Dimensions of Perfectionism in Relation to Academic Motivation and Statistics Anxiety
Jennifer Chain, Jodi Jean, Jessie Katz , Patricia DiBartolo, Ph. D.— Smith College, Northampton, MA
ABSTRACT
Recent studies have examined how dimensions of perfectionism are
associated with statistics anxiety in students who are enrolled in statisticsrelated courses. The Positive Achievement Striving (PAS) dimension of
perfectionism is associated with intrinsic motivation and academic achievement
whereas the Maladaptive Evaluative Concerns (MEC) dimension is related to
anxiety and distress. The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship
between specific perfectionism subscales and statistics anxiety in female
undergraduate students who may or may not have taken statistics courses in
the past. A total of 272 students from an all women’s college completed an
online survey evaluating their perfectionism, statistics anxiety, and intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation. When multiple regression analysis was employed, the
results showed that PAS was positively correlated with both intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation and negatively predicted statistics anxiety; MEC was
positively correlated with extrinsic motivation and positively predicted statistics
y Multiple
p mediation analysis
y
was conducted to examine the role of
anxiety.
motivations as mediators of the perfectionism-anxiety relationship. The
analysis suggested that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation only mediated the
relationships between MEC and statistics anxiety but not between PAS and
statistics anxiety. Statistics anxiety had a reverse causal effect on dimensions
of perfectionism. The cross-sectional design of this study limited inferences
about causal relationships between the three variables. Implications for this
finding in the classroom setting and future directions for perfectionism and
statistics anxiety research are discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Perfectionism has been conceptualized as a personality style that is
characterized by striving for excessively high standards accompanied by overly
critical evaluations of oneself (Flett & Hewitt, 2002; Frost et al., 1990). Frost et al.
(1993) consolidated both the Hewit and Flett and the Frost et al.
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scales (MPS) into a two-dimensional model
consisting of Positive Achievement Striving (PAS) and Maladaptive Evaluation
Concerns (MEC). PAS is characterized by the setting of high standards for
oneself. MEC can be identified by overly critical evaluation of one’s own
behavior, an inability to derive satisfaction from achievement, and chronic
concerns over other’s criticism and expectations.
Researchers studying perfectionism have become increasingly interested
in its relationships to academic motivation, effort, achievement and distress.
Studies have demonstrated that PAS is associated with intrinsic motivation
motivation, high
effort and high achievement. (Bieling et al. 2002; Stöeber and Rambow, 2006;
Stöeber et al, 2007). Although MEC is also associated with intrinsic motivation,
researchers found that it is predominately related to extrinsic motivation and
higher stress.
Statistics anxiety, or anxiety related to a host of demands typically
associated with this type of math class, often predicts poorer performance or
greater emotional distress associated with taking a math-related course. Only a
few studies have explored the relationship between perfectionism and this
specific domain of learning. Past research have shown that the fear of negative
evaluation is a common factor to both perfectionism and statistics anxiety (Walsh
& Ugumba-Agwunbobi, 2002; Onwuegbuzie & Daley, 1999). Studies have only
sampled students who have taken statistics related courses in the past. But for
students in other disciplines, anxiety may deter them from ever taking a course
that involves statistics.
In our study, we hypothesized that in a sample of students who may or
may not have taken statistics courses before, PAS will strongly correlate with
intrinsic motivation and negatively predict anxiety; MEC will strongly correlate
with extrinsic motivation and positively predict anxiety. We planned to use partial
correlation to control for the overlap of PAS and MEC. We also hypothesized that
intrinsic and extrinsic motivations will have a significant mediating effect on the
relationship between dimensions of perfectionism and statistics anxiety.
DISCUSSION
METHODS
Participants and Procedure
A total of 272 female students completed an online questionnaire. Participants’ ages ranged from 18 to 52 years, with a mean
age of 20.14 (SD = 4.08) years. The ethnic composition was: 63.1% White/Caucasian, 6.4% African-American, 15.6 % Asian/Pacific
I l d 0
Islander,
0.3%
3% Hi
Hispanic,
i and
d 1.7%
1 7% preferred
f
d nott to
t answer. Of the
th participants,
ti i
t 62% h
have never ttaken
k a statistics
t ti ti course, 30
30.4%
4% have
h
taken an introductory statistics course, and 7.6% have taken advanced statistics courses.
