INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON
Using organic materials in prehistory
ARCL 2041
2014/15
Year 2/3 Option, 15 credits
Co-ordinator: Dr. Ulrike Sommer
E-mail: u.sommer@ucl.ac.uk
Room 409a, Institute of Archaeology
phone 020 7679 1493
Discussion group: http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/OrganicMaterials2007 (by invitation)
01/11/2014
Using organic materials in prehistory ...................................................................................1 1. Overview........................................................................................................................................5 2. Teaching Schedule ...................................................................................................................6 Basic texts .................................................................................................................................................. 7 Handbooks.................................................................................................................................................................. 7 Overviews by area or period ............................................................................................................................. 8 Periodicals................................................................................................................................................................... 8 useful websites ......................................................................................................................................................... 8 Survival ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8 Folklore ......................................................................................................................................................................... 8 Social context of craft production.................................................................................................................... 9 The "missing" substances................................................................................................................................... 9 Identification ............................................................................................................................................................... 9 Methods of Assessment........................................................................................................................ 9 Teaching methods ................................................................................................................................... 9 Workload ..................................................................................................................................................... 9 Lecture summaries.................................................................................................................................. 9 Prerequisites............................................................................................................................................10 2. AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENT...................................................................... 10 Aims.............................................................................................................................................................10 Objectives .................................................................................................................................................10 Learning Outcomes.................................................................................................................................10 Coursework ...............................................................................................................................................10 Word-length............................................................................................................................................................. 11 Submission .............................................................................................................................................................. 11 Timescale for return of marked coursework to students.................................................................. 11 Keeping copies ...................................................................................................................................................... 12 Citing of sources ....................................................................................................................................12 Illustrations...............................................................................................................................................12 Further information ...............................................................................................................................12 Assessment ................................................................................................................................... 12 1. Essay..................................................................................................................................................................... 13 either:.......................................................................................................................................................................... 13 or ................................................................................................................................................................................... 13 2. Documentation of practical work............................................................................................................. 13 Deadline ................................................................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined. ONLINE RESOURCES ..........................................................................................................................14 Online reading list ................................................................................................................................................. 14 Online discussion group ................................................................................................................................... 14 ADDITIONAL INFORMATION .............................................................................................................14 Libraries and resources..................................................................................................................................... 14 Information for intercollegiate and interdepartmental students .................................................... 15 Health and safety ...................................................................................................................................15 Feedback ...................................................................................................................................................15 LECTURE SUMMARIES............................................................................................................. 16 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................... 16 2. Experimental archaeology, experience and demonstration ................................. 16 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 16 2
3. Antler, bone and horn............................................................................................................. 19 Bone ............................................................................................................................................................................ 19 bone structure ........................................................................................................................................................ 20 Archaeological examples of bone tools .................................................................................................... 20 Teeth ........................................................................................................................................................................... 23 other teeth ................................................................................................................................................................ 23 Antler...........................................................................................................................................................23 essential reading................................................................................................................................................... 23 see also ..................................................................................................................................................................... 24 Other ........................................................................................................................................................................... 24 Tortoise Shell...........................................................................................................................................24 Baleen and whalebone.........................................................................................................................25 Horn .............................................................................................................................................................25 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................25 5. Shells and eggshells ............................................................................................................. 25 Shells ..........................................................................................................................................................26 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 26 see also ..................................................................................................................................................................... 26 Eggshells...................................................................................................................................................27 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 27 See also....................................................................................................................................................................... 27 Seed and beads ......................................................................................................................................27 Ideas for practical work ..................................................................................................................................... 27 6. Pitch, resin and glues ........................................................................................................... 28 Pitch.............................................................................................................................................................28 Archaeological examples and analysis..................................................................................................... 28 Bitumen/Asphalt.....................................................................................................................................29 Archaeological examples and analysis..................................................................................................... 29 Glues ...........................................................................................................................................................29 Resins .........................................................................................................................................................30 Wax ..............................................................................................................................................................30 Varnish .......................................................................................................................................................30 Mummification.........................................................................................................................................30 Ochre ...........................................................................................................................................................30 Ideas for practical work........................................................................................................................30 7. Skin, sinew and leather ........................................................................................................ 30 technology ................................................................................................................................................31 DIY ................................................................................................................................................................31 Archaeological examples ...................................................................................................................32 Ethnographic examples ......................................................................................................................33 Tools............................................................................................................................................................33 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................33 9. Textiles I, fibres ....................................................................................................................... 34 Early string and textiles ......................................................................................................................34 plant fibres................................................................................................................................................34 see also ..................................................................................................................................................................... 34 Hair and wool...........................................................................................................................................35 Silk ...............................................................................................................................................................35 see also ..................................................................................................................................................................... 35 Ethnographic ...........................................................................................................................................35 Feathers .....................................................................................................................................................35 Ideas for practical work........................................................................................................................35 3
11. Textiles II, spinning ............................................................................................................. 36 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 36 Archaeological Evidence .................................................................................................................................. 36 Weblinks.................................................................................................................................................................... 36 Spinning without spindles ................................................................................................................................ 36 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................36 12. Textiles III, weaving ............................................................................................................. 37 Textiles .......................................................................................................................................................37 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 37 Terminology............................................................................................................................................................. 37 See also .................................................................................................................................................................... 38 Examples of archaeological textiles ..............................................................................................38 see also ..................................................................................................................................................................... 39 Sewing ........................................................................................................................................................40 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................40 13. Tablet weaving ...................................................................................................................... 40 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 40 Ideas for practical work ..................................................................................................................................... 40 14. Felt and fulling....................................................................................................................... 41 DIY ................................................................................................................................................................41 Archaeological examples ................................................................................................................................. 41 Ethnographic........................................................................................................................................................... 41 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................41 15. Rope, twining, braiding...................................................................................................... 41 Terminology .............................................................................................................................................41 Technology ...............................................................................................................................................41 Prehistoric String .................................................................................................................................................. 42 Rope ............................................................................................................................................................42 Shoes ..........................................................................................................................................................42 Sieves .........................................................................................................................................................42 16. Bast.......................................................................................................................................................43 essential reading....................................................................................................................................43 see also ......................................................................................................................................................44 related: papyrus......................................................................................................................................44 Paper ...........................................................................................................................................................44 Grasses ......................................................................................................................................................44 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................44 Basketry .......................................................................................................................................... 45 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 45 Archaeological examples of basketry ...........................................................................................45 Ethnographic ...........................................................................................................................................45 Fishtraps ................................................................................................................................................................... 45 Ships ...........................................................................................................................................................46 See also .................................................................................................................................................................... 46 DIY ............................................................................................................................................................................... 46 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................46 16a Knitting, nalebinding, spang .......................................................................................... 46 Ideas for practical work........................................................................................................................47 17. Colours and dyes ................................................................................................................. 47 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 47 general ....................................................................................................................................................................... 47 4
see also:.................................................................................................................................................................... 47 vegetal dyes .............................................................................................................................................47 Ink................................................................................................................................................................................. 48 animal dyes ............................................................................................................................................................. 48 Purple ......................................................................................................................................................................... 48 Tattoos and body paint...................................................................................................................................... 49 See also .................................................................................................................................................................... 49 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................49 19. Wood (non-building) ........................................................................................................... 49 Essential reading .................................................................................................................................................. 49 Arrows ........................................................................................................................................................50 Furniture ....................................................................................................................................................50 Wooden spoons ...................................................................................................................................................... 50 see also ..................................................................................................................................................................... 50 Bark for containers and ships ..........................................................................................................51 Ideas for practical work .......................................................................................................................51 Techniques..................................................................................................................................... 51 Drilling ........................................................................................................................................................51 Sawing ........................................................................................................................................................51 5
The course will introduce the students to organic or partly organic materials used in prehistory, their
properties and methods of production. The course will have a strong hands-on element, requiring the
students to try out simple techniques like spinning and weaving. It is suitable both for students wanting
a deeper understanding of (mainly prehistoric) manufacturing techniques and students interested in
museum studies and hands-on experiences. The examples used will mainly be taken from European
prehistory, but students are encouraged to locate examples from their own special areas of interest.
Strictly speaking, the course only covers organic materials used to make portable objects. We will
thus disregard food and building materials. We will cover teeth, bones, antler and horn, skins and sinews, glues, organic dyes, animal and vegetal fibres and (non-building) wood. In an introductionary
session we will discuss the difference between experimental archaeology, demonstrations, hands-on
work and of learning prehistoric techniques.
2. Teaching Schedule
The course runs in term 1, 2014/15
Tuesdays, 16-18.00, room 410
Date
30/09
No
1
2
subject
examples
Introduction to the Definitions, practical details
course
Experimental
archaeology, demonstrations, hands-on work
(Martin Schmidt)
07/10
3-4
Antler, bone and horn
14/10
5
shells,
shells
6
glue and hafting
28/10
7-8
hides,
sinew
30/10
9-10
Textiles I
teeth,
leather
all
drilling and grinding, Palaeo- needle-making
lithic ornaments, Palaeolithic
needles, medieval bone and
antler combs
eggBirch-bark-pitch, bone-glue
drilling an ostrich-egg
bead, piercing shellbeads
hafting a flint blade
and tanning with brain and fat, tan- working raw-hide, prening with bark
paring sinew
3-7/11
Wool and vegetal fibres
spinning with a spindle
whorl
READING WEEK, NO LECTURES
weaving and making clothes
weaving with a horizontal loom
11/11
11-12
Textiles II
18/11
13-14
Textiles III
portable looms
felt
25/11
15-16
twining and basketry
twining, rope making and braid- Sprang and basketry
ing
basketry
02/12
17-18
dyes and pigments
vegetal dyes
animal dyes
09/12
19
Wood and wattlework
tablet weaving
dyeing
making
fire
(Gordon
6
Presenting archaeology to the public (Ian
Carrol)
square)
The course runs in term 1, 2014/15
Tuesdays, 16-18.00, room 410
Nobody will use 410 after us, so you can stay on and finish your practical work after the end of the
course (not obligatory, of course).
Basic texts
For many of the materials treated, there are no general overviews. Normally, there are numerous regional and time-specific studies. The titles listed below are meant to give a starting point. Students are
strongly encouraged to look out for other studies in their area of interest.
Ethnographic and folkloristic studies, survival and DIY-books can be an important source for practical
information, but be wary of any "general" or "historical" information in popular works. Especially 19
th
th
and early 20 century studies of "folk-ways" are a mine of information. Senate House has a lot of local
publications on the shelves, sometimes it pays simply to browse – and to share information!
Handbooks
R. J. Forbes, Studies in ancient technology. Leiden Brill. INST ARCH K FOR
several volumes, for example:
-Bitumen and Petroleum in antiquity. Vol. I, 1964, 1-122.
-The fibres and fabrics of Antiquity. Vol. IV, 1956, 1-63.
-Washing, bleaching, fulling and felting. Vol. IV, 1956, 81-94.
-Dyes and dyeing. Vol. IV, 1956, 98-142.
-Spinning. Vol. IV, 1956, 149-169.
-Sewing, basketry and weaving. Vol. IV, 1956, 172-191.
-Weaving and looms. Vol. IV, 1956, 192-217.
-Leather in Antiquity. Vol. V, 1957, 1-65.
partly dated (chronology), but still a lot of useful information
Singer, C., Holmyard, E. J. (eds), 1965. A History of Technology, Vol. 1. Oxford, Clarendon Press.
INST ARCH K SIN
-Gilbert, R. K. Rope making, 451-455.
-Crowfoot, G. M. Textiles, basketry and mats, 413-451.
-Barnett, R. D. Fine Ivory Working, 663-683.
-Aldred, C. Fine Wood-Work, 684 ff.
Artioli, G. 2010. Scientific methods and cultural heritage: an introduction to the application of materials
science to archaeometry and conservation science. Oxford, Oxford University Press,
chapter 3.7 on organic materials. INST ARCH LA ART
Bone, ivory, resins, paper: characterisation and analytical methods
Caple, C. 2006. Objects: reluctant witnesses to the past. Abingdon: Routledge. INST ARCH LA CAP
General
Cotterell, B., Kamminga, J., 1990. Mechanics of pre-industrial technology: an introduction to the mechanics of ancient and traditional materials culture. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press. INST ARCH K COT
Mainly anorganic
Diderot, D., Le Rond d'Alembert, J. 2000. L'Encyclopédie de Diderot et d'Alembert: ou Dictionnaire
raisonné des sciences, des arts et des metiers. CD-ROM version. Marsanne, Redon.
Main, unclassified (ask!)
Gillispie, C. G. (ed.) 1959. A Diderot pictorial encyclopedia of trades and industry. Manufacturing and
the technical arts in plates selected from "L'encyclopedie, ou Dictionnaire raisonne des
sciences, des arts et des metiers" of Denis Diderot. Dover STORE 98-03100
The Encyclopedie of Diderot is an invaluable source of information on pre- and early industrial tech7
niques!
Hodges, H. 1976. Artifacts: an introduction to early materials and technology. London, J. Baker. INST
ARCH K HOD
Hurcombe, L. 2007. Archaeological artefacts as material culture. London, Routledge. INST ARCH AH
HUR, ISSUE DESK IOA HUR 2
Pollard, A. M., Heron, C. 2008. Archaeological chemistry. Cambridge, Royal Society of Chemistry, (2
edition). INST ARCH JD POL, ISSUE DESK IOA POL 5
nd
Plinius (Loeb Classical Library)
Theophilius Presbyter
are also often worth a look.
Overviews by area or period
Amrein, H., Carlevaro, E., Deschler-Erb E., Deschler-Erb S., Duvauchelle A., Pernet L. 2012. L'artisanat en Suisse à l'époque romaine. Recensement et premières synthèses. Montagnac,
Monique Mergoil. On Order
Blair, J, Ramsay, N. (eds), 1991. English Medieval industries. Craftsmen, techniques, products. London, Hambledon Press. INST ARCH K BLA
Conneller, C. 2011. An Archaeology of Materials: Technologies of Transformation in Early Prehistoric
Europe. London, Routledge. INST ARCH DAA 100 CON
mainly bones, antler etc.
Feustel, R. 1973. Technik der Steinzeit: Archäolithikum-Mesolithikum. Veröffentlichungen des Museums für Ur- und Frühgeschichte Thüringens 4. Weimar, Böhlau. STORES
Moorey, P. R. S. 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence.
Oxford, Clarendon. INST ARCH DBB 100 MOO
Nicholson, P. T., Shaw, I. (eds), Ancient Egyptian materials and technology. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS S 5 NIC, INST ARCH K Qto NIC
Humphrey, J. W., Oleson, J. P., Sherwood, A. N. 1998. Greek and Roman technology, a sourcebook:
annotated translations of Greek and Latin texts and documents. London, Routledge INST
ARCH K HUM
Periodicals
-Bulletin of Primitive Technology (USA) INST ARCH PERS
-Experimentelle Archäologie in Deutschland, Beihefte zur Archäologie Nordwest-Deutschlands (mainly in German) INST ARCH PERS (partly)
-euroRea, Journal of (Re)Construction and Experiment in Archaeology (mainly in English) INST
ARCH PERS and ONLINE
useful websites
-http://www.exarc.net/ www.exar.org, www.exarc.eu: European Exchange of Archaeological Research
and Communication.
-www.publicarchaeology.eu extensive and very useful database on experimental archaeology
-http://www.palaeotechnik.de/index.html (German)
Survival
McPherson, J., G. McPherson 1993. Primitive wilderness living and survival skills. Randolph: Prairie
Wolf. INST ARCH K MCP
-tanning, 10-57
-cordage, 87-100
-containers, 265-269
-bone and antler working, 349-351.
Mears, R. 1990. The Survival Handbook. Oxford, Oxford Illustrated Press.
Mears, R. 2002. Bushcraft. London, Hodder and Stoughton.
Folklore
Jenkins, J. G. 1965. Traditional country craftsmen. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. MAIN:
STORES
8
Social context of craft production
Dobres, M.-A., 2000. Technology and social agency. Blackwell, Oxford.
Costin, C. L., 2005. Craft production. In: Maschner, H. D. G., Chippindale, C. (eds.), Handbook of Archaeological Methods. New York, AltaMira Press, 1034–1107. INST ARCH AH MAS
Ingold, T. 2001. Of string bags and birds’ nests: skill and the construction of artefacts. In T. Ingold, The
perception of the environment: Essays in livelihood, dwelling and skill. London, Routledge, 349-361. INST ARCH BD ING
The "missing" substances
Barnard, H., Eerkens, J. W. 2007. Theory and practice of archaeological residue analysis. BAR international Series 1650.Oxford, Archaeopress. INST ARCH JDD Qto BAR
Evershed, R. P. 2008. Organic residue analysis in archaeology: the archaeological biomarker revolution. Archaeometry 50, 895–924.
Hurcombe, L. 2007. Organics from inorganics: using experimental archaeology as a research tool for
studying perishable material culture. World Archaeology 40/1, 83-115. ONLINE
Identification
Gale, R., Cutler, D. 2000. Identification manual of vegetative plant manterials used in Europe and the
southern Mediterranean to c. 1500. Otley, Westbury and London, Royal Botanic Gardens
Kew. INST ARCH BB 51 Qto GAL
also contains useful hints on plant processing
Methods of Assessment
This course is assessed by means of two pieces of course-work:
1. an essay of 2000 words contributes 50% to the final grade for the course. Deadline: 14. November
2014
2. the documentation of practical work, which contributes 50% to the final grade for the course. Deadline 27. March 2015.
Teaching methods
This handbook contains the basic information about the content and administration of the course. Additional subject-specific reading lists and individual session handouts may be given out at appropriate
points in the course. If students have queries about the objectives, structure, content, assessment or
organisation of the course, they should consult the Course Co-ordinator (Ulrike Sommer).
This course will be taught by lectures and practicals at the end of each session. The lectures will introduce the main issues and themes of the course. The practicals will provide students with the opportunity of handling the materials discussed in the lecture and trying out some fundamental skills. In
most cases, time will not be sufficient to really learn a specific technique (this might have taken years
in prehistory) but it should give an idea of the skills involved and enable you to practice it on your own.
There is the opportunity to stay on after the course to continue with the practical work.
Workload
There will be 15 hours of lectures and 5 hours of practicals (20 minutes in each session) sessions for
this course. Students will be expected to undertake around 100 hours of reading for the course, plus
68 hours preparing for and producing the assessed work. This adds up to a total workload of some
188 hours for the course. This does not include the time for sourcing raw materials for the practical
work.
Lecture summaries
The following is an outline for the course as a whole, and identifies essential and supplementary reading relevant to each session. Information is provided as to where in the UCL library system individual
readings are available; their location and status (whether out on loan) can also be accessed on the online OPAC (http://library.ucl.ac.uk/F). Readings marked with an * are considered essential to keep up
with the topics covered in the course.
9
Prerequisites
There are no prerequisites. The courses ARCL 1003, 1007 and 2037 should provide the necessary
general background.
2. AIMS, OBJECTIVES AND ASSESSMENT
Aims
1) gain a basic knowledge of the organic materials used in prehistory, their composition and the conditions leading to their preservation in the archaeological record
2) acquire a practical knowledge of some basic techniques for working organic materials
3) learn how to conduct and to document practical/experimental work and how to devise hands-on experiences in museum work
Objectives
students should learn to:
-acquire information from texts, critically appraise it and use it to perform an experimental replication
of prehistoric techniques
-independently plan and execute practical work
-document practical work by a variety of techniques
-apply acquired knowledge to new situations
-present their practical work to others and discuss the implications
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of the course students should be able to demonstrate/have developed:
• the ability to conduct independent library research and to extract relevant information from a
wide variety of texts
• transferring specialist knowledge into a project directed at the general public
• describe and document a practical project
Knowledge and understanding:
1) familiarity with major sources of relevant evidence
2) knowledge of prehistoric techniques. The practicals will allow the students to appraise the level of
prehistoric technology and to assess how much time was spent on the manufacture of items and their
role in society
Skills:
1) analyse and critically appraise other people’s arguments in the light of practical applications
2) conduct independent library/net research to locate valid archaeological examples and connect them
to ancient and modern treatises on technology. Assess validity of sources.
3) practical experience in working with select organic materials.
4) produce logical and structured arguments supported by relevant evidence
5) devise experimental reproductions and tie them back to the relevant archaeological discussion
Coursework
If students are unclear about the nature of an assignment, they should discuss this with the Course
Co-ordinator.
Students are not permitted to re-write and re-submit essays in order to try to improve their marks.
However, students may be permitted, in advance of the deadline for a given assignment, to submit for
comment a brief outline of the assignment. The Course Co-ordinator is willing to discuss an outline of
the student's approach to the assignment, provided this is planned suitably in advance of the submission date.
10
Word-length
The following should not be included in the word-count: bibliography, appendices, and tables, graphs
and illustrations and their captions.
Strict regulations with regard to word-length are in effect at UCL. If your work is between 10% and
20% longer than the official limit you mark will be reduced by 10%, subject to a minimum mark of a
minimum pass, assuming that the work merited a pass. If your work is more than 20% over-length, a
mark of zero will be recorded. See the BA/BSc Handbook for details.
Submission
Date-stamping of coursework is via ‘Turnitin’ (see below), so students must submit their work to
Turnitin by the midnight on the day of the deadline. Be aware that the system is very busy on some
days, so do not submit at the last minute! Hard copy will no longer be date-stamped. Students are required to submit each piece of work electronically to Turnitin.
