UCL INSTITUTE OF ARCHAEOLOGY
ARCL3001 ARCHAEOMETALLURGY
Course Handbook for 2015/16
Years 2 and 3 option, 0.5 unit
Co-ordinator: Marcos Martinón-Torres
m.martinon-torres@ucl.ac.uk
Office 112, Tel 020 7679 7496
Term II , Monday 2-4 (plus 4-6 some days), Room B13
Turnitin Class ID: 2970179 – Password IoA1516
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 3
AIMS
The main aim of this course is to familiarise students with the main approaches to the study of
archaeological metal artefacts and metallurgical debris, and how these can be used to address
questions of archaeological significance. The course will provide students with an overview of the
development and spread of mining and metallurgy within their natural and archaeological contexts
from the Neolithic up to the Industrial Revolution. This includes an introduction to metals as
materials, and how the exploitation and understanding of different metals evolved over time in
different regions. Especial emphasis is placed on the understanding of technical processes related
to metallurgy, their reconstruction based on the study of archaeological remains, and their
interpretation in the relevant social and cultural contexts. The course does not focus on the
typological or stylistic study of metal artefacts, nor does it attempt an exhaustive documentation
of sites and dates (these aspects can be explored by students in their coursework, depending on
their specific interests). While copper/bronze and iron/steel take centre stage as the most
important metals, individual sessions will address the less common metals such as tin, lead, silver,
zinc, brass and gold. Case studies are drawn from all periods and regions of the world.
OBJECTIVES
On successful completion of this course a student should have an overview over the general trends
of technical and social development in relation to metals. Furthermore, s/he should have acquired
a basic understanding of the fundamental physical principles of metallurgy at a level relevant to
understanding ancient metallurgy. With a view to being encountered during later archaeological
practice, students should understand the general outlines of regional and chronological
developments in metallurgy. They should recognise relevant evidence such as slag and technical
ceramics related to metallurgy. In particular, they should be able to pose educated questions
leading to a scientific investigation of such remains, and be familiar with the various types of
answers possible from archaeometric approaches and archaeological interpretations.
COURSE INFORMATION
This handbook contains the basic information about the content and administration of the course.
Additional subject-specific reading lists and individual session handouts will be given out at
appropriate points in the course, and made available via Moodle. If students have queries about
the objectives, structure, content, assessment or organisation of the course, they should consult
the course co-ordinator, Marcos Martinón-Torres (m.martinon-torres@ucl.ac.uk; room 112,
telephone 020 7679 7496, internal ext. 27496).
TEACHING METHODS
The course is taught through lectures and practical sessions, as detailed in the schedule below.
There will be some hands-on sessions, including the handling of archaeometallurgical materials and
practical introductions to analytical methods, a video forum and a museum visit. In addition,
students will be informed of special lectures by external specialists.
PREREQUISITES
There are no formal prerequisites for this course.
WORKLOAD
There will be 20 hours of classes (lectures and practical sessions) for this course, as well as a
museum visit. Students will be expected to undertake around 70 hours of reading for the course,
plus 100 hours preparing for and producing the assessed work. This adds up to a total workload of
some 190 hours for the course.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 4
LIBRARIES AND ONLINE RESOURCES
In addition to the Library of the Institute of Archaeology, UCL's Science Library has holdings of
particular relevance to this course. Further information on resources is available below, under
“Introductory reading”.
The current reading list online is available via the Moodle page (see below). You may find links
to other Archaeometallurgy reading lists from various pages within the UCL web, but these may
be out of date and should not be relied upon.
If you haven’t, you should consider joining academia.edu and researchgate.net, where many
authors make their papers available as PDFs.
On the Moodle page for this course you will find access to the reading lists but also to
downloadable handouts and PowerPoint presentations that will be added on a weekly basis, as
well as other activities and resources. If you do not appear automatically registered for this course,
you will have to self-enrol at www.ucl.ac.uk/moodle using the enrolment key ‘archmetUG’. You are
expected to log on the Moodle page at least once a week.
METHODS OF ASSESSMENT
Assessment of the course is by one essay of 1425-1575 words (50% of final mark), and a 4-6 minute
documentary video or an A3 academic poster (50% of final mark). The essay is due on 4 March,
and the video on 25 April.
The topics for each assessment, as well as further guidance notes and submission procedures, are
given at the end of this coursebook. If students are unclear about the nature of an assignment, they
should contact the course co-ordinator. The course co-ordinator is willing to discuss an outline of
their approach to the assessment, provided this is planned suitably in advance of the submission
date. Students are welcome to suggest their own topics, but these should always be agreed with
the course co-ordinator in advance.
INSTITUTE OF ARCHAELOGY COURSEWORK PROCEDURES
General policies and procedures concerning courses and coursework, including submission
procedures, assessment criteria, and general resources, are available in your Degree Handbook
and on the following website: http://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/archadmin. It is essential that you
read and comply with these. Note that some of the policies and procedures will be different
depending on your status (e.g. undergraduate, postgraduate taught, affiliate, graduate diploma,
intercollegiate, interdepartmental). If in doubt, please consult your course co-ordinator.
GRANTING OF EXTENSIONS
New UCL-wide regulations with regard to the granting of extensions for coursework have been
introduced with effect from the 2015-16 session. Full details
are available here
http://www.ucl.ac.uk/srs/academic-manual/c4/extenuating-circumstances/
Note that course co-ordinators are no longer permitted to grant extensions. All requests for
extensions must be submitted on a new UCL form, together with supporting documentation,
via Judy Medrington’s office and will then be referred on for consideration. Please be aware that
the grounds that are now acceptable are limited. Those with long-term difficulties should
contact UCL Student Disability Services to make special arrangements.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 5
TEACHING SCHEDULE AND GROUPS
Most of the lectures and practicals will take place on Mondays, from 2 to 4, in room B13. However,
we will have to split you in groups for some sessions, and groups will be assigned different time
slots and locations from 2 to 6.
It is essential that students attend the session with the group to which they have been assigned. If
they need to attend a different group for a particular session, they should arrange to swap with
another student from that group, and confirm this arrangement with the co-ordinator.
In addition, we will organise a visit to the British Museum at dates to be confirmed .
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 6
ARCL3001 ARCHAEOMETALLURGY
SCHEDULE
Week
1
Date
11 Jan
Topic
Introduction. Technical background
Mondays in B13. Times:
2-4
2
18 Jan
Studying archaeometallurgical
remains: handling session
2-4 (G1, G2), 4-6 (G3, G4)
3
25 Jan
The inception of metallurgy
2-4
4
1 Feb
Copper and bronze
2-4
5
8 Feb
Chemical analysis of metal artefacts:
theory and practice
2-4 (G3, G4), 4-6 (G2, G1)
15-19
Feb
Reading week - no lectures
6
22 Feb
Lead and silver
SEM analysis of archaeometallurgical
remains
2-4 (G1, G2), 4-6 (G3, G4)
2-3 (G3), 3-4 (G4), 4-5 (G1), 5-6 (G2)
(meet outside SEM lab in B4)
7
29 Feb
Iron and steel
2-4
8
7 Mar
Metallurgy, ethnography and ritual
2-4
9
14 Mar
Alchemy and metallurgy
2-4
10
21 Mar
Gold
2-4
tbc
British Museum visit
DEADLINES
Friday 4 March – Essay deadline
Monday 25 April – Video deadline
SPECIAL LECTURES – IAMS SUMMER SCHOOL
You will be informed of special lectures and seminars related to metallurgy taking place during the
year. Of special interest will be the IAMS Summer School on Ancient Mining and Metallurgy, an
intensive course that takes place at the Institute in the early summer, is heavily discounted for UCL
students, and covers many aspects of archaeometallurgy not discussed in this course.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 7
INTRODUCTORY READING
The following is an outline for the course as a whole, and identifies essential and supplementary
readings relevant to each session. Information is provided as to where in the UCL library system
individual readings are available. Readings marked with an * are considered essential to keep up
with the topics covered in the course.
There are three books which are particularly useful, as they cover a good deal of the topics of this
course. Both books are suitable for independent reading, sufficiently self-contained, and provide
an introduction to the subject as well as offering in-depth follow-up. Unfortunately, the older ones
are out of print, but several copies are available in the library. The more recent one is available
online, and is an excellent compilation of introductory papers.
Tylecote, R. 1987. The early history of metallurgy in Europe. London and New York: Longman.
ANCIENT HISTORY A 68 TYL, ISSUE DESK IOA TYL 2
Craddock, P. T. 1995. Early metal mining and production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6
Roberts, W. B. and Thornton, C. P. 2014 (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective:
Methods and Syntheses. New York: Springer. Online
A detailed introduction to Archaeometallurgy (with a strong British flavour) can be found in the
following volume.
