MINI-SYMPOSIUM: THE KNEE (iii) Biomechanics of the knee and TKR patellar surfaces against each other. Forces transmitted across the articulating surfaces are determined by a combination of the alignment, movement and integrity of anatomical structures. R Shenoy Tibiofemoral biomechanics PS Pastides Movements In full extension the knee is locked by the screw-home mechanism, which allows maintenance of this position with minimal energy expenditure. The knee allows up to 160 degrees of flexion from up to five degrees of hyperextension. The amount of flexion required varies from about 60 degrees needed for normal walking, 80 degrees to climb stairs, 90 degrees to descend down stairs, 115 degrees to sit down on a toilet seat and up to 130 degrees to squat. This flexion is a combination of rolling and gliding. In early flexion, up to 20 degrees, there occurs a rolling movement that translates the point of tibiofemoral contact posteriorly. With further flexion there is a gliding movement, with a greater posterior translation of the lateral tibiofemoral contact point in relation to the medial contact point. Along with flexion and extension the knee allows 25e30 degrees of rotation, 6eeight degrees of valgus and varus in extension, 5e10 mm of anteroposterior translation and 1e2 mm of mediolateral translation. The articular cartilage and the menisci also allow 2e5 mm of joint compression. The knee joint can hence be regarded as a joint that allows movement with six degrees of freedom (Figure 1). Asymmetry of the femoral articular surface and their geometry, tension in the capsuloligamentous structures and the action D Nathwani Abstract The principal aim of a total knee replacement (TKR) is to restore painless movements of the knee joint. Osteoarthritis, along with other pathologies that damage the articular surface of the knee, results in painful limitation of knee movement and alteration of shape and alignment of the joint. Restoration of the functional anatomy of the knee, including alignment, soft tissue balancing and restoration of the joint line, are integral to improving function. Factors that ensure long-term survival of the replaced knee have to be addressed while performing this procedure. Biomechanics of the knee and its restoration are key to improving both function and survival of a total knee replacement. Screw home movement in terminal extension and femoral roll back in flexion are unique to the knee joint. The patella improves extensor function by increasing its lever arm. Implant designs available include femoral components of fixed or multiple radii, high flexion knee replacements, posterior cruciate retaining or substituting designs and fixed or mobile tibial inserts. Computer navigation has been used to achieve accurate bone alignment and soft tissue balancing. Further research on these advances is essential to define their role in improving the results of TKR. Keywords biomechanics; osteoarthritis; patellofemoral joint; tibiofemoral joint; total knee replacement Introduction The knee joint is the largest joint in the human body and allows a complex set of movements. While mainly functioning as a hinge joint, it also allows pivoting and anteroposterior gliding movements. This is a function of the anatomy of the articular surfaces and the soft tissues around the joint, including ligaments, menisci and musculotendinous structures. Alignment of the joint is determined by the anatomical structures comprising the knee joint, which control the relative movement of femoral, tibial and R Shenoy MSOrth DNBOrth MRCS MDRes Senior Trauma Fellow, Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, Imperial College Healthcare Trust, London, UK. Conflicts of interest: none. PS Pastides MRCS MSc (Orth Eng) Specialty Registrar, Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, Imperial College Healthcare Trust, London, UK. Conflicts of interest: none. D Nathwani MBChB MSc FRCS (Tr&Orth) Consultant, Department of Trauma and Orthopaedics, Imperial College Healthcare Trust, London, UK. Conflicts of interest: none. ORTHOPAEDICS AND TRAUMA 27:6 Figure 1 Diagram showing movements of the knee with six degrees of freedom. 364 Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. MINI-SYMPOSIUM: THE KNEE The mechanical axis of the lower limb is a straight line drawn from the centre of the femoral head to the centre of the ankle. The femoral mechanical axis is a straight line drawn from the centre of the femoral head to the centre of the intercondylar region. The mechanical axis of the tibia is a straight line drawn from the centre of the tibial plateau to the centre of the ankle joint. A standing Maquet view is used to demonstrate these lines. In the coronal and sagittal planes the mechanical axis of the limb overlies that of the femur and tibia in a mechanically neutral limb. The mechanical axis of the lower limb is not parallel to the vertical line drawn from the symphysis pubis; it makes an angle of three degrees with this vertical line. The joint line, which is perpendicular to the vertical line, is in three degrees