Further information is given at http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/handbook/common/cfp.htm. Turnitin
advisors will be available to help you via email: ioa-turnitin@ucl.ac.uk if you need help generating or
interpreting the reports.
In some cases, second-marking will be done on the TII-submissions, so please submit the complete
essay to turnitin, including illustrations (they will be visible to the lecturer!), captions, a list of illustrations and the bibliography. Please use a word-processor format (Word, Open Office, Pages, RTF). If
you don't trust Word's handling of figures, you can submit a pdf and a Word-file or add the illustrations
at the end of the essay.
ARCL 2041, 2014, essay no. #
Candidate Number
Title of the essay/project documentation
date of submission
wordcount
dyslexia, if applicable
Students are required to submit hard copy of all coursework to the course co-ordinator's pigeon hole
via the Red Essay Box at Reception by the appropriate deadline. The coursework must be stapled to a
completed coversheet (available from the web, from outside Room 411A or from the library). Students
should put their Candidate Number, not their name, on all coursework. They should also put the Candidate Number and course code on each page of their work.
Please note that new, stringent penalties for late submission have been introduced UCL-wide from
2012-13. These are given below. Late submission will be penalized in accordance with these regulations unless permission has been granted and an Extension Request Form (ERF) completed. The extension request form asks for the student's candidate number. Students will, of course, have to break
their anonymity when seeking the approval of the relevant course coordinator and personal tutor.
Students who encounter technical problems submitting their work to Turnitin should email the nature of
the problem to ioa-turnitin@ucl.ac.uk in advance of the deadline in order that the Turnitin-Advisers can
notify the Course Co-ordinator that it may be appropriate to waive the late submission penalty.
If there is any other unexpected crisis on the submission day, students should e-mail the Course Coordinator, and follow this up with a completed ERF. This will of course destroy your anonymity!
Please see the Coursework Guidelines on the IoA website (or your Degree Handbook) for further details of penalties.
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/administration/students/handbook/submission
The Turnitin 'Class ID' for 2014/15 is 783221 and the 'Class Enrolment Password' is IoA1415 (Capital
I, small letter o, Capital A). Further information is given on the IoA website.
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/administration/students/handbook/turnitin
Timescale for return of marked coursework to students
You can expect to receive your marked work within four calendar weeks of the official submission
deadline, if submitted in time. If you do not receive your work within this period, or a written explanation from the marker, you should notify the IoA’s Academic Administrator, Judy Medrington.
Students should collect coursework in person from the classroom, during the examiner's office hours
or at another arranged time. Examiners can only provide additional feedback to a student once the
work has been graded and the student has identified her/himself.
11
Keeping copies
Please note that it is an Institute requirement that you retain a copy (this can be electronic) of all
coursework submitted. When your marked essay is returned to you, you should return it to the marker
within two weeks. If the coursework is not returned, it cannot be passed on to the secondmarker and
external.
Citing of sources
The Institute of Archaeology referencing guide can be found under
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/handbook/common/referencing.htm and should be adhered to closely.
Coursework should be expressed in a student’s own words giving the exact source of any ideas, information, diagrams, pictures etc. that are taken from the work of others. Any direct quotations from
the work of others must be indicated as such by being placed between inverted commas and needs
an exact reference. including page-numbers. Plagiarism is regarded as a very serious irregularity
which can carry very heavy penalties. It is your responsibility to read and abide by the requirements
for presentation, referencing and avoidance of plagiarism to be found in the IoA ‘Coursework Guidelines’ on the IoA website:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/administration/students/handbook
Strict new penalties for plagiarism have been introduced, consult the BA/BsC handbooks for details.
Illustrations
It is good practice to illustrate essays, dissertations and presentations (it can also help you to cut down
on wordy descriptions etc.). The illustrations included should be relevant to your argument, not simply
nice to look at or easy to find on the net. Every illustration must be numbered and referred to by this
number in the text. Guidelines on illustration are to be found at:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/intranet/students.htm.
Scanners are available in several locations. The primary location for Institute students is in the Institute's Photography Lab (Room 405), where tuitition and advice on their appropriate use is available. If
you are involved in a project that requires large amounts of scanning it may be worth getting access to
the scanner in the AGIS Lab (Room 322C, contact Mark Lake, Andy Bevan or Peter Schauer for details of access and training on use of this scanner). There is another scanner (must be booked) at the
ISD Helpdesk (http://www.ucl.ac.uk/is/helpdesk/facilities/index.htm)
If there are problems, get in touch with me.
Some basic knowledge of Photoshop Elements or a similar graphics program is useful here. Make
sure your pictures are properly cut, not skewed and of sufficient contrast. Each illustration must be labelled (fig. 1 to #) and referred to by this number in the text. Each illustration must be provided with a
source, either in the text or as a list of illustrations at the end of the essay/dissertation. You can take illustrations from the internet, but make sure they are of sufficient quality and are provided with a proper
source.
For the practical project, good illustrations are essential and will be assessed. Make sure that illustrations actually show the technique in question, instead of general overviews. While modern cameras can deal with bad lighting, good lighting gives you sharper focus and higher quality pictures. It
may make sense to team up for the purpose of illustrations. Make sure that you properly acknowledge
the authorship of any illustrations you use.
Further information
More important information on submission and assessment of essays, plagiarism, the use of turn-it-in
and the layout of essays can be accessed under:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/handbook/common/index.htm
which every student should consult.
Any student who has queries about Turnitin should email ioa-turnitin@ucl.ac.uk
Assessment
All students must submit:
-standard essay (c. 2000 words), submission deadline: 14. November 2014.
12
-Documentation of practical work (up to 4000 words and relevant illustrations, no lower wordlimit),
submission deadline: 27. March 2015.
1. Essay
2000 words
either:
What is the difference between experimental archaeology, demonstrations and community
outreach-projects?
Start with a general discussion, then pick one or at most two case studies of your choice (in a similar
or at least related subject) and discuss their status in the light of your previous discussion.
or
if you are feeling adventurous – this implies that you are knowledgeable in the differences between
experimental archaeology, demonstrations and community outreach-projects/museum activities etc.:
a.
-present a plan for a project in experimental archaeology, outlining:
-aims
-previous knowledge about the subject
-materials needed
-ways of evaluating the outcome
(things to keep on mind, though not necessarily to be addressed in your paper)
-costs
-risk assessment
b.
-present a plan for an outreach project, outlining:
-targeted groups (age, range of interests,
-aims
-materials needed (pretending adequate, but not sumptous funds)
-safety precautions and risk assessment
Consider shifting some of the practical data to tables (not included in word-count)
2. Documentation of practical work
This should outline the archaeological sources, the specific approach chosen by you, the actual process of manufacture, and a discussion of the problems faced, problems and limitations (if any) of your
approach, what you would do differently next time, what you learnt about prehistoric technology and,
maybe, society. The reading list for G120 (Approaches to artefacts, http://ls-tlss.ucl.ac.uk/cgibin/displaylist?module=10ARCLG120) should offer a wide range of more theoretical approaches to artefacts and manufacturing techniques.
The main focus of the documentation should be the archaeological background of the artefact you
have chosen - what is known about raw materials, tools and the manufacturing process - and the documentation of the manufacturing process. The artefact produced should be well documented, it can
also be submitted. While you will not be marked on your abilities as a craftsperson, you should be
sensible in the project you choose. Many technologies will be well beyond your skills, some are noisy,
smelly, unhealthy and need lots of space. You also need to consider health and safety issues.
Choose a specific archaeological find - do not do a general "Neolithic basket" or "a" Venus figurine. In
most cases you will still need to utilise information about other, related finds as well. The artefact chosen as a template should be reasonably well documented and you should illustrate it in your essay.
You will find that many excavation reports do not include much information on methods of manufacture, though.
Do not attempt to replicate the Venus of Lespuges unless you are a master carver and have access to
mammoth ivory! On the other hand, there are a number of much less well-executed (and smaller) "Venus-figurines" - but it will still be a lot of work!
Also think about the tools you are going to use. Original tools are preferable, but there may be good
reasons for using alternative equipment. If you do, discuss the reasons - and the difference this is going to make - in your report.
13
Planning and preparation
Getting hold of the right raw material may be a major challenge. Certain raw materials are only available at certain times of the year, or require seasoning/softening. So plan your practical work well in
advance, also consider the time the actual manufacture will take. I would advise you to start thinking
about your project right at the beginning of the term or even before!
It is advisable to discuss your project with me in advance. I may be able to supply you with certain raw
materials and tools, but do not rely on it! I am also happy to discuss your choice of a project with you!
Format
Between 0 and 4000 words, to be accompanied by relevant illustrations, slides, Power-Point presentation/video etc. A higher wordcount does not necessarily give you a higher mark!
This needs to be a package that can be passed on to second examiners/external examiners in a
piece. How you achieve this I completely up to you. The easiest format might be a written description,
accompanied by the relevant illustrations, or a Power-Point presentation.
Other possibilities:
-Power-Point presentation using the "note" function (in lieu of spoken comment). This could include
animations, short video-clips (as most digital cameras are capable of producing)
-a video/DVD (VERY labour-intensive, and in most cases not worth the trouble – what do you really
need to show? In most cases, the short clips digital cameras can produce, will do – and you can integrate them into a Power-point or any other presentation software. The Institute has two hand-held
video cameras (Sony HDR-GW55VE Handycams) with tripods which can be booked from Jo Dullaghan (general office) on a first come, first served basis. Please note that you must obtain any relevant permissions before filming.
-a u-tube clip with subtitles (no horrible music, please!!!), there are a lot of templates available.
In most cases, you will need to team up in order to properly document the practical work. The focal
point of this course is on your practical work, and the way you designed your project, but you should
still give some thoughts on how to best present your results – and give proper credits to whoever
helped you to produce and document them.
What will be assessed is not the success of your attempt at recreation or your practical skills, but the
quality of the presentation, and the integration between the practical work and a well chosen and presented archaeological example.
ONLINE RESOURCES
The full UCL Institute of Archaeology coursework guidelines are given here:
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/archaeology/handbook/common/marking.htm.
The full text of this handbook is available here (includes clickable links to Moodle and online reading
lists) http://www.ucl.ac.uk/silva/archaeology/course-info/.
Online reading list
available at:
http://ls-tlss.ucl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/displaylist?module=07ARCL1010
Online discussion group
Contains the handbook, some reading and additional information. You can also use it to upload pictures. http://tech.groups.yahoo.com/group/OrganicMaterials2007/
The group is by invitation only, I will email you an invitation as soon as possible.
ADDITIONAL INFORMATION
Libraries and resources
In addition to the Library of the Institute of Archaeology, the other library in UCL with holdings of particular relevance to this degree is the Bloomsbury Science Library (D.M.S. Watson Library). A library
outside UCL with holdings also relevant to this degree is the University of London Senate House Li14
brary (http://catalogue.ulrls.lon.ac.uk/search~S24). Other libraries in London that contain archaeological books and periodicals are the British Library
(http://searchbeta.bl.uk/primo_library/libweb/action/search) and the Society of Antiquaries
(http://www.sal.org.uk/library/catalogue/) and in some cases the SOAS library:
(http://www.soas.ac.uk/library/).
For other British libraries, check the COPAC (http://copac.ac.uk/).
Information for intercollegiate and interdepartmental students
Students enrolled in Departments outside the Institute can collect hard copies of the Institute’s
coursework guidelines from Judy Medrington’s office (411).
Attendance
A register will be taken at each class. If you are unable to attend a class, please notify the lecturer by
email. Departments are required to report each student’s attendance to UCL Registry at frequent intervals throughout each term.
Dyslexia
If you have dyslexia or any other disability, please make your lecturers aware of this. Please discuss
with your lecturers whether there is any way in which they can help you. Students with dyslexia are
reminded to indicate this on each piece of coursework.
Feedback
In trying to make this course as effective as possible, we welcome feedback from students during the
course of the year. All students are asked to give their views on the course in an anonymous questionnaire which will be circulated at one of the last sessions of the course. These questionnaires are
taken seriously and help the Course Co-ordinator to develop the course. The summarised responses
are considered by the Institute's Staff-Student Consultative Committee, Teaching Committee, and by
the Faculty Teaching Committee.
If students are concerned about any aspect of this course we hope they will feel able to talk to the
Course Co-ordinator, but if they feel this is not appropriate, they should consult their Personal Tutor,
the second/third year Tutor, the Academic Administrator (Judy Medrington), or the Chair of Teaching
Committee (Dr. Mark Lake).
Health and safety
The Institute has a Health and Safety policy and code of practice which provides guidance on laboratory work, etc. This is revised annually and the new edition will be issued in due course. All work undertaken in the Institute is governed by these guidelines and students have a duty to be aware of them
and to adhere to them at all times.
• Food and drink must not be consumed during the practicals
• when using sharp implements, adequate caution and protection must be used. Thighs should
be covered with shirts or trousers
• all tools must we used with adequate caution. An introduction on the adequate use of tools will
be provided in class.
Feedback
In trying to make this course as effective as possible, we welcome feedback during the course of the
year. Students will be asked to fill-in Progress Forms at the end of each term, which the Degree Coordinator will discuss with them, which include space for comment on each of their courses.
At the end of each course all students are asked to give their views on the course in an anonymous
questionnaire, which will be circulated at one of the last sessions of the course. These questionnaires
are taken seriously and help the Course Co-ordinator to develop the course. The summarised responses are considered by the Institute's Staff-Student Consultative Committee, Teaching Committee,
and by the Faculty Teaching Committee.
If students are concerned about any aspect of this course we hope they will feel able to talk to the
15
Course Co-ordinator, but if they feel this is not appropriate, they should consult their Degree Coordinator, Personal Tutor, or the Undergraduate Tutors. They may also consult the Academic Administrator (Judy Medrington), the Chair of Teaching Committee (Karin Wright), or the Director (Sue Hamilton).
The following is an outline for the course as a whole, and identifies essential and supplementary readings relevant to each session. Information is provided as to where in the UCL library system individual
readings are available; their location and Teaching Collection (TC) number, and status (whether out on
loan) can also be accessed on the eUCLid computer catalogue system. Readings marked with an *
are considered essential to keep up with the topics covered in the course. Copies of individual articles
and chapters identified as essential reading are in the Teaching Collection in the Institute Library
(where permitted by copyright) or are available online.
The recommended readings are considered essential to keep up with the topics covered in the course
sessions. It is expected that students will have read these prior to the session under which they are
listed.
LECTURE SUMMARIES
1. Introduction
Overview of the subject matter covered by the course, assessment
Difference of organic and inorganic materials
2. Experimental archaeology, experience and demonstration
Martin Schmidt, Niedersächsisches Landesmuseum Hannover
This lecture will discuss the principles of experimental archaeology and discuss other context in which
the use of prehistoric techniques and the creation of prehistoric objects are used:
-experience
-demonstration
-"living archaeology" and re-enactment
Essential reading
experimental archaeology
Coles, J. M. 1973. Archaeology by experiment. London, Hutchinson. INST ARCH K COL
Coles, J. M. 1979. Experimental archaeology. London, Academic Press. INST ARCH AH COL and ISSUE DESK IOA COL 4
Forrest, C. 2008. The nature of scientific experimentation in archaeology: experimental archaeology
from the nineteenth to the mid Twentieth century. In: Cunningham, P., Heeb, J., Paardekooper, R. (eds), Experiencing archaeology by experiment. Oxford, Oxbow, 61-68. INST
ARCH AH CUN
Hurcombe, L. M. 2007. Archaeological artefacts as material culture. Abingdon: Routledge. INST
ARCH AH HUR
Kelterborn, P. 2004. Principles of experimental research in archaeology. euroREA 2/2005, 119-120.
INST ARCH PERS and SCAN
*Lammers-Keijsers, Y. M. J. 2004. Scientific experiments: a possibility? Presenting a general cyclical
script for experiments in archaeology. euroREA 2/2005, 18-24. INST ARCH PERS and
SCAN
Malina, J. 1983. Archaeology and experiment. Norwegian Archaeological Review 16/2, 69-85. IoA
PERS, SCAN
Mathieu, J. R. 2002. Introduction. In: J. R. Mathieu (ed.), Experimental archaeology. Replicating past
objects, behaviours, and processes. BAR INT 1035. Oxford, 1-12. Inst. Arch. AH Qto
MAT, SCAN
Outram, A. 2008. Introduction to experimental archaeology. World Archaeology 40/1, 1-6. INST ARCH
PERS and NET
Paardekooper, R. P. 2008. Experimental archaeology. In Pearsall, D. M., Encyclopedia of Archaeology.
Oxford,
Academic
Press,
1345-1358.
INST
ARCH
AG
PEA
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=
16
851350983&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000010182&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=
125795&md5=f66e8f7932c97eef0ce6dee2a361cdc6
Reynolds, P. J. 1979. Iron-age farm: the Butser experiment. London, British Museum Publications.
INST ARCH DAA 160 REY
Strong argument for pure research
*Reynolds, P. J. 1999. The nature of experiment in archaeology. In: A. E Harding (ed.), Experiment
and design; Archaeological studies in honour of John Coles. Oxford, Oxbow. INST ARCH
DA Qto HAR, SCAN
Saraydar, St. C. 2008. Replicating the Past. The art and science of the archaeological experiment.
Long Grove: Waveland. INST ARCH AH SAR
Tichy, R. 2004. Presentation of archaeology and archaeological experiment. euroREA 2/2005, 113119. INST ARCH PERS and SCAN
see also
Callahan, E. 1999. What is experimental archaeology? In: Westcott, D. (ed.), Primitive technology:
Book of earth skills. Salt Lake City, Gibbs Smith, 4-6.
Cunningham, P.; Heeb, J., Paardekooper, R. (eds) 2007. Experiencing archaeology by experiment.
Oxford, Oxbow. INST ARCH AH CUN
Foulds, W. F. (ed.) 2013. Experimental archaeology and theory: recent approaches to archaeological
hypotheses. Oxford, Oxbow Books. INST ARCH AH FOU
Hodder, I. 1982. Symbols in action: ethnoarchaeological studies of material culture. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. INST ARCH DC 1OO HOD, ISSUE DESK IOA HOD 4
Keefer, E. (ed.) 2006. Lebendige Vergangenheit. Vom archäologischen Experiment zur Zeitreise.
Stuttgart, Theiß. Inst. Arch. DAD 100 KEE
Paardekooper, R. It takes two. Publishing proceedings on experimental archaeology (Book review).
http://www.exarc.net/resources/articles/it_takes_two.html
*Peterson, B., L. E. Narmo (eds.) 2011. Experimental Archaeology. Between Enlightenment and Experience. Acta Arch. Lundensia Series in 8°, N6 62. Lund, Lund University. On Order.
See
also
review
under
http://journal.exarc.net/issue-2012-3/mm/book-reviewexperimental-archaeology-between-enlightenment-and-experience-petersson-and-narmo
Richter, P. 1991. Experimentelle Archäologie: Ziele, Methoden und Aussagemöglichkeiten. In: Fansa,
M. (ed.), Experimentelle Archäologie in Deutschland. Archäologische Mitteilungen aus
Nordwestdeutschland. Beiheft 6. Oldenburg: Isensee, 19-49. INST ARCH DA 100 EXP
Schmidt, M. 1993. Entwicklung und status quo der experimentellen Archäologie. Das Altertum 39, 922.
Schmidt, M. 1995. Are dull reconstructions more scientific? In: Barrois, N., Demarez, Léonce (eds.),
Les sites de reconstitutions archéologiques. Actes du colloque d'Aubechies, 2-5 septembre 1993. Namur: Archeosite, 27-30. SCAN
Seetah, K. 2008. Modern analogy, cultural theory and experimental replication: a merging point at the
cutting edge of archaeology. World Archaeology 40, 135-150. INST ARCH PERS and
NET
Shimada, I. 2005. Experimental Archaeology. In: H. D. G. Maschner, C. Chippindale (eds.), Handbook
of Archaeological methods 1, Lanham: Altamira Press, 603-642. INST ARCH AH MAS,
SCAN
Museums and educational acitivities
http://www.exarc.net/ www.exar.org, www.exarc.eu: European Exchange of Archaeological Research
and Communication.
Gable, E., Hadler, R. 2004. Deep dirt: Messing up the past in Colonial Williamsburg. In: Rowan, Y.,
Baram, U. (eds.) Marketing heritage: archaeology and the consumption of the Past. Walnut Creek: Altamira, 166-180. INST ARCH AG ROW , SCAN
Mullan, B., Marvin, G. 1992. Zoo Culture. Urbana and Chicago, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.
Rentzhog, St. 2007. Open Air Museums. The history and future of a visionary idea. Jämtli, Carlssons.
INST ARCH MG 2 REN, SEES Misc.XVIII.2 REN.
Discussed in: On the Future of Open Air Museums. (Jamtli 2008). Fornvårderen 30.
Stone, P. G., Planel, Ph. (eds.) 1999. The constructed past. Experimental archaeology, education and
the public. One World Archaeology 36. London, Routledge. INST ARCH AH STO, ISSUE
DESK IOA STO 3
Stone, P. G., Molyneaux, B. L. (eds), 1994. The presented past: heritage, museums and education.
