UNITED NATIONS
NATIONS UNIES
UNITED NATIONS MONITORING, VERIFICATION AND INSPECTION COMMISSION
(UNMOVIC)
Compendium
The Chemical Weapons Programme
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER III.I
INITIATION OF IRAQ’S CHEMICAL WEAPONS
ACTIVITIES
CHAPTER III.II
FOUNDATION OF THE LARGE-SCALE MILITARY CW
PROGRAMME
CHAPTER III.III
RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL AGENTS
CHAPTER III.IV
CS PRODUCTION
CHAPTER III.V
MUSTARD PRODUCTION
CHAPTER III.VI
TABUN PRODUCTION
CHAPTER III.VII SARIN AND CYCLOSARIN PRODUCTION
CHAPTER III.VIII VX PRODUCTION
CHAPTER III.IX
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF IRAQ’S CW
PROGRAMME
CHAPTER III.X
CHEMICAL WEAPONS
CHAPTER III.XI
DESTRUCTION OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS AND
RELATED ITEMS
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CHAPTER III.I
CHAPTER III.I
INITIATION OF IRAQ’S CHEMICAL WEAPONS ACTIVITIES
Prerequisites for the chemical weapons programme (1964 – 1970) 1
Iraq ratified the 1925 Geneva Protocol on the Prohibition of the Use in War of
Asphyxiating, Poisonous or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare in
1931. In 1972, Iraq signed the Convention on the Prohibition of the Development,
Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on
their Destruction (BWC). However, Iraq only ratified this treaty in June 1991, following
the 1991 Gulf War and the adoption of Security Council resolution 687 (1991).
The Chemical Corps was formed within Iraq’s Armed Forces in the 1960s. Its task was to
provide for the nuclear, biological and chemical (NBC) protection of troops. A number of
Iraqi Chemical Corps officers were educated or trained in foreign military institutions
specializing in NBC defence (in both western and eastern foreign military
establishments). The teaching included the properties of chemical and biological warfare
agents, their medical effects, and identification and detection methods. Usage of
individual and collective protective and decontamination equipment, and appropriate
prophylactic measures were also covered.
With minor adjustments, Iraq’s Chemical Corps adopted foreign field manuals on NBC
defence and acquired relevant equipment and materials, from abroad including individual
protective equipment, portable field laboratories and decontamination stations. The
Chemical Corps further introduced NBC training procedures for all other units within
Iraq’s Armed Forces. Such military training involved the use of CW agent simulants in
field exercises. By the end of the 1960s, the Iraqi Chemical Corps had gained some
general knowledge in this field. This general CW knowledge provided a valuable
foundation when Iraq later embarked on an offensive CW capability.
Practical familiarization with chemical warfare agents (1971-1973)
The general knowledge of chemical warfare obtained by Iraqi NBC officers did not cover
practical experience in the handling of live CW agents, neither did it comprise specific
information on how CW agents could be produced and weaponized.
In 1971, to gain such knowledge, Iraq’s Chemical Corps established a chemical
laboratory complex at a site called Al Rashad village in the Northern-East suburbs of
Baghdad. This laboratory was set up to obtain experience in the synthesis of some
chemical warfare agents and the evaluation of their properties. In the period from 1971 to
1973, some laboratory quantities of CW agents, mustard, tabun and CS (a riot control
1
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter I and Addendum; Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter I and
Addendum
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CHAPTER III.I
agent), were synthesized at Al Rashad. The laboratory was staffed by Chemical Corps
officers. By the end of 1973, it consisted of four sections that worked with nerve agents,
blister agents, irritants and defoliants.
Laboratory work with live CW agents constituted a formative step in the training of a
national cadre for more focused future CW research and production. In addition, initial
synthetic work was required to allow personnel to become more familiar with published
synthetic procedures for CW agents. At this time, Iraq also established its first analytical
capabilities to be able to identify CW agents synthesized and evaluate their properties.
Micro quantities of very pure (more than 99%) CW agents were also required as
reference standards for the calibration of analytical instruments. It is unknown whether
Iraq received any samples of CW agents from abroad in the 1970’s.
Comment
NBC defence is a legitimate area of military activity aimed at protecting troops and
civilian populations from potential nuclear, biological and chemical threats. There was
nothing unusual in Iraq’s efforts during that period. Iraq followed the pattern that many
other countries applied, sending their cadres for studies and buying materials from big
players in the WMD and NBC Defence areas. On the other hand, this step was necessary
to launch later a full scale CW programme.
There is little information available on the extent of CW-related activities at Al Rashad
laboratory, since no documents or other evidence relating to its operations remain. In
general, the synthesis of CW agents at a laboratory scale should not necessarily be
interpreted as an initiation of the offensive CW programme. Small quantities of CW
agents might also be required for legitimate goals of chemical defence, such as the
calibration of detection instruments and testing of individual protective equipment. It is
unknown which side of the dividing line the Al Rashad laboratories stood at the earlier
years of its functioning, given the data available. It is, however, known through Iraq’s
declarations that at the end of its existence during the period 1981-1982 Al Rashad
facility was capable of producing up to few hundred kg of sulphur mustard per day,
which were consumed in the battlefield during Iran-Iraq war.
Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute (1974-1978)
Iraq declared that, in 1974 the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute was created by a
Governmental decree to conduct scientific, academic and applied research in the fields of
chemistry, physics and micro-organisms.2 The new organization was attached to the
Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, but in practice it was affiliated to
the State Security Apparatus. The Institute received sufficient funding from the
government. Its board of directors consisted of representatives from various
governmental ministries and agencies, including the Chemical Corps.
2
UNSCOM inquiries and Iraq’s explanations on the matter are included in UNSCOM 193 Inspection
Report and Biological TEM of March 1998.
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CHAPTER III.I
Chemical activities at Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute3
In response to rising military threats from the outside, Iraq declared that the objectives of
the Institute in the chemical area included research on CW agent synthesis, development
of production technology, development and acquisition of the equipment necessary to
proceed with pilot-scale CW agent production. The Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute
was organized into three Centres and a separate headquarters, and the laboratories
associated with these Centres were at different locations around the Baghdad area. The
Institute’s First Centre was responsible for CW-related activities. In 1974, it took over the
site at Al Rashad village, which was previously operated by the Chemical Corps.
Although no records from the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute remain on its chemical
activities, the following was established on the basis of declarations provided by Iraq and
from interviews with Iraqi scientists. 4
Work at the First Centre of Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute began with the upgrading
of four chemical synthesis laboratories, the construction of an additional analytical
laboratory, the foundation of a mechanical workshop and other support structures, the
procurement of laboratory equipment and analytical instruments and the acquisition of a
scientific reference library. In addition, this facility procured laboratory quantities of raw
materials for the synthesis of CW agents.
The four chemical synthesis laboratories were equipped with fume hoods and laboratory
glassware. In 1975, Al Rashad acquired several rotary evaporation units (500 ml each).
Priority was given to the establishment of an analytical laboratory for Al Hazen Ibn Al
Haitham. Experience from the Al Rashad laboratory from 1971 to 1973 had demonstrated
that optimisation of chemical agent production could only be achieved if some chemical
analysis capability was present. Instrumentation was needed to identify the materials
synthesized, determine their purity, reaction yields and to identify the composition of
other mixture components. Instrumentation was also necessary for quality control of
related precursor chemicals. The analytical data provided by these instruments and
techniques gave essential information on the kinetics of chemical reactions so as to
enable an adjustment of synthetic procedures to obtain better quality final products.
Subsequently, several analytical instruments were procured and installed in the
laboratory, including ultra violet (UV) and infra-red (IR) spectroscopy, gas
chromatography (GC) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instruments.
3
4
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter I
UNSCOM 074/CW15, April 1994
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CHAPTER III.I
In the period from 1974 to 1978, Al Hazen laboratories attempted to synthesize many of
the known CW agents. The major progress was achieved in the laboratory production of
the CW agents mustard, tabun, and, to some degree, sarin.5
The Al Hazen Institute was able to procure a variety of chemicals that required a minimal
number of stages to produce either the CW agents themselves or their key precursors6.
The availability and purity of specific precursors predetermined the synthesis routes
adopted for the production of each agent and the degree of success in their synthesis.
In 1975, the Al Hazen Institute produced mustard, tabun and sarin in laboratory
quantities, using equipment then available. As part of the plan for larger-scale production,
pilot scale glass reactors and vessels were procured in 1976. It seems likely that
toxicological evaluations of the CW agents synthesized were conducted before the
scaling-up of their production. UNSCOM could not find any information on animal tests
carried out by Al Hazen Institute.
In the mid-1970’s, Al Hazen Institute established contacts and business relations with
major suppliers that provided precursor chemicals, laboratory equipment and analytical
instruments, pilot-scale and industrial size chemical process equipment for Iraq’s future
large-scale CW programme. These contacts included some 30 major foreign
organizations and companies.
Following progress in the scale-up in CW agent synthesis, the Al Hazen Institute
expanded its chemical base at Al Rashad and placed larger, pilot-scale and industrial
scale production capabilities at a new site located in a remote desert area south of the
town of Samarra. Four CW production plants were installed there. These included a
dedicated plant (later known as P-8) for the production of the CW agent mustard, the
plant for the final stage of tabun/sarin production (later known as P-7), and two
multipurpose plants for the production of precursors for tabun and sarin (later known as
Ahmed 2 and 3). The work began in 1975 by the general contractor, Iraq’s State
Company for Construction Projects (later known as Al Fao General Establishment)
affiliated to the State Organization for Technical Industries (SOTI). It included the
construction of roads and engineering support infrastructure, including power and water
supplies. The P-7 and P-8 plants were designed by an Iraqi chemical engineering
company; two multipurpose plants were designed by a foreign company under a contract
with Al Hazen Institute. The procurement of chemical process equipment for these plants
from two foreign companies also began in 1975. It ranged from a 200 litre pilot-scale
glass reactors to 3 m3 Hastalloy lined vessels for the production of nerve agents.
5
Regarding VX, Iraq claimed that it was only synthesized in 1984, although its structure had been known
from 1978 – Technical Evaluation Meeting (TEM) 2-6 Feb 1998. Some work with VX precursors was
mentioned by Al Hazen staff interviewed by UNSCOM.
6
In the 1970’s, there were no international trade regulations and restrictions other than those specified in the
Geneva protocol.
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CHAPTER III.I
The Al Hazen Institute did not finalize the construction of new facilities prior to its
closure in late 1978/early 1979 and some earlier procured equipment and materials
remained uninstalled and construction work unfinished. However, the Institute achieved
considerable progress in the CW area. In the period of four years (1974-1978) it was able
to identify suitable synthetic procedures for the production of CW agents and even
though production was only at research-levels for CW agents, with the exception
probably of the chemical agent mustard,7 the planning occurred for production at an
industrial level and construction of relevant plants. The installation of four specific
production plants at the Samarra site suggested that the Al Hazen Institute had succeeded
in pilot production of CW agents mustard, tabun and sarin and their major precursors.
This statement was never confirmed in the official Iraqi declarations – in its declaration
of March 1995 Iraq claims that it did not succeed in the pilot scale.
Comment
The fact that NMR technology was already available at Al Hazen Institute in the mid
1970’s suggests that this organization was well funded and was given priority to procure
all items and materials required for the implementation of its tasks.
The Al Hazen Institute achieved progress in three major areas which allowed Iraq to
accelerate the developments of its future chemical weapons programme. Firstly, the
laboratory synthesis was scaled up from grams to kilograms. Secondly, the introduction
of analytical procedures allowed Iraq to optimize synthetic processes. Finally, pilot-scale
production allowed Iraq to further adjust its chemical process to industrial size
production.
Chemical activities carried out by Al Hazen Institute from the beginning were bearing
signs of its work in the direction of an offensive chemical warfare programme. These
signs included:
• Procurement of chemical synthesis laboratory equipment in combination
with a variety of analytical instruments and chemicals known to be
major CW precursors,
• Procurement of pilot scale equipment in combination with kilogram
quantities of precursor chemicals, and
• The specific layout, design and chemical process equipment of facilities
under construction at the Samarra site.
Iraq has indicated that it considers the establishment of Al Hazen Institute as the
foundation of Iraq’s offensive CW programme.
There is conflicting data regarding the extent of CW agent production during the period
of the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute. According to Iraqi declarations, only small
(laboratory) quantities of CW agents were produced. Yet when interviewed by UN
7
UNSCOM 74/CW15 found that 5 tonnes of mustard agent remained in Al Hazen after its closure.
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CHAPTER III.I
inspectors, the Director General of Muthanna indicated the Institute produced that five
tonnes of mustard. Iraq declared 10 tonnes of mustard produced during 1981(see
Chapter III.II) but nothing prior to this year.
The full extent of the foreign assistance received by Al Hazen Institute remains unknown.
If reference standards of CW agents were made available, it could have significantly
accelerated the laboratory phase of CW research. This can possibly explain how Al
Hazen Institute was able to plan pilot scale facilities after only one year of laboratory
research.
Abolition of Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute
Iraq declared that, in 1978, Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute was abolished and a
number of the staff was imprisoned for scientific fraud. 8 Although its assets were
transferred to SOTI, the name of the Institute was still used after its dissolution for the
purchase of equipment for some SOTI and Scientific and Technical Research Centre
(STRC) projects.
Iraq stated that there were no direct links or continuity between this organization and later
developments in the field of biological and chemical weapons. However, as it became
evident from interviews9 with its former employees, the assets10 and most personnel of Al
Rashad laboratory and Ibn Sina Centre (the “Second” Centre for biological research) were
taken over by other organizations and continued to operate. Thus, the demise of the Al
Hazen Institute did not imply a termination of its substantive activities, but in reality its
functions continued with the transfer of some personnel and assets to other organizational
structures.