of varus in relation to the mechanical axis. The anatomical axis of the femur and tibia are straight lines drawn along their medullary canals respectively. In the tibia, the anatomical and mechanical axis overlie each other, whereas in the femur the anatomical axis makes an angle of 5e7 degrees with the mechanical axis in the coronal plane, depending on the height of the individual and the pelvic width. Consequently, in the coronal plane the anatomical axis of the femur makes an angle of 8e10 degrees with the vertical. While performing a total knee replacement, the anatomical axis can be identified either by using intramedullary rods or by extramedullary guides. Deformities of the bone can affect accurate measurement using intramedullary techniques, and conditions such as obesity can make it difficult to locate bony landmarks while using extramedullary guides. of the muscles around the knee joint together contribute to the complex movement of screw-home of the femur in terminal extension and femoral roll back in flexion. The larger area of the articulating medial condyle permits anterior translation and external rotation of the tibia in relation to the femur in extension. The shape of the articular surface including a larger radius of lateral femoral condyle produces a net internal rotation of the tibia over the femur in flexion. The four-bar link mechanism produced by the two cruciate ligaments along with the femur and tibia contribute to posterior femoral roll back by causing a posterior translation of the instantaneous centre of rotation of knee joint with increasing flexion, preventing soft tissue impingement posteriorly while also decreasing patellar load (Figure 2a and b). A change in geometry of the articulating surfaces or a change in any of the components of the linkage system will affect these movements. Knee replacements with increased congruency of the articulating surface prevent posterior roll back and increase stresses in the posterior cruciate ligament if this ligament is retained. Alignment Restoration of adequate function and good long-term prosthesis survivorship following a total knee replacement (TKR) necessitate consideration of the forces acting on the knee joint. These are determined by a combination of the alignment of the components and by the musculotendinous structures. The axes used for reference include the mechanical axis and the anatomic axis1 (Figure 3). Figure 2 (a) The two cruciate ligaments guide femoral roll back in flexion. PCL: posterior cruciate ligament, ACL: anterior cruciate ligament. (b) four-bar linkage formed by the fixed distance between femoral attachments of the cruciate ligaments (a, F), the anterior cruciate ligament (b, ACL), the posterior cruciate ligament (c, PCL), the tibial attachments of the cruciate ligaments (d, T). The instantaneous centre of rotation moves posteriorly with increasing flexion allowing posterior roll back. ORTHOPAEDICS AND TRAUMA 27:6 365 Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. MINI-SYMPOSIUM: THE KNEE Figure 4 Reference axis used for rotational alignment of the femoral components while performing a total knee replacement. The transepicondylar axis is in three degrees of external rotation with reference to the posterior condylar axis. AP: anteroposterior; TEA: transepicondylar axis; PCA: posterior condylar axis. drawn from the deepest part of the trochlear grove anteriorly to the centre of the intercondylar notch posteriorly, is easier to identify and is almost perpendicular to the transepicondylar axis. The posterior condylar line of the femur can also be used as a reference line and makes an angle of three degrees with the transepicondylar line. In a flexed knee this neutralizes the three degree varus of the tibial articular surface in the coronal plane, enabling the transepicondylar axis to remain parallel to the tibial articular surface. However, this line can be easily affected by arthritic changes and condylar hypoplasia, and is less reliable. Rotational alignment of the tibia is measured by drawing a medial to lateral line connecting the widest point of the tibial articular surface. An anteroposterior axis perpendicular to this line is used for reference. Commonly, the tibial component is aligned along the medial third of the insertion of the patellar tendon, as the tibial tuberosity in a normal knee is offset laterally by 1 cm from the trochlear grove. The posterior condylar line of the tibia and the transmalleolar axis are some of the other anatomical references used for assessing rotational alignment of the tibia. Figure 3 Anatomical and mechanical axis of the lower limb (Redrawn from Moreland JR, Hanker GJ: Lower-extremity axial alignment in males. In Dorr LD, ed: The knee: papers of the First Scientific Meeting of the Knee Society, Baltimore, 1984, University Park Press.). In the sagittal plane, the articular surface of the tibia has a posterior slope. This is commonly measured by the angle between the anatomical axis of the tibia and a line drawn along the tibial plateau. This slope is said to be six to