17
London, Routledge. INST ARCH M 6 STO
see also
Ahrens, C. 1990. Wiederaufgebaute Vorzeit. Archäologische Freilichtmuseen in Europa. Neumünster:
Wachholtz. INST ARCH MG 2 AHR
Crothers, M. E. 2008. Experimental archaeology within the heritage industry: publicity and the public at
West Stow Anglo-Saxon village. In Cunningham, P.; Heeb, J., Paardekooper, R. (eds)
Experiencing Archaeology by Experiment. Oxford, Oxbow, 37-46. INST ARCH AH CUN
Forrest, C. 2008. Linking experimental archaeology and Living History in the Heritage Industry. EuroArea 5, 33-38. INST ARCH PERS
Paardekooper, R. 2012. The value of an archaeological open-air museum is in its use: understanding
Archaeological Open-air Museums and their visitors. Leiden, Sidestone Press. INST
ARCH MG 2 PAA
Schmidt, M. 2000. Fake! Haus und Umweltkonstruktionen in archäologischen Freilichtmuseen. In: R.
Kelm (ed.) Vom Pfostenloch zum Steinzeithaus. Archäologische Forschung und Rekonstruktion jungsteinzeitlicher Haus- und Siedlungsbefunde im nordwestlichen Mitteleuropa.
Heide: Förderverein AÖZA e.V, 169-176.
Schmidt, M. 2001. Museumspädagogik ist keine experimentelle Archäologie. Experimentelle Archäologie und Museumspädagogik. Experimentelle Archäologie Bilanz 2001. Oldenburg:
Isensee, 81-89. INST ARCH DA 100 EXP
Schmidt, M., Wunderli, M. 2008. Museum experimentell. Experimentelle Archäologie und Vermittlung.
Schwalbach/Ts.: Wochenschau-Verlag. INST ARCH AH SCH
www.vaee.net: Vereniging voor Archeologische Experimenten en Educatie: Many links to open air
museums, professionals, suppliers.
Living History and Re-enactment:
Bangma, A., Rushton, St., Wüst, F. (eds) 2005. Experience, Memory, Re-enactment. Rotterdam, Piet
Zwart Institute publication. Main: ART BE EXP
non-archaeological!
Elliot-Wright, Ph. J. C. 2000. Living History. London, Brassey's.
Firstbook, P. 2001. Surviving the Iron Age. London, BBC (on the TV-Series). INST ARCH DAA 160
FIR
http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/british_prehistory/ironage_intro_01.shtml
see also
Blomann, J. 2007. Geschichte verkaufen: Eventkultur als Arbeitsfeld. Saarbrücken, VDM Verlag.
Müller, K. 2008. Stone age on air. A successful "living science" programme on German television. euroREA 5, 39-44. INST ARCH PERS
Schlenker, R., Bick, A. 2007. Steinzeit. Leben wie vor 5000 Jahren. Stuttgart, Theiß.
Book for a TV-series
Sørenson, C. 2000. Theme parks and time machines. In Vergo, P. (ed.), The new museology. London,
Reaction, 60-73. INST ARCH M 6 VER
Authenticity and reconstructions
C. Holtorf/T. Schadla-Hall, Age as artefact: On archaeological authenticity. European Journal of Archaeology 2/2, 1999, 229-247. NET and INST ARCH PERS
M.-A. Kaeser 2002. L'autonomie des représentations, ou lorsque l'imaginaire collectif s'empare des
images savantes. L'exemple des stations palafittiques. In: P. Jud/G. Kaenel (eds.)
Lebensbilder - Scènes de vie. Actes du colloque de Zoug, 13-14 mars 2001. Zug, Kantonales Museum für Urgeschichte/GPS, 33-40. US
Larsen, K. E. (ed) 1995. Nara Conference on Authenticity. Proceedings of the Conference in Nara, Japan, 1-6 November 1994. Trondheim: Tapir. ONLINE
Mainka-Mehling, A. 2008. Lebensbilder. Zur Darstellung des ur- und frühgeschichtlichen Menschen in
der Archäologie. Remshalden, BAG.
Molyneaux B. L. 1997. The cultural life of images: visual representation in archaeology. London, Routledge. INST ARCH AL MOL
Petersson, B. 2010. Presenting archaeological reconstructions to the public – Meeting the needs of
sensory experience. EuroREA, Journal of (Re)construction and Experiment in Archaeol18
ogy 7, 59-61.
Moser, St. 1999. The dilemmas of didactic displays: Habitat dioramas, life-groups and reconstructions
of the past. In: N. Merriman (ed.), Making early histories in museums. London, Leicester
University Press, 95-116. INST ARCH MG 2 MER
Smiles, S., Moser, St. (eds) 2005. Envisioning the past: archaeology and the image. Oxford, Blackwell.
INST ARCH AH SMI
3. Antler, bone and horn
Since the Palaeolithic, bone was a very important material for toolmalking. It is strong, but also elastic,
nearly ubiquitous. Antler is even stronger, but not as easily acquired.
In the research on the Palaeolithic, flint tools are always considered as more important, maybe simply
because they are more numerous, but the amount of work that went into making some kinds of bone
tools probably meant that they were highly curated. There are examples of expedient bone tools as
well. Bone and antler were an important raw material through most of prehistory well into modern
times; we will only be able to look at selected examples of their use.
Bone
Essential reading
Choyke, A. M., L. Bartosiewicz (eds.) 2001. Crafting Bone - Skeletal technologies through time and
space. Proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the (ICAZ) Worked Bone Research Group Budapest, 31 August–5 September 1999. BAR Int. Series 937. Oxford, BAR. KB Qto CHO
Luik, H., Choyke, A. M, Batey, E. Lougars, L. (eds.) 2005. From hooves to horns, from molluscs to
mammoth: manufacture and use of bone artefacts from prehistoric times to the present
th
day. Proceedings of the 4 meeting of the ICAZ Worked Bone Research Group in Tallinn
2003. Tallinn, Muinsaja Teadus. On Order
both with articles on diverse artefact types, good source for inspiration. See also other volumes of this
group
David, E. 2007. Technology of bone and antler industries: a relevant methodology for characterising
th
th
early Post-Glacial societies (9 -8 Millenium BC). In: St. Pierre, Chr. G., Walker, R. B.
(eds) 2007. Bones as tools: Current methods and interpretations in worked bone studies.
BAR International Series 1622. Oxford, BAR, 35-50. INST ARCH KB Qto GAT
*MacGregor, A. 1985. Bone, antler, ivory and horn: the technology of skeletal remains since the Roman period. London, Croom Helm. INST ARCH KB MAC
Olsen. S. L. 2007. Conclusions: Bone artefacts and their importance to archaeology. In: St. Pierre,
Chr. G., Walker, R. B. (eds) 2007. Bones as tools: Current methods and interpretations in
worked bone studies. BAR International Series 1622. Oxford, BAR, 175-182. INST ARCH
KB Qto GAT
see also
O’Connor, T. 2000. The Archaeology of Animal Bones. Stroud: Sutton. INST ARCH BB3 OCO.
general introduction to zooarchaeology
Becker, C. 2003. Bone artefacts and man – an attempt at a cultural synthesis. In: Grupe, G., Peters, J.
(eds.), Decyphering ancient bones: the research potential of bioarchaeological collections. Rahden: Leidorf, 83-124. INST ARCH BB 2 Qto GRU
Camps-Fabrer, H. 1988-1996. Fiches typologiques de l'industrie osseuse préhistorique. Union internationale des sciences préhistoriques et protohistoriques, Commission de nomenclature sur
l'industrie de l'os préhistorique. Aix-en-Provence: Université de Provence, 1-8. INST
ARCH KB Qto Series FIC
very useful catalogue
Christidiou, R. 2004. Fabrication d'outils en os: exemple d'opérations de raclage et d'abrasion. Dossiers de l'archéologie 290, 56-57.
Griffitts, J. L. 1997. Replication and analysis of bone tools. In: Hannus, A., Rossum, L., Winham, R. P.
(eds), Proceedings of the 1993 Bone modification conference, Hot Springs, South Dakota. Sioux Falls: Archaeology Laboratory, Augustana College.
Kokabi, M. (ed.), 1994. Knochenarbeit. Stuttgart, Landesdenkmalamt Baden-Württemberg. INST
ARCH DAD 15 KOK
19
Lam, Y. M., Chen, X., Marean, C. W., Frey, C., 1998. Bone density and long bone representation in
archaeological faunas: comparing results from CT and photo densitometry. Journal of Archaeological Science 25, 559–570. Online
mainly on taphonomy, but also has implications for tool manufacture
St. Pierre, Chr. G., Walker, R. B. (eds) 2007. Bones as tools: Current methods and interpretations in
worked bone studies. BAR International Series 1622. Oxford, BAR. INST ARCH KB Qto
GAT
articles on diverse artefact types, also good source for inspiration for practical projects
Riddler, I. D. 2003. Materials of Manufacture: The Choice of Materials in the Working of Bone and Antler in Northern and Central Europe during the First Millennium AD. BAR International Series 1193. Oxford, Archaeopress. INST ARCH KB Qto RID
bone structure
Currey, J. D. 1979. Mechanical properties of bone tissues with greatly differing functions. Journal of
Biomechanics 12/4, 313–319. ONLINE
Gilbert, A. 1989. Microscopic bone structure in wild and domestic animals: a reappraisal. In: P. Crabtree, D. Campana, K. Ryan (eds), Early animal domestication and its cultural context
MASCA research papers, supplement 6, 46-86. INST ARCH HA CRA
Lam, Y. M., Pearson, O. M. 2004. The fallibility of bone density values and their use in archaeological
record. Journal of Taphonomy 2, 99–115. ONLINE
Archaeological examples of bone tools
highly selective!
Palaeolithic and Mesolithic
d’Errico F., Backwell, L. 2009. Assessing the function of early hominin bone tools. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 1764–1773. ONLINE
Use-wear on early bone-tools
d’Errico, F., Henshilwood, C. S., 2007. Additional evidence for bone technology in the southern African
Middle Stone Age. Journal of Human Evolution 52, 142–163. ONLINE
The antiquity of working bone
*David, E. 2008. Technologie osseuse de derniers chasseurs préhistoriques en Europe du Nord (IXVIII millenaires av. J.-C.). Le Maglemosien et les technocomplexes du Mésolithique. Montagnac: Mergoil.
Guthrie, R. D. 1983. Osseous projectile points: Biological considerations affecting raw material selection and design among Paleolithic and Paleoindian peoples. In: J. Clutton-Brock, C. Grigson (eds), Animals and Archaeology. British Archaeological Reports, International Series
163. Oxford, BAR, 273–294. INST ARCH BB 3 Qto CLU
Hallam, J. S., Edwards, B. J. N., Barnes, B., Stuart, A. J., 1973. The remains of a late glacial elk associated with barbed points from High Furlong, near Blackpool, Lancashire. Proceedings of
the Prehistoric Society 39, 100–128. IoA PERS
Henshilwood, C. S., d’Errico, F., Marean, C. W., Milo, R. G., Yates, R., 2001. An early bone tool industry from the Middle Stone Age at Blombos Cave, South Africa: implications for the origins of modern human behaviour, symbolism and language. Journal of Human Evolution
41, 631–678. ONLINE
maybe slightly overrating the general importance of bone-working
*Knecht, H. 1997. Projectile points of bone, antler, and stone: Experimental explorations of manufacture and use. In: H. Knecht (ed.), Projectile Technology. New York, Plenum Publishing,
191–212. INST ARCH HB KNE
Pokines, J. T. 1998, Experimental reconstruction and use of Cantabrian Lower Magdalenian antler
projectile points. Journal of Archaeological Science 25, 1998, 875-886. NET
Pidoplicko I. G. 1998. Upper Palaeolithic dwellings of Mammoth bones in the Ukraine. BAR international series 712. Oxford, BAR. DAK 15 Qto PID
Nice, but difficult to reproduce…
Wolberg, D. L. 1970. The hypothesized Osteodontokeratic Culture of the Australopithecinae: A look at
the evidence and the opinions. Current Anthropology 11/1, 23-37. INST ARCH PERS and
NET
The early tools that weren't
Yellen, J. E. 1998. Barbed Bone Points: Tradition and Continuity in Saharan and Sub-Saharan Africa.
African Archaeological Review 15/3, 1998, 173-198. ONLINE
20
An example of extreme longevity, but nothing on manufacture
Neolithic
Bergman, C. A., 1987. Hafting and use of bone and antler points from Ksar Akil, Lebanon. In: Stordeur, D. (ed.), La main et l’outil. Manches et emmanchements préhistoriques. Lyon, Maison de l’Orient méditerranéen, 117–126. STORE 08-0721
also generally on hafting
Campana, D. V. 1989. Natufian and Protoneolithic bone tools. The manufacture and use of bone implements in the Zagros and the Levant. BAR Int. 494. Oxford, BAR. STORES
*Camps-Fabrer, H. (ed.) 1985. L'industrie en os et en bois de cervide durant le Néolithique et l'age des
métaux: Troisième reunion du groupe de travail no. 3 sur l'industrie des l'os préhistorique.
Paris: CNRS. STORE 02-05018
Newcomer, M. H. 1974. Study and replication of bone tools from Ksar Akil (Lebanon). World Archaeology 6, 138–153. NET
*Schibler, J. 2001. Experimental production of Neolithic bone and antler tools. In: Choyke, A. M., L.
Bartosiewicz (eds.), Skeletal technologies through time and space. Oxford, BAR Int. S.
937, 49-60. KB Qto CHO
http://ipna.unibas.ch/forschung/experimentneolknochen.htm
production of bone chisels
Roman
Bertolaccini, L. et al., 2008. Ad Fines – Das spätrömische Kastell Pfyn. Archäologie im Thurgau 8/2.
Frauenfeld, Departement für Erziehung und Kultur.
Ciugudean, D. 2001. Workshops and manufacturing Techniques at Apulum (AD 2nd-3rd Century). In:
Choyke, A. M., L. Bartosiewicz (eds.) 2001. Crafting Bone - Skeletal technologies
through time and space. Proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the (ICAZ) Worked Bone Research Group Budapest, 31 August–5 September 1999. BAR Int. Series 937. Oxford,
BAR. KB Qto CHO
Deschler-Erb, S. 2001. Do-it-yourself manufacturing of Bone and Antler in two Villas in Roman Switzerland. In: Choyke, A. M., L. Bartosiewicz (eds.) 2001. Crafting Bone - Skeletal technologies through time and space. Proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the (ICAZ) Worked
Bone Research Group Budapest, 31 August–5 September 1999. BAR Int. Series 937.
Oxford, BAR. KB Qto CHO
Irving, B. 1992. The pectoral fin spines of European catfish Silurius glanis; cultural artifacts or food remains? International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 2, 189-197.
Nice illustration of the difficulty of interpreting unmodified bone remains that could have been used as
tools
St. Clair, A. 2003. Carving as craft: Palatine east and the Greco-Roman bone and ivory carving tradition. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. YATES QUARTOS M 190 STC
Good introduction to later techniques.
Stevens-Cox, J. 1982. Romano-British bone hairpins and needles found at Ilchester between 1948
and 1955. St. Peter Port, Toucan. Stores
Medieval
Choyke, A. M. 1998. Bone skates: raw material, manufacturing and use. Antaeus 24: 148-156. INST
ARCH PERS
Dijkman, W. 1998. Antler, bone, horn, ivory and teeth: the use of animal skeletal materials in Roman
and early medieval Maastricht. Maastricht: Archaeology Section, Department of Urban
Development and Ground Maintenance, Municipality of Maastricht in collaboration with
the Institute for the Archaeological Heritage of the Flemish Community. Archaeologica
Mosana 1. INST ARCH DAHA Qto DIJ
Driver, J. C. 1984. Zooarchaeological Analysis of raw-material selection by a Saxon artisan. Journal of
Field Archaeology 11/4, 397-403. NET, IoA PERS
Küchelmann, H.-P., Zidarov, P. 2005. Let’s skate together! Skating on bones in the past and today. In:
Luik, H., Choyke, A. M, Batey, E. Lougars, L. (eds.), From hooves to horns, from molluscs
to mammoth: manufacture and use of bone artefacts from prehistoric times to the present
day. Proceedings of the 4th meeting of the ICAZ Worked Bone Research Group in Tallinn
2003. Tallinn, Muinsaja Teadus, 425-445. Download at:
http://www.wbrg.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=8&Itemid=8
21
Lauwerier, R. C. G. M., van Heeringen, R. M. 1995. Objects of bone, antler and horn from the circular
fortress of Oost Souburg, The Netherlands (A.D. 900–975). Medieval Archaeology 39,
71–90. INST ARCH PERS
Mac Gregor, A. 1989. Bone, antler and horn industries in the urban context. In: D. Serjeantson/T.
Waldron (eds.), Diet and crafts in towns, the evidence from animal remains from the Roman to the Post-Medieval periods. BAR Brit. 199, Oxford, BAR, 107-128. INST ARCH
DAA Qto Series BRI 199, STORES
MacGregor, A. 1998. Hides, horns and bones: animals and independent industries in the early urban
context. In: Cameron, E. (ed.), Leather and fur: Aspects of early medieval trade and technology. London, Archetype, 11-26. INST ARCH KI CAM
MacGregor, A. Mainman, A. J., Rogers N. S. H. 1999, Craft, industry and everyday life: Bone, antler,
ivory and horn from Anglo-Scandinavian and Medieval York. London, Council for British Archaeology. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6 Series YOR 17/12
Wenham, L. P. 1964. Hornpot lane and the horners of York. Annual report of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society 1964, 25-56. GEOSCIENCE Pers
New World
Emery, K. F. 2009. Perspectives on ancient Maya bone crafting from a Classic period bone-artifact
manufacturing assemblage. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 28, 458–470. ONLINE
mainly on social meaning
Groove and splinter technique
Clark, J. G. D. et al. 1954, Excavations at Star Carr, an early Mesolithic site at Seamer, near Scarborough, Yorkshire. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.5
CLA
Clark, J. G. D., Thompson, M. W. 1953. The groove and splinter technique of working antler in the
Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Europe, with special reference to the material from Star
Carr. Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society 19, 148-160. INST ARCH PERS
Stordeur, D. 1977. La fabrication des aiguilles à chas: observations et experimentation. In CampsFabrer, H. (ed.), Méthode appliquée à l'industrie de l'os préhistorique. Paris: CNRS, 251256.
Stordeur-Yedid, D. 1979. Les aiguilles à chas du Paléolithique. Suppléments à Gallia Préhistoire 13.
Paris: CNRS. INST ARCH DAC Qto Series GAL PRE
Combs
Ambrosiani, K. 1981. Viking age combs, comb making and comb makers in the light of finds from Birka and Ribe. Stockholm, Göteborgs Offsettryckeri. Stockholm studies in archaeology 2.
Main, SCANDINAVIAN A 52 AMB and Store
Batey, C. 2001. Viking and Late Norse Combs in Scotland: An Update. In: Choyke, A. M., L. Bartosiewicz (eds.) 2001. Crafting Bone - Skeletal technologies through time and space. Proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the (ICAZ) Worked Bone Research Group Budapest, 31
August–5 September 1999. BAR Int. Series 937. Oxford, BAR. KB Qto CHO
Hills, C. 1981. Barred zoomorphic combs of the Migration Period. In: V. Evison (ed.), Angles, Saxons
and Jutes. Oxford, Clarendon. INST ARCH DA 180 MYR
Tuohy, T. 1999. Prehistoric combs of antler and bone. BAR Brit. 285 Oxford, BAR. INST ARCH DAA
Qto Series BRI 285
Flutes
Leaf, H. 2006. English Medieval bone flutes: A brief introduction. Galpin Society Journal 59, 13-19.
ONLINE
Lund, C. S. 1985. Bone Flutes in Västergötland, Sweden, Finds and Traditions. A MusicArchaeological Study. Acta Musicologica 57/1, 9-25. ONLINE
Other
Armitage, P. 1989. The use of animal bones as building material in Post-Medieval Britain. In: Serjeantson, D., Waldren, T. (eds) Diet and Crafts in Towns, the evidence of animal remains from the
Roman to the post-medieval periods. BAR Brit. Series 199. Oxford, BAR, 147–60. INST
ARCH DAA Qto Series BRI 199
Buikstra, J. E., Swegle, M. 1989. Bone modification due to burning: experimental evidence. In: R.
Bonnichsen, M. H. Sorg (eds), Bone modification. Peopling of the Americas Publications. Oro22
Orono: Center for the Study of the First Americans, Institute for Quaternary Studies, University
of Maine. INST ARCH BB 3 BON
Flad, R. K. 2008. Divination and power: A multiregional view of the development of oracle bone divination in Early China. Current Anthropology 49/3, 403-437. INST ARCH PERS and NET
disintegration, effects of heat
Hedges, R. E. M. 2002. Bone diagenesis: an overview of processes. Archaeometry 44, 3, 319–328.
Net
also other articles in same volume
Murphy, E. 1998. A curious old wall… An unusual horn-core structure from Carrickfergus, Co Antrim.
Archaeology Ireland 12/244, 16–17.
Roberts, S. J., Smith, C. I., Millard, A., Collins, M. J. 2002. The taphonomy of cooked bone: characterizing boiling and its physico-chemical effects. Archaeometry 44/3, 485– 494. NET
Speth, J. D. 2000. Boiling vs. baking and roasting: a taphonomic approach to the recognition of cooking techniques in small mammals. In: Rowley-Conwy, P. (ed.), Animal bones, human societies. Oxford, Oxbow Books, 106–114. ISSUE DESK IOA ROW 4
Teeth
Ivory
Cutler, A. 1994. The hand of the master: craftsmanship, ivory, and society in Byzantium (9th-11th centuries). Princeton, Princeton University Press. INST ARCH KB CUT
Contains some useful information on manufacture, ignore the art-historical details
Evely, P. 1992. Towards an elucidation of the ivory-worker's kit in Neopalatial Crete. In: Fitton, J. L.