Materials
Multidimensional Perfectionism Scale (FMPS; Frost et al., 1990). The FMPS was used to assess the two dimensions of
perfectionism: Positive Achievement Striving (PAS) and Maladaptive Evaluative Concerns (MEC). The pure personal standards (PPS)
subscale was used (α = 0.78) to measure PAS. The Concern over Mistakes (CM; α = 0.91) and Doubts about Actions (DA; α =0.74)
subscales were used to evaluate MEC.
Statistics Anxiety Rating Scale (STARS; Cruise et al., 1985). We utilized four of the six STARS subscales: (1) Test and class
anxiety, which assesses the anxiety experienced when taking a statistics test or attending a statistics class (α = 0.88); (2) Interpretation
anxiety, which measures anxiety when interpreting statistical results (α = 0.89); (3) Ask for help, which evaluates anxiety experienced
when an individual intends to ask for help on a statistical question (α = 0.85); and (4) Computation self-concept,
self concept, which is designed to
assess a person’s self-belief in their ability to cope with the statistics calculations and mathematics (α = 0.87).
Work Preference Inventory—Student Version (WPI; Amabile et al., 1994). The WPI was designed to evaluate students’ overall
intrinsic and extrinsic motivational attitudes toward their work. The scale consisted of two primary dimensions: (1) intrinsic motivation,
which assesses levels of self-determination, competence, task involvement, curiosity, enjoyment, and interest (α = 0.75), and (2)
extrinsic motivation, which measures concerns with competition, evaluation, recognition, grades, and constraint by others (α = 0.79).
RESULTS
We used the Pearson correlation coefficients to examine the relationships between perfectionism dimensions, motivation and
statistics anxiety. PAS significantly correlated (p < .05) with both intrinsic (r = .275) and extrinsic motivation (r = .354), but was not
significantly correlated with statistics anxiety. MEC was significantly correlated with extrinsic motivation (r = .550) and it was positively
correlated with statistics anxiety (r = .418) Intrinsic motivation and statistics anxiety were negatively correlated (r = -.221), but extrinsic
motivation and statistics anxiety were positively correlated (r = .276). In a stepwise multiple regression analysis, MEC was the most
significant predictor of statistics anxiety (β = .481, p = .000) followed by PAS (β = -.211, p = .001) and intrinsic motivation (β = -.116, p =
.041). Extrinsic motivation was not a significant predictor.
The correlational analyses showed that PAS and MEC significantly predicted intrinsic and extrinsic motivations and statistics
anxiety. Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were also correlated with anxiety. To better understand the relationship among the three
variables, we conducted multiple mediation analysis to explore the mediating effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in the
relationship between dimensions of perfectionism and statistics anxiety. Given the overlap between PAS and MEC (r = 0.36), when each
perfectionism dimension was considered as the IV in the mediational analysis, the other dimension was covaried out. The analysis
showed that PAS had a significant negative direct and total effect on anxiety, while holding MEC as a covariate. Intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation did not mediate this relationship. MEC had a significant positive direct and total effect on anxiety, while holding PAS as a
covariate. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were both significant mediators in the relationship between MEC and anxiety. Bootstrap
results showed that the indirect effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations were equally strong in this relationship (see Table 1)
1).
To check for reverse causal effects, we exchanged the independent variable (statistics anxiety) with the dependent variable
(dimensions of perfectionism) and tested for effects in the other direction. Anxiety had a significant negative direct and total effect on
PAS, although it was smaller than the effect of PAS on anxiety. The indirect effect of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation was not significant.
Anxiety also had a significant positive direct and total effect on MEC, again smaller than the effect of MEC on anxiety. The indirect effects
were significant; bootstrap results showed that extrinsic motivation had a stronger indirect effect than intrinsic motivation.
Table 1. Sobel and bootstrap analyses (1,000 resamples) of the indirect effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation variables on the relationships between
dimensions of perfectionism and statistics anxiety.
.
