Education
for Employment:
A
Contribution for Improving the Current
Situation in Germany and Southern Africa
We, the participants of the first German-African exchange
programme “Go Africa... Go Germany” (2007) from Germany and
Southern Africa are proud to hereby present the following essay as
a major result of our collaborative work1.
Leitago Narib (Namibia)
Helena Amutenya (Namibia)
Osang Ankwenseng (Democratic
Republic of the Congo)
Dambe Baboki (Botswana)
Joanna Marie Frivet (Mauritius)
Tracy-Lee Jooste (South Africa)
Carmen Vonisoa Lahatra
Razafindramisa (Madagascar)
Alfred Chancy Nthowela (Malawi)
Reginald Ntomba (Zambia)
Simiso Lucinda Velempini (Zimbabwe)
Ethel Nasimiyu Sirengo (Kenya)
Lerato Tsebe (South Africa)
Silke Bellmann (Germany)
Alexander Nguyen (Germany)
Linda Poppe (Germany)
Artjom Wolf (Germany)
Benjamin Zasche (Germany)
Anna-Rabea Acker (Germany)
Benjamin Bach (Germany)
Phuong Lan Böhm (Germany)
Josef Hien (Germany)
Lena Giesbert (Germany)
Sami Saadi (Germany)
Miriam Shabafrouz (Germany)
Alice Stühler (Germany)
1
The programme was organised by the Federal Agency for Civic Education/bpb on the initiative of the
th
Federal President and which took place from the 18 of August 2007 to the 16the of September 2007
in Germany and in Namibia. It was designed to bridge the knowledge gap between African reality and
German perceptions and German reality and African perceptions and, by bringing together the
younger generation of academics in a meeting of the cultures, encouraging an interdisciplinary
exchange and deepening of knowledge. One of the major aims of the programme was to acquire a
creative human basis for future German-African partnership and build contacts, not only between
future generations of German and African academics but also between established experts in the
fields of economics, politics and law, as well as between politicians. The programme was aimed
mainly at students and young graduates aged up to 27 in the subject areas political science, modern
history, international relations, economics and law.
2
“If
you give a man a fish, he will eat, once. If you teach a man to fish, he will eat for
the rest of his life. If you are thinking a year ahead, sow a seed. If you are thinking
ten years ahead, plant a tree. If you are thinking a hundred years ahead, educate the
people. By planting a tree, you will harvest tenfold. By educating the people, you will
harvest one hundredfold.”
Kuan-tsu
3
Content
I. Introduction.............................................................................................................6
II. The Right to Education and the International Legal Framework.......................6
III. Primary and Secondary Education....................................................................11
1. The Role of School...........................................................................................11
2. Challenges and Recommendations..................................................................11
IV. University Education in Southern Africa and Germany:
Challenges and Proposed Solutions................................................................13
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................13
2. The Status-Quo and it’s Challenges.................................................................13
a) Challenges Linked to Access......................................................................13
b) Funding for Education.................................................................................14
c) Quality of Education....................................................................................14
3. Impulses for Solutions......................................................................................14
a) Addressing Issues of Access......................................................................14
b) Strategies to assist with Fund Raising........................................................15
c) Improving Quality........................................................................................16
4. Conclusion........................................................................................................16
V. Vocational Training.............................................................................................17
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................17
2. Vocational Training Centres.............................................................................17
3. The Role of Business.......................................................................................18
4. The Role of the State.......................................................................................19
5. Regional Cooperation......................................................................................20
6. Concluding Remarks........................................................................................21
VI.Transition from Educational Systems into the Labour Market in
Southern Africa and Germany............................................................................21
1. Introduction.......................................................................................................21
2. Current Situation...............................................................................................22
a) In Germany..................................................................................................22
b) In Southern Africa........................................................................................22
3. Challenges for the Future..................................................................................23
4. Strategies, Ways, Ideas....................................................................................24
5. Proposals for Solutions in Partnership..............................................................25
4
VII. Non-formal Education (NFE).............................................................................26
1. Relevance of the Non-formal Education Paradigm...........................................26
2. Achievements and Shortcomings in Namibia and Germany.............................27
3. Challenges........................................................................................................29
4. Strategies..........................................................................................................29
a) Bottom-up Approach....................................................................................29
b) Holistic Approach – Enhance Complementarities and
Synergies between two Paradigms.............................................................30
c) Research.....................................................................................................31
VIII. Education Strategies........................................................................................31
1. Current Situation: Achievements and Problems in Germany
and Southern Africa.........................................................................................31
a) Southern Africa............................................................................................31
b) Germany......................................................................................................32
c) Challenges for the Future............................................................................32
d) Strategies, Way forward and Ideas.............................................................33
e) Proposed Solutions in Partnership between Germany
and Southern Africa....................................................................................34
IX. Conclusion..........................................................................................................35
X. References...........................................................................................................37
5
I. Introduction
The summative intent of this paper is to give an appraisal of the significance of
education and adress other matters incidental thereto. It encapsulates various
problems that attend to the eduaction sector at different levels from primary school
up to transition into the labour market with particular focus on Germany and Southern
Africa. It also comprehensively interrogates issues pertaining to formal and non
formal eduacation2. Whereas the paper does not profess to be a panacea for all ills
that arise in relation to education, it goes a long way by making tentative suggestions
as to how various problems may be eradicated or the effects thereof substantially
cushioned.
II. The Right to Education and the International Legal Framework
Education is both a human right in itself and an indispensable means of realizing
other rights. As an empowerment right education is a vehicle by which economically
and socially marginalized children can lift themselves out of poverty and obtain the
means to participate fully in their communities. The object of education is the full
development of the human personality and human dignity. It is against this milieu that
the right to education has been accorded recognition in a plethora of legal
instruments and has been a subject of various international gatherings.
This aspect of the paper seeks to examine the legal mechanisms that are in place to
ensure the protection, promotion and fulfillment of the right to education. It also
highlights some limitations or loopholes that exist in granting this right and makes
suggestions of how they could be overcome.
2
Formal education: the hierarchically structured, chronologically graded 'education system', running
from primary school through the university and including, in addition to general academic studies, a
variety of specialised programmes and institutions for full-time technical and professional training.
Non-formal education: any organised educational activity outside the established formal system whether operating separately or as an important feature of some broader activity - that is intended to
serve identifiable learning clienteles and learning objectives. (Adapted from Encyclopedia of Informal
Education at www. infed.org)
6
The starting off point would be the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.3 Although
recognition is taken of the fact that Declarations do not enjoy a binding status at
international law, it has been argued that it is reflective of customary international law
and as such encompasses minimum standards to which all nations should subscribe.
The Declaration clearly and unequivocally grants the right to education by virtue of
Article 264. The provision guarantees the right to education in a holistic and
comprehensive manner. Principally, it requires that primary education should be
made free and compulsory. It is to be noted that children are the majority of Africa’s
population and poor children are the majority within that majority. The provision of
free and compulsory education seeks to ensure that children from poor families are
accorded an equal opportunity. Gender equality in education is also given due
consideration.5
Moreover, Article 17 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights6 grants
the right to education. The right not to be denied an education and the right for
parents to have their children educated in accordance with their religious and other
views is also provided for in Article 2 of the first protocoll to the European Convention
on Human Rights (ECHR).