(ed.), Ivory in Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean from the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Period. London, British Museum, 7-16. INST ARCH KB FIT
Hahn, J., Menu, M., Taborin, Y, Wideman, F. (eds), Le travail et l'usage de l'ivoire au Paléolithique
Supérieue. Roma, Centro universitario Europeo per I Beni Culturali. INST ARCH DA 120
HAH
Holtzapffel, Ch. H. 2000. Working horn, ivory & tortoishell. Portland, Caber Press (Reprint). INST
ARCH KB HOL
Old, but nice…
Krzyszkowska, O. 1990. Ivory and related materials: an illustrated guide. London, Institute of Classical
Studies. INST ARCH KB KRZ
very useful for identification
Krzyszkowska, O., Morkot, R., 2000. Ivory and related Materials. In: Nicholson, P.T., Shaw, I. (eds.)
Ancient Egyptian Materials and Technology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 320331. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS S 5 NIC, INST ARCH K Qto NIC, ISSUE DESK IOA
NIC.
Maigrot, Y. 2001. Technical and functional study of ethnographic (Irian Jaya, Indonesia) and archaeological (Chalain and Clairvaux, Jura, France, 30th century BC) tools made from boar's
tusks. In: Beyries, Sylvie; Petrequin, Pierre (eds.), Ethno-archaeology and its transfers:
papers from a session held at the European Association of Archaeologists Fifth Annual
Meeting in Bournemouth 1999. Oxford, Archaeopress, 67-80.
Villa, P., d’Errico, F., 2001. Bone and ivory points in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic of Europe. Journal of Human Evolution 41, 69–112. NET
other teeth
Choyke, Alice M. (2001): Late Neolithic red deer canine beads and their imitations. In: Choyke, A. M.,
L. Bartosiewicz (eds.) 2001. Crafting bone - skeletal technologies through time and
space. Proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the (ICAZ) Worked Bone Research Group Budapest, 31 August–5 September 1999. BAR Int. Series 937. Oxford, BAR. KB Qto CHO
Antler
essential reading
Chapman, D. I. 1981. Antler structure and function - a hypothesis. Journal of Biomechanics 14, 195–
197. Elsevier ScienceDirect Complete
23
Currey, J. D. (1989). Strain rate dependence of the mechanical properties of reindeer antler and the
cumulative damage model of bone fracture. Journal of Biomechanics 22, 469–475. Elsevier ScienceDirect Complete
Breakage
Goss, R. J. 1983. Deer antlers, regeneration, function and evolution. New York, Academic Press.
INST ARCH KB GOS.
Knecht, H. 1993. Splits and wedges: the technique and technology of Early Aurignacian antler working. In: H. Knecht, A. Pike-Tay, R. White (eds), Before Lascaux: The Complex Record of
the Early Upper Paleolithic. Boca Raton, CRC Press, 137–162. ISSUE DESK IOA KNE
Structure and Biology
*MacGregor, A., Mainman, A. J., Rogers, N. S. H. 1999. Bone, antler, ivory and horn from AngloScandinavian and Medieval York. In: P. V. Addyman (ed.), The archaeology of York
17/12. York, Published for the York Archaeological Trust by the Council for British Archaeology. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6 Series YOR 17/12
Schibler, J. 2002. Red deer antler exploitation and raw material management in Neolithic Lake Dwelling sites from Zürich, Switzerland. In Buitenhus, H., Prummel, W. (eds), Animals and
Man in the past. Groningen, J. B. Wolters, 82-94. STORE 97-10362/63
see also
Bedliman, C. 2000. Objets de parure en matières dures animals dans le Néolithique ancien de Roumanie: bracelets en bois du cerf. Bulletin du Musée départemental Teohari Antonescu 57, 31-45.
Biddle, M. 1990. The nature and chronology of bone, antler, and horn working in Winchester. In: Biddle, M. Object and Economy in Medieval Winchester. Winchester Studies 7. Oxford, Oxford University Press, 252-264. INST ARCH DAA 410 H.2 WIN 7/2/1
*Camps-Fabrer, H. (ed) 1985. L'industrie en os et bois de cervidé durant le néolithique et l'âge des
métaux: troisième réunion du Groupe de travail no 3 sur l'industrie de l'os préhistorique,
Aix-en-Provence, 26.-28 octobre 1983. Aix-en-Provence, France). Paris: C.N.R.S. INST
ARCH KB Qto CAM
And also the previous reunions
Maigrot, Y. 2001. Le débitage du bois du cerf au Néolithique final à Chalain et Claivaux (Jura,
France). Approche expérimentale. In: Bourguignon, L., Ortega, I., Frère-Sautot, M. C.
(eds), Préhistoire et approche expérimentale. Montagnac: Mergoil, 165-172. INST ARCH
AH Qto BOU
Projectile points
Becker, C. 2001. Bone points - no longer a mystery? Evidence from the Slavic urban fortification of
Berlin-Spandau. In: Choyke, A. M., L. Bartosiewicz (eds.) 2001. Crafting bone - skeletal
technologies through time and space. Proceedings of the 2nd meeting of the (ICAZ)
Worked Bone Research Group Budapest, 31 August–5 September 1999. BAR Int. Series
937. Oxford, BAR. KB Qto CHO (bone)
Pétillon, J.-M. 2006. Des Magdaléniens en armes. Technologie des armatures de projectile en bois de
cervide du Magdalénien supérieur de la grotte d’Isturitz (Pyrénées-Atlantiques). Treignes,
Centre d’études et de documentation archéologiques. STORE 04-0930/697
Pokines, J. T., Krupa, M. 1997. Self-barbed antler spearpoints and evidence of fishing in the late Upper Palaeolithic of Cantabrian Spain. In: Knecht, H. (ed.), Projectile Technology. New
York, Plenum Press, 241–262. INST ARCH HB KNE
http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=4793621846559520740&ei=4Mq_Sfi2FIrEqQL6y8G8Cw&q=antler+craft&hl=en#
Film on making an antler-point
Other
Tortoise Shell
Moorey, P. R. S. 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence.
Oxford, Clarendon, 128-129. INST ARCH DBB 100 MOO
24
Baleen and whalebone
Mulville, J. 2002. The Role of Cetacea in Prehistoric and Historic Atlantic Scotland. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 12, 34–48. ONLINE
Use of whalebone and baleen
Rice, D. 2009. Baleen. In: Perrin, W. F., Würsig, B. Thewissen, J. G. M. (eds), Encyclopedia of marine
nd
mammals. London, Academic Press (2 edition). Science, ZOOLOGY 25 f PER
formation and use
Savelle, J. M. 1997. The role of architectural utility in the formation of zooarchaeological whale bone
assemblages. Journal of Archaeological Science 24, 869–885. ONLINE
Whalebone as building material
Horn
Blair, J., Ramsay, N. 1991. English medieval industries: Craftsmen, techniques, products. London,
Hambledon Press, 370-374. INST ARCH K BLA
Lanthorns and hornbooks, pass.
Fisher, M.A. 1936. A Short History of the Worshipful Company of Horners. London, Horners’ Company.
Holtzapffel, C. 2000. Working horn, ivory and tortoiseshell. Portland, Caber Press. INST ARCH KB
HOL
O'Connor, S. 1987. The identification of osseous and keratineous materials at York. In: Starling, K.,
Watkinson, D. (eds.), Archaeological bone, antler and ivory. The proceedings of a conference held by UKIC Archaeology Section, December 1984. Occasional Papers 5. London,
The United Kingdom Institute for Conservation, 9-21. INST ARCH KB STA
very useful short overview, also on Tortoiseshell, Baleen etc.
Taylor, W. 1927. The Sheffield horn industry. Sheffield, Northend.
Tuer, A. W. 1896. History of the horn book. London, Leadenhall Press
Wenham, L. P. 1964. Hornpot Lane and the horners of York. Yorkshire Philosophical Soc. Annual Report 25–56.
Yeomans, L. 2008. Historical and zooarchaeological evidence of horn-working in post-medieval London Post-Medieval Archaeology 42/1 (2008), 130–143.
DOI: 10.1179/174581308X354010.
http://www.antiquespectacles.com/
lots of illustrations of early spectacles: but do not use as a source in itself!
Ideas for practical work
-Horn-comb
-Roman/Medieval horn-lamp (Lanthorn)
-horn-spectacles
-bone-harpoons
-bone fishhook
-diverse bone-tools
-bone hook-end for spearthrower
-Bell Beaker bone belt hook
-bone flute
-Paternoster beads
-Ertebølle bone-bracelets
-softening bone and antler
-antler-cup
5. Shells and eggshells
Shells are strictly speaking mainly inorganic, but they are produced by living organisms. These materials were often, but not exclusively, worked into ornaments. In areas without suitable stone, they
were also manufactured into tools (shell adzes, etc.).
Eggs and some shells were probably used because they did already have shapes that could be utilised. Shells were also perforated and shaped by grinding, a technique that was probably stimulated
by natural processes of attrition. While the technique is quite simple, it is also time-consuming.
Pierced shells and teeth as well as beads can be interpreted as early prestige items. They also provide some very early examples of trade.
25
Shells
Essential reading
Claassen, C. 1998. Shells. Cambridge Manuals in Archaeology. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press. INST ARCH BB 4 CLA
Ifantidis, F. and Nikolaidou, M. (eds.), 2011. Spondylus in Prehistory: New Data and Approaches –
Contributions to the Archaeology of Shell Technologies. British Archaeological Reports, Int.
Ser. 2216. Oxford, Archaeopress. INST ARCH BB 4 Qto IFA
various articles
Miller, M. A. 2003. Technical aspects of ornament production at Sitagroi. In: Elster, E. S., Renfrew, C.
(eds.), Prehistoric Sitagroi. Excavations in Northern Greece, 1969-1970, Vol. 2. Monumenta Archaeologica 20. Los Angeles, 369-382. INST ARCH DAE Qto ELS
Serrand, N., Bonnisent D. 2002. Pre-Columbian shellfish consumption and shell tool production: shell
remains from Orient Bay, Saint-Martin, Northern Lesser Antilles. In: D. E. Bar-Yosef
Mayer (ed.), Archaeomalacology: Molluscs in former environments of human behaviour.
Oxford, Oxbow, 29-39. IoA BB4 QTO MAY
*Thomas, K. D., M. A. Mannino 2001. The exploitation of invertebrates and invertebrate products. In
D. R. Brothwell, A. M. Pollard (eds.), Handbook of archaeological sciences. Chichester:
Willey & Sons, 247-448. INST ARCH AJ BRO, ISSUE DESK IOA BRO 15
very useful overview, also for purple dye
Trubitt, M. B. D. 2003. The production and exchange of marine shell prestige goods. Journal of archaeological research 11/3, 243-277. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Tsuneki, A. 1989. The manufacture of Spondylus shell objects at Neolithic Dimini, Greece. Orient 25,
1-21. ONLINE
see also
Arnold, J. E., Munns, A., 1994. Independent or attached specialization: the organization of shell bead
production in California. Journal of Field Archaeology 21, 473–489. INST ARCH PERS
Beardsley, F. 2005. Safonfok, Kosrae: Emergence of complexity - an archaeological investigation of
prehistoric settlement in East Micronesia. BAR International Series 1366. INST ARCH
DDD Qto BEA
short description, beads 52-55, adzes 47-52
Bednarik, R. G. 2000. Beads and the origins of symbolism.
http://www.semioticon.com/frontline/bednarik.htm
Brandl, B. 1984. The engraved Tridacna-shell discs. Anatolian Studies 34, 15-41. INST ARCH PERS
Iron age ornamented luxury shell containers
Chilardi, S. et al. 2002. The evidence of Spondylus ornamentals objects in the central Mediterranean.
Two case studies: Sicily and Malta. In: D. E. Bar-Yosef Mayer (ed.), Archaeomalacology:
Molluscs in former environments of human behaviour. Oxford, Oxbow, 82-90. IoA BB4
QTO MAY
Foreman, R. 1978. Disc beads: production by primitive techniques. Bead Journal 3/3-4, 17-22. INST
ARCH PERS
Francis, P. 1989. The manufacture of beads from shells. In: Hayes, C. F., Ceci, L. (eds), Proceedings
of the 1986 Shell Bead Conference, Selected papers. Research Records 20. Rochester:
Rochester Museum and Science Centre, 25-35.
Hamilton-Dyer, Sh. 2000. Choice and use of shells for artefacts at Roman sites in the Eastern Desert
of Egypt. In: Murphy, P., Wiltshire, P. A. (eds), The environmental archaeology of industry. Symposia of the Association for Environmental Archaeology 20. Oxford, Oxbow,
87-92. BB6 Qto MUR.
manufacture of spoons from shells
Hodge, F. W. (ed.) 1907. Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Smithsonian Institute Bulletin 30. INST ARCH DFA Qto Series HAN 15 (shellwork 539-541)
Technology
Karali, L. 1999. Shells in Aegean Prehistory. Oxford, BAR S 761. INST ARCH DAG QTO KAR
overview of the artefacts
Kuhn, St. L., Stiner, M. C., Reese, D., Güleç, E. 2001. Ornaments of the Earliest Upper Paleolithic:
New insights from the Levant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the
United States of America 98/13, 7641-7646. ONLINE
Miller M. A. 1996. The manufacture of cockle shell beads at early Neolithic Franchthi Cave, Greece: a
case of craft specialisation? Journal of Mediterranean Archaeology 9: 7-37. IoA Pers.
26
Nieszery, N. 1995. Linearbandkeramische Gräberfelder in Bayern. Espelkamp: Leidorf, 173-191. INST
ARCH DAD Qto NIE
Working and use of Spondylus and Dentalium.
Pauc, P., Pauc, A. 2006. Enfilage des cocquilles de Columella rustica et de Trivia en Europe. EuroREA 3, 25-30. IoA PERS
Pfeiffer, L. 1914. Die steinzeitliche Muscheltechnik und ihre Beziehungen zur Gegenwart. Jena: Gustav Fischer.
David S. Reese 1988. A new engraved Tridacna Shell from Kish. Journal of Near Eastern Studies
47/1, 35-41. ONLINE
Distribution
Shackleton J. C. 1984. Spondylus artefacts in Neolithic Europe, an overview. American Journal of Archaeology 88/2: 259. ONLINE
INST ARCH DAC Qto Series GAL PRE 29
Very good overview
Taborin, Y. 1974. La parure en coquillage de l'Epipaléolithique au Bronze Ancien en France. Gallia
Préhistoire 17, 101-179; 307-417. IoA PERS, PERSEE
http://spondylus.wordpress.com/spondylus-bibliography/
mainly on artefacts
Eggshells
Essential reading
Foreman, R. 1976. Disc Beads: Production by primitive techniques. Bead Journal 13, 17-22. INST
ARCH PERS
Goodwin, A. J. H. 1929. Addendum: The manufacture of ostrich egg-shell beads among the modern
Bushfolk. In: The Wilton Industry. Annals of the South African Museum 27, 269-270.
STORES
Kandel, A. W., Conard N. J. 2005. Production sequences of ostrich eggshell beads and settlement dynamics in the Geelbek Dunes of the Western Cape, South Africa. Journal of Archaeological Science 32, 1711-1721. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Orton J. 2008, Later Stone Age ostrich eggshell bead manufacture in the Northern Cape, South Africa.
Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 1765-1775. INST ARCH PERS and NET
See also
Lee, R. B. 1979. The !Kung San; Men, women and work in a foraging society. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press. INST ARCH DCE LEE
Sakellaridis, J. A. 1990. The fashioning of ostrich-egg rhyta in the Creto-Mycenean Aegean. In: Hardy,
A. et al. (eds), Thera and the ancient world III:I. London, Thera foundation, 285-308. INST
ARCH DAG 10 THE
Moorey, P. R. S. 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence.
Oxford, Clarendon, 127-128. INST ARCH DBB 100 MOO
Seed and beads
Pauc, P., Reinhard, J. 2005. Description de la fabrication expérimentale du grain d'enfilage en akéne
de Lithosphermum de type 2 et de la pendeloque à ailettes globulaires. EuroArea 2, 4054. IoA PERS
Marinescu-Bîlcu S., Cârciumaru, M. 1992. Coliere de Lithospermum purpureo-coeruleum şi „perle” de
cerb în neoliticul din România în contextul centrului şi sud-estului Europei. Studii şi cercetări
de istorie veche 43/4, 355-370.
Beads made out of the seeds of purple grommet.
Ideas for practical work
-Ostrich-egg beads
-decorated Ostrich-egg vessel
-Teviec-type shell necklace, shell-bracelets
27
6. Pitch, resin and glues
The ability to make composite, hafted tools has been hailed as one of the marks of modern man. Recent discoveries have put its use back into the Middle Palaeolithic, demonstrating that Neanderthal
people already used controlled distillation of some kind for tar production, which probably involved the
use of clay. In other areas, bitumen and burnt lime were used for hafting composite tools and for assembling artwork.
Bone glues were mainly used in woodworking. Their prehistory is unknown, but there are Egyptian
and Roman sources detailing their production and use.
Pitch
Aveling, E. M., Heron C. 1999. Chewing tar in the early Holocene: an archaeological and ethnographic
evaluation. Antiquity 73, 579-584. INST ARCH PERS and NET
*W. Brzeziński, W. Piotrowski (eds.) 1997. Proceedings of the First International Symposium on Wood
Tar and Pitch, Biskupin. Warszawa: State Archaeological Museum. KC BRZ
extremely useful Bibliography
Osipowicz, G. A. 2005. Method of wood tar production without the use of ceramics. euroRea 2, 11-17.
INST ARCH PERS
Sanders, D. 2010. Knowing the Ropes: The Need to record ropes and rigging on wreck-sites and
some techniques for doing so. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 39/1, 2–26.
ONLINE
p. 23 on the use of tar to preserve hemp ropes on ships (pass.)
*Weiner, J. 1999. European pre- and protohistoric tar and pitch: A contribution to the history of research 1720-1999. Acta Archaeometrica 1. Coburg, Libavius, 1-109. INST ARCH, ask
them where it is, I gave them a copy!
exhaustive Bibliography
Archaeological examples and analysis
Boëda, E. et al. 2008. Middle Palaeolithic bitumen use at Umm el Tlel around 70 000 BP. Antiquity 82,
853–861. NET
also a useful biography for pitch and bitumen in the Middle East in general
Connan, J., Nissenbaum, A. 2003. Conifer tar on the keel and hull planking of the Ma'agan Mikhael
Ship (Israel, 5th century BC): identification and comparison with natural products and artefacts employed in boat construction. Journal of Archaeological Science 30/6, 709-719.
INST ARCH PERS and NET
Grünberg, J.-M. 2002. Middle Palaeolithic birch-bark pitch. Antiquity 76, 15–16.
Königsaue, Germany
Hjulström, B., Isaksson, S. Hennius, A. 2006. Organic geochemical evidence for pine tar production in
middle Eastern Sweden during the Roman Iron Age. Journal of Archaeological Science
33/2, 283-294. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Koller, J., Brauner, U., Mania, D. 2001. High-Tech in the middle Palaeolithic: Neanderthal manufactured pitch identified. European Journal Archaeology 4/3, 2001, 385-397. INST ARCH
PERS
Lombard, M., 2005. Evidence of hunting and hafting during the Middle Stone Age at Sibudu Cave,
KwaZulu-Natal: a multianalytical approach. Journal of Human Evolution 48, 279–300.
ONLINE
use of ochre, organic string and resin in hafting a point, Sidubi Cave, MSA
Mazza, P. P. A. et al. 2006. A new Palaeolithic discovery: tar-hafted stone tools in a European MidPleistocene bone-bearing bed. Journal of Archaeological Science 20, 1-9. INST ARCH
PERS and NET
the oldest example in Europe so far
Regert M. et al. 2003. Adhesive Production and pottery function during the Iron Age at the site of
Grand Aunay (Sarthe, France). Archaeometry 45/1, 101-120. ONLINE
Late Iron Age. Mainly on identification, but also good bibliography.
Sauter, F., Jördis U., Hayek E. 1992. Chemische Untersuchungen der Kittschäftungs-Materialien. In:
F. Höpfel, W. Platzer, K. Spindler (eds), Der Mann im Eis, Band 1: 435-41. Innsbruck:
Universität Innsbruck, Veröffentlichungen der Universität Innsbruck 187. INST ARCH
DAF 10 HOP
28
Bitumen/Asphalt
Moorey, P. R. S. 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence.
Oxford, Clarendon, 332-346. INST ARCH DBB 100 MOO
also on use as building material
Schwartz M., Hollander D. 2000. Annealing, reheating and recycling: bitumen processing in the ancient near East. Paléorient 26/2, 83-92. INST ARCH PERS, PERSEE
Serpico, M., White, R., 2000. Resins, amber and bitumen. In: Nicholson, P. T., Shaw, I. (eds.), Ancient
Egyptian materials and technology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 430-474.
EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS S 5 NIC
Wendt, C. J., Cyphers, A. 2008. How the Olmec used bitumen in ancient Mesoamerica. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 27, 175–191. NET
Mainly on the social role of technology
Archaeological examples and analysis
Alliot, H., 1970. Pre-historic use of bitumen in southern California. Masterkey 44, 96–102. STORES
Barton, G. A., 1926. On binding-reeds, bitumen, and other commodities in ancient Babylonia. Journal
of the American Oriental Society 46, 297–302. JSTOR
Cârciumaru, M., Ion, R.-M., Niţu, E. C., Ştefănescu, R. 2012. New evidence of adhesive as hafting material on Middle and Upper Palaeolithic artefacts from Gura Cheii-Râşnov Cave (Romania). Journal of Archaeological Science 39/ 7, 1942-1950.
Bitumen
Charters, S., Evershed, R. P., Goad, L. J., Heron, C., Blinkhorn, P. W. 1993. Identification of an adhesive used to repair a Roman jar. Archaeometry 35, 91-101.
Birchbark tar
Connan, J. R., Evershed, P., Biek, L., Eglinton, G. 1999. Use and trade of bitumen in antiquity and
prehistory: Molecular archaeology reveals secrets of past civilizations. Philosophical
Transactions: Biological Sciences 354, 35-50. NET
short, rather popular overview of Near Eastern finds
Connan, J., Deschesne, O., 1992. Archaeological bitumen: identifications, origins and uses of an ancient near eastern material. Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings 267, 683–
720. INST ARCH LA MAT
Connan, J. et al. 2005. A comparative geochemical study of bituminous boat remains from H3, AsSabiyah (Kuwait), and RJ-2, Ra’s al-Jinz (Oman). Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 16/1,
21–66.
Reed boats caulked with bitumen
Forbes, R. J., 1936. Bitumen and petroleum in Antiquity. Leiden E. J. Brill. INST ARCH K FOR
nd
see also extended 2 edition
Hollander D., Schwartz M., Stein G. 1999. Reconstructing Mesopotamian exchange networks in the
4th Millennium BC: Geochemical and archaeological analyses of bitumen artifacts from
Hacinebi Tepe, Turkey. Paléorient 25/1, 67-62. INST ARCH PERS and NET, PERSEE
Marschner, R. F., Duffy, L. J., Wright, H. 1978. Asphalts from ancient towns in Southwestern Iran.
Paléorient 4, 97-112. INST ARCH PERS, NET
Ochsenschlager, E. 1992. Ethnographic evidence for wood, boats, bitumen and reeds in southern
Iraq: ethnoarchaeology at al-Hiba. In: Postgate, J. N., Powell, M. A. (eds.), Trees and
timber in Mesopotamia. Bulletin of Sumerian Agriculture 6, 47–78. INST ARCH PERS
Regert, M., Vacher, S., Moulherat, C., Decavallas, O. 2003. Adhesive production and pottery function
during the Iron Age at the Site of Grand Aunay (Sarthe, France). Archaeometry 45/1, 101-120.
addition of bees-wax
Salles J. F., Khalaf, A. 1998. The archaeological bitumens of Bahrain from the Early Dilmun period (c.
2200 BC) to the sixteenth century AD: a problem of sources and trade. Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy 9, 141–181. ONLINE, WILEY
Schwartz, M. 2002. Early evidence of reed boats from southeast Anatolia. Antiquity 76, 617–618.
INST ARCH PERS and NET
Glues
Riggs, J. 1991. Make your own hide glue. Bulletin of Primitive Technology 2, 33-36. INST ARCH
PERS
Skeist, I. (ed.) 1965. Handbook of adhesives. London. INST ARCH JDE SKE
Handbook
29
Resins
Stacey, R. J., Cartwright, C. R., McEwan, C. 2006. Chemical Characterization of ancient Mesoamerican ‘Copal’ Resins: Preliminary Results. Archaeometry 48/2, 323–340.
mainly chemical analysis, but also some details on use
Beck, C. W. 1996. Comments on a supposed Clovis “Mastic”. Journal of Archaeological Science 23/3,
459-460. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Problem of correct terminology.
Mills, J. S., White, R. 1977. Natural resins of art and archaeology: their source, chemistry and identification. Studies in Conservation 22, 12–31. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Stern, B., Heron, C., Tellefsen, T., Serpico, M. 2008. New investigations into the Uluburun resin cargo.
Journal of Archaeological Science 35, 2188-2203. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Resins as a means of waterproofing leather, and an indication for wine in antiquity
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Wax
Crane. E., 1983. The archaeology of beekeeping. London, Duckworth.
Howard, M. 1955. Technical description of the ivory writing-boards from Nimrud. Iraq 17, 14-20.
A. K. Bowman 1983. The Vindolanda writing Tablets. London, British Museum. INST ARCH DAA 410
R.4 BOW
Payton, R. 1991. The Ulu Burun writing-board set. Anatolian Studies 41, 99-106. ONLINE
Good details on the construction of the board
Wiseman, D. J. Assyrian writing-boards. Iraq 17/1, 1955, 3-13.
Assyrian writing boards, some literature on Roman and Medieval boards as well
Varnish
Serpico, M., White, R. 2001. The use and identification of varnish on New Kingdom funerary equipment. In: Davies, W. V. (ed.), Colour and Painting in Ancient Egypt. London, British Museum Press, 33-42. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS M 20 DAV
Mummification
Buckley, S. A., Evershed, R. P. 2001. Organic chemistry of embalming agents in Pharaonic and Graeco-Roman mummies. Nature 413, 837-841. NET
Colombini, M. P., Modugno, F., Silvano, F., Onor, M., 2000. Characterization of the balm of an Egyptian mummy from the Seventh Century B.C. Studies in Conservation 45, 19-29. INST
ARCH PERS and NET
Maurer, J., Möhring, Th., Rullkötter, J. 2002. Plant lipids and fossil hydrocarbons in embalming material of Roman period mummies from the Dakhleh Oasis, Western Desert, Egypt. Journal
of Archaeological Science 29, 751–762. NET
Ochre
Wadley, L., Hodgskiss, T. P., Grant, M., 2009. Implications for complex cognition from the hafting of
tools with compound adhesives in the Middle Stone Age, South Africa. Proceedings of
the National Academy of Science, USA 106 (24), 9590-9594. ONLINE
Ideas for practical work
-making birch-bark pitch
-making pine-pitch
-making bone or skin glue (make sure you get rid of all the fat!)
-using bone glue
-mummifying a small animal
-making a wine-skin
-making and using a writing tablet (orphiment may be difficult to get!)
7. Skin, sinew and leather
Animal skins probably provided the oldest containers and clothes. The prehistory of tanning is badly
known, as skin tanned with fat are rarely preserved. Only occasionally, finds like the "Ice-Man" demonstrate the importance of leather and furs even in later prehistory. Even in Medieval London, hides
30
were one of the most important trade goods.
We will look at raw hides and methods of brain-tanning, vegetable tanning and tawing and their archaeological residues.
technology
*Angus, A. 2002. An introduction to the types of tannage used on ethnographic leather. In: Wright, M.
M. (ed.), The conservation of fur, feather and skin. Seminar organised by the Conservators of
ethnographic Artefacts at the Museum of London on 11 December 2000. London, Archetype
1-7. INST ARCH KJ WRI
short concise intro
Binford, L. R. 1967, Smudge pits and hide smoke: the use of analogy in archaeological reasoning.
American Antiquity 32/1, 1-12. NET, IoA PERS
*Calnan, Chr., Haines, B. (eds) 1991. Leather: its composition and changes with time. Northampton:
Leather Conservation Centre. INST ARCH KI CAL
Handbook
Cherry, J. 1991. Leather. In Blair, J, Ramsay, N. (eds), English Medieval industries. Craftsmen, techniques, products. London, Hambledon Press, 295-318. INST ARCH K BLA
Covington, A. D. 1997. Modern tanning chemistry. Chemical Society Reviews 26/2, 111–126. ONLINE
Covington, A. D. 2009. Tanning Chemistry. Cambridge, Royal Society of Chemists.
Cherry, J. 1991. Leather. In: Blair, J., Ramsay, N. (eds). English Medieval Industries. London, Hambledon Press 295–318. INST ARCH K BLA
Fairnell, E. 2007. 101 ways to skin a fur-bearing animal: the implications of zooarchaeological interpretation. In: Cunningham, P., Heeb, J., Paardekooper, R. (eds), Experiencing Archaeology by
Experiment. Oxford, Oxbow, 47-60. INST ARCH AH CUN
Indirect evidence: cutmarks on bones.
Florian, M.-L. E. 2007. Protein facts: fibrous proteins in cultural and natural history artifacts. London,
Archetype. INST ARCH L FLO
handbook on the composition of skin and leather
Florian, M.-L.E., 2006. The mechanisms of deterioration in leather. In: Kite, M., Thomson, R. (eds.),
Conservation of Leather and related Materials. Oxford, Elsevier, 36–57. INST ARCH KI KIT
Groenman-van Wateringe, W., Kilian, M., van Londen, H. 1999. The curing of hides and skins in European prehistory. Antiquity 73, 884-890. NET, IoA PERS
Haines, B. M. 1999. Parchment, the physical and chemical characteristics of parchment and the materials used in its conservation. Northampton, The Leather Conservation Centre. INST ARCH
KI Qto HAI
Haines, B. M., Barlow, J. R. 1975. The anatomy of leather. Journal of Materials Science 10, 525–538.
SPRINGER-LINK
Howes, F. N. 1953. Vegetable tanning materials. Chronica Botanica. London, Butterworths. STORES
910 82 e HOW
Kite, M., Thompson, R. 2006. Conservation of leather and related materials. London, ButterworthHeinemann. INST ARCH KI KIT
Klokkernes, T., 2008. Issues in the preservation of manually tanned skin materials. October 2008.
CeROArt 17. http://ceroart.revues.org/index501.html
Chemistry and conservation
*Reed, R. 1972. Ancient skins, parchments and leathers. London, Seminar Press. INST ARCH KI REE
Essential for information on parchment, p. 118-173.
Thomson, R. 1998. Leather working processes. In: Cameron, E. (ed.), Leather and fur: Aspects of early Medieval trade and technology. London, Archetype, 1-9. INST ARCH KI CAM
Williams, L., Hurcombe, L. 2002. Fish skin as a prehistoric material. Bulletin of primitive Technology
23, 39-41. INST ARCH PERS
DIY
This is only a small selection. There are also a number of films. Also check u-tube!
Churchhill, J. 1987. The complete book of tanning skins and furs. Mechanicsburg, Stackpole.
Edholm St., Wilder T., no year. Wet-scrape braintanned buckskin. A practical guide to home tanning
and use. Boonville, Paleotechnics. INST ARCH KI EDH
Gibby, E. H. 1992. How to tan skins the Indian way. Liberty, Eagle's View.
Grover, F. 1936. Practical fur cutting and furrery: a treatise on the art of furrery intended alike for the
apprentice and the advanced worker in every branch of the fur manufacturing industry.
London, Technical Press. British Library
31
Gustavson, K. H. 1956. The chemistry of tanning processes. New York, Academic Press. STORE 9501447
Housler, W. 1996. How to braintan a buffalo (Video). Cloudcroft, Rocky Mountain College Productions. Barcode 2808659498 (Issue Desk).
Kellog, K. 1984. Home tanning and leathercraft simplified. Charlotte, Williamsburg.
McPherson, J., G. McPherson, 1993. Primitive wilderness living and survival skills. Randolph, Prairie
Wolf, Chapter Braintan Buckskin. INST ARCH K MCP
Richards, M. 1997. Deerskin into buckskins, how to tan with natural materials. A field guide for hunters
and gatherers (Cave Junction 1997). INST ARCH KI RIC
Riggs, J. 1982, Blue Mountain Buckskin. Cave Junction: Backcountry Publishing. INST ARCH KI RIG
Woodroffe, D. 1936. Tanning. In: Bordoli, E. (ed.), The boot and shoe maker. A complete survey and
guide. London, Gresham, 95-321. British Library
http://www.sca.org.au/scribe/articles/parchment.htm
useful compilation, despite the strange source!
Archaeological examples
Bartosiewicz, L. 2009. Skin and Bones: Taphonomy of a Medieval Tannery in Hungary. Journal of taphonomy 7/2-3.
Cameron, E. (ed.) 1998. Leather and fur: Aspects of Medieval trade and technology. London, Archetype. INST ARCH KI CAM
Campling, N. 1997. Leather working. In: Andrews, P. (ed.), Excavations at Hamwic 2. CBA Research
Report 109. London, CBA, 231–237.
Carlisle, I. 1996. Leather and leather working in Anglo-Scandinavian and Medieval York. Archaeology
in York Interim Report 21.3, York, Council for British Archaeology for the York Archaeological
Trust, 23–28.
Carver, M., Spall, C. 2004. Excavating a parchmenerie: archaeological correlates of making parchment at the Pictish monastery at Portmahomack, Easter Ross. Proceedings Society Antiquaries Scotland 134, 183–200. ONLINE
de Hamel, Chr. 1992. Medieval craftsmen: Scribes and illuminators. London, British Museum Press.
ART H 10 HAM, PALAEOGRAPHY A 5 HAM
Good treatment of the practical side of Medieval manuscripts, including parchment making and preparation, and production of ink.
Egloff, M. 1984. Le panier du cueilleur. Etapes de la vannerie en Europe. In: Jagen und Sammeln.
Jahrbuch des Bernischen Historischen Museums 1983-1984, 81-87.
Ervynck A., Hillewaert, B., Maes, A. van Strydonck, M. 2000. Tanning and horn-working at late- and
post-medieval Bruges: the organic evidence. In: Murphy, P., Wiltshire, P. E. J. (eds), The
Environmental archaeology of industry. Symposia of the association for environmental
archaeology 20. Oxford, Oxbow, 60-70. INST ARCH BB 6 Qto MUR
Excavation of a tannery
Goubitz, O, van Driel-Murray, C., Groenman-van-Waateringe W. 2001. Stepping through time: archaeological footwear from prehistoric times until 1800. Zwolle, Stichting Promotie Archeologie. INST ARCH HD Qto GOU
Groenman-van Waateringe, W. 1992. Analyses of the hides and skins from the Hauslaibjoch. 39.
Jahrbuch Römisch-Germanisches Zentralmuseum Mainz, 114-128. IoA PERS
Hald, M. 1972. Primitive shoes: an archaeological-ethnological study based upon shoe finds from the
Jutland Peninsula. Copenhagen, National Museum of Denmark. INST ARCH HD Qto
HAL
Harris, S.; Veldmeijer, A. J. (eds.) 2014. Why Leather? The Material and Cultural Dimensions of
Leather. Leiden, Sidestone Press.
Larew, H. G. 1987. Oak galls preserved by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in A.D. 79, and their probable use. Economic Botany 41(1), 33-40. ONline
use as medicine
MacGregor, A. 1998. Hides, horns and bones: animals and independent industries in the early urban
context. In: Cameron, E. (ed.), Leather and fur: Aspects of early medieval trade and technology. London, Archetype, 11-26. INST ARCH KI CAM
Mould, Q., Carlisle I., Cameron, E. 2003. Leather and leatherworking in Anglo-Scandinavian and medieval York. In: Addyman, P. (ed.), The Small Finds. The archaeology of York 17/16. York,
Council for British Archaeology. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6 Series 17/16
Pinhasi, R., Gasparian, B., Areshian, G., Zardaryan, D., Smith, A., Bar-Oz, G. Higham, Th. 2010, First
direct evidence of Chalcolithic footwear from the Near Eastern Highlands. PLoS ONE 5/6):
32
e10984. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010984.
Chalcolithic simple leather shoe from Areni I Cave, Armenia
Serjeantson, D. 1989 Animal remains and the tanning trade. In: Serjeantson, D., Waldron T. (eds.),
Diet and crafts in towns. The evidence of animal remains from the Roman to the PostMedieval periods. BAR Brit 199. Oxford, BAR, 129-146. INST ARCH DAA Qto Series BRI
199
Shaw, M. 1996. The excavation of a late 15th to 17th century tanning complex at The Green, Northampton. Post-Medieval Archaeology 30, 63-127. ONLINE
Spangenberg, J. A., Ferrer, M., Tschudin, P., Volken, M., Hafner A. 2010. Microstructural, chemical
and isotopic evidence for the origin of late Neolithic leather recovered from an icefield in
the Swiss Alps. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 1851–1865. ONLINE
earliest vegetable-tanned leather, so far
Thomson, R. 1981. Leather manufacture in the post-medieval period with special reference to Northamptonshire. Post-Medieval Archaeology 15, 161-175. ONLINE
Thomson, R. 1998. Leather working processes. In: Cameron, E. (ed.), Leather and fur: Aspects of early medieval trade and technology. London, Archetype, 1-9. INST ARCH KI CAM
Thomson, R., Mould, Q. 2011. Leather tanneries: the archaeological evidence. London, Archetype.
INST ARCH KI THO
very useful and up-to date collection!
Veldmeijer, A. J. 2007. Preliminary report on the leatherwork from Roman Berenike, Egyptian Red Sea
Coast (1994–2000). Pal-Arch’s Journal of Archaeology of Egypt/Egyptology 1, 1. Online
Leather remains from the Eastern Desert, Roman times
Waterer, J. W. 1976. Leatherwork. In: Strong, D., Brown, D. (eds), Roman Crafts. London, Duckworth,
197-193. INST ARCH K STR, ANCIENT HISTORY QUARTOS R 76 STR
Watts, I. 2002. Ochre in the Middle Stone Age of southern Africa: ritualised display or hide preserve?
South African Archaeological Bulletin 57 (175), 1-14.
Winterbottom, S. 1990 Leather. In: Bingen, J. (ed.) Mons Claudianus. Cairo, Institut francais d'archéologie orientale. PAPYROLOGY PA 310 CLA
Ethnographic examples
Brandt, S. A., Weedman, K., 2002. Woman the toolmaker: a day in the life of an Ethiopian woman who
scrapes hides the old-fashioned way. Archaeology, September/October, 50-53.
*Brandt, S. A., Weedman, K. 2002. The ethnoarchaeology of hide working and stone tool use in Konso, southern Ethiopia: an introduction. In: Audoin-Rouzeau, F., Beyries, S. (eds), Le
Travail du cuir le préhistoire à nos jours. 22. rencontre internationale d'archéologie et
d'histoire d'Antibes. Antibes, Association pour la promotion et la diffusion des connaissances archéologiques, 113-129. INST ARCH KI AUD
also a lot of other useful articles!
Frink, L. Weedman, K. (eds) 2005. Gender and hide production. Lanham, Altamira Press.
Issenman, B. K. 1997. Sinews of survival: The living legacy of Inuit clothing. Vancouver, University of
British Columbia Press. INST ARCH DEC ISS
Klokkernes, T. 2007. Skin processing technology in Eurasian reindeer cultures. A comparative study of
Sami and Evenk methods. LMR-Press. ONLINE
detailed ethnographic study, useful pictures of tools and methods
Morrow, M. 1975. Indian rawhide: An American folk art. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. British
Library
Mainly on parfleches, also details of preparation.
Stenton, D. 1991. The adaptive significance of caribou winter clothing for arctic hunter-gathers.
Etudes/ Inuit/Studies 15, 3–28.
Tools
http://www.palaeotechnik.de/knochenwerkzeug.html
medieval bone beamer, production and use
Ideas for practical work
-tanning with oil, fat (or brain)
-making raw-hide
-making a rawhide artefact
-making and using parchment, making a palimpsest
-producing fish-hide
33
9. Textiles I, fibres
Normally, textiles are seen as part of the "Neolithic packages". But twine is essential for most huntergatherers from the earliest times onwards, and even the production of woven textiles may go back to
the Upper Palaeolithic.
We will look some of the different types of vegetable fibres and animal hairs used to produce twine.
Early string and textiles
Adovasio, J. M., Soffer O., Klima, B. 1996. Upper Palaeolithic fibre technology: interlaced woven finds
from Pavlov I, Czech Republic. Antiquity 70, 526-34. NET
Barber, E. W. 1994. Women’s work: the first 20,000 years: women, cloth and society in early times.
New York, W. W. Norton. INST ARCH KJ BAR, ANCIENT HISTORY A 65 BAR
Harding, K. 2008. Prehistoric string theory. How twisted fibres helped to shape the world. Antiquity 82,
271–280. NET
Nadel, D., A. Danin, E. Werker, T. Schick, M. E. Kislev, Stewart, K. 1994. 19,000 year-old twisted fibers from Ohalo II. Current Anthropology 35/4, 451-8. NET
Soffer, O. 2004. Recovering perishable technologies through use-wear on tools: preliminary evidence
for Upper Palaeolithic weaving and net-making. Current Anthropology 45/3, 407-13. NET
plant fibres
Allaby, R. G., Peterson, G. W., Merriwether, D. A., Fu, Y.-B. 2005. Evidence for the domestication history of flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) from genetic diversity of the /sad2/ locus. Theoretical
and Applied Genetics 112/1, 58-65. NET
Bally, W., Tobler, F. 1955. Hard Fibres. Economic Botany 9/4, 376-399. NET
Agaves, Manila hemp, New Zealand flax, bromeliads: modern uses
Betts, A., van der Borg, K. de Jong, A., Mc Clintock, C., van Strydonc, M. 1997. Early cotton in north
Arabia. Journal of Archaeological Science 21, 489-99. NET
Godwin, H. 1967. The ancient cultivation of hemp. Antiquity 41, 42f. NET and IoA PERS
Fibre and drug
Hald, M. 1942. The nettle as a culture plant. Folk-liv. MAIN, Stores
Hall, V. A. 1989. The historical and palynological evidence for flax cultivation in Mid Co. Down. Ulster
Journal of Archaeology, Third Series 52, 5-9. ONLINE
Kornreich, E. 1952. Introduction to fibres and fabrics, their manufacture and properties. London, National trade Press. INST ARCH KJ KOR
*Körber-Grohne, U. 1987. Nutzpflanzen in Deutschland: Kulturgeschichte und Biologie Stuttgart,
Theiss. DAD 4.5 KOR STORE 07-0613
Moulherat, Ch., Tengberg, M., Haquet, J.-F., Mille, B. 2002. First evidence of cotton at Neolithic Mehrgarh, Pakistan: Analysis of mineralized fibres from a copper bead. Journal of Archaeological Science 29, 1393–1401.
http://www.idealibrary.com
see also
see also literature on bast in lecture 15!