Bayley, J., Crossley, D. and Ponting, M. 2008. Metals and metalworking. A research framework
for archaeometallurgy. London: Historical Metallurgy Society INST ARCH KEA Qto BAY, ISSUE DESK
IOA BAY 2, or online at: http://hist-met.org/arch_comm.html
Basic (but very useful) introductions to archaeometallurgy:
Rehren, Th. 2008. Metals: chemical analysis, and Metals: primary production, in Pearsall, D. M.
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Archaeology, 1614-1620. New York: Academic Press INST ARCH AG PEA
Craddock, P. T. 1991. Mining and smelting in Antiquity, in Bowman, S. (ed), Sience and the Past, 5773. London: British Museum Press INST ARCH AJ BOW
Killick, D. and Fenn, T. 2012. Archaeometallurgy: the study of preindustrial mining and metallurgy.
Annual Review of Anthropology 41, 559–575. Online
Lambert, J. B. 1997. Metals, in Traces of the Past. Unraveling the Secrets of Archaeology Through
Chemistry, 168-213. Cambridge, Mass.: Perseus Publishing. INST ARCH JD LAM
Archaeometallurgy:
Guidelines
for
Best
Practice.
Historic
England,
2015.
https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/archaeometallurgy-guidelines-bestpractice/
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 8
Collections of articles (and note that there are many more!):
Archaeometallurgy in Europe. Proceedings of the International Conference, 24-26 September 2003,
Milan, Italy, 2 vols. Milano: Associazione Italiana de Metallurgia INST ARCH KEA 1 ASS
Archaeometallurgy in Europe. Proceedings of the Second International Conference, June 2007,
Aquileia, Italy. Milano: Associazione Italiana de Metallurgia INST ARCH KEA 1 ASS
Cech, B. and Rehren, Th. (eds.) 2014. Early Iron in Europe. Momographies Instrumentum, 50.
Montagnac: Editions Monique Mergoil.
Craddock, P.T. and Lang, J. (eds.) 2003. Mining and Metal Production through the Ages, London,
British Museum Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7
Hauptmann, A. and Modarressi-Tehrani, D. (eds.) 2015. Archaeometallurgy in Europe. Proceedings
of the 3rd International Conference, Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum, June 29 – July 1, 2011.
Der Anschnitt Beiheft 26. Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum Bochum.
Hosek, J., Cleere, H., Mihok, L., Pleiner, R. (eds.) 2011. The archaeometallurgy of iron: recent
developments in archaeological and scientific research. Prague: Institute of Archaeology of the
ASCR. INST ARCH KEB 2 HOS
Humphris, J. and Rehren, Th. (eds) 2013. The World of Iron. London: Archetype. INST ARCH KEA 2
Qto HUM
La Niece, S., Hook, D.R., and Craddock, P.T. (eds) 2007. Metals and Mines - Studies in
Archaeometallurgy, London: Archetype, British Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK IOA
LAN 1
Mei, J. and Rehren, Th. (eds) 2009. Metallurgy and civilisation. Asia and beyond. 6th International
Conference on the Beginings of the Use of Metals and Alloys (BUMA, Beijing 2006). London:
Archetype. INST ARCH KEA Qto MEI
Meller, H., Risch, R. and Pernicka, E. (eds.) 2014. Metals of Power – Early gold and silver [Metalle
der Macht: Frühes Gold und Silber]. Halle: Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie SachsenAnhalt - Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte Halle.
Montero, I. (ed.) 2010. Archaeometallurgy: Technological, Economic and Social Perspectives in Late
Prehistoric Europe (TESME). Trabajos de Prehistoria 67/2. INST ARCH Pers, online
HMS Datasheets
The Historical Metallurgy Society produces excellent introductions to archaeometallurgical topics.
These are superb starting points for many of the topics covered in this course. The list below gives
the ones available at the moment, but it keeps being expanded:
http://hist-met.org/resources/datasheets.html
(you should consider joining HMS – a bargain for students!)
HMS Datasheet 101
HMS Datasheet 102
HMS Datasheet 103
HMS Datasheet 104
HMS Datasheet 105
HMS Datasheet 106
HMS Datasheet 107
The archaeology of metalworking sites: introduction to the field evidence
Metalworking evidence and archaeological project management
Geophysical techniques for metalworking sites
Introduction to post-excavation and lab techniques for metalworking sites
Textures, microstructures and metallography
Chemical analysis of metalwork and metalworking debris
X-radiography
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 9
HMS Datasheet 108
HMS Datasheet 201
HMS Datasheet 202
HMS Datasheet 203
HMS Datasheet 204
HMS Datasheet 301
HMS Datasheet 302
HMS Datasheet 303
HMS Datasheet 304
HMS Datasheet 305
HMS Datasheet 1
HMS Datasheet 2
HMS Datasheet 3
HMS Datasheet 4
HMS Datasheet 5
HMS Datasheet 6
HMS Datasheet 8
HMS Datasheet 9
HMS Datasheet 10
HMS Datasheet 11
HMS Datasheet 12
HMS Datasheet 14
HMS Datasheet 15
HMS Datasheet 16
Care, curation and conservation of metallurgical samples
Metals and their properties
Copper: smelting and production of alloys
Tin: smelting and production of alloys
Other metals: smelting and production of alloys
Iron: bloomery smelting and associated processes
Steelmaking
Iron: hand blacksmithing
Foundries
Supply, sourcing and production of fuels for metallurgical processes
Crucibles and moulds
Precious metal refining
Iron working processes
Geophysical techniques applied to early metalworking sites
Bloomery iron smelting, slags and other residues
Bloom refining and smithing, slags and other residues
Currency Bars and other forms of trade iron
Excavation and sampling
Hammerscale
Metallographic examination
Chemical analysis of metalwork and metalworking debris
X-radiography and archaeometallurgy
The care and curation of metallurgical samples and other residues
Metalworking evidence and the management of archaeological sites
Technical ceramics
Crucibles and technical ceramics generally are key elements of archaeometallurgical research.
These are some introductory references covering technical ceramics from many periods.
Bayley, J., & Rehren, Th. (2007). Towards a functional and typological classification of crucibles. In:
S. LaNiece, D. Hook,&P. Craddock (Eds.), Metals and Mines–Studies in Archaeometallurgy (pp. 46–
55). London: Archetype.
Craddock, P. T. 2013. Refractories: ceramics with a purpose. The Old Potter’s Almanack 18/2, 918.
Craddock, P. T. 2014. Refractories with a purpose II: ceramics for casting. The Old Potter’s
Almanack 19/1, 2-17.
Freestone, I. C. and Tite, M. S., 1986. Refractories in the ancient and preindustrial world, in W. D.
Kingery (ed), High-Technology Ceramics: Past, Present and Future. The Nature of Innovation and
Change in Ceramic Technology, 35-63. (Ceramics and Civilization 3). Westerville (OH): The
American Ceramic Society.
Kearns, T., Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, T. 2010. Metal to mould: alloy identification in
experimental casting moulds using XRF. Historical Metallurgy, 44 (1), 48-58.
Liu, S., Wang, K., Cai, Q. and Chen, J. 2013. Microscopic study of Chinese bronze casting moulds
from the Eastern Zhou period. Journal of Archaeological Science 40 (5): 2402–2414.
Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, T. 2014. Technical ceramics. In Archaeometallurgy in Global
Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 107-131. Springer New York. Available online.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 10
Rehren, Th., 2003. Crucibles as reaction vessels in ancient metallurgy, in P. T. Craddock and J. Lang
(eds), Mining and Metal Production through the Ages, 207-215. London: The British Museum
Press.
Ingots
This is a good reference to follow up our handling session on ingots, as it discusses several types.
You will find references to more focused studies on earlier ingots under the readings for each
session.
Craddock, P. and Hook, D. 2012. An economic history of the post-medieval world in 50 ingots: the
British Museum collection of ingots from dated wrecks. The British Museum Technical Research
Bulletin 6, 55-68.
Some more online resources:
Arch-metals online discussion list. This is an excellent forum to stay informed of
archaeometallurgical events, as well as keeping up with ongoing research and debates. You can
subscribe here: https://www.jiscmail.ac.uk/cgi-bin/webadmin?A0=arch-metals
Bibliography
for
archaeometallurgy
by
Chris
http://users.ox.ac.uk/~salter/arch-metals/met-bib-ak.htm
Salter
(not
up
to
date!):
Art and Archaeology Technical Abstracts (AATA): http://aata.getty.edu/NPS/
In addition to these general resources, the last pages of each issue of the journal Historical
Metallurgy include abstracts of recent archaeometallurgical publications. In this journal, as well as
in Archaeometry, the Journal of Archaeological Science and Archaeological and Anthropological
Sciences you will find many relevant archaeometallurgical studies.