Period of uncertainty in CW developments (1979-1981)
The Al Rashad site, established by the Chemical Corps in 1971 was returned to the same
organisation in 1979. According to Iraq’s declarations, the Chemical Corps continued to
operate laboratories at the Al Rashad site after the abolition of the Al Hazen Institute.
Laboratories were used for the production of laboratory-scale quantities of CW agents
required for the calibration and testing of NBC defence equipment and materials. The
Samarra site, with all its equipment and materials procured for the four CW production
plants by Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute, was placed under the administrative control
of SOTI. The construction work for the production plants however, was suspended after
the closure of the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute in 1978 and was not resumed until
1981. From 1979 to 1981, some civil construction and development of this site was
continued by SOTI as Project 1-75.
8
UNSCOM 193/BW-53 Inspection Report provides information, that the Institute was abolished in January
1979
9
Ibid
10
According to General Nizar Attar, some equipment was stolen and others scattered around.
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CHAPTER III.I
Meanwhile, the practice of training of Chemical Corps officers overseas continued. In
addition to regular military NBC training, NBC officers were enrolled in postgraduate
and PhD studies in the fields of chemical engineering, organic and analytical chemistry
and toxicology.
The role of the Chemical Corps with regard to NBC troop protection was also expanded.
Several senior officers of the Chemical Corps were assigned to the Analysis and
Research Laboratory, which was later transformed into the Central Military Medical
Laboratory under Military Affairs Directorate of the Administration and Provisions
Department of the Ministry of Defence. The functions of this laboratory included the
medical protection of troops from CW agents and the treatment of possible casualties.
There is no evidence that the Central Military Medical Laboratory was involved in the
CW programme, however several of its personnel were reassigned to the CW programme
at Al Rashad after 1981.
Between 1979 and 1981, Iraq’s intelligence agencies were involved in attempts to collect
additional information on CW production technology and know-how.
Comment
By 1979, Iraq had already obtained the capacity to begin a large-scale CW programme.
It acquired knowledge in: laboratory synthesis of CW agents, scaling-up production,
building CW research capabilities, training personnel, forming a procurement network,
founding several production plants and obtaining a number of key pieces of pilot and
industrial size equipment.
No information is available regarding weaponization attempts, tests or even the
preliminary selection of CW delivery means prior to 1981. It seems unusual that the Al
Hazen institute planned CW production plants without simultaneously evaluating
weaponization technology (filling of munitions and devices with CW agents) and
selecting specific delivery systems.
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CHAPTER III.II
CHAPTER III.II
FOUNDATION OF THE LARGE-SCALE MILITARY CW PROGRAMME
Project 922
In June 1981, Iraq was faced with emerging complications in its war with Iran while also
having a significant manpower disadvantage. To mitigate this disadvantage, Iraq decided
to produce and deploy chemical weapons. To achieve this aim, Iraq established Project
922 within the Ministry of Defence. 1
The Commander of the Chemical Corps was appointed as the Chairman of the Board of
Directors of Project 922. The Project inherited the assets of the Al Rashad chemical
laboratory complex left from the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute and operated by the
Chemical Corps as well as the partially completed Samarra site2 previously founded by
the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute.
The laboratory and pilot scale equipment available at Al Rashad laboratories were used
for the production of CW agents immediately after the foundation of the project.
Although the laboratory was able to produce tens of tonnes of the CW agent mustard in
the period from 1981 to 1983, it had very limited production capabilities, and was not
capable of producing more than hundreds of kilograms of the agent per day. This was far
less than the military requirements or expectations.
In addition, Iraq did not have dedicated facilities and equipment for chemical munitions
production or CW agent filling. In the early period of Project 922, selected conventional
munitions were manually filled with CW agents at remote locations.
In order to satisfy military demands due to Iran-Iraq war and to scale-up the level of the
CW programme, Project 922 staff recognized the need to acquire necessary foreign
technology and raw materials for all aspects of the programme. Acquisitions included
chemical process and support equipment, CW agent precursors and other related
chemicals. Also equipment to scale-up the production from gram and kilogram to tonne
scale per day, quality control methods and the equipment necessary to perform
toxicological evaluation of final agents were acquired. Project 922 personnel also realized
that, delivery means, weaponization and storage capacity, as well as handling and
deployment procedures of filled munitions also had to be developed.
In order to create a CW programme large enough to have an impact on the ongoing war
with Iran several pre-conditions were necessary. Firstly, the project needed to have
sizable and flexible government funding as well as a certain degree of financial freedom
1
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter I and earlier declarations
The term “Samarra site” was used by Iraq and UNSCOM/UNMOVIC in various documents
interchangeably with “Muthanna site” and “SEPP” and also “MSE”. All refer to the same location: the
main production facility of Iraq’s CW programme.
2
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CHAPTER III.II
to operate bank accounts to support procurement, construction costs and operational
expenses.
Secondly, in order to succeed, the CW programme required a national priority status to be
able to utilize all relevant national resources: scientific, technical and industrial
capabilities available in both the military and civilian sectors. Additionally it included the
training of a cadre of scientists and technicians, military industries to supply the project
with suitable munitions, the security apparatus to provide protection, intelligence to
gather relevant information, know-how acquired from foreign sources or developed
indigenously and the development of a procurement network.
Thirdly, a convincing cover story was needed to engage contractors and providers of
equipment, technology and materials without compromising the true nature of the project.
The production of agricultural chemicals such as fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides and
fungicides were selected as an appropriate cover for a number of reasons. By its nature
and design (batch production and corrosion resistance) the chemical process equipment
required for their production was also suitable for the production of CW agents. Raw
materials for the production of agricultural chemicals were also, to a large degree,
suitable as major precursors for the production of CW agents. In addition, there were no
international regulations preventing the procurement of such equipment and raw
materials at that time and such imports could have occurred without raising suspicions.
Moreover, Iraq had a legitimate need for the production of agricultural chemicals.
All of the above considerations were reflected in the decision by the Revolutionary
Command Council (RCC) of Iraq of 27 August 1981 # 1156 which founded the State
Establishment for Pesticide Production (SEPP). 3
State Establishment for Pesticide Production (SEPP)
The above decision on the foundation of SEPP signed by Saddam Hussein and published
in the official bulletin of the Ministry of Justice gave Project 922 the legal status of a
national establishment operated under the Ministry of Industries and Minerals without
changing its military affiliation.
In accordance with the RCC decision, SEPP (later known as the Muthanna State
Establishment (MSE)) was given full authority to exploit any local resources and to
develop production capabilities with other agencies that it deemed necessary. SEPP was
also authorized to import and purchase locally all necessary materials, substances and
equipment, to interact with governmental, local and foreign agencies and entities both
inside and outside Iraq. SEPP was also given the right to own and possess funds and
property, enter into contractual obligations either directly or on behalf of other agencies,
build and rent stores, depots and other facilities relevant to its functions, borrow any
funds required for the implementation of its tasks from banks and other financial
3
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.016
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CHAPTER III.II
institutions, recruit and train cadre of scientists and technicians, and maintain working
contacts with foreign experts and scientists.
Having dual chain of command, the newly formed establishment continued to report
directly to the Minister of Defence on issues of chemical weapons and to the Ministry of
Industries and Minerals on issues concerning commercial products.
Foundation of the CW production complex near Samarra
The Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute acquired the Samarra site in the 1970s. It
comprised an area 5x5 km in the desert some 20 km south of the town of Samarra (Figure
III.I). The construction of an administrative area and four production plants was started
but not completed in the 1970s. By 1981, the civilian construction phase, which included
levelling the area, construction of access roads and the preparation for supply of utilities,
was partly completed.
This site was selected by Project 922 to be Iraq’s major CW research, development,
production, weaponization and temporary storage complex. The plan of the site included
a production area with multiple plants for the manufacture of precursors and CW agents
as well as commercial products and a research and development area comprising
laboratories and pilot plants to scale-up the production. Also included was an
administrative complex, with a general storage area, mechanical workshops, a
transportation department and an administration building. The chemical weapons storage
area with well-protected air-conditioned bunkers was constructed separately from the
munitions filling area. Enhanced security and an air defence system protected the whole
complex 4 (Figure III.II).
Construction of CW production capabilities at Samarra site
First Phase of construction
In September 1981, SEPP resumed the construction of the four production plants earlier
started at the Samarra site by the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute. These plants were
re-designed in order to meet immediate production requirements. According to Iraq, in
the first phase, SEPP planned to build one plant for the production of the CW agent
mustard from imported key precursors, thiodiglycol (TDG) and thionyl chloride, and one
multipurpose plant for the final stage of the production of two nerve agents, tabun and
sarin. Plans also included the building of two plants for the production of key precursors
for tabun and sarin that were not available on the international market,
dimethylphosphoroamidic-dichloride (D4), methylphosphonyldichloride (MPC), and
methylphosphonyldifluoride (MPF). The equipment from SOTI, together with laboratory
chemicals and a small amount of precursors were transferred from Al-Rashad to
4
UNSCOM 017/CW-5 Inspection Report contains detailed description of the site as found in 1991
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CHAPTER III.II
SEPP/MSE in the summer of 1983, when most of the Samarra CW plants designed and
executed by both Iraqi and foreign companies had already became operational.5
Figure III.I Location of the SEPP/MSE Samarra site and the later constructed Fallujah
sites
Locations of the main
5
UNSCOM 074/ CW-15 April 1994
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CHAPTER III.II
FigureIII.IITheSamarraSite
SAMMARA SITE
PROJECT 922/ STATE ESTABLISHMENT FOR PESTICIDE PRODUCTION(SEPP)
MUTHANNA STATE ESTABLISHMENT (MSE), FROM1987
33-49 N 043-48 E
CW bunker storage area (“Egy ptian store”):
Filledmunitions
Bulk CW agents
Munitions components (fuses & charges)
“Ahmed 1, 2 and 3” plants:
Production of D4, MPC,
MPF and DMMP
Alcoholdistillation
plant
“Nasser” aerial bombs factory
General stores
R&D department:
Sy nthetic laboratories
Analy tical and quality control labs
Tox icologicalev aluation
Quality controllaboratory
Technicaldepartment:
Transportation
Mechanicalandglass w orkshops
“P-8 plant” (“Bin Hay an”):
Production of Mustard
Attempt to produce VX
Inhalation chamber (“Heberger 4”)
“Mohammedplant”:
Production of D4, MPC and MPS
“Heberger 1, 2 and 3” pilot plants:
Production of D4, MPC, MPF and DMMP
Production of Sarin and Cy closarin at
“Heberger 3”
“Malik plant”:
Production of Tabun
Production of DMMP and Choline
Distillation of MPS
Attempt to produce VX
“P-7plant”:
Production of Sarin and Tabun
“Dhiaplant”:
Production of MPS and VX
Production of MPC
“Al Farez” plant (“Salahadin”)
Fillingstation
CS production unit
0
0.5
Damaged Bunker # 2 w ith
CW rockets filled w ith Sarin
DMPH plant
Administrativ earea
1 km
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CHAPTER III.II
Mustard plant (P-8 plant, Bin Hayan 1 plant after 1987)
The plant was first designed by an Iraqi chemical engineering company in 1975 and then
re-designed by SEPP in 1981. The State Company for Construction Projects did the civil
construction work as Project 1-75. Two foreign companies supplied equipment in 1982.
The plant became operational in 1983. Mustard was produced at this plant from 1983 to
1988 and from 1990 until January 1991.
The production started with the use of two reactors capable of producing 750 kg of
mustard per batch. In 1984, the plant was upgraded with the installation of two more
reactors, each capable of producing up to two tonnes of mustard per batch. In 1987,
another two reactors were added to the P-8 plant bringing the production rate to eight
tonnes of mustard per day6.
One trial batch of the CW agent VX was produced at the P-8 plant in December 1987.
The plant was found to be unsuitable for the production of VX. At the end of 1990 the
plant produced mustard at a rate of eight tonnes per day.
Tabun/Sarin production plant P7 plant, (Mutassim 4 after 1987)
Like the mustard plant, the tabun/sarin plant was also first designed by an Iraqi chemical
engineering company in 1975 and then re-designed by SEPP in 1981. The State Company
for Construction Projects also accomplished the civil construction work under Project 175. Two foreign companies supplied equipment in 1982. The plant became operational in
1984. It was equipped with three reactors.
Sarin was produced at this plant in 1984, 1985 and 1988 and again from 1990 to January
19917. The production capacity per batch was up to 600 kg of sarin. Tabun8 was
produced in 1985 and 1986 using two reactors at the rate of one tonne per day with the
batch capacity of about 500 kg. Since tabun was produced as slurry the third reactor was
used for the removal of salt from tabun.
Multipurpose precursor plants (Ahmed 1 and Ahmed 2 plants, Mutassim 2 after 1987)
A foreign company designed these twin plants. The same company also provided and
installed process equipment, which included two reactors for each plant. These reactors
were later replaced with larger ones. The plants began the production of precursors for
sarin and tabun in 1983 and continued to be operational until 1987. They produced tabun
and sarin precursors D4, MPC, MPF and the MPC precursor dimethylmethylphosphonate
(DMMP) at maximum capacity up to two tonnes per day.
6
UNSCOM 140/CW-29, August 1996 (Interview No 6)
Ditto (Interviews No 5 and No 11)
8
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI, para 6.2.2.2. Tabun was produced starting from 1982 at
R&D facilities and for one month in 1984 at P7
7
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CHAPTER III.II
Pilot plants (H1, H2 and H3 pilot plants, Mutassim 1 after 1987)
In addition to the four existing production plants, the construction of three pilot plants
began in 1981-1982. These pilot plants were constructed to optimize the production of
the key precursors for tabun and sarin at the two Ahmed plants. The precursor D4 (for
tabun) was produced using imported dimethylamine hydrochloride and phosphorus
oxychloride, and the precursor MPC (for sarin, cyclosarin and VX) was produced using
DMMP and thionylchloride.
Figure III.III One general view of the pilot plants.