Antil, E. 1769. The method of curing figs; and observations on the raising and dressing of hemp.
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 1, 198-204. JSTOR
Quaint, but lots of practical details
Bradbury, F. 1920. Flax culture and preparation. London, Pitman.
Bradshaw, R. H. W., Coxon, P. Greig, J. R. A. Hall A. R. 1981. New fossil evidence for the past cultivation and processing of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) in eastern England. New Phytologist 89:
503-510. NET
mainly archaeobotanical
Davies, O. 1938. Kilns for Flax-Drying and Lime-Burning. Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Third Series
1, 79-80.
Structures needed for the processing of flax in damp climates
Nicholson, E. 1960, The production, history, uses and relationships of cotton (Gossypium
spp.) in Ethiopia. Economic Botany 14/1, 3-36.
modern cultivation and species used
Sibley, L. R., Jakes, K. A., Song, C. 1989. Fiber and yarn processing by prehistoric people of North
America: examples from Etowah. Ars Textrina 11, 191–209.
34
Srinivasan R., Jakes, K. A. 1997. Optical and Scanning Electron microscopic study of the effects of
charring on Indian hemp (Apocynum cannabinum L.) fibres. Journal of Archaeological Science
24, 517–527. NET
systematic study of the effects of charring
Whitford, A. C. 1941. Textile fibers used in eastern aboriginal North America. Anthropological Papers
of the American Museum of Natural History 38, 1–22. INST ARCH PERS
Windler, R. et al. 1995. Nessel und Flachs - Textilfunde aus einem frühmittelalterlichen Mädchengrab
in Flurlingen (Kanton Zürich). Archäologie der Schweiz 18/4: 155-161. INST ARCH PERS
Hair and wool
Ryder, M. L. 1981. Fleece changes in sheep. In: Jones, M., Dimbleby, G. (eds.), The environment of
man: the Iron age to the Saxon period. BAR Brit. 88. Oxford, BAR. INST ARCH DAA Series
Qto BRI 87, STORES
Ryder M. L. 1983, Sheep and man. London, Duckworth. INST ARCH HA RYD
Ryder M. L. 1988, Danish Bronze Age wools. Journal of Danish Archaeology 7, 136-143. Inst Arch
PERS
Ryder, M. 1998. Animal Hair in Medieval Ship Caulking throws Light on Livestock Types. Environmental Archaeology 2, 61-66. INST ARCH PERS
other uses of hairs
*Sherratt, A. 1981. Plough and pastoralism: aspects of the secondary products revolution.
Meyer, W., Hülmann, G., Seger, H. 2002. SEM-Atlas of the Hair Cuticle Structure of Central European
Mammals. M.&H.Shaper, Alfeld, Hannover.
Identification of hairs
Silk
Good, I. 1995. On the question of silk in pre-Han Eurasia. Antiquity 69, 959-68. NET
Central European Hallstatt finds a mis-identification!
I. L. Good, J. M. Kenoyer, R. H. Meadow 2009, New evidence for early silk in the Indus civilization. Archaeometry 51/3, 457-466. NET
Panagiotakopolou, E., Buckland, P., Day, M. Doumasa, C., Sarpaki, A., Skidmore, P. 1997. A lepidopterous cocoon: evidence for silk in the Bronze Age from Thera and Aegean Bronze Age. Antiquity 71, 4 20-29. NET and IoA PERS
see also
Beavis, I. C. 1988. Insects and other invertebrates in classical antiquity. Oxford, University of Exeter.
140-148. INST ARCH BB 4 BEA
Ethnographic
Densmore, F. 1928. Uses of plants by the Chippewa Indians. 44th Annual Report of the Bureau of
American Ethnology to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 1926–1927. Washington
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. [Reprinted 1974 as: How Indians use wild plants for
food, medicine and crafts. New York, Dover Publications]. INST ARCH DED 4.5 DEN
very useful for bast
Drooker, P., L. Webster (eds) 2000. Beyond cloth and cordage: Archaeological textile research in the
Americas. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press. INST ARCH KJ DRO
Feathers
McGovern-Wilson, R. 2007. Feathers flying in paradise: The taking of birds for their feathers in prehistoric Polynesia 207-221. In: G. Grupe, J. Peters (eds.) Feathers, grit and symbolism. Birds
and humans in the ancient Old and New Worlds. Proceedings of the 5th Meeting of the ICAZ
Bird Working Group in Munich [26.7.-28.7.2004]. Documenta Archaeobiologiae 3. INST
ARCH BB 3 Qto GRU
Ideas for practical work
-preparing/working nettle-fibres
-preparing and working oak-bast, elm-bast or other tree-basts
-working spruce-roots
35
11. Textiles II, spinning
The oldest evidence for string is from the upper Palaeolithic, but the technique is potentially much
older. Transport of any kind necessitates string, and leather is often not the best choice. From the
Neolithic onwards, the spinning of vegetal and animal fibres is attested almost universally.
We will look at the basic methods used to produce twine and try out a simple drop-spindle-whorl.
Essential reading
Good, I. 2001. Archaeological textiles: a review of current research. Annual Review of Anthropology
30, 209-26. JSTOR
Franquemont, A. 2009. Respect the spindle. Spin infinite yarns with one amazing tool. Loveland, Interpress. In Cataloguing
best practical introduction I know
Tiedemann, E. J., Jakes K. A. 2006. An exploration of prehistoric spinning technology: spinning efficiency and technology transition. Archaeometry 48/2, 293–307. IoA PERS and NET
mainly North America, also on thigh-spinning, with a comparison of the output of different techniques.
Archaeological Evidence
Andersson, E. 2003. Tools for Textile Production from Birka and Hedeby. Birka Studies 8, Excavations
in the Black Earth, 1990-1995. Stockholm, Riksantikvarieämbetet. INST ARCH DAM 10 AND
Gleba, M., Mannering, U. 2012. Textiles & textile production in Europe: from prehistory to AD 400. Oxford, Oxbow. INST ARCH KJ GLE
very good overview
Leuzinger, U., Rast-Eicher, A., 2011. Flax processing in the Neolithic and Bronze Age pile-dwelling
settlements of eastern Switzerland. Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 20, 535–542.
Online
Yarn production by joining individual threads, as practiced in the Neolithic
Maier, U., Schlichtherle, H. 2011. Flax cultivation and textile production in Neolithic wetland settlements on Lake Constance and in Upper Swabia (south-west Germany). Vegetation History
and Archaeobotany 567-578. Online
very useful on tools connected used in textile production
Rogers, P. W. 1997. Textile production at 16-22 Coppergate. In: P. V. Addyman (ed.), The archaeology of York 17, Fasc.11. London, Published for the York Archaeological Trust by the Council
for British Archaeology. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6 Series YOR 17/11
Suhr, E. G. 1960. The spinning Aphrodite in sculpture. American Journal of Archaeology 64/3, 253264. ONLINE
A rare example of a art-historical study that actually looks at the representation of a craft with true experience - something that would well be worthwhile for other techniques as well. If you despair of your
spinning skills, the Herakles in the Walters Art Gallery in Baltimore may well portray your problems
quite accurately!
Weblinks
http://timemaps.net/timemap/?page_id=413
also other useful ressources
Spinning without spindles
Also consult the readings on Rope-making!
Cosner, A. J. 1950. A Salado spinning stick. Kiva 26/1, 16-18. ONLINE
Eastwood, G. 1984. Spinning-Rings from Qoseir el-Qadim. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology
70, 140-141.
no idea how his works - but try it out!
Ideas for practical work
-making thread without a spindle
-preparing threads in different techniques
-making threads/yarn in the Alpine Neolithic technique by joining single fibres (cf. Leuzinger and RastEicher 2011)
-trying out different types/weights of spindles
36
-working nettle-fibres, hemp, jute
-carding wool without metal tools (don't ask me how!)
-making a Neolithic heckling comb (cf. Maier and Schlichtherle 2011)
12. Textiles III, weaving
The number of works on the loom and weaving is almost innumerable. Unfortunately, many are written for specialists only and concentrate on typology rather than on techniques. We will try to make
sense out of the basic terminology and try out a simple warp-weighted loom.
Textiles
Essential reading
Brezinová, H. 2005. Model of a horizontal treadle loom. euroArea 2, 2005, 27-39.
*Broudy, E. 1979. The book of looms. A history of the handloom from ancient times to the present.
Hanover, University of New England Press. INST ARCH KJ BRO
very useful compilation
*Hoffmann, M. 1964. The warp weighted loom, studies in the history and technology of an ancient implement. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget. INST ARCH KJ HOF
The classical treatise
Jenkins D. (ed.) 2003. The Cambridge history of Western textiles. Cambridge, Cambridge University
Press 2003, Chapter 1-3. INST ARCH KJ JEN
Good overview
Michel, C., Nosch, M.-L. (eds.) 2010. Terminology of textiles from the 3rd to the 1st Millennium BC in
the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean area. Ancient Textiles Series. Oxford, Oxbow Books.
Nørgaard, A. 2008. A weaver's voice: making reconstructions of Danish Iron Age textiles. In: Gleba,
M., Munkholt, M., Nosch, M. L. (eds.), Dressing the past. Oxford, Oxbow, 43-58. INST
ARCH KJ GLE
Reconstructing dresses
Rogers, M., Bender Jörgensen, L., Rast-Eicher, A. (eds.) 2001. The Roman textile industry and its influence. Oxford, Oxbow [FS John Peter Wild]. INST ARCH KJ ROG
Wild, J. P. 2003. Textiles in archaeology. Princes Risborough, Shire. INST ARCH KJ WIL
useful short introduction
http://ctr.hum.ku.dk/research/tools
http://www.cs.arizona.edu/patterns/weaving/index.html
numerous useful sources available online
Terminology
no agreement here!
*Burnham, D. K. Warp and weft: a textile terminology. Toronto, Royal Ontario Museum. INST ARCH
KJ BUR
*Collingwood, P., Cribbs, D. 1987. Textile and weaving structures. London, Batsford. British Library
*Emery, I. 1996. The primary structures of fabrics: an illustrated classification. Washington, The Textile
Museum. INST ARCH KJ Qto EME
Gunzburger, C. (ed.) 2005. The Textile Museum Thesaurus. Washington, The Textile Museum.
Michel, C., Nosch, M.-L. (eds.) 2010. Terminology of textiles from the 3rd to the 1st Millennium BC in
the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean area. Ancient Textiles Series 8.
Oxbow Books, Oxford. INST ARCH KJ MIC.
Ancient terminologies!
Phipps, E. 2011. Looking at textiles: a guide to technical terms. Los Angeles, J. Paul Getty Museum.
INST ARCH KJ PHI
Rowe, A. P. 1984. After Emery: Further considerations of fabric classification and terminology. The
Textile Museum Journal 23, 53-71. INST ARCH PERS
**Seiler-Baldinger, A. 1994. Textiles: a classification of techniques. Washington D.C., Smithsonian Institution Press. INST ARCH KJ SEI
very useful schematic drawings of the different techniques
Walton, P. R., Eastwood, G. 1988. A brief guide to the cataloguing of archaeological textiles. London,
37
Institute of Archaeology Publications (4th ed.). INST ARCH KJ WAL
See also
http://moas.atlantia.sca.org/topics/text.html
*Cardon, D. 2000. Archéologie des Textiles, Montagnac: Mergeul. INST ARCH KJ Qto CAR
good overview
Girard, P. 2004. How to Build and Use a Warp Weighted Loom. Illuminated Spaces
http://www.illuminatedspaces.com/historicarts/wwl.htm.
Useful guide on practicals
Examples of archaeological textiles
highly selective
Alfaro Giner, C. 1984. Tejido y cestería en la península ibérica. Historia de su técnica e industrias
desde la prehistoria hasta la romanización. Bibliotheca Praehistorica Hispana 21. Madrid,
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas. INST ARCH DAPA Qto ALF
Alfaro Giner, C. 1992. Two Copper Age tunics from Lorca, Murcia (Spain). In: L. Bender-Jörgensen, E.
Munksgaard) (eds), Archaeological Textiles in Northern Europe: Report from the 4th NESAT Symposium, 1–5 May 1990 in Copenhagen. Tidens Tand Nr. 5. Kobenhavn: Konservatorskolen det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi, 20–30. INST ARCH KJ TEX
Barber, E. J. W. 1993. Prehistoric Textiles. Princeton, Princeton University Press. INST ARCH KJ BAR
Bazzanella, M. et al 2003. Textiles. Intrecci e tessuti dalla preistoria europeana. Maggio, Provinvia Autonoma di Trento, Servizio Beni Culturali/Ufficio Beni Archeologici. INST ARCH KJ BAZ
Bender Jørgensen, L. 1992. North European textiles until AD. 1000. Aarhus, Aarhus UP. INST ARCH
KJ Qto BEN
Bender-Jørgensen, L. (ed.) 1996. Textiles in European Archaeology. Papers of the 6th meeting North
European symposium arch. textiles 7th-11th May 1995, Borås. GOTARC Series A, Vol. 1,
Göteborgs Universitet. INST ARCH KJ Qto BEN
and the other NESAT volumes
Bender Jørgensen, L., Munksgaard, E. (eds.) 1992. Archaeological Textiles in Northern Europe: Report from the 4th NESAT Symposium, 1–5 May 1990 in Copenhagen. Tidens Tand Nr. 5.
Kobenhavn, Konservatorskolen det Kongelige Danske Kunstakademi, 20–30. INST
ARCH KJ TEX INST ARCH KJ TEX
Bichler, P., Grömer, K., Hofman-de Keijzer, R., Kern, A. Reschreiter, H. 2005. Hallstatt textiles. Technical analysis, scientific investigations and experiment on Iron Age Textiles. BAR Int.
1357. Oxford, Archaeopress. DABA QTO BIC
Bier, C., Dusenbury, M. M. 2008. Textiles. In: Pearsall, D. M. (ed), Encyclopedia of Archaeology. Oxford, Academic Press, 2119-2125. NET
useful short overview
Cardon, D. 1998. Neolithic textiles, matting and cordage from Charavines, Lake Palandru, France. In:
Bender Jørgensen, L., Rinaldo, C. (eds), Textiles in European archaeology: Report from
the 6th NESAT Symposium, 7-11. May 1996 in Børas. GOTARC Series A, Vol. 1. Göteborg: Göteborg University Press, 3-21. INST ARCH KJ Qto BEN
Crowfoot, E. et al. 2001. Textiles and clothing 1150-1450. London, Museum of London. INST ARCH
DAA 416 CRO
Finds from London, also very useful introduction to terms and technology
Gleba, M. 2008. Textile production in pre-Roman Italy. Oxford, Oxbow Books. INST ARCH KJ GLE
also useful on artefacts related to textile production
Grömer, K. 2006: Vom Spinnen und Weben, Flechten und Zwirnen. Hinweise zur neolithischen Textiltechnik an österreichischen Fundstellen. Archäologie Österreichs, 14-17.
*Grömer, K. 2010. Prähistorische Textilkunst in Mitteleuropa. Geschichte des Handwerkes und der
Kleidung vor den Römern. Wien, Naturhistorisches Museum. Available online at
http://www.nhm-wien.ac.at/verlag/online_publikationen
Hald, M. 1980. Ancient Danish textiles from bogs and burials. Copenhagen, The National Museum of
Denmark. INST ARCH Qto DAN HAL, MAIN
Hall, R. M.1982. Garments in the Petrie Museum of Archaeology. Textile History 13/1, 1982, 27-45.
Just round the corner - take a look!
Hall, R. 1986. Egyptian textiles. Prince's Richborough, Shire. INST ARCH HAL 3
Harris, J. 1999. 5000 years of textiles. London, British Museum Press. INST ARCH K J HAR
nice overview
38
9/9/12 00:00
Comment: <!--EndFragment--> Harris, S. 2007. Investigating social aspects of technical processes: Cloth production from plant fibres
in a Neolithic lake dwelling on Lake Constance, Germany. In: Beugnier, V., Crombé, Ph.
(eds.), Plant processing form a prehistoric and ethnographic perspective/Préhistoire et
ethnographie du travail des plantes: proceedings of a workshop at Ghent University (Belgium) November 28, 2006. BAR international series 1718. Oxford, John & Erica Hedges,
83-100. INST ARCH KJ Qto BEU
putting it all together again: production of textiles in a Neolithic context
Masada: The Yigael Yadin excavations 1963-1965, final reports. Jerusalem: Israel Exploration Society; Hebrew University of Jerusalem 1989 ff. INST ARCH DBE 10 Qto YAD
Textiles preserved ina very dry environment
Randsborg, K. 2011. Bronze Age textiles, men, women and wealth. Bristol, Bristol Classical. INST
ARCH KJ RAN
Textiles from the famous tree-trunk burials
Schorta, R. (ed.) 2006. Central Asian textiles and their contexts in the Early Middle Ages. Riggisberg:
Abegg-Stiftung. INST ARCH KJ Qto SCH
*Schoeser, M. 2003. World textiles: a concise history. London, Thames and Hudson. INST ARCH KJ
SCH
Spindler, K. 1994. The man in the ice: the preserved body of a Neolithic man reveals the secrets of the
Stone Age. London, Weidenfield and Nicolson. ISSUE DESK IOA SPI
Total lack of woven textiles!
Walton, P. J. 1988. Textiles, cordage and raw fibre from 16-22 Coppergate. The Archaeology of York
17, Fasc. 5. London, Published for the York Archaeological Trust by the Council for British Archaeology. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6 Series YOR 17/5
An example for Medieval waterlogged finds
Walton Rogers, P. 2007. Cloth and clothing in early Anglo-Saxon England, AD 450-700. York, Council
for British Archaeology. INST ARCH DAA 180 ROG
Good overview for the Early Medieval Period.
see also
Banck-Burgess, J. 1999. Hochdorf VI. Die Textilfunde aus dem späthallstattzeitlichen Fürstengrab von
Eberdingen-Hochdorf (Kreis Ludwigsburg) und weitere Grabtextilien aus Hallstatt- und
Latènezeitlichen Kulturgruppen. Forschungen und Berichte Vor- und Frühgeschichte Baden-Württemberg 70. Stuttgart, Theiß. INST ARCH DAD Series BAD VOR
good overview of early Iron age (Hallstatt) textile finds
de Jonghe, D., Daeman, S., Pollet, L. 1985. Linnen doeken en mummiewindsels van het Oude en het
Middenrijk. Bulletin van de Koninklijke Musea voor Kunst en Geschiedenis 56, 5-33. INST
ARCH Pers
Egg, M. Goedecker-Ciolek, R. Groenman-van Waateringe W., Spindler K. 1992. Die Gletschermumie
vom Ende der Steinzeit aus den Ötztaler Alpen. Jahrbuch RGZM 39. IoA PERS
Late Neolithic clothes from the Similaun-mummy, Italy
Feldtkeller, A. 1985. Die Textilien von Seekirch-Achwiesen. In: H. Schlichtherle et al. (eds), Ökonomischer und ökologischer Wandel am vorgeschichtlichen Federsee. Hemmenhofener
Skripte 5. Freiburg i. Br., Janus, 56-70.
Feldtkeller, A., Schlichtherle, H. 1987. Jungsteinzeitliche Kleidungsstücke aus Ufersiedlungen des Bodensees. Archäologische Nachrichten aus Baden 38/39, 74-84. INST ARCH PERS
Martial, E, Médard, F. 2007. Acquisition et traitement des matières textiles d'origine végétale en préhistoire: l'exemple du lin. In: Beugnier, V., Crombé, Ph. (eds.), Plant processing form a
prehistoric and ethnographic perspective/Préhistoire et ethnographie du travail des plantes: proceedings of a workshop at Ghent University (Belgium), November 28, 2006. BAR
International Series 1718. Oxford, John & Erica Hedges, 67-82. INST ARCH KJ Qto BEU
Owen-Crock, G. R. 2012. Encyclopedia of dress and textiles in the British Isles c. 450-1450. Leiden,
Brill. INST ARCH DAA 190 OWE
Pieta, K. 1992. Keltische Textilreste mit Stickereien aus Nové Zámky, Südslovakei. In: Bender Jørgensen, L., Munksgaard, E. (eds), Archaeological Textiles in Northern Europe, The report
from the fourth NESAT symposium Denmark 1990, 5. Copenhagen, Tidens Tand, 52-65.
INST ARCH KJ TEX
Earliest embroidery in Central Europe.