You should also consider joining the following websites, where you can find numerous papers on
all kinds of subjects (including many that we cannot include in our online reading lists owing to
copyright restrictions!) www.academia.edu and www.researchgate.net
The online reading lists for ARCLG108 and ARCLG109 also include extensive lists of references under
many relevant topics.
http://readinglists.ucl.ac.uk/lists/8F87D831-523D-A7B8-9635-9B5CA1EED28C.html
http://readinglists.ucl.ac.uk/lists/9E4AFD94-259C-8E79-AD23-5D9912488FF6.html
In the reading lists for the different lectures you will find monographs and collections of articles
that will be of use as initial sources for your essays. The course co-ordinator is willing to give you
further directions for relevant literature on specific topics, but you are expected (and encouraged)
to do your own bibliographic search in preparation for your essays. Don’t forget that we expect you
to develop (and demonstrate) your research skills!
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 11
SESSION 1 : INTRODUCTION. TECHNICAL BACKGROUND
Ores, minerals and metals. Prospection. Mining. Beneficiation. Roasting.
Smelting and melting. Slag formation.
LECTURE
The first session is scheduled to identify the students’ background and
interests in preparation for the later lectures. You will get an
introduction to the course, its structure and aims, and an explanation
of what is involved with back up teaching and assessment.
We will then turn to the raw materials for metallurgy. Ancient men and
women were confronted by a wide range of raw or natural materials,
such as wood, bone, stone, shell, etc. Of these, they came to use
naturally occurring compounds as pigments, some of which later
turned out to yield metals when treated appropriately. In this session,
we will discuss how different materials appealed differently to our
ancestors, and how they learned to transform natural materials into
artificial ones.
Ores are a mixture of useable minerals and waste materials. Mining
implies the identification of the usefulness of certain minerals, their
identification in the field, and the successful extraction from the ground. We will try and understand
these processes from the ancient peoples’ point of view, and to then analyse it with our modern
understanding of materials. Examples will be used to give a very rough overview of the most
important types of ore deposits and mineral species relevant in antiquity.
We will discuss the mechanical treatment of these ores and minerals (‘beneficiation’) in order to
prepare them for the smelting process. In addition, we will provide some of the technical
background to understand processes such as the smelting and melting of metals, and the formation
of slag.
*Craddock, P. T. 1991. Mining and smelting in Antiquity, in S. Bowman (ed), Science and the Past,
57-73. London: British Museum Press. INST ARCH AJ BOW, ISSUE DESK IOA BOW
*Ottaway, B. 2001. Innovation, production and specialization in early Prehistoric copper metallurgy.
European Journal of Archaeology 4(1), 87-112. INST ARCH Pers, available online
*Tylecote, R. 1987. The early History of Metallurgy in Europe, chapter 4, pp. 106-125. London and
New York: Longman. ANCIENT HISTORY A 68 TYL, ISSUE DESK IOA TYL 2
Craddock, P. 1995. Early Metal Mining and Production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
(chapter 1, pp. 1-22). INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6
Crew, P. and Crew, S. (eds) 1990, Early mining in the British Isles: proceedings of the Early Mining
Workshop at Plas Tan y Bwlch, Snowdonia National Park Study Centre, 17-19 November, 1989).
(Plas Tan y Bwlch Occasional Paper, 1) Tan y Bwlch, Gwynedd : Plas Tan y Bwlch, Snowdonia
National Park Study Centre. INST ARCH DAA 100 Qto CRE
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 12
Hoover, H. and Hoover, H. 1950 [1556]. Georgius Agricola De Re Metallica. New York: Dover (Book
II: pp. 25-42). INST ARCH KE AGR
Hunt Ortiz, M. 2003. Prehistoric Mining and Metallurgy in South West Iberian Peninsula. (BAR
International Series 1188). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH DAPA Qto HUN
Killick, D. 2014. From ores to metals, in W. B. Roberts and C. P. Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy
in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 11-46. New York: Springer. Online
Notis, M. R. 2014. Metals, in W. B. Roberts and C. P. Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global
Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 47-66. New York: Springer. Online
O’Brien, W.F. 1996, Bronze Age Copper Mining in Britain and Ireland. (Shire Archaeology, 71).
Princes Risborough: Shire. INST ARCH DAA 150 OBR
Patterson, C., 1971. Native copper, silver and gold accessible to early metallurgists. American
Antiquity 36, 286-321.
Pigott, V. and Weisgerber, G. 1998. Mining archaeology in geological context. The prehistoric
copper mining complex at Phu Lon, Nong Khai Province, northeast Thailand, in Th. Rehren, A.
Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua, 135-162. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum:
Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH
Timberlake, S. 2003. Early Mining Research in Britain: The Developments of the Last Ten Years. In
P. Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, 22-42. London: The
British Museum Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7
Timberlake, S. 2003. Excavations on Copa Hill, Cwmystwyth (1986-1999): an early Bronze Age
copper mine within the uplands of Central Wales. (BAR British Series, 348). Oxford: Archaeopress.
INST ARCH DAA Qto Series BRI 348
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 13
SESSION 2: PRACTICAL
STUDYING ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL REMAINS
HANDLING SESSION
In this practical session, we will
review the technical concepts
introduced last week by handling
relevant archaeological materials
such as different metals, minerals,
crucibles and slag. We will also
introduce basic analytical
techniques employed for the
technological study of
archaeometallurgical remains.
The references below are
overviews of the scientific analysis
of archaeometallurgical materials.
You will also find relevant
references in the introductory
reading for this course, with
several papers (and HMS
datasheets) focused on technical
ceramics, ingots, specific kinds of
analyses, etc.
Craddock, P.T. 1989. The scientific investigation of early mining and smelting, in J. Henderson (ed),
Scientific analysis in archaeology, 178-212. Oxford and Los Angeles: Oxford University Committee
for Archaeology and UCLA Institute of Archaeology. INST ARCH AJ HEN; ISSUE DESK IOA HEN 13
Hauptmann, A. 2014. The investigation of archaeometallurgical slag, in W. B. Roberts and C. P.
Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 91-106. New
York: Springer. Online
Henderson, J. 2000. The Science and Archaeology of Materials. An investigation of inorganic
materials. London and New York: Routledge (chapter 5: Metals, pp. 208-296). INST ARCH JDA HEN,
ISSUE DESK IOA HEN 11
Lambert, J. B., 1997. Traces of the Past: Unraveling the Secrets of Archaeology Through Chemisty.
Reading (Mass.): Helix Books and Addison-Wesley (chapter 7: Metals, pp. 168-213). INST ARCH JD
LAM; TEACHING COLL IoA 2413
Scott, D. 1991. Metallography and microstructure of ancient and historic metals. Marina del Rey,
CA: Getty Conservation Institute. INST ARCH KEB Qto SCO, ISSUE DESK IOA SCO 1 and available
online
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 14
SESSION 3: THE INCEPTION OF METALLURGY
Where: Mostly the Balkans. Also broader Europe and Near East
When: Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic
SEMINAR AND PRACTICAL SESSION
Why was metallurgy invented? How and where
did it take place? How many times did this
happen? Just as we are interested in finding out
how metals were made, so do we want to explain
why they were produced in the first instance.
Several explanations have been put forward to
interpret the inception and spread of metallurgy
in different areas of the world. In this session,
some of the main theories will be outlined,
including discussion about the environmental,
social and technical stimuli for metallurgy, and
theories about technological diffusion versus
autonomous developments.
Chernych, E. N. 2002. Some of the most
important aspects and problems of early Metal
Age studying, in M. Bartelheim, E. Pernicka and
R. Krause (eds), The Beginnings of Metallurgy in
the Old World, 25-31. Rahden: Leidorf. INST
ARCH KE Qto BAR
Killick, D. 2001. Science, Speculation and the Origins of Extractive Metallurgy, in D. R. Brothwell and
A. M. Pollard (eds), Handbook of Archaeological Sciences, 483-492. Chichester, New York,
Weinheim, Brisbane, Singapore, Toronto: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. INST ARCH AJ BRO
Ottaway, B. 2001. Innovation, production and specialization in early Prehistoric copper metallurgy.
European Journal of Archaeology 4(1), 87-112. INST ARCH Pers, available online
Radivojevic, M., Rehren, Th., Pernicka, E., Sljivar, D., Brauns, M. and Boric, D. 2010. On the origins
of extractive metallurgy: new evidence from Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science 37, 27752787. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
*Radivojevic, M., Rehren, Th., Kuzmanović-Cvetković, J., Jovanovic, M. and Northover, P. 2013.
Tainted ores and the rise of tin bronzes in Eurasia, c. 6500 years ago. Antiquity 87:1030-1045.
