Environmental Monitoring
& Technology Series
Navigation &
Mapping
For Technicians
Study module 8
Position and bearing
cffet.net/env
Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
Assessment details
Purpose
Upon successful completion of this study module you will have an understanding of the
different types of reference systems, datum’s, coordinate systems and specific notations
used in navigation as well as being able to perform simple unit conversions.
Instructions
◗ Read the theory section to understand the topic.
◗ Complete the Student Declaration below prior to starting.
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N&M
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Study module 8
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This is one of twelve formative assessments that make up 40% of
the overall mark for this subject
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
Navigation
This module deals with the process of navigation. One definition of navigation is;
“the process or activity of accurately ascertaining one's position and planning and
following a route”
You will learn how to navigate using three different techniques;
◗ Map and compass
◗ GPS Routing
◗ Electronic navigation
Consider what you have learnt thus far; the Earth and our datum’s, map projections and the
UTM, topographic maps and the compass. What we need to do now is show you how all of
those ingredients come together to allow the process of navigation.
Essentially, there are three parts to every navigation;
◗ Locating and describing your current position
◗ Locating and describing your target position
◗ Travelling from one position to the other
This of course needs to be repeated at least once if you want to get back to where you
started!
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
Locating and describing a position
This section describes how to ‘glean’ latitudinal, longitudinal and grid reference information
from topographic maps.
Everything you that learn about topographic maps is applicable to the electronic GIS
material – so even though you may not use topographic maps, the information is still
relevant.
Using latitude and longitude
Only minutes of latitudes and longitudes are shown as black and white (greyish) lines across
the edge of the map, with infrequent labelled tick marks in the margins.
Remember…
1) That latitudes increase north to south, from zero at the equator to 90° at the poles and
longitudes increase East and West from the Prime Meridian.
2) that the standard way to describe a location with geographic coordinates is to state the
latitude followed by the longitude. For example, 32°53'53"S, 105°57'15"E.
Figure 8.1 – Topographic map with the latitude and longitude distance bars highlighted. This map is a
7.5 x 15 minute map, so the latitudes range from 32°52’30”S to 33°00’00”S and the longitudes range
from 151°30’00”E to 151°45’00”E. The centre of the red dot represents GR 8261.
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Study Module 8
Consider the figure above. The red dot represents a location described as GR8261, which is
simply the corner of a UTM grid. Now have a look at how the latitudes and longitudes are
aligned – they do not line up with the grid reference.
So here is the question, how can we use the latitude and longitude information to
accurately describe the grid location (considering that they don’t line up)?
There are three methods;
◗ Approximations
◗ Calculations
◗ Using scaled geographic rulers
To use any of these techniques you must remember the following key piece of information;
There are 60 arc seconds in 1 arc minute.
Determining latitude and longitude approximately
This technique involves being able to fractionate the latitudes and longitudes into halves,
quarters and even eights if you so inclined. Simply rule lines that represent the fractions and
then approximate the precise latitudes and longitudes from those fractions.
Using the figure below as an example, we can see that GR8261 lies in a square bounded by
latitudes of 32°52’30” and 32°53’00” and longitudes of 151°44’00” and 151°45’00”. Knowing
that each minute has 60 arc seconds, if we break down a minute into quarters (as we have
for the longitude), we have made four 15 second markers (the latitude is only half a minute
in this example, so its line represents 15 seconds as well) and then we simply approximate
our position based on those markers.
In this case we can approximate that the latitude is about 32°52’58” and the longitude is
about 151°44’18”
Figure 8.3 – Example of the approximate method of determining latitude and longitude.
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Study Module 8
Determining latitude and longitude by calculation
This is a similar method to the approximation method explained above, but exhibits greater
precision, and again relies on knowing that there are 60 seconds in a minute. The procedure
is as follows;
◗ Use a ruler to determine the length of your arc minutes (in mm) of latitude and
longitude from your map. We shall call this distance the ‘arc-distance’, Darc.
◗ Divide 60 by this distance to obtain a ‘arc second-per-millimeter’ (s/mm) value.
◗ Use the ruler to measure the distance (in mm) to the location of interest from the
nearest displayed minute of arc for either latitude or longitude; call this D.
◗ Calculate the ‘distance-to-add’ by multiplying the s/mm value by the distance (D).