These identical pilot plants, H1, H2, and H3
were designed and constructed by one foreign
company and the equipment was supplied and
installed by another foreign company (Figure
III.III). The H1, H2 pilot plants became
operational in 1983. Originally, two small
reactors made of glass were installed at each
plant. In 1984 and 1985, larger vessels replaced
them. In 1983, the plants were used for the
development and optimization of the technology
for the production of the precursors D4, DMMP
and MPC. After 1984 they were used to produce
those precursors.
The H3 pilot plant became operational in 1985. It produced sarin precursors DMMP and
MPF at a capacity of up to 500 kg per day from 1985 to 1987. In 1988 and in 1990, H3
produced MPF, sarin and cyclosarin.9,10
A fourth structure, identical by design, was built together with the pilot plants but no
production equipment was installed in it. An inhalation chamber was placed there instead
(see below for more details).
Four dummy ones accompanied those four “real” plants.
Each pilot plant was a bunker type structure, partially underground. The aboveground
part was covered with earth. It had a main entrance and one emergency exit. An airlock
system was installed at the main entrance of the building. The ventilation system replaced
the air in the building 10 to 25 times per hour. The high air turnover rate in the sealed
9
in addition to the quantities of these CW agents produced by the P-7 plant
UNSCOM 140 CW-29, August 1996
10
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CHAPTER III.II
operating area caused a negative pressure. The outgoing flow was not cleaned, but
directly discharged to the atmosphere.
Expansion of precursor production capabilities
Mohammed plant (Mutassim 3 after 1987)
Also in 1982, another multipurpose production plant for the production of D4, MPC,
MPF and final CW agents was established to increase the production rate if required in
the future (a surge capacity). The plant was designed, constructed and provided with
equipment by foreign companies.
In 1985 and 1986, the plant began the production of tabun precursor D4 at the rate 1.5
tonnes per day using two reactors. In 1987, two newly installed reactors were intended
for the production of additional quantities of tabun (Iraq declared it stopped tabun
production in 1986). In 1988 and 1990, plant produced MPC to meet growing demand in
precursors for sarin production.
In 1987 and 1988, several batches of precursor methylphosphonyldichlorothionite (MPS)
were produced at the Mohammed plant from MPC and phosphorus penthasulphide for the
further production of VX.
Comment
From 1981 to 1983 SEPP employed foreign contractors under the guise of commercial
activities, to create significant CW production capabilities. This allowed SEPP to
produce CW agents at the rate 1-2 tonnes per day.
By 1985, SEPP was able to produce up to several tonnes of both nerve and blister CW
agents per day.
SEPP carefully planned their CW production infrastructure, procurement and
contracting. Both agent and precursor plant construction plans were coordinated with
each other and with procurement plans for raw materials.
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CHAPTER III.II
CS plant
Figure III.IV MSE, Part of Area “E” – CS production and filling buildings
A small production unit utilized for
the manufacturing of the agent CS
called Al Fariz,11 was located near
to the newly constructed munitions
filling station and was built using
the excess of the equipment
delivered by foreign suppliers for
the construction of other major CW
production plants. CS was
produced at this plant starting in
198312.
Alcohol distillation plant
In 1984, a foreign company supplied the alcohol distillation plant comprising two
identical distillation units to SEPP. This plant was procured for the distillation of
indigenously produced 95% ethanol to obtain absolute ethanol for the production of tabun
at the P-7 plant. The distillation plant’s capacity was 15 litres of alcohol per hour.
The plant however, failed to deliver a product with the sufficient purity that was required
for use in the production of tabun. One of the reasons why SEPP was not able to produce
absolute alcohol at the imported plant may have been again a lack of precise details in the
technical specification given to the foreign company regarding the characteristics of
alcohol to be distilled (the plant was designed to distil alcohol containing not more than
2% of water, but the feed stock for distillation contained 5% of water). Subsequently the
plant was never used for its intended purpose; SEPP used only imported absolute alcohol
for the production of tabun.
Other facilities at the Samarra site
CW storage area
At the beginning of the CW programme, there were no munitions stores designed for
chemical weapons. Buildings allocated within conventional munitions depots served the
11
12
UNSCOM 153/CW31, May 1997
Later, production of this agent was transferred to buildings located near the Dhia plant.
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CHAPTER III.II
purpose. A storage area comprising eight reinforced concrete bunkers with air
conditioning and temperature control was constructed at the Samarra site in the period
from 1981 to 1983 (Figure III.V). It was used for the temporary storage of filled chemical
munitions, bulk agents and munitions components, such as fuses and charges. Six dummy
bunkers surrounded the storage bunkers. The area was fenced-off and several air defence
units were also stationed in the vicinity.
Figure III.V Storage Bunkers at SEPP/MSE
The storage bunkers were semi-underground structures covered with a protective layer of
sandy clay. They resembled a truncated pyramid. The main storage room, sunken 5
metres below the ground level, was approximately 60m x 18m x 10m. A 7-tonne crane
was mounted on the rails below the roof. The walls and roof were constructed with onemetre thick reinforced concrete. The roof slab was covered with a three-metre layer of
sandy clay.
The central tunnel entrance was built as a vehicle ramp, which led into the main chamber:
vehicles were required to exit through the same tunnel, as there was no drive through
capability. Each bunker also had two side entrances that allowed personnel (not vehicle)
access to the main chamber. The main storage room was protected from external
explosions by reinforced doors and flameproof electrical fittings minimized the risk of
fire damage. The service room, which had two separate entrances, contained an
emergency power generator, fuel tank, compressor and cooling unit. It was located to the
rear and separate from the main storage room and was accessed by its own dual entrance.
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CHAPTER III.II
Administrative area and support infrastructure
The administrative and technical support areas were developed between 1981 and 1984.
Those buildings comprised warehouses for receiving, storage and distribution of
imported equipment and chemicals, a fire station, a vehicle maintenance area, mechanical
and glass workshops as well as administrative buildings to house the management,
financial and procurement departments.
Research laboratories
Five laboratory buildings were designed and equipped by a foreign company for the
R&D department of SEPP between 1982 and 1984. These included several chemical
synthesis laboratories, a toxicological evaluation section with an animal house and
analytical laboratory that was also used as a quality control unit for the establishment.
Later, an additional quality control laboratory was constructed in the area adjacent to
pilot plants.
Inhalation chamber
Figure III.VI Inhalation Chamber at Muthanna
An
inhalation
chamber
was
installed in one
of the buildings
designed as a
pilot plant. It
significantly
enhanced
the
capabilities of
the
R&D
department in
areas of research
related
to
toxicological
evaluation
of
CW agents.
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CHAPTER III.II
Aerial bomb production factory
The aerial bomb production workshop at the Samarra site of the SEPP, also known as the
“Nasser Factory” was designed for the manufacture of low drag general-purpose aerial
bombs, to be modified and filled with CW agents. The imported equipment mainly
included different presses and welding, cutting and drilling machines. The imported raw
materials included semi-finished metal plates, un-machined forged parts, and a set of
moulds to form bomb components. This facility was ready to start production by 1986.
Several modifications to the production process were introduced during the course of
bomb manufacture (see also Chapter III.X).
Second phase of construction
Dhia plant (Bin Hayan 3 after 1987)
In 1983, after completing the construction of the P-7 plant for the production of tabun and
sarin, SEPP decided to build another plant for the production of sarin and its precursors.
Foreign companies did all the civil engineering design, the construction work and the
chemical engineering design. Also, a foreign company provided the equipment. However,
because the foreign company was not informed of the specific materials to be produced
by the plant, they withdrew from the project and Iraq was forced to complete the
construction. As a result, the plant was less than ideal for the production of sarin and its
precursors. Many problems appeared in the plant, later in May 1988, the plant was
modified to produce VX and its precursors.
Comment
This was one of the examples when a cover story used by SEPP proved inadequate. SEPP
misled the contractors with regard to the intended use of the building. As a result, the
plant, which was designed, originally for the production of agricultural pesticides by the
foreign supplier required major modifications before any CW production started.
In the first half of 1988, three batches of MPS, about two tonnes, and three batches of
VX, about 1.7 tonnes, were produced at the Dhia plant. According to Iraq’s declarations,
another two batches of about 1.5 tonnes, of VX were produced in April 199013. However,
Iraq stated that Dhia plant remained ready to re-start VX production till the January 1991
when it was severely damaged by the aerial bombardment during the Gulf War.
In 1990, the Dhia plant produced MPC by making dimethylphosphite (DMPH) from
available stocks of PCl3. This method was an alternative to Iraq’s previously established
technique and was applied to compensate for the shortage of imported trimethylphosphite
(TMP).
13
UNSCOM 171/CW-34, January 1996
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CHAPTER III.II
Malik multipurpose plant (Bin Hayan 2 after 1987)
Iraq declared that the construction of the Malik plant to produce sarin precursors began in
1982; and that “technical works” were completed in 1985. Three foreign companies
participated in the construction. The first completed the civil engineering design, the
second performed the construction work and the chemical engineering design was
undertaken by the third, which also provided the equipment. The plant became
operational in 1986.
Tabun was produced at the Malik plant in 1986 since the Dhia plant was not yet
operational. In 1987, the Malik plant started production of DMMP, which was used for
the production of sarin precursor MPC at the Ahmed plants.
According to Iraq from 1987 to 1989, the Malik plant produced about 60 tonnes of
diisopropylaminoethanol (Iraqi choline), a key precursor for the production of VX, and
distilled MPS, another VX precursor in 1988, which was produced at Dhia plant. One
attempt was made to produce VX in 1988 but this failed, as did another attempt to
concentrate VX produced at the P-7 plant.
Ahmed 3 plant (Mutassim 2 after 1987)
The Ahmed 3 plant was founded in 1987 to meet the needs for the expanding production
of sarin. The plant was indigenously designed and constructed by SEPP/MSE using spare
pieces of equipment earlier delivered by a foreign company for the construction of the
Malik and Dhia plants. Two reactors were installed at the plant. The Ahmed 3 plant
started production of MPC from DMMP in 1988. In 1990, after the imported TMP used
for the indigenous production of DMMP was consumed, the plant was used to distil PCl3.
DMPH plant
This plant was built within the Ahmed 3 plant in 1988-1989 to produce sarin precursor
DMPH from PCl3. DMPH was produced there in the second half of that year and then
was used to produce insecticides such as Deptrix, or converted into pyrophosphate, from
which MPC was produced and then sarin. This plant became operational in 1989. In the
period from 1989 to January 1991, it produced 75 tonnes of DMPH. It was designed and
constructed by MSE personnel.
Al Tahadi plant
After successful DMPH production at the plant described above, a dedicated plant for
that purpose was built at Muthanna. Designed and constructed by its own personnel at the
end of 1990, the plant was not finalized prior to the 1991 Gulf war.
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Comment
In 1987 SEPP was renamed as the Muthanna State Establishment (MSE) and placed
under the control of the newly established Military Industrialization Commission (MIC).
After the end of the Iran-Iraq war in August 1988, MIC, clearly adopted technical
policies aiming at the creation of dual-use capabilities that could be used for both, the
production of commercial chemicals and CW agents and their precursors.
By 1988, MSE obtained sufficient experience mainly through its interactions with foreign
chemical engineering companies and through modifications of procured process units to
make its own design of chemical production lines of both CW and commercial nature and
to successfully assemble them.
Expansion of the CW programme beyond the Samarra site
In 1985, in addition to the developing the Samarra site, SEPP founded three satellite
facilities to produce raw materials and precursors for the manufacture of CW agents and
commercial products. These sites were called Fallujah 1, 2 and 3 located at the distance
of 40-50 kilometres from the main site (see map above) and 15-20 kilometres north of
Fallujah city.
The three facilities14 had many features in common: the size and shape of the site; the
fencing; the layout, the function of the buildings; and utility distribution (see Figure
III.VII as an example). The boundaries of the facilities consisted of an outer wire mesh
fence and an inner wall two metres in height separated by a fifteen-metre gap. The wall
had several built-in watchtowers.
The central production building located in the middle of each facility had a unique design
for handling toxic chemicals and was identical for all three sites. It was called the
multipurpose plant. Four warehouses in the eastern part of each site were of identical
design and size. The western parts of the facilities were different in each case.
14
UNSCOM 09/CW- 02 August 1991
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CHAPTER III.II
Fallujah 2 (also known as the Chlorine Plant)
Al Mamun plant
The plant was constructed in 1986 and 1987 at Fallujah 2 to produce thionyl chloride, a
chlorinating agent that could be used for the production of MPC and mustard. From the
start of CW agent production, Iraq had only used imported thionyl chloride and did not
produce this chemical indigenously. The construction of the Al Mamun plant represented
an attempt by SEPP to achieve self-reliance in the production of that important chemical.
The Al Mamun plant was designed by a foreign company and constructed by SEPP with
the help of this company using equipment supplied by it. Thionyl chloride was produced
from sulphur chloride and sulphur trioxide. Its distillation was carried out on site. Sulphur
chloride was also produced on site from sulphur and chlorine. The Al Qaa Qaa State
Establishment provided Sulphur trioxide, where it was produced from the oleum.
From 1988 to 1989, about 70 tonnes15 of thionyl chloride was produced at the Al Mamun
plant, which was used for the production of MPC at Dhia and Ahmed plants in 1990.
15
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter XI and UNMOVIC Doc. No.904008. UNSCOM 074/CW15 found a document mentioning 120 tonnes produced
Page 70
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CHAPTER III.II
Figure III.VII Fallujah 2
Page 71
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CHAPTER III.II
A plus B plant
Also in 1986, a foreign company provided SEPP with the design and equipment for a
PCl3/POCl3 plant named A + B. The plant was constructed by SEPP from 1987 to 1988 at
Fallujah 2. However, not all equipment was shipped. Pumps and pipes were not delivered
by the company and were replaced with “under-specification” components. The designed
production capacity was 17 tonnes of PCl3 per day.