A detailed exposition of the content of the right to education is to be found in the UN
Convention on the Rights of the Child at Article 29 as well as Article 11 of the African
Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child.7 These provisions do not only grant
education as a right but go a long way in making stipulations as to the normative
content of the right to education and its objectives.8
Perhaps the most popular instrument would be the International Covenant on
Economic and Social and Cultural Rights to the extent that it has been ratified by a
3
Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly Resolution 217 A (III) of 10 December 1948
4
26 (1) “Everyone has the right to education. Education shall be free at least in the elementary and
fundamental stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Technical and professional
education shall be made generally available and higher education shall be accessible to all on the
basis of merit.”
5
See Article 10 of the Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women. See also Students’
Representative Council of Molepolole College of Education v. The Attorney-General [1995] B.L.R 178
6
Sometimes called the ‘Banjul Charter’. Adopted by the OAU in Nairobi, Kenya, in June 1981 and entered into
force in October 1986.
7
Adopted in Addis Ababa, Ethopia in July 1990 and entered into force in November 1999.
7
majority of countries all over the world. Article 13 (1) of the International Covenant on
Economic Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) of 1966 stipulates the aims of
education, requiring that it should be directed to the full development and personality
and dignity. More importantly education shall enable all persons to participate freely
in a society, to promote understanding tolerance and friendship among all nations
and all racial, ethnic and religious groups.
It is not however sufficient that one merely be given access to school. Such access
has to be meaningful and as such the content and quality of education has to
measure up. In the case of Kjelden v. Denmark9 the European Court enunciated that
a state has a duty to ensure that information and knowledge included in the
curriculum is conveyed in an objective, critical and pluralistic manner. The state is
forbidden to pursue the aim of indoctrinating students through the education system
by having a biased curriculum. In this regard, the state has a duty to ensure that
children who are from minority groups have an opportunity to learn about their
communities and not be subjugated by the majority. Therefore, cultural diversity and
promotion thereof has to be embraced in schools.
Another burning issue in the field of education has been the issue of religion.
Education and its policies have to embrace religious tolerance to ensure that a child
may not be prejudiced within a school because of religious orientation.
Article 13 (2) (b) of the ICESCR provides that vocational and secondary education
shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every appropriate means
and in particular the progressive introduction of free education impose an obligation
on states to provide financial and other resources to enable this right to be realized.
Parties are under an obligation to improve the existing conditions relating to
education to the maximum of their available resources, bearing in mind the interest of
the child in allocating scarce resources. The obligation to fulfill requires the state to
adopt appropriate legislative, administrative, budgetary and judicial, promotional and
other measures towards the full realization of the right to education.
8
See also Article 26 (2) of the Universal Declaration.
9
(1976) EHRR 711
8
Furthermore Article 13 (2) (b) of the ICESCR encompasses the concept of
progressive introduction of free education. As such the right is susceptible only of
progressive and differential compliance as each state’s economy permit. The concept
of progressive realization constitutes a recognition that the full realization of all
economic rights will generally not be able to be achieved immediately or in a short
period of time. This is premised on the economic reality that it is impossible to give
everyone access to a core service at the same time. This however has been the
gateway by many states in failing to give priority to education only to turn around and
argue that resources do not permit. In a majority of countries especially those marred
by conflict there has been an inexplicable disparity between the allocation of the
national budget to education and national defence. It has been argued that a state
does not have absolute discretion as to how it allocates its GNP. In the use of scarce
available resources due priority shall be given to the rights recognized in the
Covenant.10. Moreover the Pretoria Declaration on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights in Africa11 has made a recommendation that states should take necessary
measures to reduce military spending significantly in favor of increasing spending on
the implementation of economic, social and cultural rights, in this case education. To
this end judicial intervention and scrutiny by the courts is not only permissible but
highly recommended.
Universal access to education has also been recognised by the UNESCO as the
cornerstone of the right to education, however while many countries are still striving
to achieve that aim for primary education as included as a Millennium Development
Goal (MDG 2), it is important to stress out the necessity to extend this availability to
secondary education. Nowadays, with the escalating need for skilled labour,
especially in African countries, and the ever-increasing use of technology it is
important to give the chance to the population to participate and drive development
which can be attained only through the empowerment of the people. In that sense,
the limit of age of compulsory education should be levelled up to 16 years old as
ideally recommended by the International Labour Organisation (ILO) and all the
corresponding legislations such as the minimum age for admission in work should be
respectively aligned. The enshrinement of the right to education as a fundamental
10
Robetson, (1994) 16 Human Rights Quarterly 693
11
Adopted at the Seminar on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights in Pretoria, South Africa from 13-17
September 2004.
9
non-derogeable right in the supreme law of the states would be highly recommended
as an affirmation of the country’s firm intention to promote education as a right over
all other economic or social aims.
States should focus on making education accessible to citizens irrespective of their
age and any form of belonging such as gender, color, tribe, ethnic origin, health
status, social status, physical and mental ability, religious or political belief. This is
essential particularly in African states considering the number of people who might
be in adulthood but who may require an improvement in their educational status.
Furthermore special consideration should be given to gender equality whereby the
education must not only be equally made available but must also be safe. A structure
with a social dimension, if necessary, must be created to provide for eradication of
the bias of teachers and families in the teaching and learning process as well as in
the curriculum which must promote mutual respect and be gender-sensitive in line
with the Dakar Framework for Action.
Moreover, the needs of children who are marginalized for reasons such as their
nomadic lifestyle, those affected by migration of their families for work, because of
war, of poverty, the HIV/AIDS-orphans, homeless, or other ethnic or religious
minorities must be taken care of, so as to enable them to exercise their right to
education and to follow a curriculum. In that respect, it is suggested that
arrangements be made to lay out organization dedicated to those particular needs
where clusters of these situations are known to be found involving taking the social
responsibility of financially caring for those children providing them with a home,
lunch packs or second hand clothes. Children with special needs due to a particular
health status such as a physical or mental disability or those affected by a particular
disease such as diabetes should also be able to integrate into the educational
system while being treated with due consideration for their needs. The case of the
children, who are infected with HIV/AIDS having a very low life expectancy, is
particularly recurrent in African countries and a structure is urgently needed to take
care of them irrespective of their predisposition. They should be integrated to a
particular educational programme combining education for the development of their
childhood and palliative care, as recommended by the WHO for other diseases, to
support the children in their physical, psychological and social distress including pain
and symptom relief.
10
III. Primary and Secondary Education
1. The Role of School
When talking about primary and secondary education one has to first define the aims
and the purpose of schooling. Scientists and policy makers usually refer to the value
of qualified education for the society as a whole. Arguments such as a skilled
workforce, an increase in competitiveness and productivity, national socio-economic
growth and a higher level of foreign investments have been stressed in numerous
publications.
What is often neglected is the fact that schooling also contributes to the
empowerment of the individual, so that he/she can realize his/her full potential. We
do not learn for the learning’s sake alone, but to master knowledge and behaviour
that allows us to develop our full personal potential. Only a person who is aware of
his/her potential can contribute to the improvement of collective well-being and help
his/her country to attain the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Last but not
least, good primary and secondary education should prepare children for lifelong
learning, a skill which tends to become more and more important.