◗ Add this distance (which is in seconds) to the reference value to acquire you precise
latitude or longitude.
This can be expressed as a simple formula;
𝐿𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 +
60
×𝐷
𝐷𝑎𝑟𝑐
Using the problems above, we measure that 1 minute of longitude is only 62 mm, but a
minute of latitude is 74 mm. Dividing each of these into 60 seconds yields s/mm values of;
Latitude
=
0.81 mm/s
Longitude
=
0.97 mm/s
We measured that the latitude was 35 mm from the reference (32°52’30”), so;
35 x 0.81
=
28.4 arc seconds
And we measured the longitude was 20 mm from the reference (151°44’00”), so;
20 x 0.97
=
19.4 arc seconds
When we add these seconds to our reference we end up with precise location of;
Latitude
Longitude
=
32°52’30” + 28.4”
=
32°52’58”
=
151°44’00” + 19.4”
=
151°44’19.4”
Considering that our initial fractional approximation yielded results of 58” for latitude and
18” for longitude, we can see that this is a good improvement (but whether it’s worth it or
not is up for debate!).
Using this technique we can see that the results are similar to those achieved from the
approximate method: the latitude is about 32°52’58” and the longitude is about
151°44’19.4”
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
Determining latitude and longitude by ruler
If you have access to geographic rulers, then you can use these to plot the location quite
easily. A geographic ruler measures in seconds of latitude or longitude (instead of the
traditional cm or mm), and also decimal minutes. In this way they can be used to measure
locations directly from the map.
The ruler must be in the same scale as your map. If it isn’t, any locations you determine
from the ruler will be several orders of magnitude wrong depending on the difference in
scale used. If you have a 1:25000 topographic map, you must use a 1:25000 scale ruler.
Determining latitude with a ruler
Because the lines of latitude are parallel and evenly spaced, a degree of latitude represents
a constant distance on the ground. This makes plotting latitude quite straight forward.
◗ Place the ruler so that it spans the lines of latitude outside the point to be measured.
◗ Orient the ruler north to south.
◗ The zero minute end of the ruler should be on the southern line of latitude, when you're
in the northern hemisphere, and on the northern line when in the south.
◗ Then read the value from the ruler at the point of interest, and add it to the latitude of
the line at the zero end of the ruler. This can be seen in the figure below;
Figure 8.3 – Using a latitude ruler. Note that because this is a 7.5 minute map, the ruler was
positioned so that it starts from 30’ and not 00’. Ruler adapted from www.maptools.com
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Study Module 8
Determining longitude with a ruler
This procedure is slightly different due to the fact that the longtudes converge closer to the
poles. We need to adapt the ruler to fit the boundaries of the longitude by holding it at an
angle so that it fits the zone boundaries. Other than that, you read the seconds of it the
same way as for latitude. The procedure is as follows;
Place the ruler so that zero is at the closest western reference longitude
Rotate the ruler so that the 1 minute readin is on the eastern boundary of longitude
Keeping that exact orientation, slide the ruler so that it aligns with the point of interest.
Read the seconds of longitude of the ruler at the point of interest.
Figure 8.5 – Using a ruler to determine longitude. Adapted from www.maptools.com. Note that the
ruler crosses the boundary into another zone, which is fine as long as you stay straight.
It can be seen from the two figures above that using the ruler has given us coordinates of;
Latitude
=
32°52’58”
Longitude
=
151°44’18.5”
These results exhibit a good similarity to the results achieved from both the approximate
and calculated methods used above.
There is no ‘right or wrong’ method, it just boils down to what you have at your disposal
including equipment and time, as well as the need for accuracy.
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Study Module 8
Using the UGR (UTM)
There are more grid systems than the Easting and Northing system employed by the UTM
including the Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) used by the US and its civilian version,
the USNG, and the alphanumeric system employed by street directories, but for now we
shall focus on the application of UTM system in topographic maps.
The Grid System
We know how the Easting-Northing (EN) system works from earlier work, so how does this
apply to topographic maps? If we follow the UTM and EN system from the global map,
through to the MGA sequence we can see the magnification of the EN system for the
southern hemisphere around Australia.
Superimposed over the entire map are vertical and horizontal lines, the distance between
representing 1000 m on a 1:25 000 map. These lines, known as grid lines, are numbered at
each end. Every tenth line is in heavier print and is also numbered at various places along its
length.