The idea of the project was to produce indigenously raw materials that could be used for
both the production of mustard agent and nerve agent precursors, such as MPC as well as
for the production of commercial chemicals. However, this facility was not
commissioned prior to the 1991 Gulf war.16
TMP plant
The TMP plant at Fallujah 2 was designed by a foreign company to produce three tonnes
of TMP per day. The construction work was undertaken from 1988 to 1989. However,
the equipment received was not installed prior to the 1991 Gulf War. The concept was to
produce TMP from PCl3 manufactured at the A+B plant and absolute methanol in the
presence of locally available ammonia. A methanol distillation unit was incorporated into
the plant’s configuration.
Chlorine production plant
The chlorine production plant designed by a foreign company was installed at Fallujah 2
in 1990. It was not operational prior to the 1991 Gulf war. Its purpose was to produce
chlorine for general commercial applications for the manufacture of detergents and
disinfectants as well as for dual-use precursors such as PCl3, POCl3, and thionyl chloride
and key precursors such as MPC.
Comment
The chemical production plants installed at Fallujah 2 were designed as dual-use
facilities capable of supplying both the CW programme and commercial projects with
chemicals. Such chemicals could be used for legitimate industrial purposes or to
manufacture CW agent. This probably reflected MIC’s decision to merge newly
constructed CW capabilities into commercial industries.
This dual-use approach allowed Iraq to retain some equipment at Fallujah 2 after 1991.
All the surviving equipment at the Samarra site that was part of the CW programme and
was transferred to Fallujah 2 for commercial purposes in 1994 was later, in 1997
destroyed by Iraq under international supervision. The rationale was that the equipment
had been used or planned to be used for the production of CW and their precursors.
16
UNSCOM 09/CW-02, August 1991
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CHAPTER III.II
Equipment used in the PCl3/POCl3 plant and thionyl chloride plant was also destroyed
for the same reason. The chlorine plant and equipment installed for the production of
TMP however, was not destroyed since it had never been used for the production of any
materials for CW programme. The chlorine plant at Fallujah 2 was operational during
UNMOVIC’s inspections of 2002-2003.
Fallujah 3 (also known as the Al Farouk plant)
This facility was located 80 km northwest of Baghdad; 35 km southwest of the Muthanna
Site. The site was used as a formulation plant for pesticides and herbicides and as a
storage depot for CW precursor chemicals consumed at the Muthanna site. The Fallujah 3
site was never used for its original purpose, that is, the production of CW precursors.
The buildings on the site were completed at the end of 1987.
Fallujah 1
This was the least developed plant site. Construction at the site had started early in 1985.
It was discontinued at the end of 1987. No CW agents were produced at the site. Some
precursors were stored there17. With the end of the Iran-Iraq war no further use was made
of the site.
17
UNSCOM 09/CW-02, August 1991
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CHAPTER III.II
Figure III.VIII
Procurement of main types of production chemical equipment for CW programme
from major suppliers (in absolute numbers):
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1983
1986
Supplier 1
Supplier 2
Supplier 3
Supplier 4
1989
1983
1984
1985
1986
Supplier 1
Supplier 4
146
1988
42
103
18
25
27
34
83
79
3
34
39
6
Supplier 2
Supplier 3
1987
1989
All equipment with very few exceptions was procured from foreign chemical engineering
companies, but not directly from manufactures.
Page 74
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CHAPTER III.II
The procurement by SEPP/MSE of critical precursor chemicals for the production of CW
agents and their key precursors was carried out by SEPP/MSE as shown in Figure III.IX.
Figure III.IX Procurement of critical precursors in metric tonnes:
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1982
1984
1982
1983
1984
TDG
825
1000
500
400
POCl3
40
1986
TMP
250
PCl3
500
TDG
0
POCl3
TMP
SOCl2
POCl3
1985
887
PCl3
SOCl2
TDG
PCl3
1988
TMP
1986
1000
SOCl2
1987
3300
407
250
20
845
56
1000
1000
1000
250
1000
Page 75
950
1988
1989
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.II
Production of CW agents by SEPP/MSE
From June 1981 to January 1991, Iraq declared that SEPP/MSE produced 3,859 tonnes of
CW agents. This does not include riot control agents CS and chloroacetophenon that were
produced. The production of CW agent was declared as shown in Figure III.X.
Figure III.X Production of CW agents in metric tonnes as declared by Iraq:
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1982
1983
1985
1990
1988
1987
1986
1985
1984
1986
5
30
40
TABUN
60
70
80
240
350
350
75
150
MUSTARD
VX
SARIN
10
TABUN
SARIN
1987
1988
1990
2.4
1.5
209
394
117
899
494
280
VX
MUSTARD
SARIN
TABUN
1984
1983
1981
1981
1982
VX
MUSTARD
There was no bulk production of CW agents declared for 1989 year, following the end of
war with Iran in August 1988.
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CHAPTER III.III
CHAPTER III.III
RESEARCH ON CHEMICAL AGENTS
Introduction
Iraq had an extensive as well as application focused CW research and development
(R&D) programme which was mainly implemented at Muthanna (MSE) from 1981. In
the late 1980s, the period of highest CW-related activity, the R&D department of MSE
consisted of several specialized sections dedicated to research on nerve agents, blister
agents, psychological agents, analytical support, toxicological evaluation and applied
research.1
In general, Iraq did not develop its own methods for the production of chemical warfare
agents. At the beginning of the programme, Iraq tried to replicate, on an industrial scale,
known foreign methods and techniques for the production of chemical warfare agents. It
did so, using commercially available technology, equipment and raw materials. Later,
however, for some agents (for example VX) Iraq applied modified processes to suit its
own capabilities.
The Iraqi chemical agent research and development programme experienced highly
variable success rates in providing synthesis strategies for the production of chemical
agents and precursor compounds. [In fact,] Unlike the blister agents programme, the
majority of Iraqi [chemical warfare agent] production programmes related to nerve agents
could not produce chemical compounds of a sufficient purity that would allow them to be
stored for longer than a few weeks without decomposition. Despite the fact that Iraqi
projects were well-funded and well resourced, and upper-level [technical] scientific
personnel were well educated, serious problems existed in the final execution of the
programmes because of [poor] insufficient engineering capabilities of MSE and poor
technical skills [levels] of those involved in the large-scale production of agents.
Iraqi scientists involved in the CW programme obtained much of their information on
basic CW production technology from training courses held in foreign institutions, open
source publications, foreign patents, international conferences and international forums.
This information obtained from open source material was first tested by Iraq at the
laboratory level to identify and adjust unknown parameters of the synthesis of chemical
warfare agents that could not be found in open sources, such as kinetics of chemical
reactions, combinations of catalysts, equipment specifications and scale-up procedures.
Iraq conducted research on the number of CW agents and their precursors, focusing
efforts on sulfur mustard, tabun, sarin and VX. All these agents, with the exception of
VX2, were later produced in hundreds of tonnes quantities. The research was not
restricted to CW agents alone but also encompassed their analogs and precursors: many
1
2
Letter of General Amer M. Rasheed to UNSCOM dated 5 April 1997
Iraq declared the unsuccessful production of 3.9 tonnes of VX (see chapter III for details)
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CHAPTER III.III
of these research studies according to Iraq were either terminated at certain stage,
remained unfinished or failed.
Because the very nature of Iraq’s research and development programme and its
associated technical description is proliferation sensitive, information provided in this
chapter has been limited to basic facts and comments.
Sulfur Mustard3 and its precursors4
Sulfur Mustard
Iraqi research on sulfur mustard synthesis was fast-paced and successful. This was
largely due to the commercial availability of precursors at that time (pre-Chemical
Weapons Convention and pre-Australia Group export restrictions), and the relatively
simple nature of the synthesis. Details of this synthesis were readily available in the open
literature at the time.
The initial research into sulfur mustard synthesis, focused mainly on reproducing
published techniques was done during the early 1970’s at the Al Rashad laboratoryscaled facility in the Baghdad area. In 1980 and 1981, as Iraq declared in its 1996 FFCD,
the method for the synthesis of mustard from thiodiglycol (TDG) was accepted for
production on an industrial scale.5
Mustard was manufactured from imported thiodiglycol using imported chlorination
agents. Due to the simplicity of this one-step process, Iraq was able to produce high
quality mustard. However it was comparatively unsuccessful in its efforts to perform
chlorination using indigenously available chlorination chemicals. Such research was
performed in 1981 in parallel with the method involving imported chemicals. Iraqi
research found that by using indigenously available chlorination chemicals the yield was
low and the reaction was slow and therefore this method was not adopted for the bulk
production of mustard.
In 1985 and then again in 1989-1990 6 Iraq undertook efforts to synthesize mustard
without using TDG, starting from locally produced ethylene.7 There were plans to
continue the research beyond laboratory scale but these plans never reached fruition.
Because Iraq faced a potential shortage in one of its main chlorinating agents (thionyl
chloride), basic research was conducted in 1985 and 1986 on using another imported
chlorinating agent, phosphorus trichloride (PCl3). Laboratory and pilot scale research was
successfully undertaken in 1987 in order to estimate the parameters required for largescale production.
3
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, , Chapter IV, para 4.4.1
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, paras 4.4.2, 4.4.3
5
UNSCOM Doc No 200096-037-CW-2
6
UNSCOM Doc No 200095.001
7
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.020-CW-2
4
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CHAPTER III.III
Iraq declared that in 1988, an effort was made to produce binary mustard munitions.
Experiments [were] performed in the laboratory8 and in the field [trials] were conducted
using 155mm artillery shells, which contained two canisters, each with a binary agent.
This research was stopped due to low concentration of mustard obtained.9
Thiodiglycol (TDG) Research10
In 198411, efforts began to indigenously produce thiodiglycol – an important precursor
for production of mustard by the Iraqi production methods.12 13 None of the chosen
synthetic routes gave a product suitable for mustard production.
Comment
It is likely that Iraq considered the indigenous production of TDG as the most probable
way of solving acquisition problems with this precursor. If Iraq had decided to restore its
CW programme after 1991, this was also the most likely path. Based on calculations by
UN inspectors, shortly before the Gulf War Iraq had some 300-400 tonnes of TDG in
stock. If Iraq had decided to continue mustard production at the 1987-1988 and 1990
scale, there would have been an urgent need for TDG. UN inspectors assessed whether
Iraq’s existing chemical plants in 2002 were suitable [to be utilized] for TDG production
and none were found to be capable of doing that without major reconfiguration.
Thionyl chloride research14
In 1987 and 1988, MSE conducted research to see if they could domestically produce
thionyl chloride. The research results provided Iraqi industry with an acceptable way to
manufacture this chemical using sulfur monochloride. Based on the research results
achieved, Iraq built a dedicated plant for the production of thionyl chloride at the Fallujah
2 site.
Mustard Stabilizers and Thickener Research15
Several different chemicals were tested as possible mustard stabilizers in order to produce
a chemical warfare agent with a longer storage life. At least two chemicals were found
helpful for this purpose.
In order to increase the viscosity and persistence of mustard in the environment, a
polymer substance was investigated as a thickener for mustard. The improvement was
8
UNSCOM Doc No 135015.041
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.4.1.6
10
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.4.2
11
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.4.2.2
12
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.027
13
UNSCOM Doc No 200096.029
14
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.4.3
15
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.4.5.3
9
Page 79
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CHAPTER III.III
not, however, adopted because Iraq stated that it was not deemed important enough to
carry this successful research project over into an indigenous production effort.
Comment
Sulfur mustard was the most successful of all chemical agent synthesis programmes
undertaken by Iraq. This programme successfully led to the manufacturing of a product
with a high degree of purity and Iraqi research successfully helped the CW programme
use alternative precursors over time.
It is unclear whether the change in production method by using a different chlorinating
agent resulted from the SEPP/MSE research project, which promised higher yields and
simpler purification or because stocks of a previously used chlorinating agent were
running low. Therefore, there are open questions as to whether Iraq switched to PCl3
because it was available, because it was easier to work with (despite higher costs), or
because it was to be indigenously produced in the future by one of Iraq’s new turnkey
facilities that were purchased for this purpose from abroad .
Nitrogen Mustard Research16
Nitrogen mustard was never produced in quantity, according to Iraqi declarations. This
chemical agent was produced in a laboratory in 1984 and 1987 to study its “chemical and
physical specification”. According to declarations, research was stopped at the stage of
final neutralization required to obtain final nitrogen mustard.
Beyond efforts to produce the actual agent, Iraq tried the synthesis of the precursor
triethanolamine.17
Comment
Unlike sulfur mustard, based on the available data it does not appear that nitrogen
mustard was a priority. Iraq conducted only few experiments and overall efforts were
limited, but the results achieved were promising. This comparatively simple reaction
(when compared with nerve agent synthesis) never appeared to have advanced to a large
production stage, even though it was in the original 5-year plans in the early 1980’s. A
probable reason might be the fact that nitrogen mustard did not offer anything new in the
Iraqi CW arsenal in comparison to sulfur mustard.
Lewisite Research18
Iraqi declarations indicate that in 1987 a short research project was conducted to produce
distilled Lewisite. This process, however, was not carried into production. No
information was given on efforts to produce the precursors. UNSCOM inspectors during
16
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.5
UNSCOM Doc No 200068.001 CW-1
18
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.020
17
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.III
the period 1992-1994 identified some tens of kilograms of Arsenic salt, a toxic Lewisite
precursor procured by Iraq from abroad. This compound was placed in one of the MSE
bunkers and sealed under procedures of Hand-Over protocol for MSE site in 1994. The
Protocol describes Commission destruction actions and future Iraqi obligations with
respect to the site.
Comment
Most likely, research on Lewisite represented a very low-level effort since the UN
Commission identified no stockpiles of this agent. The absence of indigenous arsenic
sources and final agent poor yield lead UN inspectors to believe that probably there was
no further interest in pursuing the synthesis of this agent on an industrial scale.