2. Challenges and Recommendations
As pointed out, education plays an important role in addressing social, economical,
environmental, cultural and political problems in a state, region and every
continent.This is easily attained when students both at primary and secondary level
receive quality education. In trying to make sure that countries in Africa (SADC states
to be specific) and Europe (Germany in particular) provide quality education to its
citizens, the following are the recommendations that we put forward.
•
It is of crucial importance to increase the quality of primary and secondary
education and transform resources into results, meaning high learning
outcomes. On the one hand, the effectiveness and efficiency of learning has to
be increased tremendously so that children and teenagers complete their
schooling and truly master the basic skills. On the other hand, “attrition” such
as repetition, dropout and scholastic failure has to be reduced considerably.
Therefore, there is need for adequate curricula that not only incorporates
standard academic content but also life skills, entrepreneurship and topics of
cultural relevance. Moreover, issues of concern to the community or region
11
such as HIV/AIDS, drug abuse, environmental problems and violent conflicts
have to be addressed.
•
In particular the problem of HIV/AIDS is crippling the quality of education in
Africa. Due to this pandemic many qualified teachers and intelligent students
are dying each day, hence decreasing the number of qualified teachers and
the decrease in the number of future leaders who could have been working
towards the development of their countries. To curb this deadly disease, we
advocate for the idea that countries especially in Africa, start to mainstream
HIV/AIDS in the education sector in order to enhance the lives of infected,
uninfected and affected. More importantly HIV and AIDS must be integrated
into the education curriculum in order to provide HIV/AIDS education to both
teachers and students. When both teachers and students are well informed of
HIV/AIDS, they are well placed to know how to take care of themselves and
their relatives in preventing this pandemic. This education would help to
change people’s behavior in order to reduce HIV infection rates.
•
Students belonging to one of the country’s ethnic groups should receive
lessons in their mother tongue for the first four years combined with high
quality instruction in a second official language. This will enable them to follow
classes from first grade on and to switch to bilingual education or instruction in
the official language at a later stage. Small minorities such as immigrant
children should be taught the country’s official language in pre-school to make
sure they can follow classes upon entering school. Investing in early childhood
development becomes a crucial part in overcoming language related
obstacles.
•
Another major concern is teacher qualification. Instead of inadequately trained
teachers, ineffective teaching practices and perfunctory pedagogical oversight
there is a great need for competent and motivated teachers and schools that
strive to provide an environment conductive to learning that makes students
succeed. There is need for teachers who plan for teaching, put into practice
what they have learned – particularly in in-service courses – and correct and
remediate students’ work regularly. Modern methods such as group work,
individual learning, student participation and a focus on the development of
critical thinking will help to improve morale and encourage the enjoyment of
learning. Textbooks and instructional materials need to be developed in a way
that they reflect an up-to date state of play of knowledge and adequate
12
teaching methods. In addition, a well-structured, visible and transparent school
management, involving all staff, has to create a gender sensitive school
environment that recognizes the impact of culture and tradition on girls’
performance. Regular monitoring of student performance and teaching
practices combined with support for professional development and training of
staff is essential and student learning shall be the central concern of school
management. Incentive systems that affect teacher and student motivation
can be an innovative way to increase school efficiency and learning outcomes.
The involvement of external partners such as communities that actively
support their school as well as parental and civil society participation will be
valuable too.
•
For the states as political actors there is need to increase the budget for
education. However, since spending more money does not always result in
better outcome, improvements require an adequate legislation with detailed
sector development plans. Governments should regard education as their core
task and start implementing the already existing education strategies!
IV. University Education in Southern Africa and Germany: Challenges and
Proposed Solutions
1. Introduction
Tertiary education is an important pillar of human development as the economic,
social and political landscape of nations relies significantly on the skills and training
of their citizens. While university systems within and between each country vary, our
group interaction has shown that there are some similar challenges facing countries
from across Southern Africa and Germany.
2. The Status-Quo and it’s Challenges
a) Challenges Linked to Access
For the individual, the lack of personal finance is the most apparent entry barrier.
Even in countries where universities are heavily subsidized by the state, students
have additional educational and living expenses to cover. The unfortunate reality for
many individuals, especially those from less privileged backgrounds, is that the costs
associated with obtaining further education are simply too high. Furthermore, social
13
and cultural factors continue to exacerbate gender inequality, a challenge which is
particularly difficult to redress.
Physical access is another obstacle, which may exclude those located in areas with
no or few universities. These students have to travel far distances or relocate to
pursue further studies. Young people living in rural, often poorer, areas are
particularly disadvantaged due to the relatively lower quality of secondary school
education, which could limit access to universities.
b) Funding for Education
Many universities face constraints in raising sufficient funds, from the state and
beyond. This requires sustainable fund raising initiatives which include developing a
strong alumni association. However, in the context of scarce resources and
competing demands, many universities are unable to allocate funds and human
capital specifically for this purpose. Sound financial management and expenditure
monitoring are fundamental to the financial health of tertiary institutions, but
succeeding in this respect can be very difficult for some institutions.
c) Quality of Education
Attracting the best academics is vital for improving the quality of education. However,
in a world where good academics are in greater demand than they are in supply,
attracting good teachers and a diverse body of scholars can be challenging. Good
quality education extends beyond the quality of the academic staff. Providing a
holistic university experience is imperative, and demands cross-cultural social and
academic exchange. The provision of good infrastructure and learning facilities such
as well-stocked libraries is important. Cultural activities are also significant in
facilitating an academically rewarding and socially satisfying university experience.
However, it is acknowledged that providing these opportunities and the facilities to
accommodate them is a costly affair and could be seen as a luxury rather than a
necessity.
3. Impulses for Solutions
a) Addressing Issues of Access
The constraints linked to personal finance can be addressed through the increased
provision of student loans, government aid or scholarships from both the public and
14
private sectors. To ensure that resources are used to maximum effect, financial
mechanisms should include criteria under which assistance needs to be repaid e.g. if
the student fails. This will create incentives for completion and allow contributors to
exercise some oversight. Universities could also formalize part-time employment
opportunities on campus, allowing the university access to relatively low cost student
labour and allowing students to gain valuable work experience and earn an income.
In addition to funding, students could benefit from additional support e.g. in
developing an academic plan and subject selection. This would encourage
enrollment and decrease failure rates. Outreach consultation should be provided to
geographically and socially disadvantaged groups. Regional educational integration
policies can also improve access and increase overall enrollment. For example,
students from SADC countries pay local fees instead of higher international fees
when studying in any of the member countries. Similar schemes are possible for
disadvantaged groups within one state. The facilitation of distance learning
opportunities and joint-ventures between universities in Southern Africa and
Germany could encourage greater enrollment and see students registered at both a
local and an international university, thereby gaining access to a wider web of
resources and diversifying their learning experience.
b) Strategies to assist with Fund Raising
The funding challenge is best addressed through a combination of strategies. In
addition to governments’ obligation to funding education, public-private partnerships
could help to sustain funding for universities; e.g. firms could sponsor capital
investments or provide low cost loans. Tertiary education institutions should also
learn how to attract to investment, build the alumni base and generate their own
income. Knowledge sharing is crucial and there are many universities that could
share their experiences with respect to fundraising and fund management. The
pairing of institutions from Germany and Southern Africa could help satisfy this
objective, whereby knowledge sharing and skill transfer could take place through
structured programmes.