nine degrees but is reduced by the wedge-shaped meniscus. In a cruciate retaining prosthesis it is essential to reproduce this slope to ensure satisfactory roll back of the femur. A lesser slope is used in posteriorly stabilized implants to prevent excessive anterior translation of the tibia. Another key alignment to be considered is the rotational alignment. This affects tibiofemoral and patellofemoral kinematics. It also affects flexion alignment and stability. Reference lines used to measure femoral rotation include the Whiteside line, the transepicondylar line and the posterior condylar line of femur (Figure 4). The transepicondylar line is clearly defined by anatomic landmarks and is a mechanical axis around which femoral rotation occurs. It is perpendicular to the mechanical axis in both flexion and extension. Since the epicondyles serve as attachment sites for the collateral ligaments, this line is also an important reference for soft tissue balancing. The Whiteside line, ORTHOPAEDICS AND TRAUMA 27:6 Joint reaction force The tibiofemoral joint is subject to forces due to a combination of transmission of the body weight across the joint and the contraction of muscles around the knee. Muscle forces can contribute to up to 80% of the maximum bone-on-bone force during downhill walking and 70% of maximum bone-on-bone force during level walking. Estimates of tibiofemoral bone-onbone forces have been reported to be up to four times the body weight during level walking and more than eight times the body weight during downhill walking.2 In a normal knee this compressive force is resisted by the joint reaction force. The stresses experienced by the articular surface depend on the contact area. The presence of the menisci makes the joint more congruent, with the reported contact area ranging from 765 mm2 to 1150 mm2 in a normal knee. The circumferential arrangements of fibres within the menisci generate hoop stresses and help dissipate the compressive forces. The contact area can decrease by up to 20% following a partial meniscectomy and by 50e70% 366 Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. MINI-SYMPOSIUM: THE KNEE following a total meniscectomy.3e5 The resulting increase in contact stresses accelerates progression of degenerative arthritis in the tibiofemoral joint following a meniscectomy. This effect is more pronounced over the lateral compartment as the lateral tibial articular surface is slightly convex and less congruent with the femoral articular surface. The articulating surface in a knee replacement is metal on ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWP), which has a yield point of approximately 20Mpa. The contact area in a knee replacement depends upon the design of prosthesis, with congruent tibiofemoral articulating surfaces decreasing the stresses across the joint. To allow for femoral roll back in knee replacements where the PCL is preserved, the tibial joint surface has to be relatively flat. This sagittal plane non-conformity generates higher contact stresses. Dishing the articular surfaces in both the sagittal and coronal planes increases the contact area and avoids areas of high contacts stresses.6 A minimum thickness of 8 mm polyethylene is recommended to prevent high contact stresses and excessive wear. reach three times the body weight during stair ascent and descent. With deep flexion, as in squatting, this can reach seven to eight times body weight.7 The thick patellar cartilage resists this force in a normal knee, while it is the polythene in a patellofemoral replacement that is subjected to this force. Alignment and uniform tracking of the patella in the trochlear notch prevents excessive peak forces across the patellar facets. Capsuloligamentous structures attached to the patella help maintain the stability and control movement of the patella, which can move up to 7 cm in the craniocaudal direction within the trochlear grove. As the knee moves from extension to flexion, the part of the patella articulating with the trochlea moves superiorly, with the quadriceps tendon making contact with the trochlea in 120 degrees of flexion.8 The Q angle, which is the angle of intersection of the quadriceps force vector (commonly marked by a line from the anterior superior iliac spine to the centre of the patella) with the line drawn along the centre of the patellar tendon (a line drawn from the centre of the patella to the tibial tuberosity) also influences patellofemoral stability. There is a laterally directed force vector that is greater in limbs with a larger Q angle. This is resisted by the medial capsuloligamentous structures; mainly the medial patellofemoral ligament and the vastus medialis obliquus. The mean Q angle in females is 15.8 4.5 degrees and that for men is 11.2 3 degrees.9 The Q angle is increased in a valgus knee and in cases where the femoral and tibial components are medialized or internally rotated. There is an increase in pressure over the lateral patellar facet, with a tendency for lateral subluxation of the patella in such knees. Patellofemoral