Tabun Research
According to Iraqi declarations, tabun was first synthesized in 1982.19 The main problem
was Iraq’s inability to separate and purify the main product at the industrial level. As
tabun production yielded impure material, and this material degraded over time, methods
were researched to find a suitable stabilizer. It was found that one solvent, used during
the synthesis process, was also a good stabilizer20. Therefore, this solvent was adopted as
a solvent for synthesis of tabun and was not removed from the final product. Beyond
synthesis, tabun was tested for its corrosive properties on materials used for aerial bombs
and production equipment.21.
Industrial scale tabun production was cancelled in 1986 (Iraq declared production of 210
tonnes of this agent), however the R&D projects to improve the production technology
continued. Thus, in 1987, the use of various cyanide sources for tabun production was
tested.22 23 However, due to the poor yield and purity of the final tabun product, the small
experimental line was cancelled that same year.
Tabun Precursors Research
Dimethylamine hydrochloride (DMA*HCl)
In 1985, DMA*HCl was researched for production in order to assure a reliable source of
this chemical. Due to the low yield of the product, research was stopped.
Phosphorus Oxychloride (POCl3),
19
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.1.1
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.1.1.3
21
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.1.1.5
22
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.020
23
UNSCOM Doc No 200095.001
20
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.III
POCl3 was first synthesized in 1984 simply by bubbling O2 gas into a solution of
phosphorus trichloride (PCl3). Iraq encountered no problems at the R&D level in the
synthesis of POCl3. The quality of final product was acceptable, but the major problem
was the lack of self-sufficiency with PCl3.
Phosphorus trichloride (PCl3)
Synthesis of PCl3 was attempted and stopped due to low purity of the final product –
which was much less than the imported PCl3 used for the CW programme - and the
problems encountered in applying the research results on an industrial scale. Iraq
therefore decided to buy a “turn-key”, dedicated PCl3 and POCl3 plant. Such a production
facility was almost completed at Fallujah 2 as part of the so-called “A+B project”. Due to
the lack of some equipment, the plant never produced any PCl3. All significant quantities
of PCl3 used for the CW programme (for sulphur mustard and DMPH production,
precursor of nerve agent sarin and cyclosarin) were imported.
In addition to phosphorous containing precursor of tabun, in 1987, Iraq also attempted to
produce cyanogen chloride (ClCN), another tabun precursor. Only two or three
experiments were conducted according to Iraq.
Comment
Ultimately, tabun research never managed to contribute to a reliable, stable product.
Numerous reactions were attempted (beginning with PCl3) but the intermediate
compounds were never properly purified. The subsequent steps of these processes
produced reaction liquors with increasing amounts of reactive impurities, yielding a
rapidly degrading product. The main weakness of the Iraqi tabun research process was
the lack of knowledge of what by-products and impurities the intermediate and final
product contained and finding a way of purifying the product.
Iraq claimed it never resumed a large-scale tabun production after 1986. During its
destruction mission UN inspectors in 1994 identified in one of the aerial bombs at MSE
the presence of tabun of purity 44%. This finding contradicts Iraq’s declared data on
tabun degradation rates for both R&D and industrially produced agent.
Sarin Research
The first attempts to produce sarin at the R&D level in Iraq occurred shortly after the
nerve agent programme began, in 1983.24 The synthetic route chosen by Iraq was well
known from open scientific literature and was based on imported trimethylphosphite
(TMP). R&D efforts in this specific area were successful and were transferred into sarin
production on an industrial scale. But the industrially produced sarin had a quality/purity
that was not sufficient for its long-term storage. At the same time, according to Iraqi
military requirements the quality of the produced sarin was acceptable for its immediate
use during the Iran-Iraq war.
24
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.2.1.1
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CHAPTER III.III
Similar R&D results were achieved with another synthetic route for sarin based on PCl3
(through DMPH and pyrophosphates). According to Iraq it could not reproduce the R&D
results for sarin production through above mentioned route on an industrial scale due to
difficulties in obtaining high quality precursors used in the intermediate stages of sarin
production. Iraq, however declared production of 22 tonnes of pyrophosphonates in 1990,
a stable solid material, 19 tonnes of which was processed into sarin precursor MPC that
same year.
In an effort to increase the yield and purity of sarin, Iraq also researched an alternate
reaction for the final stage of sarin production by a method based on the sarin precursor
TMP. This route was adopted for the production of sarin in 1987 despite the fact that the
purities and yields were not significantly improved,.
The same method was used also for some binary sarin munitions. Iraq mixed two key
sarin precursors directly in munitions; one was pre-loaded and the second was added
shortly (hours – days) before use. Such an approach was however only applied by Iraq to
aerial bombs and ballistic missiles warheads and had nothing in common with “true”
binary systems developed by other countries. This local method is referred to as an “Iraqi
binary”.
In 1995, Iraq declared that it had previously carried out research on the “true” binary
sarin munitions. The 2002 CAFCD contains details on its development of 155-mm binary
artillery shells filled with sarin precursors25. The declaration describes the successful
results Iraq obtained in the synthesis of sarin and cyclosarin agents in artillery shells. The
same CAFCD provides information on modifications and field tests carried out with
binary 155mm and 152mm artillery shells. According to that declaration, research on
binary systems for artillery shells started in 1983 with 10 imported prototypes. Iraq stated
that attempts had produced negative results and the project was cancelled. Around the
end of 1987 or the beginning of 1988, research re-started. After successful trials with
152mm shells, at the end of 1988, Iraq began testing 155mm extended range shells. In
1989, a firing test was conducted at a firing range, using 120 shells: the results were
positive.
Iraq supported this information with sketches of the shells but did not provide any
technical drawings. However, Iraq provided a report by the Technical Research Centre
(TRC) “On the progress of research into Binary Chemical Weapons”26
In 1996, UN inspectors recovered some binary 155-mm shells at MSE 27 and their
assessment partly confirmed Iraq’s declarations. Based on information and documents
supplied by Iraq, MSE had conducted successful field tests of binary artillery systems for
sarin and had finished its work on 14 January 1989, before the TRC started similar tests.
25
ibid
UNMOVIC Document No. 701004
27
UNSCOM 172/CW-35, March 1997, and UNSCOM 190/CBW-04, June 1997
26
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CHAPTER III.III
The TRC, according to its own report and interviews with UN inspectors, also achieved
significant results in static and dynamic tests for binary sarin artillery shells.
According to Iraq, there was no mass production of any “true” binary artillery munitions,
although MSE reported to the Ministry of Defence in December 1988 that “MSE…may
probably enter into the standardized production…of the binary artillery munitions that are
of long range and are safe to work”28 .
Comment
Iraq was aware that binary munitions systems were easier and safer to handle and had
significant advantages in terms of long-term storage. Iraq’s apparent success in
developing some binary systems for different types of munitions suggests that its CW
programme was maturing. The information provided by Iraq and gathered by UN
inspectors does not shed light on why Iraq did not more fully exploited its successful
research and development results regarding binary artillery systems. The ISG reported
that one 152mm binary sarin round was used as Improvised Explosive Device against
coalition forces after March, 2003.
Sarin Analogs Research29
Throughout the whole sarin programme, Iraq researched number of routes and variations
for production of sarin analogs including:
• In 1987-1988 Iraq found that a cyclohexyl analog of sarin (so called cyclosarin),
and its mixture with sarin are more toxic than sarin itself. Moreover it was
possible to use the same production line for cyclosarin and/or its mixture with
sarin production. 30
• Another substance chemically similar to sarin – ethylsarin - was produced on a
laboratory scale using a similar sarin synthetic route. Because of the poor toxic
properties obtained in comparison with sarin and cyclosarin, Iraq did not pursue
industrial production of ethylsarin. 31
• Iraq successfully produced both thiosarin and so called tammelin esters at a
research level. From a toxicological point of view there were no significant
benefits in these sarin analogs over sarin itself. However, to some extent this
R&D activity was a preliminary stage of VX-related research. It helped the Iraqi
scientists learn how to introduce sulfur into the phosphorus-containing fragment
and how to attach choline. 32
28
UNSCOM Doc No 701004
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.023
30
UNSCOM Doc No 200072.001
31
UNSCOM Doc No 200095 .002
32
Chemical CAFCD December2002, Chapter IV, para 4.2.2.4, para 4.2.2.5
29
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CHAPTER III.III
Sarin Precursors Research
Iraq researched almost all known sarin precursors. Research was conducted mainly in the
SEPP/MSE laboratories but also in other research centres33.
Trimethylphosphite (TMP): Research in synthesizing TMP was undertaken in 1985, and
again from 1987 to 1990.34 Being partly successful at the laboratory scale in synthesis of
TMP by at least two different routes Iraq subsequently failed to reproduce these results at
an industrial scale.
Dimethylmethyl phosphonate (DMMP): In 1984, Iraq attempted to synthesize DMMP
from domestically sourced trimethylphosphite of an unknown purity. The synthesis of
DMMP from TMP was conducted via a catalyzed reaction.35
Dimethyl phosphonate (DMPH): Two synthetic methods for DMPH were attempted in
the 1984 - 1989 timeframe.36 Iraq was successful with synthesis of DMPH by one of the
tested synthetic routes on a laboratory scale and succeeded also to transfer its R&D
results to industrial scale. This achievement, although not fully exploited, gave Iraq the
potential to produce MPC without using TMP, which was in short supply by the end of
1990.
Pyrophosphate: In 1985 and 1988, Iraq attempted the pyrolysis of DMPH to produce the
pyrophosphate which is an intermediate precursor for MPC production.37 Iraq was
successful in this project.
Hydrogen Fluoride (HF): Indigenous production of hydrofluoric acid was researched in
1987 and 1989.38 The research was stopped due to low yield and a large quantity of byproducts. According to Iraq, the by-products were not identified because of the
difficulties in their analysis by spectral methods.
Methylphosphonyl dichloride (MPC): Iraq researched several processes for MPC
production.39 In 1984, the research focused on producing MPC from DMMP (which was
obtained indigenously from imported precursor TMP) and a method was applied for
industrial production. Iraq also attempted to synthesize MPC from pyrophosphate on
small-scale in 1985 and 1988.40 This project advanced further and resulted in industrial
scale production of MPC from 19 tonnes of pyrophosphates in 1990.
33
It was probably initiated in Al Rashad
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.013
35
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.001
36
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.007
37
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.023
38
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.023
39
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.023, Doc No 200071.025
40
UNSCOM Doc No 135015.040
34
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CHAPTER III.III
Methylphosphonyl difluoride (MPF): MPF was synthesized using different fluorinating
agents.41 One particular fluorination procedure was adopted in the production of MPF.
Comment
The initial research period for sarin was comparatively short, since the Iraqis relied
solely on available precursor chemicals, and moved on to production of relatively low
purity agent, although accepted for use in the battlefield during Iran-Iraq war. It was
also evident that Iraqi researchers tried to increase the purity of their products during
this first phase. They attempted to increase yields by modifying synthesis procedures in
the final step of sarin production. The result of the modification in the opinion of the UN
inspectors did not bring the expected results; it increased cost of production but not
yields, nevertheless Iraq adopted it.
Iraq’s CW programme was able to produce sarin-filled weapons that were useful on the
battlefield even if they were of relatively low quality. Iraq was not able to indigenously
produce most of the sarin precursors with sufficient purity nor was it able to purify a
final agent to enable the final product to have a long shelf-life.
Research on VX42
Iraqi interest in VX dates back before the MSE era, possibly as early as the mid or late
1970's with the Chemical Corps’ activities at the Al Rashad laboratory-scale facility.
However, the first documented evidence of VX is from 1984. 43 Iraqi research efforts to
make the chemical warfare agent VX were significant.44 The VX programme involved
several research teams of MSE.
The direction of the research was started using information available from the open
literature. This information presented many routes for the production of V-agents. To
some degree Iraq investigated all of them but focused on four pathways:
A – final agent was produced from choline derivative and so called monoester;
B – final agent was produced from choline derivative, ethanol and so-called MPS
(simplified variation of previous pathway A);
C – final agent was produced from thiocholine derivative and so called oxymonoester;
D - final agent was produced from chlorocholine derivative and phosphonoester
containing thiol fragment (could be considered as “chemical mirror” of previous pathway
C).
At the end of 1987 MSE was ordered to move VX production to an industrial level by
route A. A trial using VX produced by route A was made with the available munitions at
MSE: this involved three 500 gauge aerial bombs and one 122mm rocket to test for
corrosion effects and stability of the agent. The VX produced was of a purity comparable
to that of sarin and had degraded quickly, but nevertheless it could have been effective
for immediate use in the battlefield.
41
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.021-CW-2
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.023
43
Report on VX TEM, 2-6 February 1998
44
UNSCOM Doc No 200107.001, UNSCOM Doc No 200107.008
42
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CHAPTER III.III
The VX produced by route A degraded quickly because of impurities in the final
precursors and respectively in the final product. Therefore Iraq decided to switch to
another simpler route, route B that involved two steps less than route A.
In this case, the method selected by Iraq was the simplest method containing the least
number of stages (route B). Iraq attempted several batch experiments to produce this
compound45 via route B. The results however, were also unsatisfactory because of the
poor stability of the final product. To solve the problem of stability, Iraq pursued the
concept of producing a semi-final product, ‘dibis’, from which VX can be produced in
one easy step..
An eight-month trial using VX produced by route B was conducted at Muthanna
Research and Development Directorate. The results of this trial demonstrated that the
intermediate product (‘dibis’) was stable and therefore the R&D Directorate of MSE
suggested considering it as a potentially strategic source of VX for long-term storage.
Iraqi officials admitted that the government had a long-term programme for VX research
and development. It is unclear when exactly the VX programme ended. Iraq declared that
in addition to two production trials of VX in April 1990 the efforts to improve quality of
the VX precursor MPS on a laboratory scale continued until as late as the end of 1990.46
Additionally, Iraq acknowledged that it had considered another route (route C), which
might result in good quality VX47. In 1992 the Iraqi government approved the patent for
production of VX precursor thiocholine (a chemical for which the only known use is as
precursor for VX production via route C) from commercially available chemical thiourea.
