Environmental Monitoring
& Technology Series
Navigation &
Mapping
For Technicians
Study module 5
Grid systems & time
cffet.net/env
Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 5
Assessment details
Purpose
Upon successful completion of this study module you will have an understanding of the
different types of reference systems, datum’s, coordinate systems and specific notations
used in navigation as well as being able to perform simple unit conversions.
Instructions
◗ Read the theory section to understand the topic.
◗ Complete the Student Declaration below prior to starting.
◗ Attempt to answer the questions and perform any associated tasks.
◗ Email, phone, book appointment or otherwise ask your teacher for help if required.
◗ When completed, submit task by email using rules found on last page.
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Details
Student name
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Assessor
Adam Samuelson
Class code
N&M
Assessment name
Study module 5
Due Date
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Total Marks Available
68
Marks Gained
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Final Mark (%)
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Marker’s Initials
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Date Marked
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Weighting
This is one of twelve formative assessments that make up 40% of
the overall mark for this subject
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Study Module 5
The Universal Transverse Mercator (a projection
system)
Now that we have all the necessary ingredients to make a map, we shall introduce you to a
very special map indeed, the Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM). The UTM is not really a
map projection in its own right, more of a ‘projection system’.
The problem from going from a map of the world to say, a map of the Newcastle area
relates back to the distortion problem. Every time we try to create a map of a small area
from a big map (if we were to simply magnifying a small area of map of the world for
example) we magnify the distortion that comes with the map of the world. Overcoming this
problem required 400 years of thought which yielded two very simple ideas, creating one
very clever ‘map’; the Universal Transverse Mercator.
Figure 2.8 – The Universal Transverse Mercator. The UTM is an almost perfect mapping solution
which isn’t actually a single map at all, but a complex mapping system of 60 individual maps.
So what is the UTM?
Let’s start with the Mercator projection. The Mercator projection has had an interesting
history. Loved by some, reviled by others; it is easy on the eye when hung on a wall, but
hideously erroneous because it is not equal area so it is only accurate near the prime
parallel (usually the equator), which made polar lands huge compared to equatorial lands.
Next we have Transverse. Remember from Tables 2.1 & 2 (in module 4) that the Mercator is
a cylindrical projection? Transverse means that the globe was turned 90° from the Mercator
projection so that the prime meridian was touching the cylinder instead of the prime
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Study Module 5
parallel (Equator). This meant that the Transverse Mercator is accurate near both of the
primes, so accuracy was increased, but was still not good enough!
Finally we have Universal, which was ‘added’ by the US Army (NATO really…). They liked the
Transverse Mercator because of the accuracy it offered around the prime parallels and
meridians…so, if they made a map of the world which wasn’t one big map per se, but rather
a series of map ‘strips’, each 6° wide with a common prime parallel and a unique Central
Meridian within each ‘strip’, then they would end up with a ‘map’ that was very accurate
over the whole of the Earth: a Universal map, which was based on the Transverse alignment
of the Mercator projection– a Universal Transverse Mercator!
The only problem with the UTM is that the directions between the longitudinal strips is not
true, which is solved by ensuring that maps made from the UTM cover no more than one
zone. See, no matter what we do, we will always fail in one of the three distortions!
How the UTM works
Figure 2.8 above shows a simple representation of the UTM. The UTM has the following
unique properties;
◗ 60 longitudinal zones, each of which is 6° wide
◗ Each zone has a unique Central Meridian yielding 3° of accuracy either side of it
◗ Each longitudinal zone is numbered for 1 to 60 (heading East from Longitude 180°)
◗ 20 latitudinal zones, each of which is 8° wide (except zone X which is 12°)
◗ Each latitudinal zone is designated as A to Z, heading North from Antarctica
◗ Zones A, B, Y & Z are polar and are found on the Universal Polar Stereographic map
◗ Strips I and O are not included due to their similarity to 1 & 0
◗ The UTM grid creates cells called UTM zones, similar to the conjugate graticule
◗ Within a zone, coordinates are defined more precisely by Eastings and Northings
Conventions for use of the UTM
When you write a coordinate down for the UTM, it is the opposite as for that of the latitude
/ longitude system (just to be difficult).