biomechanics The patella is a sesamoid bone within the quadriceps tendon that increases the lever arm of the extensor mechanism, resulting in an improvement in quadriceps efficiency. The quadriceps tendon and the patellar tendon are inserted along the anterior surface of the patella. The thickness of the patella displaces the force vectors of these two tendons anterior to the centre of rotation of the knee joint. Patellectomy decreases extensor forces by up to 30%. The patellofemoral joint is subject to a compressive force that is a summation of the vectors of quadriceps and patellar tendon forces (Figure 5). Flexion of the knee increases this summated force. The joint reaction force that opposes the backward compression of the patella increases with knee flexion and can Total knee replacement e implant design considerations Geometry of the femoral component Contemporary designs of the femoral component of a TKR were based on the concept of a polycentric pathway followed by the centre of radius of curvature of the femoral condyles. Studies showed that the tibiofemoral articulation initially rotated axially from 0 to 10 degrees followed by rocking from 10 to 20 degrees and gliding from 20 degrees to full flexion, allowing femoral roll back. The instantaneous centre of rotation of the joint was believed to follow a spiral pathway and femoral components incorporated this in their design, with multiple radii of curvature.10 With this design the cruciate and collateral ligaments were preserved to maintain joint alignment and partially absorb stresses while the implant articular surface was subjected to mainly compression loading. This anatomical concept of knee replacement evolved to produce a duopatellar design, where the two femoral condyles were replaced along with an anterior flange for the patella and a patellar button.11 The total condylar prosthesis was an attempt to simplify knee biomechanics by resecting the cruciates. In this design the femoral condylar surface has a posterior decreasing radius of curvature.12 Most femoral components of a total knee replacement followed this concept of variable flexion extension axis. This concept has been challenged by other authors. Using magnetic resonance imaging and cadaveric studies it has been shown that the flexione extension axis is constant and passes from anterosuperior on the medial side to posteroinferior on the lateral side, closely approximating the transepicondylar axis passing through the origins of the Figure 5 The patellofemoral joint is subjected to a compressive force that is the resultant summative force of the vectors of the patellar tendon and the quadriceps tendon forces. ORTHOPAEDICS AND TRAUMA 27:6 367 Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. MINI-SYMPOSIUM: THE KNEE of published studies on high flexion total knee replacements failed to show sufficient evidence of improved function or range of movements with this design.22 A recent review of published results of prospective, randomized clinical trials that compared a standard posterior-stabilized TKR with a high flexion posteriorstabilized TKR design did not reveal any significant difference between the two designs in clinical flexion or range of motion. The authors recommended weighing the downsides of these designs, such as increased cost, increased bone resection, and early femoral loosening, against the potential long-term improvement in polyethylene wear due to increased conformity in high flexion.24 collateral ligaments, and superior to the crossing point of the cruciates.13,14 This produces the valgus and external rotation movement seen with extension of the knee joint. The longitudinal rotation axis is not perpendicular to the flexioneextension axis but is anterior and passes through the medial compartment. The single axis total knee replacement was designed based on this concept of a single flexion extension axis. The variable flexion axis caused by a decrease in the radius of curvature in flexion was thought to result in mid-flexion instability and altered patellofemoral kinematics. The single radius design, however, lengthens the quadriceps moment arm, with a resulting decrease in quadriceps force and hence joint reaction force. Biomechanical studies have been reported to show less eccentric knee extensor muscle activation and greater mediolateral stability during the stand-to-sit movement with the single radius design. Patients with multiple radius design knees have been shown to demonstrated compensatory adaptations, with lengthening of performance times, increased trunk flexion displacement and velocity, and greater knee extensor electromyography readings compared to patients with a single radius design. A greater relative hamstring co-activation was needed in the multiple radius knees to increase joint stability. More patients with multiple radius knees demonstrated an initial knee abduction displacement. The single radius design patients also demonstrated greater peak anteroposterior ground reaction force, higher anteroposterior ground reaction impulse and reduced