*Roberts, B. W., Thornton, C. P. and Pigott, V. C. 2009. Development of metallurgy in Eurasia.
Antiquity 83(322), 1012-1022. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 15
SESSION 4: COPPER AND BRONZE
Copper smelting. Early crucibles and furnaces. The emergence of alloys and
large-scale metal production and trade.
Where: Mostly Europe, Mediterranean, Near East. With a Chinese case study.
When: Chalcolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age (plus glimpses of later periods)
LECTURE
We will look at the early metallurgy of copper
in the Old World, and the development of
bronze (an alloy of copper and tin). We will
examine a range of case studies illustrating
the industrial production of metals for the
international trade, and archaeological and
analytical approaches to these questions. At a
practical level, we will look at early technical
ceramics such as crucibles, furnaces and
moulds, their technical study and their
informative potential as archaeological
remains.
Some of the main issues and analytical
approaches will be illustrated with case
studies including the trade of metal ingots in
the Mediterranean Bronze Age, and the mass
production of bronze weapons in early
Imperial China.
*Levy, T. E., Adams, R. B., Hauptmann, A., Prange, M., Schmitt-Strecker, S., and Najjar, M. 2002.
Early Bronze Age metallurgy: a newly discovered copper manufactory in southern Jordan. Antiquity
76: 425-437. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
*Martinón-Torres, M., Li, X. J., Bevan, A., Xia, Y., Zhao, K. and Rehren, Th. 2014. Forty thousand
arms for a single Emperor: from chemical data to the labor organization behind the bronze arrows
of the Terracotta Army. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory, 21, 534-562. Online
*Pulak, C., 2000. The copper and tin ingots from the Late Bronze Age shipwreck at Uluburun, in Ü.
Yalcin (ed), Anatolian Metal I, 137-157. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 13). Bochum: Deutsches BergbauMuseum.
Craddock, P. T. 1999. Paradigms of metallurgical innovation in prehistoric Europe. In A. Hauptmann,
E. Pernicka, Th. Rehren and U. Yalcin (eds), The Beginnings of Metallurgy, 175-192. (Der Anschnitt,
Beiheft 9). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto HAU, ISSUE DESK IOA KE Qto
HAU
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 16
Craddock, P. T. 2001. From Hearth to Furnace: Evidences for the Earliest Metal Smelting
Technologies in the Eastern Mediterranean. Paléorient 26/2, 151-165. INST ARCH Pers
Hauptmann, A. 2003. Developments in Copper Metallurgy During the Fourth and Third Millennia
BC at Feinan, Jordan. In P. Craddock and J. Lang (Eds), Mining and Metal Production Through the
Ages, 90-100. London: The British Museum Press. INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7
Hauptmann, A. 2007. The archaeometallurgy of copper: evidence from Faynan, Jordan. Berlin:
Springer. INST ARCH DBE 10 HAU
Kassianidou, V. and Knapp, A. B. 2005. Archaeometallurgy in the Mediterranean: the social context
of mining, technology and trade, in E. Blake and A. B. Knapp (eds), The Archaeology of
Mediterranean Prehistory, Oxford: Blackwell, 215-251. INST ARCH DAG 100 BLA, Issue Desk INST
ARCH BLA 9
Pearce, M. 1998. Reconstructing prehistoric metallurgical knowledge: the Northern Italian Copper
and Bronze Ages. European Journal of Archaeology 1(1), 51-70. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Renfrew, A. C. 1973. Before Civilisation: the Radiocarbon Revolution and Prehistoric Europe.
London: Pimlico. INST ARCH DA 100 REN, ISSUE DESK IOA REN 1
Pigott, V. C. 1999. Reconstructing the copper production process as practised among prehistoric
mining/ metallurgical communities in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley of central Thailand, in S. M.
M. Young, A. M. Pollard, P. Budd, and R. A. Ixer (eds), Metals in Antiquity, 10-21. (BAR International
Series, 792). Oxford: Archaeopress.
INST ARCH KEA Qto YOU
Pigott, V. C. and Ciarla, R. 2007 On the origins of metallurgy in prehistoric Southeast Asia: the view
from Thailand, in La Niece, S., Hook, D.R., and Craddock, P.T. (eds), Metals and Mines - Studies in
Archaeometallurgy, 76-88. London, Archetype, British Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK
IOA LAN 1
Rothenberg, B., 1990, The Ancient Metallurgy of Copper: Archaeology, Experiment, Theory. London:
IAMS and Institute of Archaeology, pp. 8-73. INST ARCH DBE 10 Qto ROT
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 17
SESSION 5:
CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF METAL ARTEFACTS
SEMINAR AND PRACTICAL
A lot of time and resources are spent analysing the chemical composition of archaeological metal
artefacts but… what’s the point? In this practical session, we will introduce some archaeological
questions that can actually be answered through chemical analysis, and discuss some practical
examples of how the data can be processed and presented in order to become meaningful.
In addition, we will be conducting some chemical analyses by ourselves, employing a portable Xray fluorescence spectrometer (XRF), and trying to make archaeological sense of the results.
*Rehren, Th. 2008. Metals: chemical analysis, in D. M. Pearsall (ed), Encyclopedia of Archaeology,
1614-1620. New York: Academic Press. INST ARCH AG PEA
Bray, P. J. and Pollard, A. M. 2013. A new interpretative approach to the chemistry of copper-alloy
objects: source, recycling and technology. Antiquity 86: 853-867.
Bayley, J. and Butcher, S. 2004. Roman Brooches in Britain: A Technological and Typological Study
based on the Richborough Collection. London: The Society of Antiquaries of London.
Dungworth, D. 1997. Roman copper alloys: analysis of artefacts from Northern Britain. Journal of
Archaeological Science 24, 901-910.
Dungworth, D. 1997. Iron Age and Roman Copper Alloys from Northern Britain. Internet
Archaeology 2. http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue2/
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 18
SESSION 6: LEAD AND SILVER
Lead and silver smelting. Cupellation.
Where: Europe and South America
When: Prehistory to modern times
LECTURE
Lead and silver are geologically and metallurgically
closely related, and are hence treated in one joint
session. The vast majority of silver is extracted from
lead ores, and lead often appears as a by-product
of silver smelting. We will discuss the production
and the use of both metals, and find out why they
are typically treated at such different levels in
archaeology. We will also talk about pewter, a tinlead alloy (or, more recently, tin-antimony alloy) of
silvery colour widely used since Roman times.
Following and introduction to the metallurgy of
lead an silver, different case studies will be
presented, including examples from Europe and
South America.
*Craddock, P., 1995, Early Metal Mining and Production, Chapter 5, Lead and silver, 205-233. INST
ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6
*Rehren, Th. 2011. The production of silver in South America. Archaeology International 13/14, 7683.
*Van Buren, M. and Mills, B. H., 2005. Huayrachinas and Tocochimbos: Traditional smelting
technology of the Southern Andes. Latin American Antiquity 16(1), 3-25. INST ARCH Pers
Anguilano, L., Rehren, Th., Muller, W. and Rothenberg, B. 2009. Silver production at Rio Tinto during
Roman occupation, in J-F. Moreau, R. Auger, J. Chabot and A. Herzog (eds), Proceedings of the 36th
International Symposium on Archaeometry, April 2006, Quebec, 433-444. (Les cahiers d'archeologie
du CELAT, 25; Series Archeometrie, 7), Quebec: Universite Laval. INST ARCH AJ MOR
Bayley, J. 2008. Medieval precious metal refining: archaeology and contemporary texts compared,
in M. Martinón-Torres and Th. Rehren (eds), Archaeology, history and science: integrating
approaches to ancient materials, 131-150. (UCL Institute of Archaeology Publications). Walnut
Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. INST ARCH AJ MAR, ISSUE DESK IOA MAR 9
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 19
Bartelheim, M., Contreras Cortés, F., Moreno Onorato, A., Murillo-Barroso, M., and Pernicka, E.
2012. The silver of the South Iberian El Argar Culture: A first look at production and distribution.
Trabajos de Prehistoria 69: 293-309. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Cochet, A. 2000. Le plomb en Gaule romaine: techniques de fabrication et produits.
Montagnac: Monique Mergoil. INST ARCH KEA 4 Qto COC
Cohen, C. R., Rehren, Th. and van Buren, M. 2009. When the wind blows: environmental
adaptability in current day silver production within the Bolivian Andes, in J-F. Moreau, R. Auger, J.
Chabot and A. Herzog (eds), Proceedings of the 36th International Symposium on Archaeometry,
April 2006, Quebec, 465-475. (Les cahiers d'archeologie du CELAT, 25; Series Archeometrie, 7),
Quebec: Universite Laval. INST ARCH AJ MOR
Hunter, F. and Davis, M. 1994. Early Bronze Age lead – a unique necklace from southeast Scotland.