IV
M1
M2
DV
Total Effect (c)
PAS
Intrinsic
Extrinsic Anxiety
‐1.2161***
z‐score of the Direct Effect Indirect Effect
(c’)
(c‐c’)
Contrast*
‐1.2806***
‐0.0645
N/A
95% CI of the Indirect Effect *
Indirect
Effect *
‐0.3213
0.2084
MEC
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
Anxiety
0.9788***
0.8312***
0.1476*
‐0.0619
0.0306
0.2814
Anxiety
Intrinsic
Extrinsic
PAS
‐0.0521***
‐0.0430***
‐0.0091
N/A
‐0.0189
0.0008
Anxiety Intrinsic
Extrinsic
MEC
0.2309***
0.1688***
0.0621*
‐0.0512*
0.0352
0.0930
PAS: Positive Achievement Striving; MEC: Maladaptive Evaluative Concerns.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.
*Contrast between the indirect effect of intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation (indirect effect of intrinsic motivation minus indirect effect of extrinsic motivation)
*If 0 is not in the 95% confidence interval, then the indirect effect is significant at p < .05 (two tailed).
.
Positive Achievement Striving: We hypothesized that Positive Achievement
Striving as defined by the subscale of Pure Personal Standards would be positively
correlated with intrinsic motivation and would negatively predict statistics anxiety. Part of
yp
was confirmed: we found that PAS is correlated with both intrinsic and
our hypothesis
extrinsic motivation and PAS negatively predicted statistics anxiety. Although the results
differed from our hypothesis, our findings were consistent with a study conducted in 2002
by Mills and Blankstein. They explained that despite setting high standards for
themselves, individuals who scored high in subscales of PAS were still primarily
motivated by extrinsic compensation and recognition from others.
Maladaptive Evaluative Concerns: We hypothesized that MEC would be
positively correlated with extrinsic motivation and would positively predict statistics
anxiety. The results supported our hypotheses. A positive correlation between MEC,
anxiety and extrinsic motivation has also been found in other studies (Mills & Blankstein,
2002; Bieling et al., 2002; Stöeber & Rambow, 2006; Stöeber et al., 2007).
A significant correlation was found between the PAS and MEC subscales, which
may have influenced their relationships with motivation and anxiety
anxiety. Although we used the
PPS subscale hoping to control for the overlap, we still found that the two dimensions
were not distinct.
Multiple Mediation Analysis: The multiple mediation analysis was utilized to
explore the mediating effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivations on the relationship
between dimensions of perfectionism and anxiety. When testing for reverse causal
effects, we found that dimensions of perfectionism and statistics anxiety have significant
direct effects over each other. Although the relationship is stronger from perfectionism to
anxiety than the other direction, the cross-sectional design of this study limited our ability
to make causal inferences. We found that the mediating effects of intrinsic and extrinsic
motivation were significant only for the MEC and anxiety relationship but not for the PAS
and anxiety relationship. This was true for both directions. This finding may offer some
support for Stöeber & Otto’s (2006) theory of adaptive and maladaptive dimensions of
perfectionism: the strong negative relationship between PAS and statistics anxiety existed
regardless of intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, which suggests an adaptive value for the
PAS dimension of perfectionism.
Future research can clarify the causal relationship and time sequence of the three
variables through a longitudinal design. Interaction and moderation analyses may be
conducted to examine the variables of age, gender, race, degree of statistics anxiety, and
level of statistics competency in the samples.
Implications for the Classroom Setting: Previous research (Seipel & Apigian,
2005) linked statistics anxiety to academic performance and had found a positive
relationship between PAS and statistics performance but no relationship between MEC
and statistics performance.
f
Although the scope off our research does not cover academic
performance, our study may contribute to the overall understanding of the relationship
between perfectionism and performance in the classroom setting. Our results suggested
that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation contributed to students’ anxiety levels. The result of
our study also suggests that dimensions of perfectionism and anxiety may influence each
other in a circular model that is partially mediated by motivations. For example, a student
who is concerned about making mistakes may have anxiety about statistics; and the
anxiety, through extrinsic motivation, then makes the student doubt even more her ability
to succeed in the classroom. However, setting high standards without being over-critical
of oneself seems to have a suppressing effect on anxiety. This may better explain the
relationship between PAS and academic performance.
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