Measuring Geographic Differences in Technical Change in the US Manufacturing Sector
Ethan Lewis
Final, 26 March 2004
I. Introduction
A large and growing literature examines the influence of advanced technologies on the
relative wages and productivity of different workers (for example, Doms, Dunne and Troske
(1997) and Autor, Katz and Krueger (1998)). These studies are motivated by indirect evidence
that recent trends in technological change, such as the dissemination of information technology,
have increased the relative demand for skilled workers and raised their relative wages and
employment. Using microeconomic data on the use of different technologies by individual
worker (the computer use supplements to the Current Population Survey) or by individual
establishment (such as the Surveys of Manufacturing Technology), researchers generally find an
association between technical change and increases in wage dispersion.
There is some evidence, however, that the pace of technological advances has varied
across regions of the US. Two key facts are that changes in relative skill ratios across different
US cities are nearly uncorrelated with changes in relative wages, and that the use of computers
on the job shows significant differences across local labor markets.
Motivated by this evidence, the purpose of this project is to use the Surveys of
Manufacturing Technology (1988, 1991 and 1993 – hereafter SMT) to develop a new geographic
area series for release to the public on the use, plans to use, and reasons for using advanced
manufacturing technologies, and to generate regionally representative statistical weights for
future SMT micro data users interested in constructing their own regional data. As these are
fairly large surveys (around 10,000 establishments were surveyed in each year) it will be feasible
1
to report statistics on at least the major categories of advanced production technology (described
below) by state and in large metropolitan areas without the risk of revealing confidential
information. (See Appendix 2.) A further goal will be to create more refined cross-tabulations
by plant characteristics such as 2-digit industry, plant size (which Dunne (1994) shows is an
important determinant of technology use), whether the plant is a military contractor.
If successful, these statistics could be of use in a wide variety of research applications.
For example, having publicly available regionally stratified technology-use data would be useful
to researchers or decision-makers interested in the effect that government regulations (minimum
wage, environmental regulations, etc.) have on technology use and technical change. It might
also be possible to use these statistics as an alternative means of asking what effect technical
change has on outcomes of interest, such as employment or wages.
My own interest – and a secondary goal of this project – will be to try to assess how the
characteristics of the local work force affect any observed geographic differences in the use and
implementation of advanced manufacturing production technologies. This is motivated by
evidence suggesting that technology responds to work force changes in a way that mitigates the
impact of supply on wages (Lewis (2002)). Using the SMT micro data, this question will be
evaluated by examining the impact of technology choice in a standard production function setup
and comparing specifications that treat technological choice as exogenous versus others that treat
the choice as driven in part by the relative availability of high skilled labor in the local labor
market. Manufacturers’ reports of the benefits (for example, improve product quality) and costs
(for example, associated costs of training workers) of the technology – which are asked
differently in each SMT – will be assessed as possible alternative explanations or channels
through which the skills of the local work force operate to effect technological change.
2
There are two issues that need to be addressed in using the data for these purposes. The
first is that since the design of the Surveys of Manufacturing Technology was not geographically
stratified, it will be necessary to account for the different sampling rates in different strata when
constructing local area statistics. The procedures for doing this will be discussed in detail in this
proposal. A related problem is that because the coverage may be thin in smaller geographic
units, it will be necessary to assess the geographic coverage from an independent data source.
This will serve both to distinguish true “zeros” from instances where there is no data, and to
determine if there are particular geographic units where the data are by chance highly
unrepresentative so sampling weights can be adjusted to account for this. For the 1988 and 1993
surveys, the establishment counts in matched cells will be compared to counts obtained in the
universe of manufacturing establishments – the 1987 and 1992 Censuses of Manufacturers,
respectively. Another check will come by comparison to county and state summary data from the
1988, 1991 and 1993 County Business Patterns.
From these comparisons a report on the
geographic coverage of the SMTs will be produced. The report in particular will note if there are
any systematic geographic shortcomings of the survey; none, however, are expected, because the
SMT was a random sample.
This proposal is organized as follows. Following this introduction, the next section
describes existing evidence that technical change is not geographically uniform within the US.
The third section describes how the proposed geographic area series on the use of manufacturing
technologies will be created. The fourth section describes the methods used to assess the impact
of local workforce characteristics on the implementation of different manufacturing
technologies. A fifth section concludes.
3
II. Evidence of Regional Differences in Technical Change
A large number of studies have documented national trends in technology that appear to
raise the relative productivity of skilled workers and explain the rise in wage inequality over the
past few decades in the US. Evidence of this “skill-biased technical change” has come in two
forms: indirect evidence, in the form of rising wage dispersion, particularly within industries
(Katz and Murphy (1992)); and direct evidence, in the form of greater use of technology which
appears to raise the wages or productivity of skilled labor. The latter evidence has made use of
data on the use of personal computers, R&D investment (Autor, Katz and Krueger (1998)) as
well as the detailed manufacturing technologies observed in the Surveys of Manufacturing
Technologies (Doms, Dunne and Troske (1997)).
Similar types of evidence can be garnered to provide support for the idea that these
“national” trends in technical change, in fact, differ substantially by labor market. A number of
studies have shown that changes in wages and employment rates by skill group show little
relationship to changes in the supply of workers in those groups locally in comparisons across
labor markets. In addition, it appears that a city’s mix of industries is relatively unaffected by
changes in the local skill composition of the work force – including the unexpected arrival of
masses of less-educated Cuban refugees to Miami in 1980 during the Mariel boatlift (Lewis
(2002)). What this means is that in cities that experience large shocks in the relative supply of a
certain labor type, employers respond by hiring the more abundant type at a higher rate without
large wage adjustments. Such a possibility is suggested by models of endogenous technological
choice (e.g. Acemoglu (1998)) in which an increase in supply causes employers to adopt
different technologies.
4
Other evidence on the local variation in technology comes from looking at the use of
personal computers.