Antiquity 68(261), 824-830. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Martinón-Torres, M., Thomas, N. Rehren, Th. and Mongiatti, A. 2008. Some problems and
potentials of the study of cupellation remains: the case of post-medieval Montbéliard.
ArcheoSciences: Revue d’Archeometrie 32, 59-70. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Murphy, S. and Baldwin, H. 2001. Early lead smelting sites in the Swaledale area of Yorkshire.
Historical Metallurgy 35(1), 1-22. INST ARCH Pers
Kassianidou, V. 1998. Was silver actually recovered from speiss in antiquity? , in Th. Rehren, A.
Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua, 69-76. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum:
Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH
Pernicka, E., Rehren, Th., and Schmitt-Strecker, S. 1998. Late Uruk silver production by cupellation
at Habuba Kabira, Syria, in Th. Rehren, A. Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua,
123-134. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum: Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH
Rehren, Th. and Prange, M. 1998. Lead metal and patina: a comparison, in Th. Rehren, A.
Hauptmann, and J. Muhly (eds), Metallurgica Antiqua, 183-196. (Der Anschnitt Beiheft 8). Bochum:
Deutsches Bergbau-Museum. INST ARCH KE Qto REH
Rehren, Th., Schneider, J. and Bartels, Chr. 1999. Medieval lead-silver smelting in the Siegerland,
West Germany. Historical Metallurgy 33, 73-84. INST ARCH Pers
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 20
SESSION 6b:
SEM ANALYSIS OF ARCHAEOMETALLURGICAL
REMAINS
LAB PRACTICAL
The scanning electron microscope is one of the most
versatile techniques used in archaeology in general, and
archaeometallurgy in particular. This practical session will
take place in small groups at the SEM suite of the Wolfson
Archaeological Science Laboratories (room B4). You will be
introduced to some of the main applications of SEM in
archaeometallurgy, including the study of the
microstructure and composition of slag, crucibles and
metallic artefacts.
The references below are some examples of applications,
but you will find many more examples of SEM uses in the
case studies cited throughout this handbook.
Martinón-Torres, M., Uribe-Villegas, M.A. (2015). The
prehistoric individual, connoisseurship and archaeological
science: The Muisca goldwork of Colombia. Journal of
Archaeological Science, 63 136-155. Online
Radivojevic, M., Rehren, Th., Pernicka, E., Sljivar, D., Brauns,
M. and Boric, D. 2010. On the origins of extractive
metallurgy: new evidence from Europe. Journal of
Archaeological Science 37, 2775-2787. Online
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 21
SESSION 7: IRON AND STEEL
Bloomery iron smelting. Iron smithing. Crucible steel. Cast iron.
Where: Europe, Near East, Central Asia and Africa
When: Late Bronze Age to Industrial Revolution
LECTURE
The advent of iron in the Late Bronze
Age led to the emergence of an
entirely new approach to smelting
metal, where the metal itself is never
liquid, but remains in a solid state
throughout the working cycle. The
technological implications of this are
discussed, together with the social and
economic implications of the much
more widespread availability of iron
ores as compared to copper and tin
ores.
The Roman era saw a tremendous
expansion of iron production, both
within the empire and outside, from
Sudan in the South to Norway in the North, and from Britain in the West to Anatolia in the East. At
the same time, evidence for iron working, i.e. smithing, becomes ubiquitous. During this session,
we will explore the distinguishing features for these two activities, smelting and smithing, and what
the archaeological record tells us about them.
The technical basis of iron smelting remained unchanged for almost two millennia. Only from about
1000 AD onwards do we witness the appearance of a new, and much more productive, smelting
process, resulting first in cast iron which had to be treated further by fining before it could be used
for tools and such like. This indirect process, eventually leading up to the Industrial Revolution, is
discussed in both technical, social and environmental contexts.
*Craddock, P. 1995. Early Metal Mining and Production. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
(chapter 7: Iron and Steel, pp. 234-283). INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 6
*Humphris, J. and Rehren, Th. (eds) 2013. The World of Iron. London: Archetype. INST ARCH KEA 2
Qto HUM
*Pleiner, R. 2000. Iron in Archaeology - The European Bloomery Smelters. Prague: Archeologicky
Ustav AVCR. ISSUE DESK IOA PLE
*Pleiner, R. 2006. Iron in Archaeology - Early European Blacksmiths. Prague: Archeologicky Ustav
AVCR. INST ARCH KEA 2 Qto PLE
Benoit, P. and Fluzin, Ph. (ed) 1995. Paléométallurgie du fer & Cultures. Paris: AEDEH. INST ARCH
KEA Qto BEN
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 22
Biggs, L., Bellina, B., Martinón-Torres, M. and Pryce, O. P. 2013. Prehistoric iron production
technologies in the Upper Thai-Malay Peninsula: metallography and slag inclusion analyses of iron
artefacts from Khao Sam Kaeo and Phu Khao Thong. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences
5(4): 311-329.
Blakelock, E., Martinón-Torres, M., Veldhuijzen, H.A. and Young, T. 2009. Slag inclusions in iron
objects and the quest for provenance: an experiment and a case study. Journal of Archaeological
Science 36, 1745-1757. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Charlton, M. F., P. Crew, Th. Rehren, and S. Shennan, 2010. Explaining the evolution of ironmaking
recipes—An example from northwest Wales. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 29, 352-367.
Charlton, M. F., Blakelock, E., Martinón-Torres, M. and Young, T. 2012. Investigating the production
provenance of iron artifacts with multivariate methods. Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 22802293. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Buchwald, V. F. 2005. Iron and steel in ancient times. Copenhagen: Det Kongelige Danske
Videnskabernes Selskab. INST ARCH KEA 2 BUC
Crossley, D. 1996. The blast furnace at Rockley, South Yorkshire. Archaeological Journal 152, 291380. INST ARCH Pers
Gassmann, G. 2002. Recent discoveries and excavations of 6th-2nd century BC furnaces in SW
Germany. Historical Metallurgy 36(2), 71-77. INST ARCH Pers
Hayman, R. 2005. Ironmaking. The history and archaeology of the iron industry. London: Tempus.
INST ARHC KEA 2 HAY
Paynter, S., Blakelock, E. and Belford, P. 2014 (eds). Iron and Ironworking. Historical Metallurgy 48.
INST ARCH Pers.
Joosten, I. 2004. Technology of Early Historical Iron Production in the Netherlands.
(Geoarchaeological and Bioarchaeological Studies 2). Amsterdam: Vrije Universiteit. INST ARCH
DAHB Qto JOO
Nørbach, L. C. (ed) 2003. Prehistoric and Medieval Direct Iron Smelting in Scandinavia and Europe.
Aspects of Technology and Science. Aarhus: Aarhus University Press. INST ARCH KEA 2 NOB
Rehren, T., Belgya, T., Jambon, A., Kali, G., Kastovszky, Z., Kis, Z., Kovács, I., Maróti, B., MartinónTorres, M., Miniaci, G., Pigott, P., Radivojević, M., Szentmiklósi, L., Szökefalvi-Nagy, Z.2013. 5,000
years old Egyptian iron beads made from hammered meteoritic iron. Journal of Archaeological
Science 40(12), 4785–4792. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Rostoker, W. and Bronson, B. 1990. Pre-Industrial Iron – Its Technology and Ethnology
(Archeomaterials monograph 1). Philadelphia: Archeomaterials. ISSUE DESK IOA ROS 3, INST ARCH
KEA 2 ROS
Rovira, S., Lopez-Medina, M. J., Roman-Diaz, M. P. and Martinez-Padillar, C. 2004. Los Callejones: a
Roman Republican iron mining and smelting centre in the south east of the Iberian Peninsula.
Historical Metallurgy 38(1), 1-9. INST ARCH Pers
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 23
Sim, D. 1998. Beyond the Bloom - Bloom refining and iron artifact production in the Roman world.