Comment
It is not certain if all components of Iraq’s synthetic research have been declared. Based
on what is known about Iraq’s research programme on VX, it seems as though the only
one precursor, Choline, was produced with the high purity. The major outstanding
problem for Iraqi researchers was the formation of the Phosphorus-Sulfur-alkyl fragment
in VX.
Documents provided by Iraq show that it had succeeded in obtaining high purity VX at
the R&D level using a chemical route (route D) different from those that it declared it had
used at the production level (A and B)48.
In August 1988, when the war with Iran ended, there was no immediate demand for
chemical weapons. What was needed was self-sufficiency for precursors, improved
45
UNMOVIC Doc No 904009
UNMOVIC Doc No 700057
47
UNSCOM 202, September 1997 “The choice of Route C and its production”
48
UNMOVIC Document Nos 200071.023, 200127, 200130 and Letter from Iraq reference 2/1/234
46
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CHAPTER III.III
production methods, binary weapons, strategic stores and new delivery means.
Developmental efforts along all of these lines proceeded throughout 1989 and 1990.
Additionally Iraq pursued a binary VX project for artillery systems, applying route C.
Iraq’s level of progress in producing binary VX weapons systems is unclear. Research of
VX binary systems was conducted in parallel to sarin binary munitions by MSE and
TRC. Both research centres reported positive results. According to information obtained
by UN inspectors in an interview, TRC personnel had wanted to continue their binary VX
research to the next stage, which would have involved using 152mm artillery shells in
field trials. However, Iraq stated that all research work was terminated49. TRC had
developed a prototype for VX artillery shells and had conducted static tests in the
laboratory. In spite on the encouraging results Iraq clamed it never conducted field trials
with the use of VX binary systems.
Comment
Based upon published synthetic techniques and the available chemical stocks, Iraq
attempted to devise a simplified synthetic pathway for VX to satisfy its ambition of
possessing one of the most toxic nerve agents possible.
Due to the lack of supporting evidence on production levels and purities of agent, it is not
possible for UN inspectors to make a complete assessment of how far the long-term
research goals of the VX programme had progressed.
Additional Research into CW agents
Iraq researched many agents. The aim of the research and development programme was
to familiarize scientists with as many agents as possible in order to provide a range of
options to fit both production capabilities and military requirements.
As mentioned earlier, in the area of nerve agents, analogs of sarin (iso- and n-butyl-,
ethyl- thio-), diisopropyl fluoro phosphonate, soman and tammelin esters as well as V
agents, were studied. Within V-agents related research activities VXO-agent (oxygen
analog of VX)50 and O-isopropyl analog of VX51 were synthesized.
Iraq also studied synthesis techniques for cyanogen chloride and adamsite. There is no
evidence that any of these were produced at levels beyond the laboratory scale.
Chemicals with less potential as CW agents such as phencyclidine (PCP), a
hallucinogenic compound known as “angel dust”, as well as incapacitants such as BZ and
its analogues were also investigated.
49
UNSCOM 202 September 1997
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, para 4.9.3.7.1
51
UNSCOM Doc No 200071.023
50
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CHAPTER III.III
After the Gulf War in 1991, MSE directed part of its R&D efforts towards civilian
projects including chlorine based disinfectants and insecticides.
Comment
To a certain extent, the Iraqis were able to produce most CW related compounds in the
laboratory, but in many cases failed to produce them on a larger scale with qualities
achieved at laboratory level, even with batch-based process engineering. Although it is
difficult to make an evaluation of Iraq’s achievements during 1990 due to the lack of the
original MSE documentation for this period of time, it is Commission’s understanding
that the impediment to the Iraq’s pre-1991 CW programme was the lack of expertise and
other capabilities at industrial level.
Despite Iraq’s insufficient capabilities to indigenously produce industrial-scale quantities
of good quality and stable precursors and chemical warfare agents, Iraq did produce
chemical weapons that inflicted severe casualties during its war with Iran in the 1980s
and impacted on the course of the war.
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CHAPTER III.IV
CS PRODUCTION
Introduction
According to the CWC, although CS does not constitute a chemical weapon it is
nevertheless prohibited for use in combat. CS known chemically as o-chlorobenzylmalononitrile is used widely as a riot control agent. CS is usually produced in either a dry
(powder) form or dissolved in a liquid solvent. The powder form is aerosolized by using
pyrotechnic mixtures, while the liquid form is aerosolized by explosion or by using an
aerosol generator.
Although Iraq declared that it started CS research at the beginning of the1970s, it stated
that the first production trials at the Al Rashad laboratory scaled site were not conducted
until the end of the decade. Despite CS being regarded as a (non-lethal) riot control agent,
Iraq declared that it used CS for military purposes. Iraq declared that CS was weaponized
in mortar shells, rocket propelled grenades and aerial bombs and used in combat during
Iran-Iraq war. There are conflicting claims as to whether Iraq used CS or other chemical
warfare agents as early as during the first few weeks of the Iran/Iraq war. In some open
source articles it is claimed that Iraq started using CS at least at the beginning of 1982.1
Iraq’s declarations regarding CS were very general and. many aspects of Iraq’s CS
production and use were unsupported with documentary evidence. In addition, some of
the information provided by Iraq proved to be incorrect when investigated by UN
inspectors.
Process
Iraq imported precursors to synthesize CS in tonne quantities through a process available
in open-source literature.2 SEPP/MSE produced CS in a slurry form. The slurry was
exposed to the air and sunlight, dried and then the dry powder was ground by a mill3 and
the milled product was stored in 40 litre drums. In 1992, Iraq declared that no specialized
plant was used for its past production of CS. The production process was not complicated
and was not demanding in terms of specialized technical knowledge or purpose produced
equipment. A simple, small reactor was used to produce up to three batches a day.
Comment
Iraq did not have technical problems with the final stage of CS production, which was
simply based on the mixing of two imported key precursors. On laboratory/small scale
Iraq could successfully synthesize one of the key precursors, malononitrile, by a fivestage route. Iraq had planned to achieve self-sufficiency on an industrial scale with this
CS precursor but to extent of UNMOVIC’s knowledge did not achieve this. At the same
1
Anthony H. Cordesman, Abraham R. Wagner The Lessons of Modern War, Volume II: Iran-Iraq War,
West view Press,1990
2
Chemical FFCD 1996 Para. 4.7.1
3
Chemical FFCR May 1992, paras. 3.6.4.1-3.6.4. 3
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CHAPTER III.IV
time Iraq could not overcome problems with the synthesis of another key CS precursor O-chlorobenzaldehyde. For this reason, the import of key precursors was crucial for
production of CS by Iraq.
Quality
Iraq used high-quality imported precursors4 to produce CS with approximately 90%
purity. This quality was military acceptable and CS was filled into several types of
munitions.
Precursors
Iraq procured chemicals for its CS programme from foreign companies in the mid and
late 1980s.5 Documentary evidence provided by Iraq indicates that on the basis of
research results, Iraq had intended to modify one of the production sites at Muthanna to
manufacture cyanoacetamid (for syntheses of malononitrile).6 Iraq intended to produce
malononitrile,7 at a semi-industrial scale at the Malik plant at SEPP/MSE8.
Chronology of CS Activity
Laboratory-scale research and familiarization with CS began at Al Rashad site in 1971.9
This research provided the chemical corps staff at Al Rashad with the necessary
experience and confidence to progress into the more toxic chemical agent production.10
In 1974 when the Al Rashad facility was absorbed into the Al-Hazen Ibn Al-Haitham
Institute, this research continued. One synthesis laboratory was used by the “chemical
group” for the first small-scale efforts to produce CS. This group was also responsible for
the purchase of pilot plants. In 1979, the Al-Rashad site was returned to the chemical
corps (following the demise of the Al-Hazen Ibn Al-Haitham Institute). The Al-Rashad
facility contained a small reactor for the production of CS and a simple CS filling unit11.
Iraq declared that later there was a special riot control agent laboratory at the research
and development directorate of SEPP/MSE.12 Iraq further declared that most of the work
with CS was devoted to producing bulk agent although the first tonne of CS was not
produced there until 1983 (see table III.IV.I). Much of the research and development with
regard to CS had already been done prior to the formation of Project 922 and the
establishment of SEPP in 1981. Iraq did provide information about some continued CS
4
UNSCOM 153/CW-31 June 1997, Annex B appendix 4
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IIIB
6
UNMOVIC Document No 901012
7
UNSCOM Doc No 200068.00.
8
UNSCOM Doc No 200096.009
9
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter I para 1.1.1
10
Chemical FFCD June 1992, para 1.8
11
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter I para. 1.5.5.1
12
Chemical FFCR May 1992, Annex 1
5
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CHAPTER III.IV
research at SEPP: two reactors were used for research in the Salah al Din and Al Waleed
divisions of SEPP/MSE on different compounds and agents including CS.13
In addition to the research and production of CS both at the Al Rashad facility and later at
Muthanna, CS was also under development at the Technical Research Centre (TRC) at
Salman Pak. The TRC operated as a technical agency in support of the intelligence and
security apparatus of Iraq. Iraq declared that in 1981 about one tonne of CS was produced
at the Al-Salman site (Table III.IV.I).14 Although scant details are available regarding the
extent of research, development and production at the Salman Pak facility Iraq declared
that this agent was produced during a two-month period. CS was manufactured in a metal
container, then the mix was filtered and the agent packed in plastic containers.15
Iraq stated that it conducted tests with CS in both liquid form and as a powder. In the
early 1980’s, Iraq conducted basic CS-filled munitions tests using mortar shells, rocket
propelled grenades and aerial bombs. SEPP/MSE cooperated with the Al Qaa Qaa facility
to produce and test smoke canisters and rockets.16
Field trials were carried out with munitions filled with liquid or powder CS. Smoke
generators from the armed forces were modified to spray CS liquid. A test of this device
was conducted in the Al Hasua area in 1982.17 The result was positive.
Iraq declared that SEPP/MSE cooperated with TRC at Salman Pak in studying the effects
of mixing CS with biological agents, in particular aflatoxin. This was a research project
as declared by Iraq but results from this did not lead to weaponization.
In 1983-1984 the production of CS began at SEPP/MSE as the Ghasi project18, which
was known by UN inspectors to be a project for the processing of crystalline products.
CS was produced in the open area of the filling station (area “E” on the Muthanna
map).19
In 1988, a test for smoke canister containing mixture of Adamsite and CS and smoke
generation chemicals occurred at a chemical proving ground .20 According to Iraqi, the
result was not encouraging.
In its 1992 Declaration, Iraq stated that it had produced two tonnes of CS at MSE in
1990. In 1992 the reactor used for CS production was moved from MSE to Fallujah 3.21
Iraq declared that in summer of 1991 that it destroyed unilaterally by demolition
explosives at Airfield 37, 125 type 250 aerial bombs filled with CS.
13
UNSCOM 239/CW-47, May 1998, page B-3-1
Chemical CAFCD Decemnber 2002, Chapter XIII, para. 13.3
15
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter XIII para. 13.3
16
UNSCOM Doc. No.200095.001
17
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter VIII para. 8.8.1
18
UNSCOM 239/CW-47, May 1998
19
UNSCOM 02/CW-01, June 1991, Executive Summary
20
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter VIII para. 8.8.5.1
21
UNSCOM 153/CW-31, June 1997, Annex B, appendix 4
14
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CHAPTER III.IV
According to 1992 Iraq’s declarations the total quantity of CS produced in the period
from 1981 to 1990 was about 12.5 tonnes (Table III.IV.I).22
Table III.IV.I CS production in the years declared by Iraq
Year
Tonnes
1983
1
1984
3
1987
5
1988
1.5
1990
2
12.5
Total
From1983 to 1990 CS was produced at MSE. No details are provided for 1982, 1985 or
1986.
In 2002 Iraq declared that one tonne of CS was produced at Salman Pak in 1981.
Comment
Despite Iraq’s declaration that it produced about 13.5 tonnes of CS, even a very rough
calculation based on munitions declared as filled, casts doubt on this estimate. Iraq
declared that it had weaponized CS into: 21,600 x 120mm mortar shells, each contained
about 0.4kg giving a total of 8,640kg CS; 125 x “250” type aerial bombs with each bomb
having about a 60kg capacity, giving a total 7,500 kg of CS; 253 x “500” type aerial
bombs with each bomb having a capacity of about 102kg, giving a total of 23,970kg CS
required. Taking a conservative estimate of the CS purity at 85% the total quantity of CS
needed would be about 34 tonnes, not 13.5 tonnes as declared. Moreover, Iraq declared
it had filled 82mm mortar shells and RPG-7 grenades with CS. The quantity of these
munitions is unknown. MSE also supplied the chemical corps with the following: tablets
of CS for testing the tightness of the gas mask in 1985, smoke canisters of CS for training
during 1988 and 20 litre containers holding a solution of 10% CS in dichloroethane for
training.23
When UN inspectors raised the anomalies mentioned above during meetings with Iraqi
representatives, Iraq later declared in 1997 that the estimated amount of produced CS
from 1984 to 1988 was about 40 tonnes.24
22
Chemical FFCR May 1992, para. 1.12, Chemical CAFCD December 2002
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter II, para. 2.1.1.4.2
24
Iraq letter 2/1/C/266, General A. M. Rasheed to UNSCOM 24 May 1997
23
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CHAPTER III.IV
Weaponization and storage
According to Iraq, CS was used to fill into 21,600 munitions25 although from the
comment box this figure relates only to the 120mm mortars.