The 1984 and 1993 October Current Population Surveys include a
supplement, which asks individual workers “Do you use a personal computer directly at work?” I
have tabulated the fraction of workers who answer this question affirmatively in the 44
metropolitan areas that can be identified and matched between the two surveys. This shows that
while personal computer use was growing everywhere, its growth was far from uniform. Some
examples of this include the fact that in 1984, in both Indianapolis and New Orleans, around 25
percent of workers were using a personal computer; by 1993, this fraction had risen to 57 percent
in Indianapolis, but only to 36 percent in New Orleans. Perhaps a more compelling example is
that in both San Jose and San Francisco personal computer use was at around 36 percent in 1984;
by 1993 it was at 63 percent in San Jose but only at 51 percent in San Francisco. These
differences in computer use in 1993 may be due in part to differences in industry composition, or
the direct effect of the education of a city’s workers on their individual propensity to use a
computer; however, even after adjusting for these (by regressing the individual level data on
dummies for industry and education categories) you find substantial differences in computer use
rates across labor markets. And you can show that these residual differences are positively
related to the education of the average worker in the local market. (Lewis (2002)).
To date, there is no direct evidence that the use of the specific types of technology
covered by the Surveys of Manufacturers differs by labor market. However, two pieces of
indirect evidence suggest that there may be such differences. First, Davis and Haltiwanger
(1991) and Dunne, Foster, Haltiwanger and Troske (2002) find evidence that recent increases in
wage inequality in the manufacturing sector is mostly attributable to growing inequality in the
wages paid at different manufacturing plants; the latter find that these between plant differences
5
are associated with differences in the rate of computer investment at those plants. These between
plant differences could conceivably be in part due to regional differences in the rate of computer
investment or other types of technical change. Second, Moretti (2002) shows that there are
regional differences in the productivity of manufacturing plants, and that these are influenced by
the average education levels of workers in the local work force outside a given plant. These
pieces of evidence suggest we may find differences in the use of particular manufacturing
technologies across regions related to the skills of the local work force.
III. Geographic Area Statistics1
The 1988, 1991 and 1993 Surveys of Manufacturing Technology (SMT) each poll a
random sample (described below) of around 10,000 manufacturing establishments in SIC
industries 34 through 38 on the use of, plans for use of, reasons for use of (or for not using)
categories of advanced manufacturing technologies. These technologies are listed in Appendix
1. Examples include “design and engineering technology” (including, for example, computer
aided design), “fabrication and machining technology” (including “pick and place robots”) and
“inspection and quality control technology” (including “programmable controllers”). The survey
also records establishment characteristics, such as plant size, plant age, ownership, production
type, military contractor status. The 1988 and 1993 surveys ask whether not an establishment
uses 17 individual technologies listed in Appendix 1; the 1991 survey asks only about four broad
categories of technology (I-IV in Appendix 1), but asks (in categories) how intensively the
technology is used.
Each of the surveys is a stratified random sample of manufacturing
establishments with at least 20 employees. Within the 3-digit SIC by 3 class size cells (20 to 99,
1
Much of the descriptions of the SMT survey design in this section comes from reports written by the US Bureau of
the Census (1989, 1993, 1994).
6
100 to 499, more than 500 employees) that make up the strata, a simple random sample was
taken, and a weight was recorded equal to one over the sampling rate for that strata.
This paper proposes to tabulate for public release, the answers given to these survey
questions by state and metropolitan area. So letting j index industry, s index class size, r index
geographic regions (states or metropolitan areas or counties), and n index individual
manufacturing establishments within a js strata, a simple way of representing that statistics this
project aims to produce is:2
(1) NYr = Σjsnwjs⋅yjsn⋅1{Rjsn = r}
…where wjs is the sample weight for the industry j, size s establishments (hereafter referred to as
“strata js” establishments); yjsn is a dummy variable that is 1 if establishment n in strata js reports
using some technology (or answers some other survey question affirmatively) and 0 otherwise;
and 1{Rjsn = r} indicates whether or not establishment n in strata js is in region r. NYr therefore
represents an estimate of the total number of establishments in region r meeting the yjsn = 1
criteria (such as the use of a particular technology). Also reported will be the prevalence of such
establishments, estimated by dividing by an estimate of the total number of establishments in
region r:
(2) PYr = NYr/Nr
(3) Nr = Σjsnwjs1{Rjsn = r}
2
Modified from US Bureau of the Census (1991), p. C-1.
7
Assessing Geographic Coverage
The SMT was a random sample, but because it was not a geographically stratified a
legitimate concern is that particular regions by chance have more or fewer establishments than
would be representative of the population of establishments in that region. Using outside data
sources – namely the Censuses of Manufacturers, and County Business Patterns data – it will be
possible to assess the magnitude of this problem, and if necessary adjust the weights to be more
regionally representative.