Maps are normally printed so that north is approximately at the top of the sheet when the
printing is the correct way up. Therefore the grid lines are printed so that one set of lines
run approximately north—south and the other set of lines run approximately east-west. The
position of the point within a square is thus indicated by its distance east of a north-south
line and north of an east-west line.
To assist the user when giving grid references, grid lines are further defined as follows:
Eastings
The vertical grid lines, which run from bottom to top (or south to north) and divide the map
from west to east, are known as easting’s.
Eastings are numbered from west to east.
Northings
The horizontal grid lines, which run from left to right (or west to east) and divide the map
from south to north, are known as northings.
Northings are numbered from south to north.
The squares which are formed where easting’s and northings cross are known as grid
squares. They represent an area of 100 hectares or 1 square km. The distance from one side
of a grid square to the other in a diagonal line is 1.5 km.
Grid References
There are three methods used to indicate positions on a gridded map. The method used
depends on the degree of accuracy required by the user and, to a large extent, the scale of
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Study Module 8
the map being used. The basic principle for each method is the same and is explained
below.
Four figure grid reference
This method indicates the position of one grid square only and is therefore useful when
identifying major features and localities. To indicate a particular grid square:
◗ Select the easting which forms the left or west boundary of the square.
◗ Select the northing which forms the bottom, or south boundary of the square.
◗ The two figures for the easting and the two figures for the northing combined give the
four figure reference required.
To give a four figure grid reference to square A in the diagram below;
Figure 8.1 – Example of a four figure grid reference (Public Safety ITAB)
You would first select the easting which forms the west boundary of square A. In this case it
is easting 37. Next, select the northing which forms the south boundary of square A. In this
case it is northing 17. The four figure grid reference to square A is therefore GR 3717.
◗ Always deal with easting’s first, then northings. To help you remember this, use the
following line: Along the corridor and up the stairs.
◗ When transmitting grid references, always include the map sheet number or the title to
avoid confusing the number with a similar grid reference on another map.
◗ Grid references should always commence with the letters GR to show that they are, in
fact, grid references and nothing else.
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Six figure grid reference
This method is much more accurate than the four figure method and is used to indicate the
position of an object within a grid square. To do this, imagine each grid square divided into
100 smaller squares and estimate which small square the particular object is in.
The figure below shows a grid square divided into 100 smaller squares and to help explain
the procedure, some map detail has also been included. The numbering of the lines forming
the small squares indicates the number of tenths of a unit there are east of easting 41 or
north of northing 16. House A is in the small square 41.3 east and 16.7 north. In other words
the easting is 41.3 and the northing is 16.7. Deleting the decimal points, the six figure grid
reference to House A is GR 413167.
Figure 8.2 – The six figure (most common) reference system.
Eight figure grid reference
This method has limited practical use and is hardly ever used. It is only suitable on maps
with a scale of 1:50,000 or larger.
Romer Scales
A Romer scale is a simple device used for accurately measuring the position of a point within
a grid square instead of estimating the tenths as described in the previous paragraphs. To
use a Romer:
◗ Place the corner of the square against the required point on the map with the edges
parallel to the grid lines.
◗ The distance east and north within the grid square can then be read off against the west
and south grid lines of the square.
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A different Romer scale is required for each scale of map. Romer scales for a variety of
scales are sometimes engraved on protractors and also on the compass plate of some Silva
compasses.
lf such a Romer scale is not available, one can be easily made from a piece of paper or
cardboard, marking off the appropriate subdivision of a grid square from the secondary
division of the linear scale on the appropriate map.
The use of the Romer scale is shown below.
Figure 8.3 – How to use the Romer Scale. A printable romer has been included as a download on the
website (which must be printed on transparency so you can see through the romer).
Using digital grid references
When you use a topographic map to determine Easting and Northing coordinates you will
usually end up with a six figure grid reference, for example;
56H LJ 818607
(precise to 100 m2)
But if we were to use an electronic method of finding an Easting or Northing coordinate, you
may encounter an ‘unexpected’ issue with the format of the coordinate. An example of this
can be seen with finding the same location identified above in Google Earth;
56H 381897.16 mE 6360867.72 mS
(precise to 1 cm2)
This format looks completely different. How do we ‘compare’ the map coordinate to the
electronic one? It’s very easy, you just need to understand the map coordinate a little
better, and understand the concept of ‘precision’
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Study Module 8
Video tutorial!