Longitudinal precedes Latitudinal
So for Sydney, NSW which is in the longitudinal zone number of 56 and the latitudinal zone
letter of H, the designation is;
Zone 56H
The map shown in Figure 2.8 above only shows the UTM for the latitudes of 80°S (-80°) to
84°N (+84°), which covers zone designations from C to X. The Designations of A,B,Y & Z are
covered by the Universal Polar Stereographic projection, a copy of which can be found in
the Appendix.
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Study Module 5
Easting & Northing
The Easting and Northing values are how we define precise coordinates using the UTM
system. They operate in much the same way as latitude and longitude but are very different
in their origins and do cause some confusion for students and map users alike. The actual
use of the system is reserved for Chapter 3, so here we will just explain what they are and
where they come from.
Figure 2.9 – A visual guide to determining Easting and Northing values (Touche, 2004). The zones
used are 10U and 37L.
As mentioned, each UTM Zone has the Equator as its prime parallel, and a Central Meridian
(CM) is located in the middle of each zone. We can mark out distances from each of these
two reference lines and use these as coordinates to locate our position. Easting and
Northing values are linear units of measure whose unit is in meters (m).
Easting
An Easting is a vertical line on the map and their values define our location East or West of
the Central Meridian of the UTM Zone. The Central Meridian (located every 6° but offset by
3° relative to UTM zone boundaries) is given a False Easting of 500 000 m.
◗ Locations East (right) of the Central Meridian have values equal to;
500 000 + distance from the CM to the location (m)
◗ Locations West (left) of the Central Meridian have values equal to;
500 000 – distance from the location to the CM (m)
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Study Module 5
What does this mean?
If you look carefully at the ‘formulas’ above, you will notice that Easting’s (and Northings)
are not ‘distances’, they are ‘differences’, in that they are the numerical difference between
the reference line and the location. The unit remains in meters even though the value of an
Easting or Northing is not a distance.
Northing
A Northing is a horizontal line on the map whose values define our location North or South
of the Equator (the prime parallel for the UTM). The Equator is given a False Northing of 0 m
if you are heading North from the Equator, and a value of 10 000 000 m if you are South of
the Equator.
◗ Locations North of the Equator have values equal to;
Distance from Equator to the location (m)
◗ Locations South of the Equator have values equal to;
10 000 000 – distance from location to Equator
Notation & convention
The convention for noting UTM coordinates is opposite to that of the conjugate graticule. As
the Easting and Northing values are the precision designators of the UTM, it should be
obvious that the full UTM coordinate notation including E-N values continues this format.
An example of this notation would look like;
Zone number : zone designation : Easting : Northing:
56H 439526mE 5024750mN
Because the Easting value is less than 500 000 m is must lie West of the Central Meridian of
that zone as locations East of the CM must be greater than 500 000 m. The value for the
Northing is not so simple. It is 5024750 m, but is it North or South of the Equator? To know
this we must use the UTM Zone Designator (i.e. the letter, H in this case) which tells us the
hemisphere the location is in. Having said this, Google Earth tells you using S and N
designators as well as the zone designator!
You can actually observe this!
Google Earth is a great tool for visualising this effect. If you set the units in Google Earth to
UTM and move the cursor from the South to the North Pole you will observe the change in
the Northing values from 0 mS in the south to 9999999 mS near the equator, then it will
change to 0 mN and increase to near 10 000 000 mN as you approach the North Pole.
Visit cffet.net/env/ for a video showing this.
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Study Module 5
Universal Polar Stereographic
If the UTM ‘stops’ at 80° and 84°, what happens with the poles? The answer is a completely
different projection system called the Universal Polar Stereographic, UPS. This system can
be seen in the images below.