The way this will work is as follows. Using the SMT data, an estimate of a count of
establishments in region r and strata js is:
Njsr = Σnwjs1{Rjsn = r}
For the purpose of the 1988 or 1993 SMT, this can be compared to counts of establishments in
region r and strata js from the 1987 and 1992 Censuses of Manufacturers, respectively,
denoted N CM
jsr ; each of the SMT counts can also be compared to and County Business Patterns
establishment count data for the same year, denoted N CBP
jsr . By chance, we expect that some of
the SMT estimated Njsr will differ substantially from the counts in the universe data, but
examination of the cells will allow a determination of whether there are any systematic regional
or other patterns to the cells with poorly estimated counts. (Discrepancies will also occur
because of the overall nonresponse rate, which can be adjusted for – see note 3.) In general, the
problem could be addressed by multiplying the terms inside the sum of (1) and (3) by a factor
that adjusts for the discrepancy in establishment counts in cell jsr:
8
(4) NYr’ = Σjsnwjs⋅yjsn⋅1{Rjsn = r}⋅ajsr
(5) PYr’ = NYr’/Nr’
(6) Nr’ = Σjsnwjs1{Rjsn = r}⋅ajsr
…where a jsr =
N CM
jsr
N jsr
or
N CBP
jsr
N jsr
.3
Another way of writing this is by defining “regionally
representative” weights, which are the product of the original strata weights and the regional
~ ≡ w a . Using this definition, (4) – (6) could be rewritten as:
adjustment factor, i.e. w
jsr
js jsr
~ ⋅y ⋅1{R = r}
NYr’ = Σjsn w
jsn
jsn
jsr
PYr’ = NYr’/Nr’
~ 1{R = r}
Nr’ = Σjsn w
jsn
jsr
~ is one of the benefits of this
The construction of these regionally representative weights w
jsr
project, and it will be described again in the benefits section below. To repeat, the idea again is
that because the SMT was not a stratified sample, by chance some regions’ establishments may
be underrepresented or overrepresented in the survey; using the data on the universe of
establishments I create weights that are regionally representative.4 Adding these regionally
3
This can also be multiplied by a factor to adjust for the overall nonresponse rates in each js strata, which if
necessary can be estimated by
N js
N
CM
js
or
N js
N CBP
js
. (Note that the “r” subscript is dropped for the overall
nonresponse rate). The SMT documentation, however appears to indicate that the sample weights wjs may already
be adjusted for the overall nonresponse rate for each strata, or at least the fraction of firms not responding is
recorded (US Bureau of the Census (1991)).
4
A simple example: if, say there were 400 small (20-99 employees) textile plants in the US and these were sampled
at a rate of 1 in 4 for the SMT, then we would see 100 small textile plants in the survey, and the strata weight for the
9
adjusted weights to the SMT micro data will allow future users of the data to construct
representative statistics for arbitrary regions that are comprised of counties and/or states.
A related set of problems is that Njsr may sometimes be zero (which is a problem only
or N CBP
is not zero) or the data may simply be nonrepresentative in other
when N CM
jsr
jsr
unobserved ways for some regions. This is a problem about which little can be done, though the
standard errors will give at least some idea of the reliability of particular estimates. Treating
these regional weights as constants, the variance of the adjusted cell counts is approximately:5
~ ( w
~ -1)
V(NYr’) = nYrPYr(1-PYr) w
jsr
jsr
The variance of the prevalence is this expression divided by the squared number of
establishments in the region. In keeping with the practice of Census Bureau reports, the relative
standard error, computed by taking the square root of this expression and dividing by the level,
will be reported.
Cross-Tabulations
If it is feasible (given the sample sizes) it will also be useful to tabulate the answers to
survey questions by region and by other plant characteristics. Results shown in Appendix 2
strata “j = textiles, s = 20 to 99 employees” would be 4. Suppose now that Miami had 24 such small textile plants in
total. In order to be representative of Miami, the survey would need to have 6 of Miami’s small textile plants, but
nothing guarantees this will be the case. If instead only 3 of Miami’s plants were in the survey, for example, then
Miami’s small textiles would be underrepresented by a factor of 2, and so we would need to weight Miami’s small
textile plants at double the overall strata weight in order for the Miami observations to be represented in proportion
to their presence in the population. We would therefore create a small textile weight for Miami of 4 x 2 = 8.
Similarly, if Miami’s small textile establishments happened to be overrepresented in the survey, we would give them
a smaller weight.
5
Cochran (1977) discusses finite population sample techniques that could in principle produce a standard error
formula that does not rely on the assumption of fixed weights.
10
suggest that cross-tabulations by two-digit industry are likely to be feasible. Cross-tabulations
can be added to the formulas above by adding an additional indicator function for j ∈ {some two
digit industry} to both the numerator and denominator of the prevalence formulas.
Cross-tabulations by employment class sizes would also be useful, especially in light of
evidence presented in Dunne (1994) that establishment size is a major determinant of technology
use. Results in Appendix 2 suggest that this occasionally runs into small cell sizes for very large
establishments. An alternative way of presenting the data that would avoid this problem, and
which would be useful in particular to researchers interested in the impact of technology on the
typical worker (rather than establishment) would be to create prevalence estimates that were
employment weighted, rather than establishment weighted. In the 1988 and 1993 data, it may be
possible to do this by matching the establishments by their id’s to the exact employment counts
in the 1987 and 1992 Censuses of Manufacturers.
Letting Ejsn be the employment for
establishment n in strata js, the (adjusted) employment-weighted prevalence is:
(7) PYre = NYre/Nre
NYre = Σjsnwjs⋅yjsn⋅1{Rjsn = r}⋅ajsr⋅ Ejsn
Nre = Σjsnwjs1{Rjsn = r}⋅ajsr⋅ Ejsn
If this approach is not possible (and it is not in the 1991 survey) one could use the cell-level
(strata-county or strata-state) employment counts from the county business patterns data, E CBP
jsr ,
in place of the establishment level counts. This should also give an unbiased estimate of the
employment weighted prevalences. Again, regionally representative employment weights would
~ e ≡ w ⋅a ⋅ E .
be constructed for the micro data users of the SMT, defined by w
js jsr
jsn
jsr
11
Other plant characteristics, which would be desirable and may be feasible for crosstabulations include union contract status (of the establishment), military contactor status, foreignownership status, plant age (in categories),6 exporter status, and value of shipments (in
categories).
IV. Do Local Work Force Skills Determine the Pace of Technical Change?
In addition to tabulation of regional differences in the pace of technological change, this
project aims to try to explain regional differences in manufacturing technology use with regional
differences in the skill composition of the work force. Previous evidence of this includes the fact
that personal computers were implemented most rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s in
metropolitan areas with a growing relative supply of educated labor (Lewis (2002)) and that the
average education of the workers in the local work outside a manufacturing plant force appear to
raise the productivity of that plant (Moretti (2002)).
Public use data will be used to construct measures of work force skills by labor market,
defined here as metropolitan area. The initial approach taken will be to estimate the crosssectional impact of local work force characteristics on technology use measured in the 1988 and
1991 surveys, which are quite different in the types of technology questions they ask. For both
sets of these regressions, 1990 Census of Population 5% PUMS data will be used to construct
measures of local work force composition, because they are richer in geographic detail than
contemporaneous data, such as the CPS.
