The University of Babylon
Department of Software
LECTURE NOTES ON PROGRAMMING
FUNDAMENTAL USING C++ LANGUAGE
By
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Collage of Information Technology, University of Babylon, Iraq
Samaher_hussein@yahoo.com
18 December 2012
1
Control Structures
Outline:
The if Statement
The switch Statement
The while Statement
The do Statement
The for Statement
The continue Statement
The break Statement
The goto Statement
The return Statement
Home works
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture 52
Example of (while Statement)
Implementation
When the program starts the user is prompted to insert a starting number for the
countdown. Then the while loop
begins, if the value entered by the user fulfills the condition n>0 (that n is greater
than zero) the block that follows
the condition will be executed and repeated while the condition (n>0) remains
being true.
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture 53
Example of (while Statement)
The whole process of the previous program can be interpreted according to the
following script (beginning in main):
1. User assigns a value to n
2. The while condition is checked (n>0). At this point there are two posibilities:
* condition is true: statement is executed (to step 3)
* condition is false: ignore statement and continue after it (to step 5)
3. Execute statement:
cout << n << ", ";
--n;
(prints the value of n on the screen and decreases n by 1)
4. End of block. Return automatically to step 2
5. Continue the program right after the block: print FIRE! and end program
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture 54
Example of (Do-while Statement)
Program echoes any number you enter until you enter 0.
Implementation
Note:
The do-while loop is usually used when the condition that has to determine the end
of the loop is determined within the loop statement itself, like in the previous case,
where the user input within the block is what is used to determine if the loop has to
end.
In fact if you never enter the value 0 in the previous example you can be prompted for
more numbers forever.
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture 5
The For Statement
The for statement (also called for loop) is similar to the while statement, but has
two additional components: an expression which is evaluated only once before
everything else, and an expression which is evaluated once at the end of each
iteration. The general form of the for statement is:
for (expression1; expression2; expression3)
statement;
First expression1 is evaluated. Each time round the loop, expression2 is evaluated.
If the outcome is nonzero then statement is executed and expression3 is
evaluated. Otherwise, the loop is terminated. The general for loop is equivalent to
the following while loop:
expression1;
while (expression2) {
statement;
expression3;
}
The most common use of for loops is for situations where a variable is
incremented or decremented with every iteration of the loop. The following for
loop, for example, calculates the sum of all integers from 1 to n.
sum = 0;
for (i = 1; i <= n; ++i)
sum += i;
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture 56
The For Statement
Example: Write the produces the product of the set {1,2,3} with itself, giving the
output:
)1,1(
)1,2(
)1,3(
)2,1(
)2,2(
)2,3(
)3,1(
)3,2(
)3,3(
# include <iostream.h>
# include<conio.h>
int main()
{
int i;
int j;
for (int i = 1; i <= 9; ++i)
for (int j = 1; j <= 2; ++j)
cout << '(' << i << ',' << j << ")\n";
getch();
}
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture 57
The continue Statement
The continue statement terminates the current iteration of a loop and instead
jumps to the next iteration. It applies to the loop immediately enclosing the continue
statement. It is an error to use the continue statement outside a loop.
In while and do loops, the next iteration commences from the loop condition.
In a for loop, the next iteration commences from the loop’s third expression.
Example: a loop which repeatedly reads in a number, processes it but ignores
negative numbers, and terminates when the number is zero, may be expressed as:
do {
cin >> num;
if (num < 0) continue;
// process num here...
} while (num != 0);
This is equivalent to:
do {
cin >> num;
if (num >= 0) {
// process num here...
}
} while (num != 0);
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture85
The continue Statement
Another Example: write procedure to print the number from 10 to 1 except 5 using
the continue statement.
Implementation
The continue statement causes the program to skip the rest of the loop in the current
iteration as if the end of the statement block had been reached, causing it to jump to
the start of the following iteration. For example, we are going to skip the number 5 in
our count above.
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture 59
The break Statement
A break statement may appear inside a loop (while, do, or for) or a switch
statement. It causes a jump out of these constructs, and hence terminates them.
Like the continue statement, a break statement only applies to the loop or switch
immediately enclosing it. It is an error to use the break statement outside a loop
or a switch.
Example: suppose we wish to read in a user password, but would like to allow the
user a limited number of attempts:
for (i = 0; i < attempts; ++i) {
cout << "Please enter your password: ";
cin >> password;
if (Verify(password)) // check password for correctness
break; // drop out of the loop
cout << "Incorrect!\n";
}
Here we have assumed that there is a function called Verify which checks a
password and returns true if it is correct, and false otherwise.
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture105
The goto Statement
The goto statement provides the lowest-level of jumping. It has the general form:
goto label;
where label is an identifier which marks the jump destination of goto. The label
should be followed by a colon and appear before a statement within the same
function as the goto statement itself.
Example: the role of the break statement in the for loop in the previous section can
be emulated by a goto:
for (i = 0; i < attempts; ++i) {
cout << "Please enter your password: ";
cin >> password;
if (Verify(password))
// check password for correctness
goto out;
// drop out of the loop
cout << "Incorrect!\n";
}
out:
// etc...
Because goto provides a free and unstructured form of jumping (unlike break and
continue), it can be easily misused. Most programmers these days avoid using it
altogether in favor of clear programming. Nevertheless, goto does have some
legitimate (though rare) uses.
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture115
The return Statement
The return statement enables a function to return a value to its caller. It has the
general form:
return expression;
where expression denotes the value returned by the function. The type of this value
should match the return type of the function. For a function whose return type is
void, expression should be empty:
return;
The only function we have discussed so far is main, whose return type is always int.
The return value of main is what the program returns to the operating system when
it completes its execution.
Example: the UNIX is conventional return 0 from main when the program executes
without errors. Otherwise, a non-zero error code is returned.
int main (void)
{
cout << "Hello World\n";
return 0;
}
When a function has a non-void return value (as in the above example), failing
to return a value will result in a compiler warning. The actual return value will be
undefined in this case (i.e., it will be whatever value which happens to be in its
corresponding memory location at the time).
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture125
Exercises
Q1: Write a program which inputs a person’s height (in centimeters) and weight (in
kilograms) and outputs one of the messages: underweight, normal, or overweight,
using the criteria:
Underweight: weight < height/2.5
Normal: height/2.5 <= weight <= height/2.3
Overweight: height/2.3 < weight
Q2: Assuming that n is 20, what will the following code fragment output when
executed?
if (n >= 0)
if (n < 10)
cout << "n is small\n";
else
cout << "n is negative\n";
Q3: Write a program which inputs a date in the format dd/mm/yy and outputs it in
the format month dd, year. For example, 27/12/11 becomes:
December 27, 2011
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
Notes of Lecture135
Exercises
Q4: Write a program which inputs an integer value, checks that it is positive, and
outputs its factorial, using the formulas:
factorial(0) = 1
factorial(n) = n × factorial(n-1)
Q5: Write a program which inputs an octal number and outputs its decimal
equivalent. The following example illustrates the expected behavior of the program:
Input an octal number: 214
Octal(214) = Decimal(532)
Q6: Write a program which produces a simple multiplication table of the following
format for integers in the range 1 to 9:
1x1=1
1x2=2
...
9 x 9 = 81
18 December 2012
Dr. Samaher Hussein Ali
14 5
Notes of Lecture