vastus lateralis and semitendinosus EMG during the forwardthrust phase of a sit-to-stand movement. Based on these findings, the authors concluded that a single radius design provided functional benefits to the patient.15e17 In a randomized trial, power output was assessed using a Leg Extensor Power Rig, pre-operatively and at 6, 26 and 52 weeks post-operatively in patients with 101 Triathlon single radius and 82 Kinemax multiple radius implants. Power output was significantly greater at all post-operative assessments in the single radius compared to the multi radius group. The authors concluded that this supported the hypothesis of single radius design total knee replacements having enhanced recovery and better function.18 An investigation into the kinematics of the natural knee, comparing this with single radius and multiple radius total knee replacements in vitro, did not find evidence of mid range instability in any knees, suggesting that this may not be related to any specific implant design.19 Ligament retaining/substituting designs The posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) is considered to play a vital role in posterior roll back of the femur in flexion. As it is in tension with flexion, it draws back the femoral condyles. The orientation of the fibres with its attachment to the medial femoral condyle leads to a rotational movement along the vertical axis, resulting in the lateral femoral condyle being drawn back more posteriorly. Retaining the PCL helps preserve this movement as long as its function is preserved by adequately balancing the knee in flexion and extension. As this ligament is normally under tension in flexion and lax in extension, this relationship needs to be maintained while performing bone cuts and choosing the size of the polythene insert. The tibial surface has to be relatively flat when the PCL is retained, to allow femoral roll back and prevent excessive tension in the PCL. The PCL in some cases may be incompetent due to injury or degeneration. Surgeons may also choose to sacrifice the PCL while performing a knee replacement in cases where flexion is tight, to prevent excessive stresses and wear of the polythene insert. There are prostheses that have been designed to substitute the function of the PCL by means of a central cam on the femoral implant, which is pushed back by the central post on the polythene insert (Figure 6). This posteriorly stabilized (cruciate substituting) design helps reproduce femoral roll back. The centre post also provides anteroposterior stability in cases where there is a weak extensor mechanism. Furthermore, this design can have more congruent articulating surfaces, which helps decrease stress. One of the potential draw backs High flexion total knee replacement Functional outcome following a total knee replacement is influenced by the range of flexion, with traditional knee replacements rarely achieving flexion more than 115 degrees. Studies have shown that the most significant factor influencing post-operative flexion was the pre-operative range of flexion.20,21 In an effort to improve post-operative flexion, changes have been made to the design of the total knee replacement implant, which include modification in tibial and femoral components to accommodate and reduce pressure over the extensor mechanism, improve femoral roll back, extension of the posterior aspect of femoral condyles to allow deep flexion and reduction in posterior femoral condylar radii.22,23 This concept of design modification to improve function showed encouraging results in early studies. A systematic review ORTHOPAEDICS AND TRAUMA 27:6 Figure 6 The cam on the femoral component moves on the central post on the polythene tibial insert, resulting in a posterior roll back of the femur with flexion in a cruciate substituting total knee replacement. 368 Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. MINI-SYMPOSIUM: THE KNEE with this design is the potential for the cam to jump in front of the central peg with hyperextension of the knee or if the knee is excessively loose in flexion, and cause a dislocation of the knee. Scar tissue impingement in the central box of the femoral component, resulting in a clunk, and wear of the polythene of the tibial post are other disadvantages with the cruciate sacrificing design. A review comparing retention or sacrifice of the PCL in a TKR with or without use of a PCL substituting implant did not find sufficient evidence to support decision-making. The authors recommended interpreting these results with caution as the methodological quality of the studies was highly variable. As the normal configuration and tension of the PCL need to be reproduced accurately, performing a cruciate retaining knee replacement can be difficult.25 Other designs available to preserve or reproduce the complex movements of a normal knee include the ACLePCL retaining implant and the medial or lateral pivot implant. The ACLePCL retaining knee is designed to retain stability and proprioception of the knee while the medial or lateral pivot design aims to