Technology use rates, the dependent variable in these regressions, will be measured at the
industry by metropolitan area level, which will allow unobserved factors at the city and industry
6
Though it is worth noting that Dunne (1994) finds no evidence of any plant age effects on technology use.
12
level affecting technology use to be controlled for using fixed effects. Thus, regressions will be
of the form:7
PYjre = αj + βr + δy’Xr + εjr
…where PYjre represents the (adjusted) employment-weighted prevalence of technology y in
industry j and metropolitan area r (see previous section for definition); αj and βr are industry and
metro area fixed effects, respectively; Xr is a vector of city-r work force characteristics (such as
the fraction of workers with a college degree). δy, the coefficient vector of interest, measures the
impact of local work force characteristics on the use rate of technology y.
In theory, it is also possible to do this type of regression in first differences, which asks
the question whether changes in work force characteristics affect the rate of adoption of
technology. Because the 1988 and 1993 SMTs ask technology questions a similar fashion, one
approach to first differences will be to use the 1988 and 1993 Current Population Surveys (CPS)
to estimate changes in work force characteristics by metropolitan area between those two years,
allowing estimation of regressions of the form:
∆88-93PYjre = αj* + βr* + δy*’∆88-93Xr + εjr*
…where ∆88-93 represents an operator for the change between 1988 and 1993. The problem with
doing this is that there are a limited number of metropolitan areas that can be observed in any
7
Note that because this is a regression, the fact that some data points will be generated by small cell sizes does not
pose a disclosure risk (Merrell and Reznek (2002)), though as a practical matter it may be necessary to use two-digit
industry cells rather than three-digit. Only the slope coefficient, and not the fixed effects, will be reported.
13
CPS. So another approach that will be taken is to regress the 1988 or 1991 levels of technology
use on the 1980-1990 changes in work force composition by metropolitan area:
PYjre = αj** + βr** + δy**’∆80-90Xr + εjr**
…where ∆80-90 represents an operator for the change between 1980 and 1990.
Under the
assumption that use of these technologies was limited in 1980, PYjre ≈ ∆80-90PYjre giving δy** a
similar interpretation δy* of the previous regression.8
Another set of regressions would take advantage of the survey questions that ask
establishments when a particular technology was implemented, or if it intends to implement a
technology in the near future. Using the prevalence of these survey responses as alternative
dependent variables will allow some sense of the timing of the response to work force
composition.
Identification
The slope estimates from the regressions presented so far may have interpretations other
than the causal effect of work force composition on technology use.
For example,
implementation of advanced technologies may raise demand for skilled labor and draw such
labor to markets where the technology is being implemented. To account for the first problem,
instruments for workforce characteristics will be used, derived from the strong impact that
foreign immigration tends to have on the work force characteristics of different local labor
markets in the US and the historical tendency of immigrants from different parts of the world to
8
To the extent that the technologies were in use in 1980, and the use in particular markets is positively correlated
over time, estimates of δy** will be biased towards 0.
14
settle into particular US labor markets. The instrument, developed by Card (2001), can be
expressed as:
∑
Fgr70
g
(8) Z r =
…where
Fg70
zg
Pr
Fgr70
Fg70
represents the fraction of all foreign-born residents from country g living in city r
in 1970 (measured with 1970 PUMS data), zg represents a vector of skill categories of immigrant
arrivals from country g for a relevant recent period, and Pr represents the population of city r in
the present period. zg might, for example, be a vector representing the 1980-1990 arrivals of
Mexican high school graduates, Mexican some college-educated and Mexican college graduates;
Fgr70
Fg70
z g therefore assigns these three groups of Mexicans to cities r in the same proportions as the
settlement patterns of Mexicans living in the US in 1970. Summing over countries produces an
estimate of the expected impact of recent foreign immigration on the supply of different skill
groups in each city, based on 1970, rather than present-day, settlement patterns. An assumption
for the validity of the instrument is that these 1970 settlement patterns are on average orthogonal
to unobserved shocks that might effect technology adoption in the present day. The skills of
recent immigrants will be measured in the 1990 Census of Population or in the 1994 Current
Population Surveys depending on the regression being run.
A second issue confounding the regressions presented so far is it may actually be an
individual-level relationship between education and technology use that drives the relationship,
15
rather than a market level relationship. One way make sure this is not the case is to measure the
vector of city-level work force skills, Xr, only for those outside the industry; i.e. replace Xr with
X-jr, the vector of worker characteristics outside industry j. This is similar to the approach taken
by Moretti (2002), and should give a lower bound estimate of the effect of local work force skills
on technology use.
Channels By Which Education Affects Technology
The SMTs also ask questions about the reasons why technology was implemented or not
implemented (such as “improve product quality” for why implemented and “cost of training
workers” for why not implemented). If work force skills affect the probability of implementing
technology, then controlling for the prevalence of the various reasons in the regressions will
allow a determination of the channels through which education affects the probability of
technology adoption. If the effect gets loaded onto these variables, then it suggests education
operates through them; otherwise it suggests education affects technology adoption by other
means.
Productivity Impact
One motivation for asking how the skills of the work force affects technology use is wage
evidence that the demand for workers in a local labor market is affected by the relative supplies
of different skill groups. Moretti (2003) shows that increases in the relative supply of college
educated in a metropolitan area raise the wages of all workers in the area. And in another paper
(Moretti (2002)), the same author shows using Census of Manufacturers data that the
16
productivity of manufacturing plant increases in the average education of workers in the local
work force outside the plant.