We understand that it is highly unlikely that you will work in the poles as an environmental
technician, but it does at least show you how the whole world uses a grid system.
You will note that the North UPS exhibits two latitudes (circles) of 84°N (+84°) and 88°N
(+88°) whereas the South UPS exhibits three latitudes at 80°S (-80°), 84°S (-84°) and 88°S (88°).
This reinforces the fact that the UTM ranges from 80°S to 84°N (or C thru X minus I & O).
Theoretically, the lines of longitude on the UTM ‘meet’ at the 80°S latitude and the 84°N
latitude. Zones A & B are in the South UPS, Y & Z are in the North UPS.
Figure 2.10 – The Universal Polar Stereographic.
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Study Module 5
The Military Grid Reference System (MGRS)
As stated earlier, the UTM has zone numbers and designations. These ‘criss-cross’ to form a
graticule of UTM Zones (i.e. 56H), which can be seen in the image below;
Figure 2.11 – Another snapshot of the UTM.
Because the area in one of these zones is massive, we need another grid scale to provide
more specific detail, and this comes in the form of the Military Grid Reference System
(MGRS), which uses 100 000 m squares inside the UTM zones and are numbered in a similar
fashion to the UTM itself, but with complications.
The MGRS, although a military standard, forms the standard grid system used by most map
government mapping authorities for commercial and civilian use worldwide. The MGRS is
derived from the UTM (because the UTM is the most accurate global map system) and
allows the graticule (criss-cross) based grid mapping to apply to different scales. In Australia,
we use the same system as the MGRS but we refer to it as the Map Grid of Australia
(explained below).
Don’t panic…
Although the concept of a grid is simple, the MGRS labelling system can be difficult
understand because of its repeating sequencing. Your job in this course is to understand the
concept and not to be able to interpret the sequence itself. If the sequencing makes no
sense to you, just ignore it!
The labelling system used by the MGRS involves the use of the UTM grid zone designation
(i.e. 56H) followed by a 100 000 meter square designator. This designator consists of two
letters;
◗ column letters ranging from A-Z (omitting O and I)
◗ row of letters ranging from A-V (omitting O and I)
The column letters are repeated around the globe as there are more grids than there are
letters in the alphabet (refer to Appendix). The row letters suffer from complexity due to
two systems concurrently existing; the MGRS New (or AA system) and the MGRS Old (or AL
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 5
system). You only need to know about the newer AA system, which offset the letters by ten
letters and rotated by odd and even zone designations. See the Appendix for an image.
The Map Grid of Australia
The Australian national mapping authority is currently Geoscience Australia, and they
produce maps of 1:100000 and 1:250000 scales (you learn scales later).
Figure 2.12 – MGA sequence map from Geoscience Australia. This map shows the 100000 meter
square identification chart on which an overlay of the 1:100000 scale maps is shown. You can also
see the UTM zones in which each map falls (mainland Australia ranges from zone 49 to 56 long and
from G to L lat). The Grid Zone numbers identify the Central Meridian. This map also shows the
convergence of longitudes. You can download the full map from here.
The current projection used for Australian maps and is a UTM projection based on the
GDA94 datum using GRS80 constants called the Map Grid of Australia (MGA). The old map
versions are the Australian Map Grid (AMG) series or AMG66 and AMG84. Only horizontal
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measurements are different between the AMG and MGA maps. Australian height values
remain the same.
In the figure above you can see the UTM zones (from 49 to 56 from G-L), and if you look
closely you can see that these zones are covered in grey coloured grids MGA grids (which
are the same as the MGRS).
Overlaps…
You will notice in the figure above that where the UTM zones converge there is an overlap
of the 100 000 meter square and MGA grid references exist for each little overlap.
On the map, the boundaries of Australia are blue and the maps that have been produced by
Geoscience Australia are denoted by the red lines. The map shows you which grid reference
is associated with each map produced. Maps are available from this [source].