Click here to access a video tutorial of this topic from the cffet website
Let’s have a look at a typical topographic map, as seen below, where we can see the Easting
and Northing grid identification numbers displayed in the map margin;
Figure 8.4 – Topographic map showing the Easting & Northing grid identifiers in the margin (ranging
from E 79 to 83 and N 59 to 61). The points of interest have been magnified with arrows showing
where they came from. From NSW map Wallsend 9232-3-S.
You will notice that some of the grid identifiers are pre-fixed with numbers. What are these
numbers, and where do they come from?
You will remember from earlier modules that the Easting and Northing values are in fact
distances from a Central meridian. If you were draw a box around the central meridian,
extending 500 km each way, you have one massive grid for one entire zone, you would see
that it ‘starts’ at zero, and finishes at 1000 kilometers, with the Central Meridian in the
middle at 500 000 meters, or 500 km (note that this ignores latitudinal convergence). The
1000 km grid is ‘scaled down’ by groups of ten, so there are;
◗ ten 100 km zones
◗ One hundred 10 km zones
◗ One thousand 1 km zones
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This ‘magnification’ can be seen in the cascading images below;
Figure 8.5 – Scaling the UTM grid from 1000 km down to 1 km. Each grid is broken down to ten
smaller grid. The 1 km grid is broken down using a Romer Scale.
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So what are the pre-fixes? They represent the magnitude of the number, so in the image
below;
The ‘3’ in front of the ‘80’ represents the ‘100 000’ meter mark, so this Easting is in fact
representing 300 000 meters (so the grid line is coordinate 380 000 mE or approximately
120 000 m West of the 500 000 m central meridian).
The ‘63’ in front of the ‘60’ represents the 6 300 000 m grid line, so the grid line coordinate
is 6 360 000 mS or approximately the same distance north of the South Pole (depending on
the convention of UTM you use).
Using the grid references numbers on the map alone would only yield a four digit coordinate
(e.g. 8261 for the top right grid). The precision is worked out by you, the mapper, by using
Romer cards or similar to ‘draw in’ the remaining level of precision as outlined above.
Going in reverse
Let’s assume that you used a GIS program of some sort (Arc GIS, QGIS or even Google Earth
etc) to locate a place visually, and record the programs reference as UTM. Using Google
Earth as an example, you would see the following;
So, how do you conveniently ‘pull’ map coordinates from this digital expression? It turns out
to be very easy. Look along the margin of the map for the grid references with the small
prefix numbers. From the digital expression, these numbers will be the first number on the
Easting and the first two numbers on the Northing (in NSW)
Geoscience Australia also uses the digital convention
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Navigating a route
Let’s remind ourselves of the definition of navigation;
“the process or activity of accurately ascertaining one's position and planning and
following a route”
Now that you have learnt the two most common ways to describe a location, let’s assume
that you have located a starting point and a destination point, what is involved in travelling
from one location to the other? The whole process of navigation can be viewed as the
combination of the following tasks;
◗ Describing the location of your starting point and your destination
◗ Determining the bearing(s) of your route(s)
◗ Estimating the route distance and time
◗ Navigating the route
We just learnt how to perform the first part of this definition – accurately ascertaining one’s
position, so let’s move on to the other tasks.
A model route
Consider the following route (which is the actual route for group 4 from the Toronto
fieldwork program undertaken by college students);
Figure 8.6 – Example of a navigational route for water quality monitoring.
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In this case study, we have five sites to analyse. We shall assume that we are starting at
G3S1, and then navigating the route sequentially to finish back at G3S1 via G4S4. To do this
we need the following positional information;
Location
Latitude
Longitude
G3S1
33°00’27”
151°33’10”
G4S1
33°01’31”
151°33’79”
G4S2
33°00’33”
151°33’01”
G4S3
33°01’63”
151°33’7”
G4S4
33°01’38”
151°34’16”
UGR (UTM)
Table 8.1 – Spatial data collected from five water sampling sites.
In this route, we have a combination of driving and walking. We need to drive to each site
location, and then walk to each specific site. Some sites require more walking that others,
and to calculate the total time we need to work out all the specific details involved in travel
and the activities performed in-between and at each site.