Merging the SMT data to the Censuses of Manufacturers provides an opportunity to
extend this previous research by potentially describing a technological mechanism by which
education levels of workers in a local market of workers affects the productivity and wages of
other local workers. Adding dummies for the use of different advanced technologies to the
production function similar to the one specified in Moretti (2002) allows the skills of the local
work force to affect productivity both directly and through a higher prevalence of these
technologies. The importance of observed technological shifts on productivity can be assessed
by estimating production functions of the form: 9
ln Qjsrn = α1ln LPjsrn + α2ln LNPjsrn + βln Kjsrn + φj + φr + γX-jr + ΣyθyTyjsrn
+ ξjsrn
…where Qjsrn is the output (value added) at plant n in strata js (which is region r). This is a
function of the amount of production workers (LP), non-production workers (LNP) and capital
(K); industry (φj) and city (φr) fixed effects; a vector of characteristics of other workers in the
labor market outside the plant (X-jr which is actually measured outside the industry of that plant,
since detailed worker characteristics are only observed at the industry level) and dummies for a
vector of dummies for different technologies (T) in the SMT data (likely the four broad
categories of technology – see Appendix 1), which are indexed by y.10 Estimation with and
without the technology dummies will allow an assessment of whether local work force
9
The regression will be weighted by the regional employment weights, defined above.
It is also common in the use of the SMT data to measure technological intensity of a plant with the number of
technologies in use, and this approach may also be taken.
10
17
characteristics affect manufacturing productivity through adoption of these manufacturing
technologies, or by other means. To the extent a more skilled work force raises manufacturing
productivity through greater adoption of skill complementary technology the coefficient γ will be
driven to 0 when the technology controls are included.
Endogeneity is also an issue with these plant-level estimates: there may be unobserved
heterogeneity (modeled as ξjsrn, which could include things such as “management quality”)
which affects both the level of inputs used in some city-industry’s manufacturing plants and the
level of output at those plants. It is unfortunately difficult to conceive of instruments for plantlevel inputs. One change that might reduce bias would be to control for city-industry fixed
effects. The feasibility of this can only be determined by looking at the micro data (but is worth
noting that Moretti (2002) suggested that it was unfeasible). Another approach could potentially
reduce bias would be to control for plant level fixed effects by matching plants across surveys
(the 1988 and 1993 surveys) by id. This is the approach taken by McGuckin et al. (1998). The
main drawbacks of this approach are a reduction in the sample size, and an increase in error in
the measurement of inputs.
A second approach to first differencing would be to impute past
data for all the plants in the 1993 survey. Retrospective questions on the when the technology
was implemented, available in the 1993 survey, could be used to construct estimates of
technology use at the same plant 5 years ago; and growth rates of other inputs in a given strataregion cell (jsr) could be used to impute past levels (albeit noisily measured) of the other inputs.
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V. Benefits to the Bureau
Each part of this project constitutes a benefit to the Census Bureau under Title 13, Chapter 5.
The details of the benefits are given in this proposal’s PPS. See the abstract to this proposal for a
brief description.
VI. Conclusion
This document has proposed using the micro data in the Surveys of Manufacturing
Technology to tabulate the use, plans for use, and reasons for use of different manufacturing
technologies by state and metropolitan areas, and proposes releasing the tabulated statistics to the
public to the extent it is feasible. Existing evidence indicates that technology use may differ
substantially by region, so having publicly available statistics that measure this would be of
interest to decision-makers and researchers. The SMT appears to be a large enough survey to
feasibly generate regional statistics that do not risk disclosure of individual establishments’
confidential survey responses.11 Whether or not it will be also possible to further cross tabulate
the survey responses by plant characteristics, another proposed goal, can only be determined by
examination of the micro data, but tabulations by plant size and two-digit industry appear at least
to be possible. In addition to these public statistics, two sets of sample weights that will allow
future users of the SMT to construct statistics that are representative of the establishments or
workers in arbitrary US regions (comprised of counties or states) will be constructed and added
to the SMT micro data.
A secondary purpose of this project is to determine if any regional differences in
manufacturing technology use can be causally attributed to regional differences in the skills of
the local work force: either directly, or indirectly through the effect of local work force skills on
11
See Appendix 2 for evidence of this.
19
the costs or benefits of implementing new technologies. The effect of this on productivity will
also be examined. Other evidence suggests that technologies used by industries respond to
changes in local work force composition. The level of detail in the SMT is suited to give a
stronger answer to the question of how local work force skills affect industries.
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Project Details
This paper proposes access to the following confidential Census Bureau datasets:
•
•
Surveys of Manufacturing Technology (SMT) in years 1988, 1991, and 1993, all class
sizes and industries. Variables being requested include the answers to all survey
responses, and industry, employment class size, state, county, sample weight. An
establishment identifier that can be matched to the Census of Manufacturing and across
surveys of manufacturing technology (such as Census establishment ID or permanent
plant number) is also requested.
Census of Manufacturers (CM) in years 1987 and 1992, all class sizes and industries.
Variables being requested include total employment, employment of production and
nonproduction workers, value added, book value of capital (equipment and structures),
and SIC industry. Also being requested is an establishment identifier that will allow a
link to the 1988 and 1993 SMTs by establishment.
The 1987 CM will be matched to the 1988 SMT and the 1992 CM will be matched to the 1993
SMT by establishment identifier. This match will allow two things. First, it will allow a
comparison of the number of establishments in each industry-class-size-region cell in the 1988
and 1993 SMT to the corresponding establishment counts in the universe of manufacturing
establishments covered by the 1987 and 1992 CMs. This serves the purpose of assessing the
geographic coverage of the SMT (see proposal for details). Second, it will allow the estimation
of plant-level production functions including more detailed technology indicators from the SMT.
Other data used by this project include
• County Business Patterns county and state summary data from 1988, 1991 and 1993.
These will be matched to the corresponding SMT by industry, class size and region
(county or state). This match will allow another comparison of the number of
establishments in each industry-class-size-region cell in the SMT to the same cell in the
County Business Patterns data, allowing another assessment of the geographic coverage
of the SMT. It will also allow a determination of the average number of workers in each
industry-class size-region cell, which can be used to create employment-weighted
frequencies of technology use.