restore the normal axial rotation that occurs with knee flexion and extension. In a prospective randomized study of 440 patients undergoing staged bilateral total knee replacement, the prosthesis used included anterioreposterior cruciate-retaining (ACLePCL), posterior cruciate-retaining (PCL), Medial Pivot (MP), posterior cruciate-substituting (PS) and mobile bearing (MB). Patients received random pairings of the different designs to allow for comparison. At 2-year evaluation, 89.1% preferred the ACLePCL to the PS and 76.2% preferred the MP to the PS. The ACLePCL and the MP were preferred equally. Range of motion, pain relief, alignment and stability did not vary significantly by prosthesis used. In summary, patients with bilateral total knee arthroplasties preferred retention of both cruciates with use of the ACLePCL prosthesis or substituting with an MP prosthesis. The authors, however, cautioned that this study did not address complications or long-term survival of the implants.26 Figure 7 Parts of a mobile bearing total knee replacement. The role of computer navigation Achieving correct alignment and adequate soft tissue balancing ensures improved function and potentially longer survival of the implant. The use of jigs intra-operatively guides correct bony resections while intra-operative assessment of soft tissue tension guides soft tissue balancing. Even in experienced hands, 10% of TKRs have been shown to have greater than three degrees of error in the mechanical axis.32 Precise and reproducible bone resection and ligament balancing is possible with the help of computer navigation. These navigation systems can be CT based, fluoroscopy based or imageless. In a meta-analysis, Mason et al compared mechanical axis alignment between computer assisted and conventional knee replacements, and reported malalignment of greater than three degrees in 9% of computer assisted knees versus 31.8% of conventional TKRs.33 Other authors have failed to observe advantages with navigation. A meta-analysis by Bauwens et al reported an increase in operative time of 23% with computer navigation with no significant improvement in the accuracy of the mechanical axis.34 Barrett et al, in a multi-centre prospective randomized trial, reported a significant improvement in coronal tibial alignment following computer navigation, but this was associated with a significant increase in operative time.35 A recent review has concluded that navigation helps reduce outliers in radiographic coronal plane alignment. There is limited evidence of improvement in any other parameters or function. As there is a significant increase in operative time and costs, the authors concluded that navigation does not have any proven clinical benefit.36 Fixed or mobile bearing total knee replacement Reproducing the movements of a knee with a TKR necessitates a design that allows movements in all three planes. To prevent excessive stresses at the bone-implant interface, mobile bearing knee replacements were introduced (Figure 7). These designs allow anteroposterior translation or rotation or both at the tibial tray-insert interface. With this design it is possible to have a highly congruent articular surface that also allows gliding and rotation. There is also a reduction in stress, with reduced wear of the articulating surface. The mobile bearing design allows selfcorrection of mild surgical malalignment. Studies both in vivo and in vitro have failed to demonstrate a significant advantage of the mobile bearing knee in comparison with fixed bearing knees. Femoral roll back and axial rotation do not differ significantly between the two designs. Mobile bearing knees can produce smaller particulate debris and more granular debris, subjecting these knees to a higher risk of osteolysis.27 Late rotation dislocation is another reported complication of a mobile bearing knee replacement.28 Clinical studies comparing fixed bearing and mobile knees have not shown a difference in range of motion, knee scores or complication rates although the study by Ball et al showed significantly better stair climbing scores.29e31 ORTHOPAEDICS AND TRAUMA 27:6 Conclusion The knee allows motion with six degrees of freedom. The bony anatomy and the capsuloligamentous structures supporting the joint guide this complex set of movements, which include screw 369 Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. MINI-SYMPOSIUM: THE KNEE 15 Wang H, Simpson KJ, Chamnongkich S, Kinsey T, Mahoney OM. A biomechanical comparison between the single-axis and multi-axis total knee arthroplasty systems for the stand-to-sit movement. Clin Biomech (Bristol, Avon) 2005; 20: 428e33. 16 Wang H, Simpson KJ, Chamnongkich S, Kinsey T, Mahoney OM. Biomechanical influence of TKA designs with varying radii on bilateral TKA patients during sit-to-stand. Dyn Med 2008; 7: 12. 17 Wang H, Simpson KJ, Ferrara MS, Chamnongkich S, Kinsey T, Mahoney OM. Biomechanical differences exhibited during sit-tostand between total knee arthroplasty designs of varying radii. J Arthroplasty 2006; 21: 1193e9. 