The inflow and outflow of income at universities needs to be monitored and audited
to ensure legal compliance and sound financial management, both of which are
important for attracting future funds. The auditing of institutions needs to extend
beyond financial aspects. However, the performance of tertiary institutions should be
15
evaluated by an independent oversight body which monitors other aspects of
performance e.g. access, quality, pass rates etc.
c) Improving Quality
Quality can only be improved through a dynamic process involving stakeholders from
various quarters, including academic and administrative staff, student bodies,
government departments and education policy makers. In addition, the communities
living near universities should also be encouraged to participate, thereby contributing
to an overall improved educational environment. A multi-stakeholder platform for
dialogue on problems and solutions should be created. This form of engagement can
further extend to the international arena with the facilitation of exchange programmes
for both staff and students from Southern Africa and Germany. These exchanges
allow for the sharing of teaching approaches and systems, which could improve the
quality of education, while ensuring that they are suitable to the local context. Tertiary
institutions need to make quality improvements a constant quest, setting realistic and
locally applicable performance targets. They also need to market themselves as
attractive institutions for academic learning and research by promoting their unique
individual strengths. Universities of all levels of income need to acknowledge the
value of a vibrant campus environment with opportunities for political, social and
cultural activities. Providing this need not be too costly. Students should be given the
space to take the lead in establishing on-campus societies and activities, even
generating their own funding if necessary and using existent facilities, with the
university playing an oversight role.
In order to provide enriching and diversified educational opportunities, universities
need a level of autonomy from the state. While it is acknowledged that universities
are accountable to the state and dependent on their funding, the relationship
between the state and universities should be one of partnership with a focus on the
greater social good and the provision of quality education to all.
4. Conclusion
Tertiary education makes a significant contribution to the knowledge economy of
countries and needs to therefore be prioritized on both the local and international
agendas of governments. While there is no blanket solution to the challenges faced
by tertiary institutions, the implementation of partnerships and co-operative initiatives
16
could play an important role in improving education. The principles of co-operation,
ownership and accountability are vital at all levels, be it at the student-institution
interface with respect to financial aid or during the international exchange of ideas,
approaches and learning systems which could be shared amongst universities within
and between Southern Africa and Germany. While improving access and quality of
education relies on implementing locally applicable approaches, there is clearly much
to be learnt from other countries and maximizing these opportunities could go a long
way in promoting the advancement of education.
V. Vocational Training
1. Introduction
Globalisation, the rise of social movements, rapid technological changes and an
increased mobility of people are all characteristics of the changing world within which
we live. This rapidly changing world has meant that more is being demanded of
young people both personally and professionally. It has become increasingly
important to prepare people for the fields that they wish to enter. They need to be
equipped with the necessary theoretical and practical skills to become productive
members of society. Not all people are fortunate enough to have the funds or indeed
have the desire to pursue a tertiary education and often, these people are then
excluded from certain jobs. Vocational training centres can be used as a means to
prepare these people for entry into the job market by providing them with the
necessary skills and knowledge to improve their lives and the lives of people around
them.
2. Vocational Training Centres
This working document defines vocational training as practical and formal training12
for people who cannot or do not want to pursue an academic career. The training
follows a syllabus set by a national coordinating body (e.g. Chamber of Commerce)
to ensure uniform standards and goal-orientation towards the corresponding
profession. Teachers are to be qualified professionals who have had practical
experience in their field for at least two years.
12
Formal education will be defined under 5.1.
17
We recommend that the students of vocational training centres (VTCs) undergo
theoretical and practical training over a period of at least two years. This training will
also include basic math and language skills. We suggest that half of the training
should be completed formally at school and the other half practically while on
attachment with a company or through an internship in the corresponding field. On
completion of their training the learners will write an exam. It is suggested that a
model similar to the German one be followed where learners have a practical and
theoretical test. The practical exam may comprise of course work or test work pieces
and the theoretical exam can be written and/or oral. These tests will be set by the
national coordinating body to ensure uniformity of standards across the country. After
successfully passing their exams, the learners will receive a certificate of
competence that will be recognised and accepted by any potential employer. In
addition to the two-year course, we suggest that learners who wish to start up their
own business are given the skills to do so. This follow up training course will be
offered to former learners who have gained working experience within their field for
more than two years. The goal of this extra-course is to supply professionals with
knowledge in business administration without the necessity of going to a university.
3. The Role of Business
With regards to the relationship between VTCs and companies, it is essential that a
strong and sustainable partnership be built between the schools and companies.
Clear and open lines of communication between both parties will ensure that
businesses are kept informed about the activities of the VTCs while companies will
alert the schools if there are any openings for graduates. Ideally, vocational training
schools and companies will sign a memorandum of understanding which will state
that the company is committed to taking on a certain number of learners per year,
while the vocational training school will agree to maintain good standards.
In certain instances, the syllabus can be adjusted based on information derived from
companies but these changes would have to be approved and coordinated by the
national coordinating body. The reasons for changing the syllabus may include
changes in what is required of employees by employers e.g. increased computer
literacy or technological innovations. In Namibia, the Chamber of Commerce and
Industry (NCCI) participates in curricular development and this has resulted in the
employment of the majority of VTC graduates. The Namibian example demonstrates
18
that a good partnership between business and vocational centres can be beneficial to
graduates.
A national coordinating body is also a useful tool for ensuring that businesses have
the necessary facilities, programmes and services to be able to take VTC learners.
This body will be tasked with maintaining educational standards throughout the
country. This includes setting national tests for learners and monitoring the standards
of training received from businesses
4. The Role of the State
The state has a role to play in the success of VTCs. Not only can it provide an
environment within which they can operate, but it can build and fund institutions such
as a national coordinating board that will ensure the long-term success of all of the
schools. The state will carefully monitor the national coordinating body and if it is for
some reason unable to fulfill its functions, the state will step in and assume appoint a
board to manage the coordinating body.
The state also has a role in encouraging public-private partnerships. This can be
done through granting tax breaks to companies who have signed memorandums of
understanding with VTCs and are adhering to the terms of such agreement. The tax
breaks will serve as a motivating factor for businesses and the skilled labour that they
will receive from the VTCs will also be of benefit to them. The state can also provide
partial funding for the construction of the vocational training schools particularly in
rural areas where such schools are needed most.
An equal geographical distribution of VTCs is necessary. The minimum number can
be one per state, with special focus on rural areas. The dominant industry in each
state or province will determine the focus of the school. In areas where mining is the
dominant industry, we suggest that gem cutting and polishing courses should be
offered, while in an area where tourism is the dominant industry, hospitality courses
should be offered.
The state should not only finance the construction of schools, it should also actively
engage with the schools. This can be done through the national coordinating body,
which should hold annual meetings to assess progress and evaluate strategic
19
objectives and long-term goals. The national coordinating body can also ensure the
quality of the teachers at the schools by conducting refresher courses and regular
pedagogical workshops. The national coordinating body will be responsible for the
compilation and maintenance of a database of all of the learners and their exam
results. This list can be used to assess the performance of learners throughout the
country. If the results show that learners from one VTC are not performing as well as
others based on their results, a detailed assessment of the centre can be conducted
and improvements can be made to the facilities or curricular should it be deemed
necessary.