• 1970, 1980 1990 PUMS. Worker characteristics in PUMS data will be aggregated to the
metropolitan area level. The 1970 data are useful for an instrument. (See equation (8).)
The impact changes in worker characteristics between 1980 and 1990 on technology use
will be measured.
• In addition, worker characteristics at the metropolitan area level will be measured in the
1988, 1993 and 1994 current population surveys. Changes in technology use between
1988 and 1993 will be regressed on changes in work force characteristics between these
two years. The 1993 and 1994 surveys will be important for measuring the
characteristics of recent immigrants. (See equation (8).)
Project Duration
24 months of 40 hour a week access to the CCRDC should be more than sufficient to complete
this project. I have experience working with related datasets (the LRD), which should allow me
to get to work quickly.
21
References
Acemoglu, Daron (1996). “A Microfoundation for Social Increasing Returns in Human Capital
Accumulation.” The Quarterly Journal of Economics, Vol. 111, No. 3. (Aug., 1996), pp.
779-804
---- (1998). “Why Do New Technologies Complement Skills? Directed Technical Change and
Wage Inequality.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 113(4): November 1998, p. 1055-89.
---- (2002). “Technical Change, Inequality and the Labor Market,” Journal of Economic
Literature 40(1): March 2002, p. 7-72.
Autor, David H., Lawrence F. Katz and Alan B. Krueger (1998). “Computing Inequality: Have
Computers Changed the Labor Market?” Quarterly Journal of Economics 63(4):
November 1998, p. 1169 – 1213.
Bound, John and George Johnson (1992). “Changes in the Structure of Wages in the 1980s: An
Evaluation of Alternative Explanations.” American Economic Review 82 (3): June 1992,
p. 371-392.
Card, David (2001). “Immigrant Inflows, Native Outflows, and the Local Labor Market Impacts
of Higher Immigration.” Journal of Labor Economics 19(1): January 2001, p. 22-64.
Cochran, William G. (1977). Sampling Techniques. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1977.
Dahl, Gordon B. (2002). “Mobility and the Return to Education: Testing a Roy Model with
Multiple Markets.” Econometrica 70(6): November 2002.
Davis, Steven J. and John Haltiwanger (1991). “Wage Dispersion between and within U.S.
Manufacturing Plants, 1963-86.” Brookings Papers on Economic Activity.
Microeconomics, Vol. 1991. (1991), pp. 115-180.
---- (1996). “Employer Size and the Wage Structure in US Manufacturing.” Annales
d’Economie et de Statistique 41/42: 1996, p. 323 -367.
Davis, Steven J. and John Haltiwanger and Scott Schuh (1991). “Published Versus Sample
Statistics From The ASM: Implications For The LRD.” Bureau of the Census Center for
Economic Studies Discussion Paper 91-1: January 1991.
Doms, Mark, Timothy Dunne and Kenneth R. Troske (1997). “Workers, Wages and
Technology.” Quarterly Journal of Economics 62(1): February 1997, p. 253 – 290.
Dunne, Timothy (1994). “Plant Age and Technology Use in US Manufacturing Industries.”
RAND Journal of Economics 25(3): Autumn 1994, p. 488 – 499.
22
Dunne, Timothy, Lucia Foster, John Haltiwanger and Kenneth R. Troske (2002). “Wage and
Productivity Dispersion in US Manufacturing: The Role of Computer Investment.” IZA
Discussion Paper #563: August 2002.
Lewis, Ethan (2002). “Local, Open Economies Within The US: How Do Industries Respond to
Immigration?” Mimeo. UC Berkeley, December 2002. (Currently available at
http://socrates.berkeley.edu/~gatewood.)
McGuckin, Robert H. Mary L. Streitwieser and Mark Doms (1998). “The Effect of Technology
Use on Productivity Growth.” Economics of Innovation and New Technology 7(1): 1998,
p. 1-26.
Merrell, David R. and Arnold P. Reznek (2002). “On Disclosure Protection for Non-Traditional
Statistical Outputs.” Mimeo. US Bureau of the Census, Center for Economic Studies,
2002.
Moretti, Enrico (2002). “Human Capital Spillovers in Manufacturing: Evidence from PlantLevel Production Functions.” NBER Working Paper #9316 , 2002.
---- (2003). “Estimating the Social Return to Higher Education: Evidence From Longitudinal
and Repeated Cross-Sectional Data.” Journal of Econometrics, forthcoming 2003.
(Currently available at http://www.econ.ucla.edu/moretti.)
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Industry Data Say?” American Economic Review 92(5): December 2002, p. 1559 – 1576.
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Handbook for Researchers.” Washington, DC: Center for Economic Studies, Mimeo,
January 2002.
23
Appendix 1
Description of Technologies Covered in Surveys of Manufacturing Technology (1988, 1991,
1993)
I.
Design and Engineering
1. Computer-Aided Design (CAD) and/or Computer-Aided Engineering – “Use of
computers for drawing and designing parts or products and for analysis and
testing of designed parts or products.”
2. Computer-Aided Design (CAD)/Computer-Aided Manufacturing (CAM) – “Use of
CAD output for controlling machines used to manufacture the part or product.”
3. Digital Data Representation – “Use of digital representation of CAD output for
controlling machines used to manufacture part or product.”
II.
Fabrication and Machining
4. NC/CNC Machine – “A single machine either numerically controlled (NC) or
computer numerically controlled (CNC) with or without automated material
handling capabilities. NC machines are controlled by numerical commands,
punched on paper or plastic mylar tape while CNC machines are controlled
electronically through a computer reading in the machine.”
5. Flexible Manufacturing Cell (FMC) – “Two or more machines with automated
material handling capabilities controlled by computers or programmable
controllers, capable of single path acceptance of raw material and single path
delivery of finished product.”
6. Flexible Manufacturing System (FMS) – “Two or more machines with automated
material handling capabilities controlled by computers or programmable
controllers, capable of multiple path acceptance of raw material and multiple path
delivery of finished product. A FMS may also be comprised of two or more FMC
linked in series or parallel.”