Determine your bearings
From this information we can determine our bearings. This task is performed by use of a
topographic map and a compass, but can be done using electronic maps.
The problem with using electronic maps to determine your bearing is that they refer to True
North, and they lack the relevant information about declination, so you either need to
calculate it from the topographic map or use a suitable reference (such as Geoscience
Australia). The results of our bearings are below;
Route path
Magnetic North
bearing
Grid North bearing
True Northing
bearing
G3S1 to G4S1
203.8
192
190.5°
G4S1 to G4S2
127.3
115.5
114
G4S2 to G4S3
150.3
138.5
137
G4S3 to G4S4
103.3
91.5
90
G4S4 to G3S1
335.3
323.5
322
Table 8.2 – Bearing data for the paths used in Group 4. The declination from True to magnetic is
13.3°, and from grid is 1.5°.
In this case the bearing information is relatively useless because we will not be travelling by
foot in a straight line over complex terrain, but it is still required for you to obtain for us!
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Using the map & compass together
You are only truly navigating when you use a map and compass together. Outlined below
are the key elements to using the two to get where you are going.
Check your position regularly
Use your map and compass at regular intervals to locate your position (more often in low
visibility). Note your starting time, rest breaks and lunch stops, and general pace. This will
also give you an idea of how far you have travelled and whether your time control is
accurate.
Orient the map
It is easiest to read a map if the map is oriented to the surrounding landscape. If you see a
valley on your left, then the valley shows on the left on the map. You can do this by eye or
with your compass.
Using Land Features: Lay the map on the ground or hold it horizontally. Rotate the map
until recognized features on the ground roughly align with those on the map.
Using a Compass:
1. Identify your declination from your map. If your declination is west of true north,
subtract the declination from 360º. If your declination is east of true north.
2. Set the compass at the correct declination bearing so that you compensate for
declination.
3. Place your compass on the map so that the edge of the base plate lies parallel to the
east or west edge of the map with the direction of travel arrow toward the north edge
of the map.
4. Holding the compass on the map, rotate the map with the compass until the north end
of the magnetic needle points to the N on the compass housing (i.e. the red north end of
the magnetic needle and the orienting arrow align). This is often referred to as "boxing
the needle" since the magnetic needle is inside the "box" formed by the orienting arrow.
The map is now oriented with respect to magnetic north. This means that the compass
needle direction north is the same as true north on the map. You can also place the
compass on the map so that the edge of the base plate lies along the magnetic north
indicator line on the map legend at the bottom and rotate the map as described above.
This may give you a more accurate orientation for your map.
Identify terrain features
With the map oriented, look around for prominent features landscape features such as
mountains, valleys, lakes, rivers, etc. Make a mental note of the geographical features you
will be traveling along and seeing during the day. If you keep the terrain in your mind, you
will usually have a general idea of where you are just by looking around.
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Calculating route distance and time
Once we know the bearings we can calculate distances by rule, which is again using the
topographic map in conjunction with the map scale and the ruler. This technique is very
simple and can be performed by a multitude of equipment and resources.
These days there are electronic distance wheels that you can purchase quite cheaply, but
you can get away with string or bendable rulers.
If you use string or bendable rulers, you simply follow the path with the item and then
measure the string or read the distance off the ruler. You then compare the measured
distance to the scale ruler on the map and calculate the distance on the ground.
This can be achieved quite easily in Google Maps or Earth. You can only use Google Maps to
determine distances and times for road use – it does not go off-road. Google Earth can be
used off-road by using the path tool to draw the path you want and it will show you the
distance in whatever unit you want. Similar tools exist for Geo-referenced pdf file (GeoPDF).
You need to approximate times when walking. The general rule for walking speed over
relatively flat and easy terrain is about 4 km/hr, but this can vary significantly depending on
a variety of factors such as;
◗ Terrain
◗ Roughness of ground underfoot
◗ Weather
◗ Amount of equipment being transported
◗ Injuries
And many other factors. Experience will allow for improvements in estimating times.
Outlined below is the actual schedule for the Group 4 route including parking and walking.