Proposed Structure of Relations between The State, Business, the National Coordinating Body and Vocational Training Centres
National Coordinating Body
−
−
Syllabus
Testing
Business
−
The State
−
−
Practical Training
Vocational Training Centres
−
−
Funding
Supervision of
National Coordinating Body
Basic Education
Profession-specific
Theoretical Education
Student
−
−
Application at VTC
Application at
company
5. Regional Cooperation
The Southern African Development Community (SADC) and the European Union
(EU) signed a declaration held at the Ministerial Conference of 5 – 6 September 1994
in Berlin with the aim of strengthening ties, reinforcing their relationship and
establishing a comprehensive dialogue. Under Article 7, which delineates the areas
20
of developmental cooperation, special mention is made of vocational training. Both
SADC and the EU note that education is an important aspect of development and
that vocational training forms an important component of education. This declaration
is important because it demonstrates that both regional bodies are focused on
education and vocational training in particular.
6. Concluding Remarks
As has been stated, the success of VTCs depends on the active involvement of
government and business as well as the planning of the national co-ordination body
but the schools themselves can play a role in ensuring their own success. We
recommend that partnerships be created between schools as a way of sharing
knowledge and best practices. These partnerships can be created between schools
in the same country or across borders, thus sharing experiences and possibly
conducting student exchange programmes. These partnerships will create synergy
and motivate both the learners and the teachers in all of the schools involved in such
partnerships.
VI.Transition from Educational Systems into the Labour Market in Southern
Africa and Germany
1. Introduction
Besides a good education, one of the key factors to effective transition into the labour
market is the access to information and the position of individuals at the starting point
of the transition, which is heavily dependent on age and the accumulated relevant
skills with regard to a potential work place. High youth unemployment remains a
serious problem in many OECD countries (also Germany), even cohorts are smaller
in number and better educated than their older counterparts (Quintini et al., 2007:
15). Within the SADC countries, youth unemployment remains also a serious
problem, yet differs greatly between, for instance, urban and rural areas. In Germany,
the transition process is strongly formalized: After school, depending on the type of
schooling (see section Secondary School), approved certificates from either
vocational training or university are required to enter the labour market. Young
people, especially those who have not completed this formalized education system or
those having completed only basic schooling have less chances for a successful
21
entry into the labour market and are most vulnerable to unemployment. In opposite to
this highly formalized system, in Southern African countries there is a relatively low
percentage of entrants into the labour market having completed formal vocational
training or tertiary education at a University. Although universal primary schooling is
mostly guaranteed, there is still a considerable proportion of job entrants, who have
either not completed or have never attended primary school (see Guarcello et al.,
2005: 5). As official data on youth employment particularly in the African context
remains scarce. There is a limited empirical basis for formulating policies and
programmes promoting youth employment and successful school-to-work transitions.
2. Current Situation
a) In Germany
In Germany, a long tradition of dual system professional education (with practical
training at the workplace and theoretical training at educational institutions) prevails
and generally a strong link between education and the labour market can be
witnessed (Saar et al. (2007)). Therefore, particularly in the segment of low qualified
youth, the problem of prolonged unemployment seems to be higher in Germany than
in Africa. These low-qualified youth as well as women, and increasingly young
entrants with migration background are the groups most vulnerable to an
unsuccessful entry into the labour market in Germany. Further, one of the main
problems for all young job entrants is the extremely increased demand of flexibility in
the labour market and a growing segmentation of the labour market between low and
high qualified working positions. The school-to-work transition process in Germany is
further characterized by a strong impermeability and a highly segregated educational
system, which has led to discrimination of less qualified individuals on the labour
market. Going along with this, the success of the transition process is highly
dependent on the level of the acquired qualification. (OECD, 2007).
b) In Southern Africa
In Southern African countries, the proportion of low qualified and non school entrants
into the labour market is much higher than in OECD countries. Yet, in rural areas
young individuals are easily absorbed mostly into the agricultural sector. Youth
unemployment, especially in lower qualified segments, seems to be particularly a
problem in urban areas. One of the major reasons for this is the ongoing high ruralurban migration. Guarcello et al. (2005) found out that rural youth tend to start the
22
transition earlier and find employment more quickly than urban youth. Additionally,
there seem to be gender related differences. Male youth stay longer in the education
system than their female counterparts. Females tend to leave school at an earlier
age and transit into work more slowly than male youth or they just remain at home
after school and engage in domestic work. The duration of transition is relevant, as
long periods of unemployment are strongly correlated to losses of important skills
and human capital. In Southern Africa, as compared to Western and Eastern African
regions, a weak apprenticeship system seems to prevail (Worldbank, 2007).
Nowadays, casual work seems to develop from a transition status of youth into a
long-term employment situation. Another problem is an often inappropriate school
education. In this regard, Chigunta et al. (2005) argued, that there is no preparation
for self-employment or other enterprise activities.
3. Challenges for the Future
Education was initially acclaimed as an escape valve from poverty, especially in
African countries. This was comparatively true at a time when the job market was
very receptive and in the advent of policies of localization. Rather regrettably, the
initial ecstatic in education as a vital sine qua non to penetrating the job market has
to an extensive degree been surpassed by a disposition of disenchantment. It is
observed that education now bears the blame of generating docile and dependent
minded graduates. To this end, transition into the marketplace for graduates has
been and continues to be an uphill battle. There seems to be an increasing
reluctance of employers to recruit people without work experience. As opposed to the
situation in Germany, where unemployment problems are highest in the low-qualified
segments, the labour force in developing countries is typified by high unemployment
among the higher educated. This could very well be attributable to the fact that while
trying to educate as many people as possible, there has been little or no expansion
of job opportunities. It seems, that the problems centre around an incommensurate
relationship between the rapidly increasing number of graduates and job
opportunities.
Moreover, government policies and the public focus is often geographically motivated
in favour of urban areas. The majority of youth in Southern African states are located
in villages. Governments have consistently neglected shifting focus of both the
education sector and job sector to such rural areas. This has led to high
23
unemployment and lack of meaningful contribution of education to rural areas a rural
urban migration becomes rife. It also appears that there is a lack of research
producing accurate statistics and information so as to aid in much needed planning
and evaluation. Such would assist in making efficient policy changes in order to
grease transition of graduates into the job market and reduce student enrolment into
courses which have become saturated. As globalisation process accelerate, there
seems to be an urgent need for an overhaul of existing structures, strategies and
policies so as to make them more adaptive to new challenges in today’s increasingly
intertwined
labour
markets.
The
importance
of
education
can
never
be
overemphasized. However, education becomes utterly useless if it does not
eventually lead to a secure employment situation for making a living.
4. Strategies, Ways, Ideas
As pointed out, problems in the transition to the labour market differ to a great extent
across the compared areas of Southern Africa and Germany, but within both they
centre around the quality of education, group differences in terms of the vulnerability
towards unemployment and the expectations set in different labour markets today. In
Southern Africa problems remain particularly in the area of low percentages of highly
educated entrants into the labour market, a lack of formalized training facilities and
strong gender and regional disparities regarding the access to a sustainable
employment situation. Therefore, it is necessary to improve access to gainful
employment for women and focus on a better management of the urban job situation
for youth. It is to achieve such that there has been an increase in the implementation
of women and youth empowerment policies. Strategies may also include a higher
formalisation and supply of vocational training facilities, for instance, a stronger
cooperation with other SADC countries in order to equalize labour markets across
the region via the support of a higher freedom of labour movements.