18 Hamilton DF, Gaston P, Simpson AHRW. Single radius of curvature implant design enhances power output following total knee arthroplasty. J Bone Joint Surg Br 2012;(suppl 67); 94. 19 Stoddard JE, Deehan DJ, Bull AM, McCaskie AW, Amis AA. The kinematics and stability of single-radius versus multi-radius femoral components related to mid-range instability after TKA. J Orthop Res 2013; 31: 53e8. 20 Anouchi YS, McShane M, Kelly Jr F, Elting J, Stiehl J. Range of motion in total knee replacement. Clin Orthop Relat Res 1996; 87e92. 21 Ritter MA, Harty LD, Davis KE, Meding JB, Berend ME. Predicting range of motion after total knee arthroplasty. Clustering, log-linear regression, and regression tree analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2003; 85-A: 1278e85. 22 Murphy M, Journeaux S, Russell T. High-flexion total knee arthroplasty: a systematic review. Int Orthop 2009; 33: 887e93. 23 Sultan PG, Most E, Schule S, Li G, Rubash HE. Optimizing flexion after total knee arthroplasty: advances in prosthetic design. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2003; 167e73. 24 Hamilton WG, Sritulanondha S, Engh Jr CA. Results of prospective, randomized clinical trials comparing standard and high-flexion posterior-stabilized TKA: a focused review. Orthopedics 2011; 34: e500e3. 25 Jacobs WC, Clement DJ, Wymenga AB. Retention versus sacrifice of the posterior cruciate ligament in total knee replacement for treatment of osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2005. Issue 4. Art. No.:CD004803. 26 Pritchett JW. Patients prefer a bicruciate-retaining or the medial pivot total knee prosthesis. J Arthroplasty 2011; 26: 224e8. 27 Huang CH, Liau JJ, Cheng CK. Fixed or mobile-bearing total knee arthroplasty. J Orthop Surg Res 2007; 2: 1. 28 Huang CH, Ma HM, Liau JJ, Ho FY, Cheng CK. Late dislocation of rotating platform in New Jersey low-contact stress knee prosthesis. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2002; 189e94. 29 Bhan S, Malhotra R, Kiran EK, Shukla S, Bijjawara M. A comparison of fixed-bearing and mobile-bearing total knee arthroplasty at a minimum follow-up of 4.5 years. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2005; 87: 2290e6. 30 Watanabe T, Tomita T, Fujii M, Hashimoto J, Sugamoto K, Yoshikawa H. Comparison between mobile-bearing and fixedbearing knees in bilateral total knee replacements. Int Orthop 2005; 29: 179e81. 31 Ball ST, Sanchez HB, Mahoney OM, Schmalzried TP. Fixed versus rotating platform total knee arthroplasty: a prospective, randomized, single-blind study. J Arthroplasty 2011; 26: 531e6. 32 Stulberg SD, Loan P, Sarin V. Computer-assisted navigation in total knee replacement: results of an initial experience in thirty-five patients. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2002; 84-A(suppl 2): 90e8. home movement in terminal extension and femoral roll back in flexion. Alignment of the femur in all three planes along with achieving soft tissue balancing are integral to restoring function following a total knee arthroplasty. The patella increases the quadriceps lever arm. Joint reaction forces across the patellofemoral and tibiofemoral articulations have to be considered while choosing the implant and aligning them during a TKR. The design of TKR prostheses has evolved, with the aim of improving function and survival of the replaced joint. The changes include modification of the shape of femoral components, PCL retaining or substituting designs, designs to allow high flexion, fixed or mobile tibial inserts and the use of computer guided navigation to improve alignment and balancing. While many of these newer designs aim to replicate the biomechanics of the normal knee and have potential theoretical advantages, further studies are needed to assess fully their actual clinical benefits. A REFERENCES 1 Pickering S, Armstrong D. Focus on alignment in total knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg 2012; 1e3. 2 Kuster MS, Wood GA, Stachowiak GW, Gachter A. Joint load considerations in total knee replacement. J Bone Joint Surg Br 1997; 79: 109e13. 3 Ahmed AM, Burke DL. In-vitro measurement of static pressure distribution in synovial joints e Part I: tibial surface of the knee. J Biomech Eng 1983; 105: 216e25. 4 Baratz ME, Fu FH, Mengato R. 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Meta-analysis of alignment outcomes in computer-assisted total knee arthroplasty surgery. J Arthroplasty 2007; 22: 1097e106. 34 Bauwens K, Matthes G, Wich M, et al. Navigated total knee replacement. A meta-analysis. J Bone Joint Surg Am 2007; 89: 261e9. 35 Barrett WP, Mason JB, Moskal JT, Dalury DF, Oliashirazi A, Fisher DA. Comparison of radiographic alignment of ORTHOPAEDICS AND TRAUMA 27:6 imageless computer-assisted surgery vs conventional instrumentation in primary total knee arthroplasty. J Arthroplasty 2011; 26: 1273e84. e1. 36 Burnett RS, Barrack RL. Computer-assisted total knee arthroplasty is currently of no proven clinical benefit: a systematic review. Clin Orthop Relat Res 2013; 471: 264e76. 371 Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.