Driving time
(min)
Route and path
G3S1 to G4S1
4
Driving distance
(km)
Walking time
(min)
Walking
distance (m)
3.6
-
-
Car park to G4S1 -
-
10
150
G4S1 to G4S2
-
-
10
175
G4S2 to G4S3
1
150
-
-
G4S3 to G4S4
3
3.5
-
-
G4S4 to G3S1
6
6
-
-
Table 8.3 – Time and distance by road and foot between each site.
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Using GIS tools
Some of, if not all of the tasks that were outlined above can be performed using modern GIS
tools such as electronic maps (i.e. Google maps™, Whereis™ or any other brand) and also
using virtual globes (Google Earth™, NASA WorldWind™ or Marble etc).
These programs are not perfect, and as you will see, there is not one program you will do
everything for you (at least at the free level). For our purposes we shall demonstrate this
using Google products as they appear to be most common.
Navigating with Google Maps™
This could not be easier. Electronic maps now provide the user with more navigational tools
than any topographic map could ever promise, but come at the expense of precise location
descriptions (at the moment anyway – this could change at any time).
These sort of electronic street directories only work well when navigating by road, they are
useless if you need to travel off-road as they do not cover that aspect of navigation (but
again, this could change).
Let’s consider our current case study involving the five sites at Toronto. All we need to do is
type the start and end points into the maps directions box and the program will calculate
the best route (which we can change) and provide estimates of the time the route will take
(based on current traffic conditions at the time of request). The result is found in the figure
below;
Figure 8.7 – The route for Group 4 as detailed in Google Maps. When you refer to the location of the
sample sites in the figure above, you can see that Google Maps does not allow for the off-road
environment and as such does not deliver an accurate representation.
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
What we end up with is somewhat useless (unless you aren’t familiar with the roads around
the area). It does give us a timeframe – 14 minutes, but with frequent stopping between
each site to perform sampling and testing, this timeframe is hardly accurate.
Overall, in this case, Google Maps is off little use, and the topographic method will yield far
better results for determining times and off-road routes.
Navigating with Google Earth (or other virtual globes)
So, can we fare better using a virtual globe? The same scenario is outline in the screenshot
below;
Figure 8.10 – Plotting information in Google Earth to determine navigation factors yields limited
information.
Sadly, no, because Google Earth only works with particular information – it either uses the
same information based on roads that Google Maps uses, or it involves more information
than you currently have (because you are trying to get that information from GE).
So again we are back at the map and the compass to get the information we require.
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Study Module 8
Assessment task
After reading the theory above, answer the questions below. Note that;

Marks are allocated to each question.

Keep answers to short paragraphs only, no essays.

Make sure you have access to the references (last page)

If a question is not referenced, use the supplied notes for answers
1. Vertical (up-down) reference lines have two common names. What are they? 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
2. Horizontal (left-right) reference lines have two common names. What are they? 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
3. Where is the physical location of the prime vertical reference line? 1 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
4. In your own words, describe the difference between a datum and the Geographic
Coordinate System (GCS). 4 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
5. What positional information does a longitude describe? 1 mk
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
6. What positional information does a latitude describe? 1 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
7. Longitudes measure from -180° to +180°. Considering the Earth is nearly spherical, why
don’t latitudes share the same measurements? 3 mk
Type your answer here
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8. What is the Conjugate Graticule? 4 mk
Type your answer here
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9. Describe the difference between the Cardinal and Sign notations. 4 mk
Type your answer here
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10. What is the convention on how to write coordinates? 1 mk
Type your answer here
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
Leave blank for assessor feedback
11. What is a Cartesian Coordinate System? 2 mk
Type your answer here
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12. What is the Cartesian Coordinate system typically used for? 1 mk
Click here to enter text.
Leave blank for assessor feedback
13. With reference to Figures 2.8 and 2.9, as well as page 4, explain how latitudes and
longitudes are created. 2 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
14. Consider the diagram below. For each ‘quadrant’ write both Cardinal and Sign notations
that would be used to describe a location in each quadrant. 8 mk
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 8
Assessment & submission rules
Answers
◗ Attempt all questions and tasks
◗ Write answers in the text-fields provided
Submission
◗ Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer using
the file name format of;
name-classcode-assessmentname
Note that class code and assessment code are on Page 1 of this document.
◗ email the document back to your teacher
Penalties
◗ If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date (located
on the cover page), it may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results
◗ Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email fully
graded with feedback.
◗ You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;
www.cffet.net/env/contacts
Resources & references
1. These notes
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