In Germany, transition difficulties have been identified especially in the lower
qualified segments of youth and vulnerable groups such as foreigners and youth with
a migration background. In order to include all groups along the education strata into
the labour market, it will be important to balance low qualifications with higher
practical orientation towards the potential employment position and to develop less
segregated school systems so as to avoid a further increasing divergence of youth
from the society. Options to reach these goals may include increasing the use of
24
multiple teaching methods (such as experimental pedagogy), incorporating more
practical
subjects
in
the
curriculum,
developing
second-chance-programs
(reeducation) for persons having abandoned education or unable to enter the labour
market and supporting a stronger cooperation between vocational training centres
and potential employers.
Generally, strategies across the compared regions should entail the adjustment of
the curriculum to those fields of employment which are most likely to be open for
youth entering the labour market and more practical relevance (e.g. cooperation of
education facilities with potential employers). This also suggests a more holistic
approach in education so as to meet today’s employment criteria in terms of higher
technical and social skills. As there is a general problem of lacking information,
personal counseling and guidance for the transition into the labour market during
school should be provided in any system. This may include the promotion of more
efficient job agencies, self-employment assistance for labour market entrants and the
creation of a more “youth friendly” atmosphere in the society.
5. Proposals for Solutions in Partnership
The exchange of knowledge, experience, ideas, theories and models among experts
from different political and cultural backgrounds can play a key role in the handling of
the present problems. This necessitates a symbiotic relationship between European
and African countries of networking and information sharing resulting in concerted
solutions on how common problems and shortcomings may be resolved. Moreover,
solutions must be found by linking authorities and professionals on different sectors:
Initially, research institutes specialized in educational and labour market questions
from both regions can be linked in a task group. Such task groups would make
readily available statistics and comparative studies to enable policy makers to make
informed decisions. e.g. by publishing annual reports containing figures and trends,
organizing conferences and therefore contributing to the set up of appropriate
policies.
On the professional sector, Chambers of commerce in Southern African countries
and Germany should come together to elaborate programs for the improvement of
vocational training, second chance programs and reintegration concepts. The
German experience in terms of apprenticeship programs, for instance, can be
25
adapted to the situation in Southern African states. For the same purpose it may also
prove advantageous to link vocational schools and centers, e.g. by creating an
exchange program for teachers. This cooperation might also include enterprises from
both regions having accumulated some experience in developing vocational training
concepts, adapted to the needs of the respective economic structure (e.g. tourism).
In reference to job-seeking, it might be helpful to improve search systems; this could
be accomplished by means of cooperation between job centers in order to establish
efficient and well-organized search systems.
As to the creation of jobs, it is particularly imperative to stimulate youth
entrepreneurship. A German-African institute for start-up support could be created
with the objective of collecting case studies, linking experts and offering training. An
appropriate, challenging and fulfilling occupation answers a basic human need. The
transition from education to work is therefore a crucial step of an individual towards
an accurate self-concept concerning its position in civil society. It must be the
objective of any well implemented labour market policy to facilitate this step. The
development of such policies, however, cannot be successful unless it is guided by a
long term thinking process.
VII. Non-formal Education (NFE)
1. Relevance of the Non-formal Education Paradigm
In 2000 the Lisbon European Council set the European Union the strategic goal of
becoming the most competitive and knowledge-based society in the world. An
important characteristic of a knowledge-based society is an innovative and life-long
learning population. However the result of the European Labour Force Survey 2000
established that only 8% of EU 25-64 year old citizens participated in some kind of
education or training.13 In the same year the Dakar Framework for Action analysed
the progress made towards the ‘UNESCO World Declaration on Education for All’
and identified a wide gap towards reaching the goal. These two examples represent
in a nutshell the disparities between strategic educational goals and the realities of
everyday life. Even though education has been identified as a core pillar of human
development and an instrument of liberalisation (particularly for the more
13
EU Commission, White paper, Making a European Area of Lifelong Learning Reality, Brussels, 2001
26
disadvantaged groups of society), vast parts of societies have not been targeted
properly.
These findings call for a change in the traditional outset and ‘ecology’ of education. It
has become clear that education needs to be addressed within a broader socioeconomic and cultural framework and needs to target people through various
educational delivery channels and alternative learning systems. The traditional formal
paradigm of education remains insufficient in including people from all different walks
of life into global learning. Education, working life and retirement can no longer be
seen as successive phases in our life as knowledge acquired in early years becomes
obsolete at an accelerating rate. Formal educational systems adapt slowly to such
socio-economic changes. Non-formal Education programmes however offer more
flexible and direct ways of teaching and learning. Non-formal education is grounded
on grassroots level and makes use of local knowledge and resources. It can
therefore better revitalise education and provide a dynamic link between education
and the realities of everyday life. Non-formal education aims at people from all age
groups and societal backgrounds and tries to meet their individual needs. It provides
them with various sets of competences vitally important for personal fulfillment, selfempowerment, social inclusion and employability in a knowledge society.
2. Achievements and Shortcomings in Namibia and Germany
In Namibia, 59 non-governmental organisations engaged in non-formal education
were identified in 1997.14 Furthermore the government funds several non-formal
education initiatives (Namibian College of Open Learning, Distance learning
institutions etc.) and community-centres like the Katatura Culture and Art Centre (s.
Best Practise A) are put in place.
Best Practise 1: Katatura Culture and Arts Centre, Namibia
It’s a Tuesday morning in the Katutura Culture and Arts Centre and young people are laughing as they
greet and take their seats. They are 2
nd
year Visual Art students and they are in the lino-cut class and
they are on assignment. This means that Papa Shikongeni (their lecturer) will not give class but that
they can start working as they come in. Within minutes everybody is submerged in their work with soft
14
Indabawa: The Case of Nonformal Education provisions in Namibia, p.9
Examples include: Council of Churches in Namibia, Rossing Foundation Adult Education
Centre, Namibian Association for Literacy and Adult Education or the Rural People’s Institute for
Social Employment
27
music from the cassette player playing in the background. Downstairs a group of school leavers are
learning how to get information from the internet while two teenagers are learning the pentatonic
scales in another room. As the day goes on more young people will come to wrap their minds around
the intricacies of Information Technology for Communication, the different types of Art as well as video
capturing and editing. Even if most of the classes are uncertified this courses are a way that these
young people can learn something and, in days to come, give back to the country. Matheus (25),
Elizabeth (21) and Hipo (24) did the video course at KCAC and now they working for a documentary
video production company. “The kids are good” says Mr. Choucris Ngen, the owner of the company
“When they come from the centre they know almost everything. All I have to do is direct them”. KCAC,
as the centre is known, is the best example of how non-formal education can add value to young
individuals.
However Namibia, like many African countries, has a large landscape which makes it
difficult for people (particularly poor people) to move freely. In Katima Mulilo (in the
extreme north-east of the country), for example, there are almost no opportunities for
people to obtain skills outside the formal structures. No structures are put in place.
Most opportunities are limited to learning artisan work or fishing from other members
of the family. Going further south to regions such as Karas shows the negative
extreme. Despite being the region with the most passing rate, Karas region still
suffers to secure any scholarships for their learners. There is still not even a
Vocational Training Centre. Non-formal education is limited to isolated activities
organized mostly in relation to HIV/AIDS advocacy.