So how does this work? Very simply, any map that is built will record the 100 000 meter
square identifier on it, and the two letters will form part of any coordinate for any point that
comes from the map. Consider the image below where you will see that Newcastle lies
within the boundaries of the 100 000 meter square labelled LJ;
Figure 2.13 – Snapshot of the MGA showing 100 000 meter square zone LJ.
The overall coordinate…
So, for a particular location (within a grid with 100 m sides) the overall grid reference from a
topographic map would look like;
56H LJ 439526mE 5024750mN
Where, 56H is the UTM zone, LJ is the MGA 100 000 meter square zone, and the integers
are the Easting and Northing coordinates.
NOTE: Chapter 3 will explore digital coordinates which look much longer than the above.
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Study Module 5
Fitting date & time into all of this
Prior to globalisation, time keeping was a purely localised phenomenon based on sunrise
and sunset. As a result of ‘globalisation’ and especially long distance travel (such as trains
and planes), the need for schedules arose and the world needed a way of defining time
relative to other locations a long way off. In 1878, a system of worldwide time zones based
on lines of longitude was proposed which were 15° wide and enable the Earth to divide into
24 time zones (one for each hour of the day).
The 0° line of longitude (Greenwich Meridian) was chosen as the start point of the system
and the 180° line of longitude was the end point. To the east time progressively became
later in a day and to the west time progressively became earlier in a day. This resulted in
the creation of an interesting phenomenon at the 180° line of longitude – the International
Date Line.
UTC, GMT, Zulu and the IDL
There are actually two lines of importance to date and time,
◗ The International Date Line (IDL), and,
◗ The Greenwich Meridian
Figure 2.14 - Time zones of the Earth showing the UTC line (center of Zulu) and the IDL. The time
zones head east from zulu, with each hour being equal to 15° of longitude (or 2 ½ UTM zones).
Australia covers three time zones – H, I & K.
There are more ‘times’ than you would care to think of, but there are some conventions
that you should at least be aware of.
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Study Module 5
UTC & GMT
Firstly, UTC (Coordinated Universal Time in English) and GMT (Greenwich Meridian Time) is
effectively the same thing with UTC being slightly more accurate. They both start at 0°
longitude and differ only in their primary reference and calibration. UTC replaced GMT in
1972 and all digital media (internet etc) use UTC as their time reference. GMT is dead,
unfortunately the media are sentimental, and so you still see it. Even though each country
sets its own time zones, they are set against the UTC.
Zulu Time
The aeronautics industry and various Navy uses a variant of the UTC nicknamed Zulu Time.
This stems from each hourly division being given alphabetic code (a, b, c etc) which is
expanded phonetically to words (alpha, bravo…zulu etc).
Zulu starts at UTC/GMT time zone and is designated ‘Z’. The time zones move east starting
with A and ending with Z with some strangeness occurring in-between: there 24 hours in a
day, 25 zulu time zones and 26 letters in the alphabet. This means that one letter is omitted
(J) and two zulu zones are only 7.5° wide (M & Y due to the IDL).
The International Date Line (IDL)
On paper, one of the most simple of constructs – cross the line, change the date, east is
yesterday, west is tomorrow. But the IDL is one of the more intriguing aspects of time
because there are two lines to contend with: the IDL which is static, and the midnight line,
which is constantly moving. The IDL is the imaginary line on the Earth that separates two
consecutive calendar days. That is the date in the Eastern hemisphere, to the left of the line,
is always one day ahead of the date in the Western hemisphere.
The Astronomical Application Department of the US Naval Observatory says it best.
“Without the International Date Line travellers going westward would discover that
when they returned home, one day more than they thought had passed, even
though they had kept careful tally of the days. This first happened to Magellan's
crew after the first circumnavigation of the globe. Likewise, a person traveling
eastward would find that one fewer days had elapsed than he had recorded, as
happened to Phileas Fogg in "Around the World in Eighty Days" by Jules Verne.
The International Date Line can be anywhere on the globe. But it is most convenient
to be 180° away from the defining meridian that goes through Greenwich, England.