Rutschowskaya, M.-H. 1990. Coptic Fabrics. Paris, Biro. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS M 20 RUT
Mainly a catalogue of (very nice) textiles, but with a short introduction on technology and social context
Schlabow, K. 1976. Textilfunde der Eisenzeit in Norddeutschland. Göttinger Schriften Vor- und Früh39
geschichte 15. Neumünster. Stores
Textiles from North-German bog-finds
Schmidt-Colinet, A., Stauffer, A. 2000. Die Textilien aus Palmyra: neue und alte Funde. Damaszener
Forschungen 8. Mainz, Zabern. INST ARCH DBD 10 Qto SCH
Stauffer, A. et al. 1995. Textiles of Late Antiquity. New York, Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Stauffer, A. 2008. Antike Musterblätter: Wirkkartons aus dem spätantiken und frühbyzantinischen
Ägypten. Wiesbaden, Reichert. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS M 20 STA
For the really ambitious weaver…
Vogelsang-Eastwood, G. V. 1993. Pharaonic Egyptian clothing. Leiden, Brill. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS M 20 VOG
Sewing
Andersson, E. 2003. Tools for textile Production from Birka and Hedeby. Excavations in the Black
Earth 1990-1995. Birka Studies 8. Stockholm, Riksantikvarieämbetet. INST ARCH DAM
10 AND
Beaudry, M. C. 2006. Findings: The material Culture of Needlework and Sewing. New Haven, Yale
University Press.
modern, mainly US
Biddle, M., Elmhirst, L. 1990. Sewing equipment. In: Biddle, M., Object and Economy in Medieval
Winchester. Winchester studies 7. Oxford, Clarendon Press, 804-817. INST ARCH DAA
410 H.2 WIN 7/2/1+2.
Goedecker-Ciolek 1993. Zur Herstellungstechnik von Kleidung und Ausrüstungsgegenständen. 39.
Jahrbuch des Rörnisch-Germanischen Zentralmuseums, 114-28. INST ARCH PERS
Similaun man
Legrand, A. 2008. Neolithic bone needles and vegetal fibres working: experimentation and use-wear
analysis. In: Longo, L., Skakun, N. (eds.), "Prehistoric technology" 40 years later. Functional studies and the Russian Legacy. BAR S1783. Oxford, Archaeopress. INST ARCH
K Qto LON
Ideas for practical work
-weaving a specific pattern on a loom
-building a simple loom
-sewing with different types of bone needles (also leather)
-recreating prehistoric embroidery
-recreating prehistoric mending techniques
13. Tablet weaving
Tablet weaving is a specialised technique for producing stable borders and also belts and other
straps. It can also be used to create intricate patterns. As this technique does not require an elaborate
loom, it is very useful for demonstrating the basics of weaving and is often used in demonstrations.
Essential reading
*Collingwood, P. 1982. The techniques of tablet weaving. London, Faber and Faber. INST ARCH KJ
COL
all you need to know…
Hansen, E. H. 1990. Tablet weaving, history, techniques, colours, patterns. Højbjerg, Hovedland.
http://www.lothene.demon.co.uk/crafts8.html
The pattern for the Evebö-Eide animal frieze-braid can be found under:
http://www.tabletweaving.dk/?Reconstructions:Eveb%F6-Eide
There are also a number of DIY-books.
Ideas for practical work
-imitating an archaeological example of a tablet-weave
-trying out three-hole tablets
-replicating prehistoric/Roman weaving-tablets
-recreating a prehistoric embroidery - think about needles as well!
40
14. Felt and fulling
Felt can be made from many kinds of different hair. It seems to have originated in the steppe areas of
Eurasia. Felt produces almost waterproof fabrics, and can also used for tents. Fulling is the felting of
woven cloth, a technique important in the Middle ages, but probably of much greater antiquity.
DIY
Belgrave, A. 1995. How to make felt. Tunbridge Wells: Search Press.
Brown, V. 2005. Felt Crafts. London, Southwater.
and numerous other DIY titles. Check your local library!
Archaeological examples
Bender Jørgensen, L. 1990 The Abu Sha'ar textiles. Archaeological textiles Newsletter 11, 5. INST
ARCH Pers
British Museum (ed.) 1978. Frozen Tombs. The culture and art of the ancient tribes of Siberia. London, British Museum. INST ARCH DBK BRI
the glorious Pazyryk-textiles!
Forbes, R. J. 1956 Felt. Studies in ancient technology 4. Leiden Brill. INST ARCH K FOR
Paardekooper, R. 2004. The process of fulling wool. Experiments in the Netherlands 2004. EuroArea
2, 2005, 67-78. INST ARCH PERS
Rudenko, S. I. 1970. Frozen tombs of Siberia: the Pazyryk burials of Iron Age horsemen. London,
Dent. SSEES R.VIII RUD
Schneider-Ludorff H. 1998. Filz in Nuzi? In Owen, D. I., Wilhelm, G. (eds.), Studies on the civilisation
and culture of Nuzi and the Hurrians 9. Bethesda: CDL-Press, 163-168. INST ARCH DBA
610 Series NUZ 6
Steinkeller, P. 1980. Mattresses and felt in early Mesopotamia. Oriens Antiquus 19, 89-90. STORES
Ethnographic
a small selection!
Basilov Vl. N. 1989. Nomads of Eurasia. Seattle/London, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles
County and Washington University Press. ANTHROPOLOGY QUARTOS D 60 BAS
Burkett, M. E. 1979. The art of the felt maker. Kendall: Abott Hall Gallery. INST ARCH K BUR
Gervers, V. 1973. Methods of traditional felt-making in Anatolia and Iran. Bulletin de Liason du centre
international d'étude des textiles anciens, 152-162.
Ideas for practical work
-felting a (decent) piece of cloth
-felting ornaments with coloured wool
-feltig a shield
-felting any of the Pazyryk-artefacts (boots, caps etc.) Warning: takes incredible amounts of wool and
patience and wool!
-Trying out teazles for fulling
15. Rope, twining, braiding
We will look at textile techniques using a single thread, like making nets, nålebinding and knitting, the
use of tree-bast, and on the ways of making a rope.
Terminology
(see also section on early textiles)
Lepers, Ch. 1999, Description, technique et classification des cordages. Bulletin Societé Royale Belgique, Chercheurs de Wallonie 39, 65-81. Scan
Sanders, D. 2010. Knowing the Ropes: The Need to record Ropes and Rigging on Wreck-Sites and
some Techniques for doing so. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 39/1, 2–26.
Technology
Minar, J. 2001. Motor skills and the learning process: the conservation of cordage final twist direction
in communities of practice. Journal of Anthropological Research 57/4, 381-405. NET
41
Prehistoric String
Delluc, B., Delluc, G. 1979. L'accés aux parois. ln: Leroi-Gourhan, A., Allain, J. (eds), Lascaux inconnu. Paris #, 175-184. ISSUE DESK IOA PRE 7
Glory, A. 1958. Débris de corde paléolithique à Grotte de Lascaux (Dordogne). Memoire des la Societé Préhistorique Francaise 5, 135-169. INST ARCH PERS and ONLINE
Hardy, K. 2007. Where would we be without string? Ethnographic evidence for the use, manufacture
and role of string in the upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic of Northern Europe. In: Beugnier, V.,
Crombé, Ph. (eds.), Plant processing form a prehistoric and ethnographic perspective/Préhistoire et ethnographie du travail des plantes: proceedings of a workshop at Ghent
University (Belgium) November 28, 2006. BAR international series 1718. Oxford, John & Erica
Hedges, 9-22. INST ARCH KJ Qto BEU
Löcker K., Reschreiter J. 1998. Rekonstruktionsversuche zu Bastschnüren und Seilen aus dem Salzbergwerk Hallstatt. Arch. Mitt. Nordwestdeutschland Beiheft 19. Experimentelle Archäologie,
Bilanz 1998. Oldenburg: Isensee, 125-133. INST ARCH DA 100 EXP
Bast and ropes from an early Iron Age context
Reichert, A. 2010. Bast, Binsen, Brennnessel: textiles Material der Steinzeit. Alle Poster der Sonderausstellung mit archäologischen Rekonstruktionen.
http://www.museum-albersdorf.de/bast/annecatalogenglish.pdf
Soffer, O., Adovasio, J. M., Hyland D. C., 2000. The ‘Venus’ figurines: textiles, basketry, gender and
status in the Upper Palaeolithic. Current Anthropology 41/4, 511-37. INST ARCH PERS and
NET
Warner, C., Bednarik R., 1996. Pleistocene knotting. In: Turner, J. C., van de Griend, P. (eds), History
and science of knots. Singapore, World Scientific, 3-18. HISTORY OF SCIENCE K 5 TUR
Rope
Guilbert, K. R. 1965 Rope-making. In: C. Singer and E. J. Holmyard (eds). A History of Technology,
Vol. 1. Clarendon Press, Oxford, 451–455. INST ARCH TYLECOTE SIN, HISTORY OF SCIENCE V 5.2 SIN
Also a wealth of useful information on related subjects
Körber-Grohne, U. 1986. Botanische Untersuchungen an mittelalterlichem Tauwerk aus Schleswig.
Ausgrabungen in Schleswig 7, 101-135. INST ARCH PERS
Lepers, Chr. 1999. Description technique et classification des Cordages. Chercheurs de Wallonie 39,
65-81.
*Löcker, K.; Reschreiter, J. 1998 Rekonstruktionsversuche zu Bastschnüren und Seilen aus dem
Salzbergwerk Hallstatt Archäologische Mitteilungen Nordwestdeutschland Beiheft 19, Experimentelle Archäologie, Bilanz 1998. Oldenburg: Isensee, 125-133. INST ARCH DA 100 EXP
Sanctuary, A. 1980. Rope, twine and netmaking. Shire Library. Gosport: Ashford Colour Press.
modern context. Contains useful concise introduction to the terminology of (naval) ropes, also on how
to record them, some information on the raw-materials used.
Shoes
(made of string)
Kuttruff, J. T., DeHart, S. G., O’Brien, M. J. 1998. 7500 Years of prehistoric footwear from Arnold Research Cave, Missouri. Science 281, 72–75. ONLINE
Reichert, A. 2000. Zur Rekonstruktion der "Ötzi"-Schuhe. Experimentelle Archäologie, Bilanz 1999,
Oldenburg, Isensee, 69-76. INST ARCH DA 100 EXP
Reichert, A. Ötzi-Schuhe – High Tech der Steinzeit. http://www.feuer-steinzeit.de/pdf/reichert03.pdf
changed reconstruction of the shoes with an outer layer of fur
Reichert, A. 2002. Weich und warm auf Moossohlen. Experimente zur „Rheumasohle“ von Zug. Jahrbuch der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für Ur- und Frühgeschichte 85, 50-54. INST ARCH
PERS
Saner, M. Affolter, Chr. 2008. Ötzis Schuhe. Schulzentrum Spiez NOSS.
http://www.noss.ch/oetziabenteuer/schuh/schuh.htm
Detailed and well illustrated guide on a reconstruction (and use), a Swiss school project.
Sieves
Reichert, A. 2004. Zur Herstellungstechnik von neolithischen und bronzezeitlichen Siebgeflechten in
Zwirnbindetechnik, Arbeitsgemeinschaft Experimentelle Archäologie der Schweiz Anzeiger
Anzeiger 2004, 4-7.
42
http://ipna.unibas.ch/aeas/bildseiten/anzeiger04.htm
16. Bast
Bast is the inner bark of trees. It can be used to produce cloth (barkcloth, tapa) or worked into fibres.
Well into the Neolithic and beyond, bast was an important source of fibres.
essential reading
Granlund, J. 1943. Lindbast och träbast. En studie i material och teknik. Folkliv 7, Stockholm. Main
224-8. Pers, ask!
Hill, R. 2001. Traditional barkcloth from Papua New Guinea. Materials, production and consumption.
In: Wright, M. M. (ed.), Barkcloth, aspects of preparation, use, deterioration, conservation and
display: seminar organised by the Conservators of Ethnographic Artefacts at Torquay Museum on 4 December 1997, 24-55 (24-44). INST ARCH KJ WRI
Howard, M. C. (ed.) 2006. Bark-cloth in Southeast Asia. Studies in the material cultures of Southeast
Asia 10. Bangkok: White Lotus.
Hurcombe, L. 2007. Plant processing for cordage and textiles using serrated flint edges: new chaîbes
operatoires suggested by ethnographic, archaeological and experimental evidence for bast fibre processing. In: Beugnier, V., Crombé, Ph. (eds.), Plant processing form a prehistoric and
ethnographic perspective/Préhistoire et ethnographie du travail des plantes: proceedings of a
workshop at Ghent University (Belgium) November 28, 2006. BAR International Series 1718.
Oxford, John and Erica Hedges, 41-66. INST ARCH KJ Qto BEU
The indirect evidence
Jones, V. H. 1937. Notes on the preparation and the uses of basswood fibre by the Indians of the
Great Lakes region. Papers Michigan Academy Sciences, Arts and Letters 22, 1-14.
Jones, V. H. 1946. Notes on the manufacture of cedar-bark mats by the Chippewa Indians. Papers
Michigan Academy Sciences, Arts and Letters 32, 341–63.
Kooijman, S. 1988. Polynesian barkcloth. Princes Risborough, Shire Ethnography 7. INST ARCH DDB
KOO
Körber-Grohne, U., Feldtkeller, A. 1998. Pflanzliche Rohmaterialien und Herstellungstechniken der
Gewebe, Netze, Geflechte sowie anderer Produkte aus den neolithischen Siedlungen Hornstaad, Wangen, Allensbach und Sipplingen am Bodensee. Siedlungsarchäologie im Alpenvorland V. Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte Baden-Württembergs.
Stuttgart, Theiß, 131-242. INST ARCH DAD Series BAD VOR
Myking, T., Hertzberg, A. Skrøppam, T. 2005. History, manufacture and properties of lime bast cordage in northern Europe. Forestry 78/1. NET
doi:10.1093/forestry/cpi006. Net and Discussion Group
Pfeifer, K., Oeggl, K. 2000. Analysis of the bast used by the Iceman as binding material. In: Bortenschlager S., Oeggl, K. (eds), The Iceman and his natural environment. The man in the ice, vol.
4. Wien, Springer, 69–76. INST ARCH DAF 10 BOR
Rast-Eicher, A. 2005. Bast before wool: the first textiles. In: Bichler, P. et al. (eds.), Hallstatt Textiles.
Technical analysis, scientific investigations and experiment on Iron Age Textiles. BAR Int
1351. BAR: Oxford, 117-131. INST ARCH DABA BIC
Reichert, A.:2000. Rotten oder Rösten von Lindenbast? Arbeitsgemeinschaft Experimentelle Archäologie der Schweiz Anzeiger 2000, 1-4.
Reichert, A. 2005. Be- und Verarbeiten von Lindenbast. Arbeitsgemeinschaft Experimentelle Archäologie der Schweiz Anzeiger 2005, 5-7.
http://ipna.unibas.ch/aeas/bildseiten/anzeiger05.htm
Reichert, A. 2007. Zwischen Rinde und Holz: Bast – textiles Material der Steinzeit. In: Fansa, M., Vorlauf, D. (eds), Holz-Kultur, Von der Urzeit bis in die Zukunft. Wissenschaftlicher Begleitband
zur gleichnamigen Sonderausstellung 4.2.-28.5.2007 im Landesmuseum für Natur und
Mensch Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Isensee, 203-230.
Reichert, A. 2009. Versuche zur Rekonstruktion des 7000 Jahre alten Brunnengefäßes von ErkelenzKückhoven. Experimentelle Archäologie in Europa, Bilanz 2009, 19-30.
http://www.museum-albersdorf.de/bast/Rindenbehälter-AR.pdf
Turner, N. J. 1998. Plant technology of First Peoples in British Columbia. Vancouver, UBC Press.
Weiner, J. 1997. Behälter aus Rindenbast aus dem bandkeramischen Brunnen von ErkelenzKückhoven: Rinden“taschen“ oder Schöpfbeutel? Plattform, Zeitschrift des Vereins für Pfahlbau und Heimatkunde e. V. 5/6, 1996/97, 76-82.
LBK bags made from lime-bast
43
see also
Östlund, L., Bergman, I., Zackrisson, O. 2003. Trees for food – a 3000 year record of subarctic plant
use. Antiquity 78, 278-286. NET
an alternative use of bark – for food
Gottesfeld, L. M. J. 1992. The importance of bark products in the aboriginal economies of Northwestern British Columbia, Canada. Economic Botany 46, 148-157. NET
Franck, R. R. (ed.) 2005. Bast and other plant fibre. Cambridge, Textile Institute, Woodhead Publishing.
http://libproxy.ucl.ac.uk/login?url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9781855736849
modern reference volume, jute, flax and hemp and mainly tropical plants like ramie, sisal, coir and abaca.
related: papyrus
Hendriks, I. 1980. Pliny Historia Naturalis 13, 74-82 and the manufacture of papyrus. Zeitschrift für
Papyrologie und Epigraphik 37, 121-136.
Leach, B., Tait, J. 2000. Papyrus. In: Nicholson, P. T., Shaw, I. (eds), Ancient Egyptian materials and
technology. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 227-253. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS S 5 NIC
O'Casey, I. V.; Maney, A. S. 1973. The nature and making of papyrus. Barkston Ash, Elmete Press.
MAIN PAPYROLOGY P9 OCA
Wallert, A. 1989. The reconstruction of papyrus manufacture: a preliminary investigation. Studies in
conservation 34, 1-8. INST ARCH PERS
Paper
Hunter, D. 1947. Papermaking, the history and technique of an ancient craft. New York, Dover. INST
ARCH KH HUN
Tsoumis, G. Science and technology of Wood. Structure, properties and utilisation. New York, Chapman and Hall. INST ARCH KC TSO.
Modern paper-making techniques: 399-418.
Grasses
Moorey, P. R. S. 1994. Ancient Mesopotamian materials and industries: the archaeological evidence.
Oxford, Clarendon, 361-362. INST ARCH DBB 100 MOO
Acs, P., Wilhalm, Th., Oeggl, K. 2005. Remains of grasses found with the Neolithic Iceman “Ötzi”.
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany 14, 198–206. ONLINE
Identification of raw material
Montner, K., Geramb, V. 1932. Steirisches Trachtenbuch, vol. 1. Graz, Leuschner und Lubensky, 2833.
Grass-coats comparable to the Similaun one from ethnographic contexts
Reichert, A. 2001. Zwirngeflechte in der Ausrüstung des Gletschermannes. Zeitschrift für Schweizerische Archäologie und Kunstgeschichte 58/1, 61-66.
Reichert, A. 2006. Umhang oder Matte? Versuche zur Rekonstruktion des Grasgeflechts des „Mannes
aus dem Eis“. Waffen- und Kostümkunde. Zeitschrift für Waffen- und Kleidungsgeschichte 1, 1-16.
http://www.museum-albersdorf.de/bast/UmhangoderMatteAR.pdf
reconstruction of the coat of the ice-man, detailed description with useful illustrations
Tait, J. 1986. Rush and reed: the pens of Egyptian and Greek scribes. In: Mandilaras, B. G. (ed.), Proceedings of the 18th. International Congress of Papyrology, Athens 1986. Athens, Greek
Papyrological Society, 477-481.
http://www.oldandinteresting.com/rushlights.aspx
useful material on rushlights
Ideas for practical work
-making a rope (different raw-materials)
-making bark-cloth
-making a piece of paper
-making a grass-coat
44
-making and using a rushlight
Basketry
Basketry is made of two systems of fibres, but moved individually, not together, as in weaving.
Baskets cannot only used for transport and storage, but also for cooking and even as the skeletons of
ships (curraghs). The technique is certainly older than pottery, but finds of baskets are rare except in
dry or waterlogged environments. We are going to look at some basic techniques.
Essential reading
McGregor, R. 2004. Prehistoric basketry of the Lower Pecos, Texas. Madison: Prehistory Press. INST
ARCH KK MCG
*Wendrich, W. 1991. Who is afraid of basketry. A guide to recording basketry and cordage for archaeologists and Ethnographers. Leiden Centre for Non-Western Studies. IoA KK WEN
Wendrich, W. 1999. The world according to basketry. An ethno-Archaeological interpretation of basketry production in Egypt. Leiden Research School of Asian, American and Amerindian
Studies. IoA KK WEN
Archaeological examples of basketry
again, highly selective!
Adovasio, J. M. 1974. Prehistoric North American basketry. In: D. R. Tuohy, D. L. Rendall (eds.), Collected papers on aboriginal basketry. Nevada State Museum Anthropological Papers 16,
Carson City, 98-148.
Bernick, K. 1998. Stylistic characteristics of basketry from Coast Salish area wet sites. In: Bernick, K.
(ed.), Hidden Dimensions: The cultural Significance of Wetland Archaeology. Vancouver,
University of British Columbia Press, 139–156. INST ARCH BB 6 BER
Kankainen K. (ed.) 1995. Treading in the past: sandals of the Anasazi. Salt Lake City, Utah Museum/Utah UP. INST ARCH DED 13 KAN
Masada: the Yigael Yadin excavations 1963-1965: final reports. Jerusalem, Israel Exploration Society,
Hebrew University of Jerusalem. INST ARCH DBE 10 Qto YAD
Wendrich, W. 2005. Çatalhöyük basketry In: Hodder, I. (ed.), Changing materialities at Çatalhöyük: reports from the 1995-99 seasons. Cambridge, McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research/London, British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, 333-337. INST ARCH DBC 10
HOD
Ethnographic
*Hogan, J. 2001. Basketmaking in Ireland. Bray, Wordwell. Inst. of Arch KK KOG
wonderful introduction to the multitude of uses of basketry (also for boats) and a good description of
manufacturing techniques.
http://www.cs.arizona.edu/patterns/weaving/topic_basketry.html
Mainly North America
Fishtraps
A. S. Andersen 1995, Coastal adaptation and marine exploitation in late Mesolithic Denmark – with
special emphasis on the Limfjord region. In: A. Fischer (eds.), Man and Sea in the Mesolithic. Oxford, Oxbow, 41-66. INST ARCH FIS
Connolly, Th. J., Erlandson, J. M. Norris, S. E. 1995. Early Holocene basketry and cordage from Daisy
Cave, San Miguel Island, California. American Antiquity 60/2, 309-318. NET
McQuade, M., O'Donnell, L. 2007. Late Mesolithic Fishtraps from the Liffey estuary, Dublin, Ireland.