Best Practise 2: Theatre RambaZamba
Each actor of the Theatre RambaZamba in Berlin has a disability which can make their everyday life
difficult. However when they are on stage their art is wild, poetic and full of surprises. Theatre therapist
Gisela Höhne founded Theatre RambaZamba in 1991. Having a son suffering from Down-Syndrome,
she wanted to provide him and others like him with a chance to express themselves. But equally
important gives the actors the chance of finally not being perceived as people who lack abilities but
who have great talents instead. They are professionals with two shows every week plus daily
rehearsals. Director Höhne and the actors chose their plays together. Throughout the course of a
year, they approach a story slowly through improvisation, games and creative methods. Thus the actor
inhale the storyline intuitively and what they breath out is often more direct, impulsive and authentic
than what a broad audience is used to. The plays never actually deal with disability directly, but they
deal with people who do not fit into society for one reason or the other. They deal with love and death,
men and women, and the wish to be able to be oneself and still be accepted by others. RambaZamba
is a role model not only for integration but also for a way to let everybody develop their own
personality.
28
The non-formal education paradigm has existed in Germany for many years.
Churches, unions, scout organisations and many other groups of the civil society
have been offering and still are offering educational and social work which is
established outside the formal system. Under the impression of Germany's poor
performance in the first PISA study (Programme for International Student
Assessment), a major debate about the limits of the German education system
arose. It became clear that school is no longer an exclusive place for teaching and
learning. Thus, a stronger focus on areas of non-formal education such as clubs and
organisations is needed. Here it is important to not only improve every institution in
itself, but to coordinate the possibilities of all formal, non-formal and informal
education institutions to utilize their full potential.
3. Challenges
There is an increasing recognition across Africa and Europe that a fundamentally
new approach to education and training policies needs to be developed. Non-formal
education has the potential to be a powerful and dynamic tool within this new
educational approach. This paper identifies four main challenges which need to be
attended to in order to make non-formal education highly efficient and valuable.
•
Strengthening of cooperation between different providers of non-formal
education (e.g. Ministries of Education, Nongovernmental Organisations)
•
Improvement of structural conditions in non-formal education, including
shortage of funding, shortage of qualified and competent personnel,
shortage of physical facilities and adequate teaching/ learning materials,
accessibility
•
Reassessment of concepts and modes of practice in non-formal education
•
Quality and relevance of teaching content to target group, Mode of Teaching,
Language policy, Lack of Research on impact of Non-formal education
4. Strategies
a) Bottom-up Approach
Targeting disadvantaged groups of society like unemployed youths takes a multithronged approach that is as young, bold and innovative as the people it wants to
help. (Young) people have to feel self-confident that they can do something to
change their situations. The flexibility and adaptability of non-formal education
programmes can meet this demand by empowering people at the local level. This
29
implicates careful community-analysis (involving local knowledge), expansion of
peer-to-peer education and the application of flexible education delivery modes (e.g.
Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) applied in Botswana).
Best Practise 3: Peer-to-Peer Education, Rwanda
“When I stand in front of these youngsters and talk to them about making the right choices and
protecting oneself from HIV and other diseases, they listen to me. They trust me. Because I am one of
them”, says Damas Dukundane, a medical student at the National University of Rwanda. Damas is 24
and is actively involved in Medsar- the Medical Student Association of Rwanda. In his freetime he
visits schools, community-centres and Anti-Aids-Clubs and shares his knowledge with the villagers
and youth. Damas was orphaned during the genocide in 1994. His life has not been easy since.
Traumatised but with a strong will do persevere he has struggled to live on. In this he very much
mirrors Rwanda’s national psyche. His determination and intellect have secured him a scholarship at
the University of Rwanda. For the secondary students he teaches at a local community-centre Damas
is a role model. His story gives them hope. He was an orphan and will one day be a doctor. JeanBaptiste, a 15 year old student at G.S.E Butare says: ”I feel more confident about my future now. It
actually makes sense to take care of myself, because I know I may have the opportunity to be
someone. I learned a lot from the Medsar guys. They are young, fresh and direct. They are not afraid
to call things by their name. Normally people don’t speak about sex here. They even showed us how
to use a condom.”
b) Holistic Approach – Enhance Complementarities and Synergies between two
Paradigms
In Europe and Africa alike the need of human capacity building calls for a more
innovative use of both formal and non-formal education. A holistic approach with
coordinated efforts of the formal and non-formal education paradigm will generate
empowerment and employability of the people. Traditional barriers between the two
paradigms have to be broken down and a creative interactive mechanism has to be
created. The democratic participation of all stake holders in both formal and nonformal education programmes needs to be combined under the guiding principles of
improving access, quality and equity of education. Examples for a first step into this
direction would be the Lifelong Learning Initiative (2007-2013) of the European Union
or the achievements of the Working Group on Non-formal Education within the
Association for the Development of Education in Africa (ADEA). Research has shown
that the collaboration at the community level is less problematic than at state level.
Hence a detailed policy framework needs to be set up to clarify the responsibilities
and practicalities of collaboration, the appropriate funding and lastly the role of the
30
different partners. Here it is important not to focus only on the role of governments
and non-governmental organisations but to obtain a provision in the policy framework
to foster the entrepreneurial spirit of individuals. Whether it is in Information and
Communication Technology, the Arts or Entertainment people who have good ideas
and have proven commitment should be supported so that they can help others
improve their skills. (e.g. Butterfly Entertainment, Namibia)
c) Research
Investing into research on the manifold possibilities and successes of non-formal
education is essential to improve existing offers and to establish best practices.
Establishing a database on practices of non-formal education would help to better
understand the processes of learning and to eventually standardise successful
practices. In the long-term labels could be developed to identify high-quality
institutions and practices.
VIII. Education Strategies
1. Current Situation: Achievements and Problems in Germany and Southern
Africa
a) Southern Africa
The current situation in Southern Africa is that governments are making steady
progress in the provision of education to its citizens. Against a background of limited
resources and competing needs, funding to the education sector has been low
compared to the needs in the sector.
Between 1990 and 2000, for instance, Zambia had been spending 20 per cent of its
GDP on debt servicing while a key sector like education got 3.5 per cent.15 The
government has planned that the savings that will accrue for the next 20 years will be
invested in social sectors like education. It is hoped that such an envisaged heavy
investment will significantly partly compensate for the poor funding in the previous
15
Jubilee Zambia Report, Where Does The Money Go, 2002
31
years. However, numerous challenges remain. The number of teachers is still low
resulting in a high pupil-teacher ratio, which is normally blamed for poor performance
of pupils due to lack of individual attention.