7. Materials Working Laser – “Laser technology used for welding, cutting, treating,
scribing and marking.”
8. Pick and Place Robots – “A simple robot, with one, two, or three degrees of
freedom, which transfers items from place to place by means of point-to-point
moves. Little or no trajectory control is available.”
9. Other Robots – “A reprogrammable, multifunctional manipulator designed to
move materials, parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed
motions for the performance of a variety of tasks.”
III.
Materials Handling
10. Automated Storage and Retrieval Systems (AR/RS) – “Computer controlled
equipment providing for the automatic handling and storage of materials, parts,
subassemblies, or finished products.”
11. Automatic Guided Vehicle Systems (AGVS) – “Vehicles equipped with automatic
guidance devices programmed to follow a path that interfaces with work stations
for automated or manual loading and unloading of materials, tools, parts or
products.”
24
IV.
Inspection and Quality Control
A. Automated Sensor Based Inspection And/Or Testing Equipment – Includes automated
sensor based inspection and/or testing performed on incoming or in-process materials, or
performed on the final product.
12. - Performed on Incoming or In-Process Materials
- Performed on Final Product
B. Communications and Control
13. Technical Data Network – “Use of local area network (LAN) technology to
exchange technical data with design and engineering documents.”
14. Factory Network – “Use of local area network (LAN) technology to link
information between different points on the factory floor.”
15. Intercompany Computer Network – “Use of network technology to link
subcontractors, suppliers and/or customers with the plant.”
16. Programmable Controllers – “A solid state industrial control devise that has
programmable memory for storage of instructions, which performs functions
equivalent to a relay panel or wired solid state logic control system.”
17. Computers Used for Control on the Factory Floor – “Exclude computers
imbedded within machines, or computers used solely for data acquisitions or
monitoring. Include computers that may be dedicated to control but are capable
of being programmed for other functions.”
Source: US Bureau of the Census (1989), US Bureau of the Census (1993), US Bureau of the
Census (1994). 1988 and 1993 surveys ask whether or not each of the 17 technologies (with #12
divided into two subcategories) are in use or not, and also includes questions on the plans for use
of each technology, and the reasons for use. The 1991 survey asks more detailed questions about
the level of use of the four major types of technology (I-IV), in categories. One 1991 survey
question, for example, is “What degree do the manufacturing operations in this plant depend on
technologically advanced equipment and software?” with responses (a) Less than 10 percent (b)
10 percent to 24 percent (c) 25 percent to 49 percent (d) 50 percent to 74 percent (e) 75 percent
or more (f) Not applicable.
25
Appendix 2
Expected Sample Sizes in Survey of Manufacturing Technology State and Metropolitan
Area Tabulations
I. Introduction
The purpose of this appendix is to demonstrate that the proposed geographic tabulations
are unlikely to risk disclosure of individual SMT responses. The CES guideline for protecting
against disclosure risk when tabulating SMT variables for release to the public requires that the
number of firms involved in the computation of each table cell exceed some fixed minimum
(U.S. Dept. of Commerce (2002)). The challenge determining whether this minimum count can
be met is both the count and the SMT data are confidential. The approach taken here is to use
publicly available information – primarily County Business Patterns (CBP) summary data – to
estimate the expected number of firms from the SMT sample that will be involved in the
proposed tabulations. These expected counts can be reviewed by CES to determine if they will
meet the (confidential) minimum firm count.
Note that these are estimates of firm counts – actual firm counts in the SMT may differ
from the numbers presented here. And it will be the actual number of firms that will determine
which statistics can be presented to the public without the risk of disclosure.
II. Obtaining Estimated Firm Counts
The SMT for 1993 included a stratified random sample of 8,432 of the 43,551
manufacturing establishments believed to meet the survey’s sample selection criteria (U.S.
Department of Commerce (1994)).12 Larger numbers of establishments were involved in the
In order to be included in the survey, a manufacturing establishment had to have at least 20 employees and be
classified in SIC 34-38. As will be noted again below, similar numbers of establishments were involved in the 1991 and
1993 SMTs also proposed for use by this project.
12
26
1991 and 1988 surveys. The sampling rate was approximately the same in the different strata of
each survey.13
How can we determine how many of these observations will be in a particular state or
metropolitan area? Because the SMT is a random sample, an unbiased estimate can be obtained
by multiplying the number of establishments from the universe of SMT-eligible firms – which is
observable in publicly available data – with the average SMT sampling rate. To see this, let Nr
represent the number of SMT-eligible establishments in region r and nr represent the number of
actual number of SMT respondents in region r. Under random sampling,
(1) E[n r N r ] = n N ≡ ς
where n and N are the overall number of SMT respondents (8,432) and SMT-eligible
establishments (43,551) respectively.
This equation says we expect the rate at which
establishments were sampled from the overall population to be, on average, the same in each
region. An unbiased estimate of nr is therefore ςN r , where ς is the average SMT sampling rate
(
n
≈ 0.20).
N
The sampling unit in the SMT is the manufacturing establishment. Most manufacturing
establishments are single entities; nevertheless, for the purpose of meeting CES confidentiality
protections, the count of firms rather than establishments is important. So suppose F represents
the number of firms with an SMT eligible establishment, the typical SMT establishment will
then represent θ ≡ F/N firms. Given this, an unbiased estimate of the number of SMT firms in
region r is:
(2) fˆr = θςN r
The strata were formed by crossing three employment class sizes (20-99, 100-499, >500 employees) with each 3-digit
SIC industry (U.S. Dept. of Commerce (1989)). The documentation reports that in certain smaller strata all
establishments were surveyed.