Antiquity 81, 569-584. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Godbold, S., Turner, V. 1994. Medieval fishtraps in the Severn estuary. Medieval Archaeology 38, 1954. INST ARCH PERS
McErlean, T., O'Sullivan, A. 2002. Foreshore tidal fishtraps. In: T. McErlean, R. McConkey, W. Forsythe (eds), Strangford Lough: an archaeological survey of its maritime cultural landscape.
Belfast, Blackstaff Press, 144-180. INST ARCH DAA 710 MCE
O'Sullivan, M., Downey, L. 2009. Medieval Fisheries. Archaeology Ireland 23/3, 30-33. ONLINE
45
Ships
Hogan, J. 2001. Basketmaking in Ireland. Bray: Wordwell. Inst. of Arch KK KOG
Jenkins, J. G. 2006. The Corracle. Llanarwst: GwasCarreg Gwalch (revised edition)
mainly on the use in fishing, but also on constuction
See also
Gaitzsch, W. 1986. Antike Korb- und Seilerwaren. Limesmuseum Aalen.
mainly Roman finds, but many uselful pictural sources, also of earlier periods
DIY
Burns, H. 1998. Cane, Rush and Willow: Weaving with Natural Materials. Westport: Firefly.
Newman, S. C. 1974. Indian basket weaving: How to weave Pomo, Yurok and Navaho Baskets. Flagstaff: Northland.
Ideas for practical work
-coil basket (diverse materials and techniques possible)
-willow basket
-plaited basket (straw, rushes)
-a Neolithic comb made of rushes - does it work?
-Fish trap
16a Knitting, nalebinding, spang
Single-tread techniques, often of great antiquity. Knitting, surprisingly, is fairly recent, probably introduced in Medieval times from the Arab World.
Nalebinding
Decker, A. M. 2000. Nålebinding. http://www.geocities.com/sigridkitty/
Hutchinson, E. 1999. "Nålebinding". Anglo-Saxon and Viking Crafts. Regia Anglorum Publications,
without place.
van Gijn, A. The use of bone and antler tools: Two examples from the late Mesolithic in the Dutch
coastal zone. In: Gates St.-Pierre, Chr., Walker, Renée B. (eds.), Bones as tools, Current
interpretations in worked bone studies. BAR S 1622. Oxford, BAR, 81-92. INST ARCH
KB Qto GAT
86-87 on bone needles for Spang working.
Walton, P. J. 1988. The sock in Nålebinding. In: P. J. Walton, Textiles, cordage and raw fibre from 1622 Coppergate. The Archaeology of York 17, Fasc. 5. London, Published for the York Archaeological Trust by the Council for British Archaeology, 341. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6
Series YOR 17/5
http://www.regia.org/naalbind.htm
Knitting
Turnau, I. 1991. History of knitting before mass production. Warszawa, Akcent. INST ARCH KJ TUR
Lavold, E. 2000. Viking Patterns for Knitting: Inspiration and Projects for today's Knitter. Trafalgar
Square.
Anachronistic but nice…
Sprang
easier than it looks!
*Collingwood, P. 1974. The techniques of sprang, plaiting on stretched threads. New York, WatsonGuptill Publications. INST ARCH KJ COL
Cooke, W. D. Tullo. A. 1988. The conservation of a collection of Coptic sprang hats in the Whitworth
Art Gallery, Manchester. Bulletin du Centre International des Études des Textils Anciens
66, 5-14.
Javer, A., D. Eastop, R. Janssen, 1999. A sprang cap preserved on a naturally dried Egyptian head.
Textile History 30/2, 135-154. History PERS and NET
*Jenkins I., Williams, D. 1985. Sprang hair nets: their manufacture and use in Ancient Greece. Ameri46
can Journal of Archaeology 89, 411-418. INST ARCH PERS
Linscheid, P. Hairnets and bonnets in Late Roman and Byzantine Egypt.
http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/textil/hairnets.html
Lurvink, L. 1997. The reconstruction of sprang hairnets and the experiments to find the right way to
wear them. In: Boonstra. A. and Zuidweg, W. (eds.), Textile van 4000 voor tot 1500, 2225. Eindhooven, Prehistoisch Openluchtmuseum. SCAN.
Bronze Age Northern Europe
Ideas for practical work
-a spang object
-an object in nålebinding technique
-a braided item (or a hairdo?)
17. Colours and dyes
Vegetable and animal dyes were used on textiles since the Neolithic, body paints may well be much
older. We will look at some organic materials used in dyeing, and the basic chemistry of these techniques.
Essential reading
Journal: Dyes in History and Archaeology. INST ARCH PERS
general
Bender-Jørgensen, L., Walton, P. 1987. Dyes and fleece types in textiles from Scandinavia and Germany. Journal of Danish Archaeology 5, 177-188. INST ARCH PERS
Brunello, F. 1973. The art of dyeing in the history of mankind. Vicenza, N. Pozza. INST ARCH JDJ
BRU
Edmonds, J. 1999. The history and practice of eighteenth century Dyeing. INST ARCH JDJ BRU
Goodwin, J. 1982. A dyer's manual. Hessle: Ashman. INST ARCH JDJ GOO
Hofmann-de Keijzer, R. 2005. Dyestuff and element analysis on textiles from the prehistoric salt-mines
of Hallstatt. In: Bichler, P. et al. (eds.), Hallstatt Textiles. Technical analysis, scientific investigations and experiment on Iron Age Textiles. BAR Int 1351, Oxford, BAR, 55-72.
INST ARCH DABA QTO BIC
Taylor, G. W. 1988. Colour, with a contribution on the detection and identification of dyes. In: P. J.
Walton, Textiles, cordage and raw fibre from 16-22 Coppergate. The Archaeology of York
17, Fasc. 5. London, Published for the York Archaeological Trust by the Council for British Archaeology, 397-403. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6 Series YOR 17/11
Walton, P. 1988. Dyes and wools in textiles from Norway and Denmark. Journal of Danish Archaeology 7, 144-158. INST ARCH PERS
http://www.forest.gen.nz/Medieval/articles/Oseberg/textiles/TEXTILE.HTM
see also:
C. Alfaro y L. Karali (eds), 2008. Symposium Internacional sobre Textiles y Tintes del Mediterráno en
el Mundo Antiguo. Vestidos, textiles y tintes: estudios sobre la producción de bienes de consumo en la antigüedad. Actas del II Symposium Internacional sobre Textiles y Tintes del Mediterráno en el Mundo Antiguo, Athens, 24.- 26. noviembre, 2005. Valencia: Universitat de València. INST ARCH KJ Qto ALF
Eastaugh, N., Walsh, V., Chaplin, T., Siddall, R. 2008. Pigment Compendium. A Dictionary and Optical
Microscopy of Historic Pigments. London, Routledge. INST ARCH JDJ EST
useful dictionary of historical dyes
vegetal dyes
*Balfour-Paul, J. 1998. Indigo. London, British Museum. INST ARCH JDJ BAL
Casselman, K. L. 1994. Lichen Dyes: Preparation and Dyeing. Maine Naturalist 2/2, 105-110. JSTOR
Casselman, K. L. 2001. Lichen dyes, the new source book. Dover, Mineola.
Chenciner, F. 2000. Madder red: a history of luxury and trade Richmond, Curzon. INST ARCH JDJ
CHE
47
http://waynesword.palomar.edu/ecoph3.htm
Guarino, C., Casoria, P. Menale, B. 2000. Cultivation and Use of Isatis tinctoria L. (Brassicaceae) in
Southern Italy. Economic Botany 54/3, 395-400. ONLINE
Hartl, A., Hofmann-de Keijser, R. 2005 Imitating ancient dyeing methods from the Hallstatt perioddyeing experiments with weld, indigo and oak bark. In: Bichler, P. et al. (eds.), Hallstatt
Textiles. Technical analysis, scientific investigations and experiment on Iron Age Textiles.
BAR Int. 1351. Oxford, BAR, 91-96. INST ARCH DABA Qto BIC
Özgökçe, F., Yilmaz, İ. 2003. Dye Plants of East Anatolia region. Economic Botany 57/4, 454-460.
ONLINE
Taylor, G. W. 1992. The chemistry of madder dyeings: application of semi-quantitative TLC. Dyes in
History and Archaeology 10, 35–37.
Walton, P. 1988. Dyes of the Viking age: a summary of recent work. Dyes in History and Archaeology
7, 14-20.
There are numerous DIY books on dyeing with vegetable substances
Ink de Hamel, Chr. 1992. Medieval craftsmen: Scribes and illuminators. London, British Museum Press.
MAIN ART H 10 HAM
preparation and production of ink
Carvalho, D. N. 1904, Forty Centuries of Ink or a chronological narrative concerning ink and its backgrounds. New York, Banks Law.
http://www.worldwideschool.org/library/books/tech/printing/FortyCenturiesofInk/toc.html
see also http://www.djmcadam.com/ink-recipe.html
Rijksdienst for het cultureel Erfgoed, The Iron Gall Ink Website. http://irongallink.org/igi_index.html
extremely useful, many receipes
animal dyes
Walton Rogers, P. 1999. Dyes in the Hochdorf Textiles. In: Banck-Burgess, J. (ed.), Hochdorf IV, Die
Textilfunde aus dem späthallstattzeitlichen Fürstengrab von Eberdingen-Hochdorf (Kreis
Ludwigsburg) und weitere Grabtextilien aus hallstatt- und laténezeitlichen Kulturgruppen.
Forschungen und Berichte zur Vor- und Frühgeschichte Baden-Württembergs 70.
Stuttgart, Theiß, 240-245. INST ARCH DAD Series BAD VOR
Good overview on the Iron-age use of kermes
Beavis, I. C. 1988, Insects and other invertebrates in Classical Antiquity. Oxford, Exeter University
Press, 108-111. INST ARCH BB 4 BEA
Cotte, J., Cotte, C. 1918. Le Kermes dans l'Antiquité. Revue Archéologique 7, 105-107.
Donkin, R. A. 1977. The insect dyes of Western and West-Central Asia. Anthropos 72, 1977, 847-
880.
JSTOR
Good overview for kermes
Donkin, R. A. 1977. Spanish Red: An ethnogeographical study of cochineal and the Opuntia Cactus.
Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series 67/5, 1-84. JSTOR
Purple
Boesken, K. I., Haubrichs, 2008. Tyrian purple dyeing: an experimental approach with fresh Murex
trunculus. In: Alfaro, C., Wild, J. P., Costa, B. (eds.), Purpureae vestes. Actas del I Symposium Internacional sobre Textiles y Tintes del Mediterráneo en Época Romana (Ibiza,
8.-10. noviembre 2002). València, Consell Insular d'Eivissa i Formentera, Universitat de
València, 253-256. INST ARCH KJ Qto ALF
Cooksey, Chr. 1994. Bibliography on shellfish purple. Dyes in history and archaeology 12, 57-65.
INST ARCH JDJ DYE, ART T KIR
Doumet, J. 1980. Étude sur la couleur pourpre ancienne et tentative de reproduction du procédé de
teinture de la ville de Tyr décrit par Pline l’Ancien. Beirut: Impr. Catholique. INST ARCH
JDJ DOU
Elsner, O., Spanier, E. 1985. The dyeing with Murex extracts. An unusual dyeing method of wool to
the Biblical sky blue. Proceedings of the 7th International Wool Textile Research Conference, Tokyo 5, 118-130.
Dyeing blue with purple
Jensen, L B. 1963. Royal purple of Tyre. Journal of Near Eastern Studies 22/2, 1963, 104-118. NET
48
Reese, D. 2005. Whale bones and shell purple-dye at Motya, (western Sicily, Italy). Oxford Journal of
Archaeology 24/2, 107–114. INST ARCH PERS and NET
Short overview for the history of dyeing with purple
Ruscillo, D. 2005. Reconstructing murex royal purple and biblical blue in the Aegean. In Bar-Yosef
Mayer, D. (ed.), Archaeomalacology. Molluscs in former environments of human behaviour. Oxford, Oxbow, 99-106. IoA BB4 QTO May
Sandberg, G. 1994, The red dyes: cochineal, madder and murex purple. North Carolina, Lark Books.
INST ARCH JDJ SAN
James, M. A. et al. 2009, High prestige royal purple dyed textiles from the Bronze Age royal tomb at
Qatna, Syria. Antiquity 83, 1109–1118.
recent finds
Tattoos and body paint
no self-mutilation, please!
Rudenko, S. I. 1970. Frozen tombs of Siberia: the Pazyryk burials of Iron Age horsemen. London,
Dent. SSEES R.VIII RUD
Booth, Ch. 2001. Possible tattooing instruments in the Petrie Museum. Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 87, 172-175. INST ARCH PERS
Gustafson, M. W. 1997. Inscripta in Fronte: Penal Tattooing in Late Antiquity. Classical Antiquity
16/1, 79-105.
Written Sources
Keimer, L. 1948. Remarques sur le tatouage dans l'Egypte ancienne. Cairo, Memoires Institut
d'Egypte.
Leahy, D. 2010. A painful past? Tatooing in prehistoric Ireland. Archaeology Ireland 24/2, 26-28. Online
Robitaille, B. 2007. A preliminary typology of perpendicularly hafted bone tipped tattooing instruments:
Towards a technological history of Oceanic tattooing. In Gates, St.-Pierre, Walker, Chr.,
Renée, B. (eds.), Bones as tools, current interpretations in worked bone studies. BAR S
1622. Oxford, BAR, 159-174. INST ARCH KB Qto GAT
See also
*Cardon, D. 2003. Le monde des teintures naturelles. Paris, Belin. INST ARCH JDJ CAR
Best overview I know of!
Davies, W. V. (ed.), 2001, Colour and painting in Ancient Egypt. London, British Museum Press, 3342. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS M 20 DAV
van Soldt, W. H, 1983. Fabrics and dyes at Ugarit. Ugaritforschungen 22, 1983, 321-357.
Vanden Berghe, I., Gleba, M., Mannering, U. 2009. Towards the identification of dyestuffs in Early Iron
Age Scandinavian peat bog textiles. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 1910–1921.
NET
very useful biography on analytical methods
Ideas for practical work
-dying with vegetal dyes (lichen, mushrooms and algae are interesting and little explored areas!)
-making ink (if you can obtain the oak-galls!)
-dying with purple (murex shells are sold as food in most Mediterranean countries!)
19. Wood (non-building)
Excluding the use of wood as a building material (for houses, ships, etc.) or for artworks.
This can only be an extremely patchy overview: the subject would deserve a course of its own. We will
look at vessels, tools and hunting implements, handles and other domestic artefacts, with a short
aside on furniture.
Essential reading
Earwood, C. 1993. Domestic wooden artefacts in Britain and Ireland from Neolithic to Viking times.
Exeter, University of Exeter Press. INST ARCH KC EAR
Kars H., van Heeringen, R. M. (eds.) 2008. Preserving archaeological remains in situ. Proceedings of
the 3rd Preserving archaeological Remains in situ Conference, Amsterdam, Netherlands,
7-9 December 2006, Amsterdam. Amsterdam, Institute for Geo- and Bioarchaeology, VU
49
University. INST ARCH LA Qto KAR
useful articles on the structure and decay of wood.
Morris, C. A. 2000. Craft, industry and everyday life: wood and woodworking in Anglo-Scandinavian
and medieval York. In: P. V. Addyman (ed.), The archaeology of York 17, Fasc. 13. York,
Council for British Archaeology. INST ARCH DAA 410 Y.6 Series YOR 17/13
Pugsley, P. 2003. Roman domestic wood: analysis of the morphology, manufacture and use of selected categories of domestic wooden artefacts. BAR International Series 1118. Oxford,
BAR. INST ARCH DAA 170 Qto PUG
Also contains a section on replication experiments: combs, vessels, shoes
*Tsoumis, G. Science and technology of Wood. Structure, properties and utilisation. New York,
Chapman and Hall. INST ARCH KC TSO
General introduction to properties etc.
Jenkins, J. G. 1965. Traditional country craftsmen. London, Routledge and Kegan Paul. MAIN:
STORES
10-121, 60-63 on spoons
Arrows
Cosner, A. J. 1951. Arrow-shaft straightening with a grooved stone. American Antiquity 17/2, 147-148.
NET
Furniture
Andrianou, D. 2009. The furniture and furnishings of ancient Greek houses and tombs. Cambridge,
Cambridge University Press. YATES A 80 AND
the pictoral, written and archaeological sources, also a lot of skeuomorphs
Eaton-Krauss, M. 2008. The thrones, chairs, stools, and footstools from the tomb of Tutankhamun.
Oxford, Griffith Institute. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS E 7 EAT
Croom, A. 2007. Roman furniture. Stroud, Tempus. YATES V 99 CRO
Janssen, J. J. 2009. Furniture at Deir el-Medîna, including wooden containers of the New Kingdom,
and Ostracon Varille 19. London, Golden House Publications. EGYPTOLOGY E 7 JAN
The Egyptian documentary evidence
Killen, G. 1980. Ancient Egyptian furniture. Vol. I: 4000-1300 BC. Warminster: Aris & Phillips. EGYPTOLOGY QUARTOS M 20 KIL
Kubba, Sh. A. A. 2006. Mesopotamian furniture: from the Mesolithic to the Neo-Assyrian period (ca.
10,000 B.C.-600 B.C.). BAR International Series 1566. Oxford, John and Erica Hedges.
INST ARCH DBB 300 Qto KUB
Mols, St. 1999. Wooden furniture in Herculaneum. Amsterdam, Gieben. YATES QUARTOS A 80 MOL
Richter, G. M. A. 1966. The furniture of the Greeks, Etruscans and Romans. London, Phaidon. YATES
QUARTOS A 80 RIC
Simpson, E. 2008. The Gordion wooden objects: the furniture from Tumulus MM. Culture and history
of the ancient Near East 32/1. Leiden, Brill. INST ARCH DBC 10 Qto SIM
Wooden spoons Gühne, A. 1991. Stadtarchäologie in Freiberg - Holzfunde. Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums
für Vorgeschichte Dresden 22. Berlin, Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften.
Müller, U. 1996. Holzfunde aus Freiburg und Konstanz. Landesdenkmalamt Baden-Württemberg.
Stuttgart Theiß.
Vogel V. 2006. Holzfunde aus dem mittelalterlichen Schleswig. Ausgrabungen in Schleswig – Berichte
und Studien 17. Neumünster, Wachholtz.
see also
Paulsen, P., Schach-Doerges, H. 1972. Holzhandwerk der Alamannen. Stuttgart, Kohlhammer.
STORE 02-05955
Thieme, H. (ed.) 2008. Die Schöninger Speere. Mensch und Jagd vor 400000 Jahren. Stuttgart,
Theiß. INST ARCG DAD 12 Qto THI
Mertens, E. 2000. Linde, Ulme, Hasel. Zur Verwendung von Pflanzen für Jagd- und Fischfanggeräte
im Mesolithikum Dänemarks und Schleswig-Holsteins. Prähistorische Zeitschrift 75, 1-55.
comprehensive survey of Mesolithic wooden implements in Northern Europe.
Tyldesley, J. A. 1983. Use of plants in the European Palaeolithic: a review of the evidence. Quaternary
Science Reviews 2, 53-81. ONLINE
50
Palaeolithic use of wood. Wooden beads from Gönnersdorf (p. 55)
Fansa, M., Vorlauf, D. 2011. Holz-Kultur – Von der Urzeit bis in die Zukunft. Isensee, Oldenburg.
Bark for containers and ships
Anon 1972. Birch-Bark Canoe Builder: William Hafeman perpetuates a nearly lost Art. Minnesota History 43/4, 142-145. ONLINE
Gramsch, B. 1993. Ein mesolithischer Birkenrindenbehälter von Friesack. Veröffentlichungen des
Brandenburgischen Landesmuseums für Ur- und Frühgeschichte 27/93, 7-15.
Young, D. Nicks, G. McConnell, R. Suss, L. 1991. Birchbark Industry and Brain tanning in the Central
Canadian Subarctic. Arctic Anthropology 28/1, 110-123. ONLINE
Ideas for practical work
-making an arrow with flint tools
-making a spear thrower
-making a wooden comb
-carving a spoon
-making a small item of furniture, stool
-making a wooden haft
Techniques
Drilling
Childe, V. G. 1956. Rotary motion. In: C. Singer et al. (eds.). A history of technology I. From early
times to the fall of ancient empires. Oxford, Clarendon. INST ARCH TYLECOTE SIN,
STORES
McGuire, J. 1896. A study of primitive methods of drilling. Smithsonian Institute Report 1894, 623-756.
Hodge, F. W. (ed.) 1907. Handbook of American Indians North of Mexico. Smithsonian Institute Bulletin 30. Drills and drilling 401-403.
Sawing
Christidiou, R. 2004. Fabrication d'outils en os: exemple d'opérations de raclage et d'abrasion. Dossiers de l'archéologie 290, 56-57.
51