(BAR International Series 725). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH KE Qto SIM
Starley, D. 1999. Determining the technological origins of iron and steel. Journal of Archaeological
Science 26, 1127-1134. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Tylecote, R. 1987. The early history of metallurgy in Europe. London and New York: Longman
(chapter 7: Forging and hammering techniques, pp. 243-279). ANCIENT HISTORY A 68 TYL, ISSUE
DESK IOA TYL 2
Veldhuijzen, H.A. and Rehren, Th. 2007. Slags and the city: early iron production at Tell Hammeh,
Jordan and Tell Beth-Shemesh, Israel, in: La Niece, S., Hook, D.R., and Craddock, P.T. (eds) Metals
and Mines - Studies in Archaeometallurgy, 189-201. London, Archetype, British Museum. INST ARCH
KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK IOA LAN 1
Waldbaum, J. 1999. The coming of iron in the eastern Mediterranean, in V. Pigott (ed),
Archaeometallurgy of the Asian Old World, 27-57. (University Museum Monograph). INST ARCH
KEA PIG
Wagner, D. B. 2003. Chinese blast furnaces from the 10th to the 14th century. Historical Metallurgy
37(1), 25-37. INST ARCH Pers
Wertime, T. A. and Muhly, J. D. (eds) 1980. The coming of the Age of Iron. New Haven and London:
Yale University Press. INST ARCH KEA 2 WER; Issue Desk INST ARCH KEA 2 WER
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 24
SESSION 8:
METALLURGY, ETHNOGRAPHY AND RITUAL
SEMINAR AND FILM SESSION
The archaeological and ethnographic record of Sub-Saharan Africa offers an extraordinary
demonstration of how metallurgical technologies are adapted to changing environmental and
cultural contexts. In spite of the technical constraints, there is scope for substantial cultural
variation, as documented across the continent in the multiplicity of furnace shapes and sizes, and
the variety of rituals, taboos and beliefs associated to metal smelting and and artefact manufacture
in different contexts.
This session will start with an overview and some selected case studies of African
archaeometallurgy.
We will then watch the video Inagina: The Last House of Iron, which records the practical activities
of a group of iron smelters working in Mali, and demonstrates how the building of the furnaces and
the work involved in the actual smelting and smithing are deeply entwined with ritual, symbolism
and gender. This video should prompt some interesting discussion about the the tensions between
culture and nature in metallurgical technologies, as well as the advantages and risks of using
ethnographic parallels when interpreting archaeometallurgical data.
*Iles, L. and Childs, S. T. 2014. Ethnoarchaeological and historical methods, in W. B. Roberts and C.
P. Thornton (eds). Archaeometallurgy in Global Perspective: Methods and Syntheses, 193-216. New
York: Springer. Online
*Killick, D. 2009. Cairo to Cape: the spread of metallurgy through eastern and southern Africa.
Journal of World Prehistory 22(4). 399-414. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 25
*Rehren, Th, Charlton, M, Chirikure, S, Humphris, J, Ige, A. and Veldhuijzen H.A. 2007 Decisions set
in slag: the human factor in African iron smelting, in S. La Niece, D. R. Hook, and P. T. Craddock (eds)
Metals and Mines - Studies in Archaeometallurgy, 211-218, London, Archetype, British Museum.
INST ARCH KE Qto LAN, ISSUE DESK IOA LAN 1, and online
Bisson, M. S. et al. (eds) 2000. Ancient African Metallurgy: The Sociocultural Context. Oxford:
Altamira Press. INST ARCH DC 100 BIS
Chirikure, S. and Rehren, Th. 2004: Ores, furnaces, slags, and prehistoric societies: aspects of iron
working in the Nyanga Agricultural Complex, AD 1300-1900. African Archaeological Review 21, 135152. INST ARCH Pers
Herbert, E. W. 1984. Red gold of Africa: copper in precolonial history and culture. Madison:
University of Wisconsin Press.
Humphris, J., Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. and Reid, A. 2009. Variability in single smelting
episodes - a pilot study using slag from Uganda. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 359-369. INST
ARCH Pers, and available online
Iles, L. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2009. Pastoralist iron production in the Laikipia Plateau, Kenya:
wider implications for archaeometallurgical studies. Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 23142326. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Killick, D. 2004. What do we know about African iron working? Journal of African Archaeology 2(1):
97-112. INST ARCH Pers
Miller, D. 1994. Early metal working in sub-Saharan Africa: A review of recent research. Journal of
African History 35, 1-36. ANTHROPOLOGY Pers
MacDonald, K.C., Vernet, R., Martinón-Torres, M. and Fuller, D. Q. 2009. Dhar Nema: from early
agriculture to metallurgy in southeastern Mauritania. Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa
44(1), 3-48. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
Schmidt, P. R. 1997. Iron technology in East Africa: symbolism, science, and archaeology.
Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press; Oxford: James Currey. INST ARCH DCD SCH
Thondhlana, T. P. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2009. Small size, high value. Composition and
manufacture of copper-base beads from Second Millennium AD northern Zimbabwe. Journal of
African Archaeology 7(1), 79-97. INST arch Pers, and available online
Woodhouse, J. 1998. Iron in Africa: the metal from nowhere, in G. Connah (ed) Transformations in
Africa: essays on Africa’s later past, 160-185. London: Leicester University Press. INST ARCH DC 200
CON, INST ARCH DC 100 CON, ISSUE DESK IOA CON 8
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 26
SESSION 9: ALCHEMY AND METALLURGY
Distillation and cementation. Lab-scale metallurgy. Alchemical laboratories.
Where: Europe, Near East, India, China
When: Roman times to present day (plus earlier glimpses)
LECTURE
Historians of science have tended to disregard
historical alchemy as a pseudoscientific waste
of time that has more to do with ambition and
fraud than actual metallurgy and chemistry.
While this is certainly the case for present-day
alchemy, a focus on archaeological remains
shows that alchemists contributed greatly to
advances in metallurgy and chemistry, and that
we should not regard them as social outcasts.
In this session, we will cover some selected
case studies of the archaeology of alchemy,
with particular emphasis on the metallurgical
dimensions of their quest. We will talk about
silver and gold but also about brass, and about
the challenges of reconstructing changing
ideas based on the study of material remains of
practical activities.
*Craddock, P. (ed). 1998. 2000 years of zinc
and brass. (BMOP 50, 2nd edition). London:
British Museum. (Read any chapter of your
choice)
INST ARCH KEA 5 CRA, INST ARCH KEA 5 Qto CRA
*Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2005. Alchemy, chemistry and metallurgy in Renaissance
Europe. A wider context for fire assay remains. Historical Metallurgy 39(1), 14-31. INST ARCH Pers,
and available online
Craddock, P. and Eckstein, K. 2003. Production of brass in Antiquity by direct reduction. In P.
Craddock and J. Lang (eds), Mining and Metal Production Through the Ages, 216-230. London: The
British Museum Press.
INST ARCH KE CRA, ISSUE DESK IOA CRA 7
Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2002. Agricola and Zwickau: theory and practice of
Renaissance brass production in SE Germany. Historical Metallurgy 36, 95-111. INST ARCH Pers
Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2009. Post-medieval crucible production and distribution: a
study of materials and materialities. Archaeometry, 51(1), 49-74. INST ARCH Pers, and available
online
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 27
Martinon-Torres, M. (2012). The archaeology and alchemy and chemistry in the early modern
world: an afterthought. Archaeology International, 15 33-36. Online.
Martinón-Torres, M. 2012. Inside Solomon’s House: An Archaeological Study of the Old Ashmolean
Chymical Laboratory in Oxford. Ambix 59/1, 22-48
Martinón-Torres, M., Rehren, Th. and von Osten, S. 2003. A 16th century lab in a 21st century lab:
archaeometric study of the laboratory equipment from Oberstockstall (Kirchberg am Wagram,
Austria). Antiquity 77(298). Available online
Ponting, M. J. 2002. Keeping up with the Romans? Romanisation and Copper Alloys in First Revolt
Palestine. IAMS 22, 3-6. INST ARCH Pers
Rehren, Th. 1996. Alchemy and fire assay – an analytical approach. Historical Metallurgy 30, 136142. INST ARCH KEA Qto YOU
Rehren, Th. 1999. The same… but different: A juxtaposition of Roman and Medieval brass making
in Central Europe. In S. Young et al. (eds.), Metals in Antiquity, 252-257. (BAR International Series,
792). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH KEA Qto YOU
Rehren, Th. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2008. Naturam ars imitata: European brassmaking between
craft and science, in M. Martinón-Torres and Th. Rehren (eds), Archaeology, History and Science:
Integrating Approaches to Ancient Materials, 167-188. (UCL Institute of Archaeology Publications).
Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. INST ARCH AJ MAR, ISSUE DESK IOA MAR 9
Zacharias, S. 1989. Brass making in medieval western Europe. In M. L. Wayman (ed), All That
Glitters: Reasings in Historical Metallurgy, 35-40. Montreal: The Metallurgical Society of the
Canadian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy. INST ARCH KEA WAY, INST ARCH TYLECOTE WAY
Zhou, W., Martinón-Torres, M., Chen, J., Liu, H. and Li, Y. 2012. Distilling zinc for the Ming Dynasty:
the technology of large scale zinc production in Fengdu, southwest China. Journal of Archaeological
Science, Journal of Archaeological Science 39, 908-921. Available online
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 28
SESSION 10: GOLD
The value and properties of gold. Coinage. Gold alloys and gilding techniques
Where: Mediterranean, Central Europe and (mostly) America
When: Pre- and Post-Columbian
LECTURE
The metallurgy of America developed
independently from European and Asian
influences. Thus, a number of characteristic
differences is discussed, trying to explain
them from their social and environmental
context. Given the importance of gold and
gold alloys in South American metallurgy, this
session will also address some general issues
related to this metal.
