears,
discourse by progressively breaking
Joe Manganiello. This is a movie
randomly, uncontrollably. In both
down all of cinema’s constitutive
about Hollywood, with a cast list of
form and content Malick clearly tells
elements that audiences are used to,
Hollywood A-stars, which seeks to
us that this is the life of the working
thanks to most Hollywood movies: is
corrupt the very world it seeks to
artist—damned, romantic, aestheticised,
it possible to produce a long feature
portray and inhabit. Malick famously
and yet excruciatingly beautiful.
Following on from Tree of Life (2011;
68
Malick is one of the few
contemporary directors who willingly
much more to offer and to express.
GAME REVIEW
by Costantino Oliva
HER STORY
O
Platforms: PC, Mac, iOS
Developer: Sam Barlow
vercoming the ‘limits’ of movies and books
experience the player’s search for the truth is
through digital media remains a daunting
guided by database queries. The player will feel
task. After all, traditional media is perfectly fine at
uncomfortable as they become more and more
narration. Her Story is a brilliant example of what
eager to explore a disturbing past. Only by letting
digital games can bring to the table.
curiosity get the better of them can the detective
put the pieces back together.
The game revolves around a murder and the
player is the detective. The case has recently been
Her Story uses a minimalistic interface, hiding
re-opened and the player is left examining old
its mechanics under a masterfully crafted visual
VCR tapes containing snippets of interviews with
presentation. At the same time, the game mixes
a single person. During this solitary, meditative
narrative techniques borrowed from movies and
TV series. It is reminiscent of forgotten laser disc
games, or clunky interactive novels from the
1990s. Somehow, the interactive game blends
everything together in a unique masterpiece. For
decades, digital storytelling remained a chimera;
Her Story might very well be the medium’s most
accomplished realisation.
www.herstorygame.com
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Your d
EveMalta
evemalta
@evemalta
Fun
Only by letting
curiosity get the
better of them can
the detective put the
pieces back together
69
GAME REVIEW
by David Chircop
Malta
Playing Arts
I
t would be easy to dismiss this
to the next like an intricate hyperlinked
nifty card game as a simple tourist
web. By the time I had reached the the
souvenir, but a closer look reveals a
end of the booklet, I felt like I had gone
somewhat deeper meaning than a mere
through some sort of hybrid between a
deck of Maltese Playing Cards.
curated gallery and guided walkthrough
Reviewing this set of cards is outside
of Maltese culture. One is free to walk
my immediate comfort zone. I spend so
wherever they like, and the deeper
much time thinking about mechanics,
one digs the more connections are
group dynamics, table talk, design,
uncovered.
and replayability of games, that when
Now, I must retract what I said
presented with something that cannot
about this pack of cards not being a
really be critiqued for any of those
game. I was wrong. Few other ‘games’,
game dynamics, I stumble. Truth is,
especially tabletop ones, have so
there is no game here. There is a tool
rewarded my curiosity and desire to
for a game, the motives of which aren’t
explore. Of course, the ‘game’ can
really related to games at all. The ‘game’
be read once and then it is over, but
part of this product is used more as a
then the cards can be reused for any
vehicle to deliver an ideal, a message,
other game you would like to play,
and a story.
and whenever you do, the images on
At their core, the Malta Playing
the cards have all now been imbued
Cards are just a set of playing cards.
with meaning. They act as reminders
Their particular characteristic is that
of the little journey you experienced
each single card features a unique
when you went through the deck in
piece of art from a local artist, and
one hand, and the booklet in the other,
each one has some sort of connection
discovering a beautiful story.
to Maltese history or culture. That in
One final note, the cards are
itself is already a great idea but the
premium plastic. Not paper, which
card makers didn’t stop there: the
is awesome. I highly recommend
deck comes with a small booklet called
Malta Playing Arts.
Fun
Walkthrough and Compendium. The
70
booklet shows how every single card
See the artworks at Malta Playing
was thoughtfully and meticulously
Arts: The Exhibition curated by
matched with the artwork. The cards
Marika Azzopardi, Palazzo Ferreria,
tell a story. They are riddled with
310, Republic St, Valletta, 18–29
connections to one another, one linking
April (Mon–Fri, 0830–1630hrs).
Dr Mario Aquilina
MY 100 WORD IDEA
TO CHANGE MALTA
Think Critically, think Malta
WHAT IS MORE ADDICTIVE:
CANNABIS OR COFFEE?
Alexander Hili
T
he answer is coffee. Coffee is drunk by around 80% of
Let us strengthen Malta’s democratic system by
thinking critically. We need to learn how to avoid
blindly accepting or rejecting ideas and opinion
Americans. The large numbers call for extensive studies
on the effect of this drug on the brain.
Caffeine is a stimulant. It has a similar molecular structure
based on our political affiliations or unquestioned,
to adenosine, a chemical linked to us feeling tired. Caffeine
long-held beliefs. Let us actively go against the
binds to adenosine and stops it from working. Coffee does
dualistic thinking that dominates local public
not wake you up but makes your body forget it is tired.
debate. Let us, for example, phase out media outlets
Taking that espresso in the morning makes your body
financed by political parties; amend the constitution
increase the number of receptors to caffeine in the brain.
to facilitate the entry of a third political party to
This increase makes us dependent on that cup of coffee in
parliament; and put critical thinking at the centre of
our educational system by strengthening subjects
the morning to reach normal functional levels. On the other
hand, cannabis has minimal risk of long-term addiction.
that enhance it (literary and rhetorical analysis, logic,
philosophy and the scientific method).
Read more about cannabis on pg. 38
Send in your science questions to think@um.edu.mt
by Ġorġ Mallia
Fun
Don't THINK
71
MEME
Meme
CULTURE GENES
72
73
Meme
74
Meme