MSE filled mortar shells in building E10 (“E” area) prior to 1988. The shells were filled
with CS using barrel pumps and then closed with a mechanical press.26 A CS canisterfilling machine was located27 outside the building. A special line was used for aerial
bombs.28
In early 1980s, ammunition filled with CS was stored at the Al Rashad site.29 Iraq
declared that aerial bombs were partly consumed in 1986.30 In the period just prior to the
Gulf War in 1991, Iraq declared that mortar shells and aerial bombs were stored at
Muhammadiyat ammunition depot31 and that aerial bombs were also stored at the airstrip
37.32 At the end of December 1990, MSE had over four tonnes of CS in storage yet to be
weaponized.33 A UN inspection report mentions building C57 of MSE as the CS storage
place. The same place in another Iraqi34 document is called Bin Hayan 4 and presented as
CS production site. This caused confusion with regard to the final location of this agent.
The explanations Iraq provided to UN inspectors lacked supporting evidence.
25
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter XI, Table; Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter XI
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter I, para 1.5.6.2
27
UNSCOM 02/CW-01, June 1991
28
Chemical FFCR May 1992, Annex 28
29
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter I para. 1.5.3.1
30
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter XI, Table VI
31
UNMOVIC Doc. No 700029, 700030
32
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter I para. 4
33
UNMOVIC Doc No 700007
34
Iraq letter 2/1/C/266, General Amer .M.Rasheed to UNSCOM 24 May 1997
26
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CHAPTER III.IV
Comment
Iraq had a good knowledge of CS. They realized that this agent could be dispersed as
aerosols obtained from either powder or liquid after the CS powder was dissolved in a
specific solvent. CS was also used as a component of smoke mixture.
It appears that Iraq’s CS programme was carried out in two phases. The first phase (
from the early 1970s until 1981) included the initial research and development of the
agent, a survey of chemical synthesis methods and developing capabilities for the largescale production of CS based on the imported key precursors available.
The second phase (after 1981 until the end of Gulf War) included the production of CS,
its use in combination with other agents and filling CS into munitions such as mortal
shells, rocket warheads and aerial bombs. The use in bombs and mortars suggests that
Iraq considered CS as a chemical warfare agent. Given its ability to hinder unprotected
personnel for short periods of time (several minutes) when exposed to the requisite
concentration,35 CS according to Iraq’s declarations was used in conjunction with other
chemical agents and conventional ammunition to cause confusion among enemy ground
troops during Iran-Iraq war.
At the beginning of the CW programme, Iraq faced few constraints in importing key
precursors and chemicals required for CS production. Moreover, in the period up to
1988, Iraq attempted to develop its own routes to produce two precursors on the basis of
domestic and imported raw chemicals. Iraq also considered sites for the production of
precursors although there is no evidence that the production of precursors was ever
carried out.
Iraq was not only able to produce quantities of CS to be used as a single agent; it also
experimented combining CS with other agents. It is possible that Iraq considered CS as a
prospective chemical warfare agent or perhaps CS was an agent of opportunity,
successfully produced before other CW agents and available to be filled in the abundant
munitions, which were available.
35
UNSCOM Doc No 200108.003
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.V
MUSTARD PRODUCTION1
Introduction
In military terminology, the common names “Mustard” or “Mustard Gas” refer to a
specific family of chemical warfare agents comprising a variety of compounds that are
similar in chemical structure. Sulphur mustard, bis (2-chloroethyl) sulfide, is one member
of this family of agents; it is an oily liquid with a characteristic garlic smell and yellow to
dark-brown colour.
Sulphur mustard is a systemic poison that affects all human tissues. It is a strong
blistering agent when in contact with the skin and lethal when inhaled. Due to its low
volatility, it is classified as a persistent CW agent. Despite a century of research, there is
still no antidote against it. This is one of the reasons why it is still considered to be one of
the most important chemical warfare agents. Mustard was the first CW agent produced by
Iraq for its CW programme in bulk. It was manufactured in the largest quantities
(mustard constituted about 70% of Iraq’s CW arsenal) and in the best quality of all
chemical warfare agents Iraq acquired.
Iraq showed interest in the synthesis of nitrogen mustard, (tris(2-chloroethyl)amine)2 and
its analogs, but no evidence is available to UNMOVIC that Iraq produced nitrogen
mustard on a large scale. Therefore, when the name “mustard” is used in the text, it refers
to sulphur mustard.
Process
Several mustard industrial production routes are known. They lead to the same principal
chemical, but with different purity and composition of by-products.
According to Iraq’s declarations, the first process selected by Iraq was the chlorination of
thiodiglycol (TDG) using thionyl chloride (SOCl2), which gave a high purity agent3.
Because of the low availability of thionyl chloride, Iraqi scientists performed chlorination
using phosphorus trichloride. The quality of mustard obtained with this method was
similar to that obtained using thionyl chloride. Additional technological steps were
however required4.
Method 1:
Method 2:
TDG + 2SOCl2 ↔ Mustard + 2 HCl + 2 SO2 (1981 – 1987)
3 TDG + 2 PCl3 ↔ 3 Mustard + 2 H3PO3 (after 1987 –1991)
Iraq studied two alternative routes for the production of sulphur mustard from locally
available materials. The first involved the reaction of TDG using hydrogen chloride
(HCl) as the chlorinating agent - either in the gaseous state or as aqueous solution; the
second involved another synthesis route of reacting ethylene with sulphur-chloride
1
The term “mustard” is used throughout this article for sulphur-mustard (NATO code H). See chapter III.I.
UNSCOM Doc No 200163.001, 135015.003
3
UNSCOM Doc No 200096, 11306, 113071, 113075, 113081, 113117
4
UNSCOM Doc No 200096.037
2
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CHAPTER III.V
(SCl2/S2Cl2)5. Iraq declared research on this process for 1985 and 1989-1990. All raw
materials for making mustard by this route were locally available in Iraq6.
Documentary evidence (a letter written by the director of MSE to his superior) indicates
that Iraq had been interested in pursuing this process as late as in December 19907. The
letter states that ‘there was a coordination with PC3 group for the purpose of preparing
and modifying the ethylene gas vehicles when needed to resume the mustard production
using Iraqi local substances’.
UN inspectors did not find evidence suggesting that this process had actually been used
by Iraq on an industrial scale, most likely because the process it had followed was
somewhat simpler and necessary precursors were available 8
Quality
There is substantial evidence9 to show that Iraq was able to produce good quality
mustard, suitable for long-term storage10. The same evidence however, shows instances
of few batches of low quality agent or, agent which was “spoiled” during storage. With
respect to method two (above) used for large –scale production of mustard Iraq declared
that it had problems with process control with respect to “burning11”. Also, it faced the
problem of mustard polymerization (the formation of the viscous tar inside the liquid
agent) during the long-term storage.
While the most of the mustard filled artillery shells were well preserved and contained
high purity agent, although sometimes polymerized to various degrees, aerial bombs
filled with mustard were in many cases heavily leaking due to the growing pressure
inside munitions, caused by degradation of the agent. Corrosion of the material of
construction of munitions, growing pressure inside the munitions12, or agent
polymerization13, was the most common evidence of the lower purity agent.
During its activities in Iraq UNMOVIC analyzed the contents of the artillery shells that
had been stored for at least twelve years and later destroyed by inspectors in February
2003. The results revealed that the shells still contained high purity (more than 90%)
mustard.14
5
UNSCOM Doc No 200159.001
Ethylene was produced in the Basra petrochemical plant, sulphur was mined at Mishraq and also
recovered from natural gas according to Iraq’s December 2002 semi-annual declaration (2002-2\F7\S)].
7
UNMOVIC Doc No 700057
8
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, Para 4.4.1.5
9
UNMOVIC Doc No 102001, 113003, 113011, 113035, 113045, 113060, 113066, 113070, 113081,
113087, 113091, 113092, 113093, 113095, 113117, 113133, 115012, 115112, 120032, 126001, 127001,
129001, 131001, 132001, 140001, 142001, UNSCOM Doc No 200096.001
10
The Iraqi Quality Control documents and UN findings show that degradation rate of some mustard
produced was so low that it and munitions containing it might still be viable now.
11
Burning means overheating due to the fact that a lot of heat is being generated during exothermic
reaction of PCl3 with TDG.
12
UNSCOM 11/CW-03 August 1991
13
UNSCOM 11/CW-03 August 1991
14
UNSCOM 11/CW-03 August 1991
6
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CHAPTER III.V
High quality mustard production was achieved by Iraq through the acquisition and use of
high quality starting materials, high quality corrosion resistant chemical process
equipment and practical experience gained by Iraqi personnel over several years of
mustard production.
The quality control of the production was relatively simple. For routine determination of
mustard purity a colorimetric method was used and the results were “confirmed” using a
gas chromatography method with an internal standard15.
Precursors
Thiodiglycol
The thiodiglycol used for the production of mustard was imported. Iraq studied the
preparation method of this chemical16 (see chapter III.III). While some experiments had
been carried out at the research level, no further development had been pursued according
to Iraq. Although Iraq declared the import of thiodiglycol, it did not provide any precise
figures for the quantities imported. Letters of Credit [LCs] quoted in the 1996 CW FFCD
suggests that at least 3,225 tonnes may have been supplied to Iraq17. In the same FFCD,
Iraq declared the processing of 2,848 tonnes of thiodiglycol into sulphur mustard during
the period 1981 to 199018. The reminder (188 tonnes) had been destroyed under
UNSCOM supervision and UNSCOM saw the evidence of the destruction of another 120
tonnes declared destroyed through armed action during the Gulf War, but accounting was
not possible due to the state of destruction.19
Thionyl chloride
Thionyl chloride was the major chlorinating agent that Iraq used in the production of
various CW agents20. Out of some 5,000 tonnes of thionyl chloride, which were used in
the CW programme only 70 tonnes had been produced by Iraq. This was in 1988 at
Fallujah II but the production was stopped “for several technical reasons” 21.
15
UNSCOM 11/CW- 03 August 1991
UNSCOM 11/ CW-03 August 1991
17
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IIIA. There are fourteen LC documents listed. Ten of these
documents suggest 2875 tonnes were imported. Of the remaining four LC documents, two LC documents
[82/3/979 & 82/3/1090] relating to supply of 350 tonnes, Iraq have the notation “probably supplied”; one
LC document [81/3/1321] relating to an unspecified quantity of the chemical, Iraq has the notation
“probably supplied” and the remaining LC [84/3/416] relating to supply of 500 tonnes of the chemical, Iraq
has the notation “probably cancelled”
18
Such as GB – Sarin, GF – Cyclosarin, GE – Ethylsarin, VX and Mustard.
19
UN document S/1999/94, p.85
20
Such as GB – Sarin, GF – Cyclosarin, GE – Ethylsarin, VX and Mustard.
21
Such as GB – Sarin, GF – Cyclosarin, GE – Ethylsarin, VX and Mustard.
16
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CHAPTER III.V
Phosphorus Trichloride
Iraq had constructed a PCl3/POCl3 production plant at Fallujah II, which was
mechanically complete but not became operational because the instrumentation critical to
its safe operation was missing22. It is unlikely that Iraq ever indigenously produced PCl3.
About 4,000 tonnes of PCl3 23 , which was imported as early as 1984, (according to LCs)
was not used until 1987. In 1987 export controls imposed by a number of countries
threatened to halt the supply of thionyl chloride to Iraq and therefore threatened the
continued production of mustard agent. An alternative chlorinating agent was therefore
sought, and Iraq declared that it easily managed to make use of PCl3 as a chlorinating
agent for mustard gas production (280 tonnes). Some quantities of PCl3 were also used in
the synthesis of the MPC precursor DMPH (67 tonnes)24. Large quantities of the PCl3
stock, about 30% of this chemical, were declared by Iraq as lost due to the spillage and
leakage from the storage containers at MSE25. The UNSCOM Chemical Destruction
Group destroyed only 650 tonnes of PCl3 at the MSE, some 690 tonnes less than had
been observed approximately a year earlier.
Chronology
Second half of 198126:
During this time mustard was produced using four small reactors at the Al Rashad
laboratory-scale site. The reported daily capacity was about 50 to 60 kg and according to
Iraq, the quantity produced during 1981 was 10 tonnes.
1982
During this period of time more reactors of the same type were installed at Al Rashad.
The production capacity was 430 kg per day: 75 tonnes was declared produced in 1982.
1983
The production rates of mustard during 1983 are unclear from Iraq’s declarations. It
appears that at the Al Rashad facility corrosion problems prevented the use of some
equipment during 1983. During this year, production started at the P-8 plant27 at
Muthanna. Iraq estimated the total production for the year at 150 tonnes.
Comment
The information is ambiguous with respect to the activities at the Al Rashad site. In
general, the declared activities refer to second half of 1983 so it can be assumed that Al
22
UNSCOM supervised the destruction of key elements of the PCl3/POCl3 plant.
Such as GB – Sarin, GF – Cyclosarin, GE – Ethylsarin, VX and Mustard.
24
See Chapter III.VII Sarin and Cyclosarin Production
25
Such as GB – Sarin, GF – Cyclosarin, GE – Ethylsarin, VX and Mustard.
26
Chemical FFCD June, 1996
27
Also known as Bin Hayan I
23
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CHAPTER III.V
Rashad was producing during this time. However, when discussing the history of the
chemical programme in its declarations, Iraq stated that Al Rashad was closed in the
summer of 1983.28 These two possibly conflicting statements should be taken into account
for any calculations of mustard produced.
1984
During 1984, mustard was only produced at the P-8 site: the capacity of this plant was 1.5
tonnes per day. During the third quarter of the year production was stopped while new
equipment was installed. The plant became operational again in December bringing the
total production capacity at P-8 to four tonnes of mustard daily. Iraq declared that during
1984 it produced 240 tonnes of mustard.
1985
During the first half-year the production continued at the same rate as the latter part of the
previous year. According to Iraq, during the third quarter of the year there was no
production. Although mustard production resumed in December it was not at the full
capacity. Nevertheless, the yearly production was 350 tonnes.