Against this background, we will then look at
the crucial role played by metals in the
relationship
beween
Europeans
and
indigenous peoples during the contact period
in the Caribbean, and how metals illustrate
completely different perceptions of matter
and value systems.
*La Niece, S. and Meeks, N. 2000. Diversity of Goldsmithing Traditions in the Americas and the Old
World, in C McEwan (ed), Precolumbian Gold. Technology, Style and Iconography, 220-239. London:
British Museum Press. INST ARCH DF 300 MCE
*Martinón-Torres, M., Valcárcel Rojas, R., Cooper, J. and Rehren, Th. 2007. Metals, microanalysis
and meaning: a study of metal objects excavated from the indigenous cemetery of El Chorro de
Maíta, Cuba. Journal of Archaeological Science, 34, 194-204. INST ARCH Pers, and available online
La Niece, S. and Craddock, P. T. 1993 (eds). Metal plating and patination: cultural, technical and
historical developments. Oxford, Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Lechtman, H., 1973, The gilding of metals in pre-Columbian Peru. In: W. Young (ed.) Application of
Science in Examination of Works of Art, 38-52. Boston: Museum of Fine Arts. INST ARCH K BOS
Lechtman, H N, 1984. Pre-Columbian Surface Metallurgy. Scientific American, 250(6), 56-63.
PHYSICAL SCIENCE Pers, GEOSCIENCE Pers
Leusch, V. Armbruster, B., Pernicka, E. and Slavcev, V. 2015. On the invention of gold metallurgy:
the gold objects from the Varna I Cemetery (Bulgaria) – Technological consequence and inventive
creativity. Cambridge Archaeological Journal 25/1, 353-376. Online.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 29
Lleras-Pérez, R. 1999. Prehispanic metallurgy and votive offerings in the Eastern Cordillera
Colombia. (BAR International Series 778). Oxford: Archaeopress. INST ARCH DGA Qto LLE
Martinón-Torres, M. and Rehren, Th. 2007. Trials and errors in search of mineral wealth:
metallurgical experiments in early colonial Jamestown. Rittenhouse: the Journal of the American
Scientific Instrument Enterprise 21: 82-97.
Martinón-Torres, M., Cooper, J., Valcárcel Rojas, R. and Rehren, Th. 2008. Diversifying the picture:
Indigenous responses to European arrival in Cuba. Archaeology International 10, 37-40. INST ARCH
Pers, and available online
Martinón-Torres, M., Valcarcel Rojas, R., Guerra, M. F. and Saenz Samper, J. 2012 Metallic
encounters in Cuba: the technology, exchange and meaning of metals before and after Columbus.
Journal of Anthropological Archaeology, 31/4, 439-454. INST ARCH Pers, and available online.
McEwan, C. (ed) 2000. Precolumbian Gold: Technology, Style and Iconography. London: British
Museum Press. INST ARCH DF 300 MCE
Ramage, A. & Craddock, P. (eds) 2000. King Croesus’ Gold – Excavation at Sardis and the History of
Gold Refining. London: British Museum Press. INST ARCH DBC 10 RAM
Schrimptff, M. C. (ed) 2005. Calima and Malagana. Art and Archaeology in Southwestern Colombia.
Bogotá: Pro Calima Foundation. INST ARCH DGA CAR
Uribe Villegas, M. A. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2012. Composition, colour and context in Muisca
votive metalwork (Colombia, AD 600-1800). Antiquity 86 (333), 772–791. INST ARCH Pers, and
available online
Williams, D. and Ogden, J. 1994. Greek Gold: Jewelry of the Classical World. New York: Abrams.
YATES QUARTOS T 50 WIL, YATES T 50 WIL
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 30
BRITISH MUSEUM VISIT
Date to be confirmed
We will organise a visit to selected rooms of the British Museum, with a focus on
archaeometallurgical remains. The specific rooms will be decided based on the students’ interests.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 31
ASSESSMENT
Assessment of the course is by one essay of 1425-1575 words (50% of final mark), and a 4-6 minute
documentary video or an A3 academic poster (50% of final mark). The essay is due on 4 March,
and the video on 25 April.
ASSESSMENT 1: STANDARD ESSAY
Essay topics are negotiable, and students are encouraged to suggest their own. What follows is a
list of possible general topics, with some introductory reading (in addition to that given for relevant
lectures), but you will be expected to carry out further bibliographic research. Essays may
concentrate on specific aspects of these topics, or on completely different ones, by prior discussion
with the course co-ordinator. In all cases, it is expected that students will combine their own ideas
with reference to published case studies.
Please make sure that your essay is well-structured (including subheadings), and try to show some
originality or insight: having done your literature review… where do we go from here? what are the
main questions remaining? who do you agree or disagree with, and why?
Discuss the technological choice and use of different alloys in Andean South America (or any
other period or area of your choice, by previous discussion with course co-ordinator).
Lechtman, H. 1988. Traditions and Styles in Central Andean Metalworking, in R. Maddin (ed), The
Beginning of the Use of Metals and Alloys, 344-378. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Lechtman, H. 1993. Technologies of Power: The Andean Case, in J. S. Hendrson and P. J. Netherly
(eds), Configurations of Power in Complex Society, 244-280. Ithaca: Cornell University
Press.
Shimada, I, Gordus, A, Griffin, J A, and Merkel, J F, 1999, Sicán alloying, working and use of precious
metals: an interdisciplinary perspective, in S M M Young, A M Pollard, P Budd and R A Ixier
(eds.), Metals in Antiquity, 301-309. (BAR – International Series, 792). Oxford:
Archaeopress.
Uribe Villegas, M. A. and Martinón-Torres, M. 2012. Composition, colour and context in Muisca
votive metalwork (Colombia, AD 600-1800). Antiquity 86 (333), 772–791.
What’s the point of studying ethnographic remains of metallurgical activities? Discuss potentials
and risks, by making reference to specific case studies
Killick, D. 1991. The relevance of recent iron-smelting practice to reconstructions of prehistoric
smelting technology, in P. D. Glumac (ed), Recent Trends in Archaeometallurgical
Research, 47-54. (MASCA Research Papers in Science and Archaeology, 8/1). Philadelphia:
University Museum.
Killick, D. 1995. Variation in African iron-smelting practice: implications for the study of Prehistoric
iron technology in Europe, in P. Benoit and Ph. Fluzin (eds), Paleométallurgie du Fer &
Cultures. Belfort: AEDEH.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 32
Van Buren, M. and Mills, B. H., 2005. Huayrachinas and Tocochimbos: Traditional smelting
technology of the Southern Andes. Latin American Antiquity 16(1), 3-25.
With reference to case studies, discuss the potentials, achievements and limitations of
experimental archaeometallurgy
Bareham, T. 1994. Bronze casting experiments. Historical Metallurgy 28 (2), 112-116.
Crew, P. 1991. The experimental production of prehistoric bar iron. Historical Metallurgy 25, 21-36.
Dungworth, D. and Doonan, R. C. P. 2013. Accidental and Experimental Archaeometallurgy. HMS
Occasional Publication 7.
Ottaway, B. S. and Wang, Q. 2004. Casting Experiments and Microstructure of Archaeologically
Relevant Bronzes. (BAR International Series 1331). Oxford: Archaeopress.
Pryce, T.O., Bassiakos, Y., Catapotis, M. and Doonan, R. C. 2007/ “De Caerimoniae”: technological
decisions in copper smelting furnace design at early bronze age Chrysokamino, Crete.
Archaeometry 49(3), 543–557.
How can archaeometallurgy benefit from the application of modern analytical techniques? (you
may choose to focus either on the study of metallurgical debris or on metallic artefacts, and you
must refer to case studies different from those cited in this introductory reading)
Craddock, P. T. 1989. The scientific investigation of early mining and metallurgy, in J. Henderson
(ed), Scientific Analysis in Archaeology and its Interpretation, 178-212. (Monograph 19;
Archaeological Research Tools 5). Oxford and Los Angeles: Oxford University Committee
for Archaeology and UCL Institute of Archaeology.
Henderson, J. 2000. The Science and Archaeology of Materials. An investigation of inorganic
materials. London and New York: Routledge (chapter 5: Metals, pp. 208-296).
Lambert, J. B., 1997. Traces of the Past: Unravelling the Secrets of Archaeology Through Chemistry.
Reading (Mass.): Helix Books and Addison-Wesley (chapter 7: Metals, pp. 168-213)
What are the social implications of the inception and spread of metallurgy? Discuss, with
reference to any area of your choice.