13
27
As the number of firms in the SMT or the SMT universe does not appear to be reported in any of
the SMT reports, θ must be estimated from another source. The number of firms with an SMTeligible establishment can be approximately determined from the Census Bureau’s “Statistics of
U.S. Businesses,” which report County Business Patterns-derived tabulated firm counts. In the
1992 tables, the number of firms in SIC 34-38 with at least 20 employees is 36,218; this
probably overstates the number of firms with an SMT-eligible establishment.14 The number of
establishments in the SMT-eligible universe, obtained from County Business Patterns summary
files for the same year, is 43,968. These numbers suggest a θ of 0.82 ( =
36, 218
).
43,968
II. Results for States
Column 1 of Table 1 presents estimated SMT firm counts, fˆr , by census division, region,
and state by applying equation (2). The total number of SMT-eligible establishments underlying
these counts (i.e. Nr) comes from 1993 CBP summary data. (1993 was chosen because it had the
fewest number of SMT observations; the results should be considered low estimates of the firm
counts in the 1991 and 1988 surveys.) These are multiplied by the average SMT sampling rate
for 1993, ς ≡0.20, and a conservative value for θ ≡0.75 (each 4 SMT establishments are
assumed, on average, to be owned by 3 firms).
According to these estimates, we should expect the 1993 SMT to contain about 6,500
separate firms. The numbers in the first column of Table 1 show substantial numbers of these
firms are likely to be in each state, driven by the fact that manufacturing establishments in SMT
industries are present in all states. Smaller states, for example Wyoming and Montana, may not
14 The desired count is of firms that have at least one establishment with at least 20 employees. Firms in with greater than
20 employees may in some cases contain more than one establishment, each of which has fewer than 20 employees,
making this firm count potentially overstated.
28
have sufficient numbers of firms in the SMT to meet the reporting criteria; it may be necessary,
therefore to not report results for these states. In order to report regional totals, it may also be
necessary to exclude some states that individually meet the reporting criteria to avoid
complementary disclosure.15
Cross-Tabulations
The original proposal also suggested making cross-tabulations of technology use by firm
characteristics. For the firm characteristics available in the CBP, it is possible to estimate counts
of firms by state and characteristics. Letting j index the values of some firm characteristic
desirable for cross-tabulation, an estimate of the firms in the SMT table cell jr is simply:
(3) fˆ jr = θςN jr
where Njr is obtained from CBP data, and ς and θ are as before. Columns (2) – (4) of Table 1
present estimates of firm counts by state and establishment class size (20-99 employees, 100-499
employees, >500 employees). For the most part it appears we can expect substantial numbers of
firms in each state for each class size.
However, the largest class size, greater than 500
employees, has few firms, making separate counts by state somewhat problematic.16 Limiting
the geographic disaggregation for this class size to region is one approach to addressing this
problem. Another alternative would be to break the class size categories at a different point (e.g.
20-99, 100-249, 250+). Lumping the 500+ category with the 100-499 would be less desirable, as
Dunne (1994) has shown that plant size is a important determinant of technology use.
Avoiding a complementary disclosure in this case would require that the unreported states for each census region in
total have a sufficient firm count to meet CES reporting criteria.
16
Since larger establishments are more likely to be a part a multi-unit firm than small ones, even these conservative
counts may be overstated (i.e. θ should probably be lower for this class size).
15
29
Table 2 presents expected firm counts by state and the five two-digit SIC industries
included in the SMT survey. Like in Table 1, reporting means for some smaller states appears to
be problematic, but for the most part we should expect firms to be spread across states enough
that it will be possible to report statistics by state for medium and large states.
In addition to SIC and class size, it would also be desirable to produce estimates of firm
counts by other important plant characteristics (such as plant age) and state. Unfortunately,
publicly available data do not allow this. However, there is no a priori reason to expect that
other plant characteristics are not also distributed across states in similar proportions to industry
or class size, so Table 1 and 2 are informative to the extent that they show the SMT sample size
is likely sufficient to develop regional statistics on any major plant characteristic.
III. Results for Metropolitan Areas
Lewis (2003) also proposes tabulations by metropolitan area, at least for major
metropolitan areas. So Tables 3 and 4 are similar to Tables 1 and 2, except estimated firm counts
are shown for each of 30 large metro areas, ordered by the total number of SIC-eligible
establishments in the metro area, ranging from 294 (Los Angeles) down to 43 (Charlotte, NC).
This number of firms seems likely sufficient to not risk disclosure. Cross-tabulations may be
more problematic. Note, as before, there are probably very few firms covering the largest
category of establishment (>500 employees), so a separate breakdown of technology use for this
very largest category may again not be possible. The counts by industry also appear to be thin in
some places, so it may be necessary to suppress certain cells that do not meet minimum firm
counts.
30
Complementary Disclosure
An additional risk in reporting statistics both by state and metropolitan area is of
complementary disclosure. If non-metropolitan parts of a state tend to have very few firms, then
by reporting both state and metropolitan area statistics, one may risk disclosure in such nonmetropolitan areas. To insure that this will not be a problem, Tables 5 and 6 report estimated
firm counts, by state, for the part of the state not in one of the metropolitan areas listed in Tables
3 and 4. Column 1 of Table 5 shows that most states have substantial numbers of firms outside
these 30 metropolitan areas. Broken down by class size, again the largest class size is thin, but
that was true of the metro area numbers as well.
Table 6 breaks apart the non-metro area firm counts by state and industry.
Non-
metropolitan Arizona, Washington and Oregon stand out as having few firms in some cells. The
small number of firms outside the city may mean that it will not be possible to report statistics
for the Portland, Seattle and Phoenix metropolitan areas (at least not by industry). In addition,
SIC 37 seems to have very few firms in some other cells, so suppressing statistics for that
industry may also be called for.
IV. Conclusion
This appendix has presented conservative estimates of the number of firms likely to be
involved in the tabulations of SMT data by state and metropolitan area as described in this
proposal. It has shown that it is likely that there are sufficient numbers of firms to allow
presentation of such statistics without risking disclosure of confidential survey responses. Crosstabulations by industry and class size also seem feasible, especially for larger geographic units.
31