For the Democratic of the Republic of Congo, (DRC) which has just emerged from
years of civil war, the challenges are even immense. The civil war destroyed most
education infrastructure and some students had to abandon schools due to
hostilities. The malfunctioning of the economy during the civil war also left the state of
education in chaos. As the new government starts rebuilding the country, one of the
priorities will have to be education. This is because without an educated citizenry,
even developing the economy will be an even more onerous undertaking.
b) Germany
The problems that Germany faces concerning the educational system are different
from those of Southern African. Germany has a comparably good education system
but lacks large primary resources, which leave only human capital as a means to
remain competitive in a global economy. Recent results of the second Pisa study
2007 show that Germany represents a very fragmented picture of primary and
secondary educational quality. There is also a difference of quality between
universities. The German Federal system that leaves the prerogatives for education
largely in the hand of the Länder is responsible for these patterns. The
consequences for the competitiveness of Germany are severe. Fragmentation in
quality leads to an East-West as well as a North-South ‘brain drain’. If one considers
the big picture this is not only a problem for domestic development but has stern
impact on the competitiveness of Germany as a whole if one takes into account the
self-reinforcing push, pull and cluster mechanisms that ‘brain drain’ invokes.
c) Challenges for the Future
Although Germany has a more developed education system than much of Southern
Africa, the challenges that both face are to continue building and developing
education systems that will answer the needs of the future. For Southern Africa,
despite many countries being signatories to International Declarations that call for
increased funding to the education sector, inadequate funds and competing needs
from various sectors of the economy mean that governments cannot devote the
much needed resources to education.
32
UNESCO estimates that in sub-Saharan Africa, at least 1.7 million additional
teachers need to be recruited until 2015 to reach the goal of universal primary
education.16 In Germany as well, there is a continuous need for more teachers, as the
classes are getting bigger and the individual attention needed for high quality
education is more and more difficult to deliver. For Germany the additional challenge
is how the face of the education sector will change after the introduction of fees at
universities. Fees could reduce the choice of specialisation, make academic careers
for people coming from lower classes more difficult and thus deepen social
fragmentation.
d) Strategies, Way forward and Ideas
•
Education should be among the top priorities for funding because without an
education populace, the rest of the sectors cannot function.
•
Develop a coherent system integrating primary, secondary, tertiary education
and vocational training.
•
The long-term plans of education need to be formulated in a consultative and
embracing process, taking into account international dynamics.
•
Gain independence in the financing of the educational sector, backed by a
prospering, tax-generating economy and a more and more educated society.
•
Given the delicate role of education in the socialisation of younger
generations, control mechanisms need to be installed to prevent a misuse and
one-sided indoctrination of pupils. History gives examples for the possibility of
the instrumentalization of education, such as the transport of values done by
African Apartheid regimes and other dictatorships like Nazi Germany.
•
The development of the education sector should not be left to the government
alone. The business community, which itself heavily relies on skills from the
education system, should do more to help governments address the provision
of education. The availability of adequate skills can result in efficiency in
production for the economy. Churches, NGOs, donor agencies and United
Nations institutions can further support the government. They can promote
education in urban and remote areas and should be integrated and monitored.
16
Hauschild, Tobias: Higher salaries needed. D+C Vol. 34.2007:9, p. 326
33
•
A well-remunerated academic staff is key to stemming the migration of
teachers to other more paying countries. The ‘brain drain’ has had its toll on
the education sector as schools, for instance in Zambia and the Democratic
Republic of Congo, have been thinly staffed.
•
While the UN Millennium Development Goals place emphasis on universal
primary education, secondary and tertiary education need to be addressed as
well through increased funding, erection of infrastructure and training. Primary
education is the start but it is not enough.
•
Governments should regulate or equalise the skills provided in the education
system and the needs of the broader economy. For instance, there is no need
to train thousands of chemical engineers if there is no petrochemical industry
in a given country. However, this is not to mean the government should stop
people from going into careers of their choice but it can advise in accordance
with the available needs of the economy.
e) Proposed Solutions in Partnership between Germany and Southern Africa
The distinctively different educational environments for both Germany and Southern
Africa offer opportunities to learn from each other. There could be learning
exchanges at different levels. Governments could learn from each other in terms of
policy formulation and implementation by sharing best practices. Governments could
also share information on how the education sector is funded. Learning institutions
such as universities could also employ exchange programmes as a way of exposing
students to various aspects of education and to promote the construction of networks
between German and Southern African students. Teachers and lecturers could also
be engaged on government-to-government or institution-to-institution arrangements
to learn from each other via Internet and direct encounters like conferences and
project-based partnership programmes. We live in a globalized society where a
better understanding of each other is crucial to overcoming the challenges we face:
social inequalities, bad governance, environmental degradation, wars over natural
resources etc. Such problems can be tackled in cooperation with each other vis-à-vis
information sharing. Education is a tool that should aid this process. All the above
measures could be in addition to the funding that Germany, a key development
partner for most Southern African countries, has provided over the years.
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IX. Conclusion
Education plays a critical role in the development of both the continents of Europe
and Africa. This paper has outlined the current state of affairs, the challenges and
some much needed remedies that can be employed to alleviate the problems faced
within the education sector, that are specific to the needs of the youth of both
continents. Societal characteristics such as class dynamics, poverty, and economy
are all playing dominant roles in many of the problems that the education sector is
being faced with and are thus compounding to the problems that the education sector
is being faced with. Though societal characteristics are playing a dominant role in
compounding the problems that the education sector faces, it is within creating
synergies and partnerships of various aspects of society that we are to find solutions
to the myriad problems. The youth need to be a part of the decision making process
and be stakeholders at that, to the types of synergies that are to be employed in
order to eradicate the problems with the education sector.
Both within Africa and within Europe, the need has arrived for public and private
partnerships to be forged and businesses have a large role to play within that.
Governments alone are not going to be able to afford the costs that are accompanied
with vast educational reform. Government’s efforts are going to have to be coupled
with public private partnerships, external institutional assistance as well as cross
continental partnership agreements in order for development patterns on both
continents to compliment one another. The interaction of all of these efforts added
together, should aid to facilitate a much more complimentary development path for
the two continents, and should avert the current dependencies that prevail on the
international stage.
As the paper has indicated we can no longer think of education along the narrow
confines of only existing and taking place within the classroom, we are learning that
there are different types of education that applicable to the developmental needs of
individual countries and thus, diverse solutions will be employed taking into
consideration the needs of individual countries. Globalization offers both continents
an opportunity to steer development patterns and paths to a direction where the
current ‘dependency’ oriented relationship, evolves into one where both continents
forge mutually beneficiary partnerships. The recommendations within this paper
clearly highlight the significance of this fact.
35
From what has been articulated hithereto it is apparent that education plays an
indispensable role in the life of every individual and contributes immensely to the
development of all nations. Be that as it may, the education sector is faced by
numerous challenges and limitations which drastically impair the effectiveness of
education. As is reflected above these are in the form of scarcity of resources, failure
by policy makers to make timeous modifications to education policies so as to make
them more accommodative of modern challenges and an increasing failure by the
labour market to absorb products of education. The paper has indicated that despite
the multiplicity and diversity of these problems they are not by any measure
insurmountable; they may be adequately addressed by a universal commitment to
upgrading the content and quality of education. Moreover governments have been
enjoined to adopt well targeted and concrete measures to attain the progressive
realisation of meaningful education as well as treating education as a priority in the
allocation of scarce resources.
The youth of both the continents of Africa and Europe have written this paper from a
benevolent stand point, based on their experience of having had been through their
individual countries education systems, and also from having had been witnesses to
the inadequacies and pitfalls of education systems and policies that do not function
well, and do not furthermore, meet the needs of the developmental needs of their
communities, countries and continent. This generation of future leaders is instigating
change, and is ready to facilitate that process. The recommendations that they have
written in this paper, are a manifestation of the type of relationship that Africa and
Europe should be having in the future. A future, where their relationship is mutually
beneficiary, and one where human rights and the principles of democracy are the
tools we utilize to construct our future.
36
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