Shennan, S. 1999. Cost, benefit and value in the organization of early European copper production,
Antiquity, 73, 352-363.
Matthews, R. and Fazeli, H. 2004. Copper and complexity: Iran and Mesopotamia in the fourth
millennium B.C. Iran. Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 42, 61-75.
Diaz-Andreu, M. and Montero, I. 2000. Metallurgy and social dynamics in the later prehistory of
Mediterranean Spain, in C. F. E. Pare (ed), Metals Make the World Go Round. The Supply
and Circulation of Metals in Bronze Age Europe, 116-132. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
Mei, J. 2009. Early metallurgy in China: some challenging issues in current studies, in J. Mei and Th.
Rehren (eds), Metallurgy and Civilisation: Eurasia and Beyond, 9-16. London: Archetype
The origins of metallurgy in Africa: invention or diffusion? (you can focus on other regions, such
as Britain or China)
Alpern, S. 2005. Did they or didn’t they invent it? Iron in Sub-Saharan Africa. History in Africa 32:
41-94.
Holl, A. F. C. 2009. Early West African Metallurgies: New Data and Old Orthodoxy. Journal of
World Prehistory 22 (4), 415-438.
Killick, D. 2009. Cairo to Cape: the spread of metallurgy through eastern and southern Africa.
Journal of World Prehistory 22(4), 399-414.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 33
Why do we know so little about the origin of the Bronze Age tin? What is the current evidence
and argument?
Begemann, F., Kallas, K., Schmitt-Strecker, S., and Pernicka, E. 1999. Tracing tin via isotope analyses.
In: A. Hauptmann et al. (eds), The Beginnings of Metallurgy, 277-284. (Der Anschnitt,
Beiheft 9).
Giuimlia-Mair, A. and Lo Schiavo, F. (eds) 2003. The Problem of Early Tin (BAR International Series
1199). Oxford: Archaeopress
Haustein, M., Gillis, C., and Pernicka, E. 2010. Tin isotopy – a new method for solving old questions.
Archaeometry 52/5, 816-832.
Yener, K. A. 2000. The Domestication of Metals: The Rise of Complex Metal Industries in Anatolia (c.
4500-2000 B.C.).Amsterdam: E.J. Brill.
What can we learn from the analysis of gold artefacts?
Guerra, M. F., Calligaro, Th., and Perea, A. 2007. The treasure of Guarrazar: tracing the gold supplies
in the Visigothic Iberian Peninsula. Archaeometry 49(1), 53-74.
Martinón-Torres, M., Uribe-Villegas, M.A. (2015). The prehistoric individual, connoisseurship and
archaeological science: The Muisca goldwork of Colombia. Journal of Archaeological
Science, 63 136-155. Online
McEwan, C. (ed) 2000. Precolumbian Gold: Technology, Style and Iconography. London: British
Museum Press.
Williams, D. and Ogden, J. 1994. Greek Gold: Jewelry of the Classical World. New York: Abrams.
Is it possible to provenance iron objects to their source of origin?
Blakelock, E., Martinón-Torres, M., Veldhuijzen, H.A. and Young, T. 2009. Slag inclusions in iron
objects and the quest for provenance: an experiment and a case study. Journal of
Archaeological Science 36, 1745-1757.
Coustures, M.P., Béziat, D., Tollon, F., Domergue, C., Long, L., Rebiscoul, A., 2003. The use of trace
element analysis of entrapped slag inclusions to establish ore - Bar Iron links: Examples
from two Gallo-Roman ironworking sites in France (Les Martys, Montagne Noire and Les
Ferrys, Loiret). Archaeometry 45, 599-613.
Desaulty, A-M., Dillmann, P., L’Heritier, M., Mariet, C., Gratuze, B., Joron, J-L. and Fluzin, P. 2009.
Does it come from the Pays de Bray? Examination of an origin hypothesis for the ferrous
reinforcements used in French medieval churches using major and trace element analyses.
Journal of Archaeological Science 36, 2445-2462.
Høst-Madsen, L. and Buchwald, V.F., 1999. The characterization and provenancing of ore, slag and
iron from the Iron Age settlements at Snorup. Historical Metallurgy 33, 57-67.
Schwab, R., Heger, D., Hoppner, B. and Pernicka, E. 2006. The provenance of iron artefacts from
Manching: a multi-technique approach. Archaeometry 48, 433-452.
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 34
ASSESSMENT 2: A DOCUMENTARY VIDEO
Are you ready to make history? For the first time in the history of UCL (believe it or not!), we are
asking all the students in a course to submit videos as a form of course assessment. The rationale
behind this is the hope that this will help you develop your digital literacy, expand your transferable
skills, and prompt you to engage with a different type of audience (namely, the public, i.e. the main
owners of the heritage we study).
Your task will be to create a 4-6 minute documentary video on any archaeometallurgical topic of
your choice, aimed at general, educated but non-specialist audiences. I would normally expect
you to select a metal object, artefact type, relevant collection, metallurgical process or site that is
somehow accessible to you (e.g. at the Institute’s collections, London museums, etc) and build your
story around that. Having said this, you may wish to take a different angle (but you should discuss
this with me). The only prerequisite is that the video contains educational, factual, accurate
information relevant to this course – but obviously this should not curtail creativity and originality.
For many of you, this may be the first time you make a video, from storyboarding through shooting
and up to post-production, but we don’t want you to feel overwhelmed by the technicalities.
Instead, we would like to turn this into an opportunity for you to learn new skills. For this purpose,
we have created two model videos and extended guidance to take you through the various steps.
This is in the form of a tutorial wiki that you can access from Moodle (and which you are welcome
to contribute to!) or directly from UCL Confluence. In addition, I will be available throughout the
term to provide individual support as needed.
Making documentary videos (a basic tutorial):
https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/pages/viewpage.action?pageId=36285513
Further tips on audio and video:
https://wiki.ucl.ac.uk/display/UCLELearning/Audio+and+video
Submission and assessment
You are strongly encouraged (though not obliged) to upload your video to a website where anyone
can watch it, such as Youtube, Vimeo, or your own blog page. In addition, you should submit it as a
CD or memory stick, together with a relevant cover sheet, stapled to a ca. 200 word abstract for
your video and a list of sources employed (including publications, interviews, etc.). I would be
grateful if you could also add a ca. 500 word evaluation of your own experience making the video
(expectations, challenges, skills learned, overall experience…) – but this will not be formally
assessed.
Please also indicate if you agree to your video being uploaded to Youtube or similar after the
course has ended. This is not compulsory, but we would like to publish them online in order to help
democratise access to knowledge.
You do not need to submit the video to Turnitin. I will confirm later on whether or not you need
to submit anonymously. The marking criteria for this assignment are detailed in the special
coversheet that is available via Moodle. In general, the video assessment will cover the following
aspects (though not all of them have equal weight)


Content: breadth and depth of research, clarity of information
Technical quality: organisation of the material, quality visuals and sound
ARCL3001 Archaeometallurgy - 35






Educational objectives: clarity of the educational aim, and coherence
Planning and presentation of the research
Visual interpretation and originality
Creativity and impact on viewer
Overall communication
Credits and references
The credits of your film should include the following statement: “This educational film is an
unrevised version submitted by XXXXX for assessment at the undergraduate Archaeometallurgy
course at the UCL Institute of Archaeology, 2016”
ARCL3001 ARCHAEOMETALLURGY
SCHEDULE
Week
1
Date
11 Jan
Topic
Introduction. Technical background
Mondays in B13. Time:
2-4
2
18 Jan
Studying archaeometallurgical
remains: handling session
2-4 (G1, G2), 4-6 (G3, G4)
3
25 Jan
The inception of metallurgy
2-4
4
1 Feb
Copper and bronze
2-4
5
8 Feb
Chemical analysis of metal artefacts:
theory and practice
2-4 (G3, G4), 4-6 (G2, G1)
15-19
Feb
Reading week - no lectures
6
22 Feb
Lead and silver
SEM analysis of archaeometallurgical
remains
2-4 (G1, G2), 4-6 (G3, G4)
2-3 (G3), 3-4 (G4), 4-5 (G1), 5-6 (G2)
(meet outside SEM lab in B4)
7
29 Feb
Iron and steel
2-4
8
7 Mar
Metallurgy, ethnography and ritual
2-4
9
14 Mar
Alchemy and metallurgy
2-4
10
21 Mar
Gold
2-4
tbc
British Museum visit
DEADLINES
Friday 4 March – Essay deadline
Monday 25 April – Video deadline
Co-ordinator
Marcos Martinón-Torres m.martinon-torres@ucl.ac.uk
Turnitin Class ID: 2970179 – Password IoA1516