It also is fortunate that this area is covered, mainly, by empty ocean. However,
there have always been zigs and zags in it to allow for local circumstances.”
Before you ask…no, you cannot travel back (or forth) in time any more than one day!
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Study Module 5
Assessment task
After reading the theory above, answer the questions below. Note that;

Marks are allocated to each question.

Keep answers to short paragraphs only, no essays.

Make sure you have access to the references (last page, if required)

If a question is not referenced, use the supplied notes for answers
a)
Why is the UTM described as a projection system rather than just a projection? 2mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
b)
What was wrong with the Mercator projection? 2mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
c)
How was this problem solved? 1mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
d)
What are the dimensions (in degrees) of the UTM Zones? 2mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
e)
Define the southern and northern boundaries (in degrees) of the UTM. 2mk
Type your answer here
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Study Module 5
Leave blank for assessor feedback
f)
What UTM system is used for the polar regions? 2mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
g)
Why are there no zones designated as I or O? 1mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
h)
What is an Easting and Northing? 2mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
i)
What is a ‘central meridian’ and how is it used to define a location? 4mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
j)
Describe how easting and northing’s are best defined as ‘differences’ rather than
‘distances’ with reference to the central meridian. 4mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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Navigation & mapping for technicians
k)
Study Module 5
Using Google Earth, identify the Zone number and designation (i.e. 56 H) for the
following locations (ref 2) 9mk;
a. Perth (WA)
Type your answer here
b. Broome (WA)
Type your answer here
c. Darwin (NT)
Type your answer here
d. Uluru (NT)
Type your answer here
e. Rockhampton (QLD)
Type your answer here
f. Brisbane (QLD)
Type your answer here
g. Sydney (NSW)
Type your answer here
h. Melbourne (VIC)
Type your answer here
i.
Adelaide (SA)
Type your answer here
j.
Hobart (TAS)
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
l)
Using references 1 & 3, explain what the Map Grid of Australia is and what it is
currently used for. 5 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
m)
How does the 100 000 m map work (ref 3)? 3mk
Type your answer here
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Study Module 5
Leave blank for assessor feedback
n)
How are zones designated in the 100000 m grid (ref 3)? You will need to study the
map and the lettering system used. Describe how the lettering system is used. 2mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
o)
What is the difference between UTC, GMT and Zulu time? 3mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
p)
Explain the purpose of the International Date Line. 2mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
q)
How many time zones does Australia have? 1mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
r)
Assuming Australian Eastern Daylight Savings (AEDST) time, what is the UTC correction
for Sydney time (in hours, ref 4)? 1mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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s)
Study Module 5
Using Figure 2.9 (above) as a reference, calculate the Easting and Northing values for
points 1-4 including the zone number and designation. Working out is not required in
the answer, just write the answers. 16 mk
Type your answer here
Type your answer here
Type your answer here
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
t)
Knowing that a UTM zone is 6° wide at the Equator, what are the minimum values (at °80 and +84°) and maximum values that an Easting can exhibit? 4 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
u)
Where does the value of 10 000 000 m for Northing references come from? The
answer isn’t in the notes…you’ll just have to think about it! 0 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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Study Module 5
Assessment & submission rules
Answers
◗ Attempt all questions and tasks
◗ Write answers in the text-fields provided
Submission
◗ Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer using
the file name format of;
name-classcode-assessmentname
Note that class code and assessment code are on Page 1 of this document.
◗ email the document back to your teacher
Penalties
◗ If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date (located
on the cover page), it may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results
◗ Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email fully
graded with feedback.
◗ You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;
www.cffet.net/env/contacts
Resources & references
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
These notes
Video at cffet.net/env/nav
http://www.cffet.net/env/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/MGA1.pdf
http://australia.gov.au/about-australia/our-country/time
Touche, F. (2005). Wilderness Navigation Handbook. Canada: Friesens Corporation.
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Appendix 5A – MGRS labelling system map