1986
The production of mustard at the P-8 plant continued during the first three months of the
year with only one reactor operating: the plant was then shut down due to a lack of
thionyl chloride. Iraq declared that the total output for the three months was 350 tonnes.
Comment
When calculating a daily output for the time the plant was active the result is about 3.8
tonnes per day (operational period assumed to equal 90 days). However, during an
inspection, Iraq clarified to UNSCOM that the operational period was actually six
months and therefore the daily output is estimated at about two tonnes.
1987
During 1987, Iraq started to produce mustard using phosphorus trichloride as the
chlorinating agent. The declared daily production was four tonnes, so the change in the
production method did not appear to affect the capacity. In the last quarter of 1987, more
reactors were added to the production line which yielded an overall capacity of eight
tonnes per day. According to Iraq, the total quantity produced throughout 1987 was 899
tonnes.
1988
The production of mustard continued during the first half of the year. The plant was shut
down during the second half of the year possibly because of the ceasefire arrangements in
the Iraq-Iran war. Iraq estimated that it produced 494 tonnes of mustard during 1988 and
had a daily production capacity of four tonnes.29
28
Chemical FFCD June 1996 Chapter I. para. 1.1.4
It has to be questioned, why the daily production was cut in half, although no changes in the process were
specified.
29
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CHAPTER III.V
1989
Iraq never officially declared any production of mustard during 1989. However, UN
inspectors learned during interviews that one or two batches of mustard may have been
produced in 1989, but this has not been substantiated.
1990
Following its invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, Iraq resumed the production of mustard
in the second half of the year. Iraq declared a daily capacity of eight tonnes of mustard
with a total production estimated at 280 tonnes.
Comment
Iraq declared a daily output of 50-60 kg of mustard using “small scale” or “non
industrial scale” equipment at the beginning of the programme. The pilot-scale
equipment used by Iraq had the capability to produce significant quantities over an
extended period of time.
According to the June 1996 FFCD, corrosion, lack of spare parts and shortages in
starting materials limited the production of mustard. But due to lack of production
records, such claims could not be verified.
Reliable verification of the quantities of mustard produced was a difficult task. The
declared periods of production are sometimes vague and the information about the
processes themselves lack essential details. The technical capacity of the plants involved
in mustard production was subject to study and assessment. Even rough calculations led
UN inspectors to the conclusion that Iraq had potential capabilities to produce much
more mustard than declared.
For example in 1986 the lack of thionyl chloride interrupted the production of mustard,
but production was resumed in 1987 by using PCl3 as a chlorinating agent. By the end of
1987 more reactors were added to the production line, and so the daily output increased
– not so the annual production figures, declared by Iraq.
Of the total of 3,950 tonnes of CW agents declared produced during the period 1982 to
1990, 2,850 tonnes were sulphur mustard. According to Iraq, 2,443 tonnes of this
mustard were weaponized in artillery shells and aerial bombs. The uncertainty in the
accounting of mustard declared as remaining in 1991 include up to 550 artillery
projectiles filled with this agent.30
30
UNMOVIC - Unresolved Disarmament Issues, March, 2003
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CHAPTER III.VI
TABUN PRODUCTION
Introduction
Tabun (GA)1 has the chemical name O-ethyl N, N-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate.
Tabun was the first chemical warfare nerve agent produced and weaponized by Iraq. It
has a lethal effect if inhaled or deposited on the skin. It is a colourless to brownish liquid
that gives off a colourless vapour that has a faintly fruity smell (odourless when pure).
When it embarked on a chemical warfare agent programme, Iraq did what other CW
state-possessors had done before, and started with the production of the simplest first
generation agents before progressing to more complex and more lethal agents. Iraq had
some familiarity with producing agents such as CS and mustard prior to starting its tabun
bulk production.
In March 1984, during the Iran-Iraq war, a sample of liquid allegedly associated with an
aerial bombing attack on Iranian forces was taken in Iran by experts appointed by the UN
Secretary-General. They investigated allegations made by the Islamic Republic of Iran
concerning the use of chemical weapons by Iraq. Samples analyzed by a designated
laboratory, showed that they contained tabun2.
Process
At the research and development level, Iraq studied several routes to synthesize tabun and
for industrial production, according to Iraqi declarations,3 selected the method based on
the reaction of the N, N-dimethylphosphoramidic dichloride (D4) with sodium cyanide
and ethanol. In 1987, Iraq attempted to improve the production process by altering the
cyanation reagent, but this effort failed to improve yields.
Comment
Iraq was not aware of the fact that the quantities of substrates as presented by the
stoichiometric equation declared were not optimal for industrial production. Only
through empirical analysis did Iraq find a ratio of substrates, which resulted in a better
quality product.
Quality
Despite synthesizing high purity tabun at laboratory scale, Iraq could not reproduce these
results when producing industrial quantities. According to Iraq, the samples, which it
analyzed at Muthanna in March 1984 from first batches, contained only a small
percentage of GA along with the solvent and many decomposition products4. At a later
1
The NATO code designator for tabun is GA, but in its internal documents Iraq used the acronym GF until
1987 (see Chemical CAFCD December 2002,Chapter IV, UNMOVIC Doc. No. 200163, which is NATO
code for cyclosarin. The cryptonym for tabun was “Red”).
2
UN Doc No S/16433
3
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IV, Para. 4.1.1.1
4
Report on the Technical Evaluation Meeting on Chemical Warfare Agent VX, Attachment 1 Para 11.4.8
17 February 1998
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VI
stage, the final product contained an average of 50% to 60% of tabun and about 40% of
solvent at the industrial level. Iraq mastered neither vacuum distillation5 nor filtration to
improve the quality of the final product6.
The tabun programme faced technical difficulties from the beginning, owing primarily to
filtration and purification problems in production. Efforts were made to increase
production quality, but improvements were insufficient to merit further effort. According
to Iraq, the tabun production was cancelled in 1986, most likely in favour of increasing
the efforts in the Iraqi sarin and cyclosarin production, which were ongoing at the same
facility. The research and development efforts to improve the production technology
however, continued after the industrial production of tabun was abandoned.7
Precursors
From the beginning of its programme, Iraq appeared to want to produce all the precursors
for their agents indigenously, and did so with varying degrees of success. Iraqi scientists
were aware of the fact that the key to good quality tabun was the quality of precursors8.
D49: D4, the last stage precursor for tabun was researched in the early 1980’s alongside
the synthesis of the agent itself. In 1981, Iraq attempted to produce D4 using Phosphorus
oxychloride (POCl3) and Dimethylamine hydrochloride (DMA*HCl) as reagents with
relatively good yields and purity. This process was adopted for industrial production in
198210. The drawbacks such as the necessity to deal with large amount of HCl liberated,
hygroscopicity of the salt and its instability, prompted the Iraqi engineers to search for
other methods. However, no alternative was adopted11.
DMA*HCl: In 1985, Iraq attempted to produce dimethylamine hydrochloride in order to
ensure a reliable source of this chemical for D4 synthesis beyond the amount of
DMA*HCl that had been declared imported (570 tonnes).12 Research in this area failed
however and according to Iraq’s declarations,13 the programme relied solely on imported
DMA*HCl.
POCl3: Phosphorous oxychloride, the primary phosphorous source employed to
synthesize D4, was first attempted in 1984. Product purity and yield were good.14
Production was never scaled up using the technique applied, due to a governmental
decision to build a dedicated PCl3 and POCl3 plant at Fallujah 2 using foreign technology
5
UNSCOM Doc No 200163.017, 200163.016
Chemical FFCD June 1996 para 6.2.2.5
7
UNSCOM Doc No 200163.011, No.200163.011, 200096.036,
8
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IV, Para 4.1.4
9
D4 designated as DX (Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IV, page 4-89
10
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter VI, Para 6.2.1.1 and Para 6.2.1.2
11
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IV, Para 4.1.2.2
12
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IIIA, Page 6.
13
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IV, Para 4.1.3
14
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IV, Para 4.1.4
6
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VI
and equipment.15 This production plant at Fallujah 2, however, never became operational
prior to the 1991 Gulf War. Much of the Fallujah 2 facility suffered bomb damage during
the Gulf War including parts of this production plant, which was further destroyed by
Iraq under UN supervision..
Iraq declared that all phosphorous oxychloride used in the production of tabun had been
imported16.
Ethanol:
Iraq imported an alcohol distillation unit17 from a foreign supplier, which should have
been capable of producing absolute alcohol. However, according to Iraq’s declarations,
the best purity ever obtained was 97.5 % and this was insufficient for producing tabun.
Iraq stated that the reason why they failed to obtain higher purity ethanol was that they
neglected to mention the specification of their feedstock to the unit supplier (alcohol
derived through a biological process rather than from a petrochemical plant). Although
Iraq declared that they tried repeatedly from the end of 1984 to 1986 to improve the
purity of the compound, they were not successful. Iraq used only imported absolute
ethanol for the production of tabun.18
Chronology of Tabun Production19
1970s: Tabun was among the chemical warfare agents being researched by the officers of
the chemical corps in the 1970s at Al Rashad laboratory-scaled facility.
1982: Tabun was first produced in laboratory-scale quantities at Al Rashad.20
1984: Tabun was produced using equipment installed at the SEPP/MSE research and
development laboratories. The capacity was 320 litres per day21. By using such
equipment, 30 to 40 tonnes of tabun were produced during the first half of 1984.
After tabun production was transferred to P-7 at Muthanna, a multipurpose plant was
built at the site. In either August or September 1984, the plant operated 24 hours per day,
7 days per week and with 2 to 3 shifts per day. It produced 20 tonnes of tabun at a rate of
one tonne per day. According to Iraq, there were 20 production days in that month with
10 days of downtime for maintenance and settling of the product. One batch production
time was 1-3 days, with regular delays due to mechanical problems such as pipe
blockages, leaks, temperature control problems and salt solidification. The best batch
processing speed achieved was one tonne per day. Purification of this industrial product
15
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter IV, Para. 4.1.6; Chapter I, Para. 1.4.8.1
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Part I, Chapter IIIA, item 7.
17
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter V, Page 5-16.
18
UNSCOM 153/CW-31, May 1997
19
UNSCOM 153/CW-31 May 1997
20
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV, Para 4.1.1
21
UNSCOM 239/CW-47, May 1998
16
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VI
was performed.22 The total quantity of tabun produced in 1984 was approximately 60
tonnes. In December 1984, new reactors were installed at the P-7 plant. 23
1985: In the second quarter, production of tabun continued at P-7 with a capacity of one
tonne per day. Soon afterwards however, production halted once again because of
damage to one of the reactor agitators. After the reactor was replaced, production was
restarted. The total quantity of agent produced over six to seven months24 in 1985 was
approximately 70 tonnes. No official explanation was given by Iraq for the decline in
production efficiency between 1984 (20 tonnes per month) and 1985 (10 tonnes per
month). In all likelihood, Iraq judged that solving the technical problems relating to sarin
was more important than the difficulties it faced with respect to tabun25.
1986: Production of tabun continued at the P-7 plant for five to six months of the year
(Iraq also declared some unsuccessful attempts to produce tabun it had carried out at the
Mohammed and Malik plants). A centrifuge was installed at the P-7 plant in 1986 in
order to filter the slurry produced along with tabun, rather than only using decantation.
The total quantity of tabun produced during the year was approximately 80 tonnes.26
Purity was evaluated at 40-50%. Due to repeated technical problems, tabun production
was terminated in the second half 1986 and never resumed, according to Iraq.
Comment
It is likely that Iraq intended to produce chemical nerve agents from the mid-1970s, when
the President authorized the establishment of the Al Hazen Ibn Al Haitham Institute. In
order to build chemical plants, Iraq employed domestic designers and engineers to
construct facilities at the Samarra site (future MSE) and later imported necessary
equipment. . During the time lapse between making plans for such a production site and
its actual construction and use for agent production at the beginning of 1980, Iraq
increased its expertise in chemistry and chemical engineering by sending chemical corps
and other technical personnel to seek advanced education in foreign countries and by
continuing intense research and development activities even after the demise of the Al
Haitham Institute.
Once begun, it appears that tabun manufacture and the refitting of the P-7 plant were
undertaken to fulfil the immediate requirements of wartime. Although this impure product
had sufficient utility for immediate use on the battlefield, it was not pure enough for longterm storage. The problems of purity and longer-term storage were not unique to tabun.
These difficulties for nerve agents in general are addressed later in Chapter III.
One stage of the tabun production associated with the problems Iraq faced with filtration
deserves attention. Separating solids from liquids using industrial separators is
considered relatively simple. However, Iraq in its declarations and during interviews
22
UNSCOM 153/CW-31 May 1997
UNSCOM 153/CW-31 May 1997
24
UNSCOM 153/CW-31 May 1997
25
UNSCOM 153/CW-31 May 1997
26
UNSCOM 153/CW-31 May 1997
23
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VI
with scientists stated that this was a primary problem in the manufacture of agent. This
difficulty could have been addressed in the initial design phase of the production using
simple engineering solutions. No attempts to resolve the problem in this manner were
declared. One reason for this may have been the comparative success Iraq had, using the
same equipment and expertise to manufacture sarin of higher toxicity.
In the early years of its production, Iraq appeared to have used the same reactors for
tabun that it employed for its mustard programme It seems that the main reason for
stopping Iraq’s tabun programme was the lack of knowledge in the purification and
stabilization process during the synthesis of the final product. This problem plagued Iraq
throughout its entire nerve agent programme.
UNMOVIC assesses that Iraq had difficulties to produce a high purity stable tabun on a
large-scale, and that it displayed limited capabilities in the manufacture of its key
precursors. Iraqi scientists claimed that this was due to their inability to produce pure
D4.. Also, according to Iraq it was the lack of knowledge of how to perform effective
purification of the final agent and its precursors.
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CHAPTER III.VII
CHAPTER III.VII
SARIN AND CYCLOSARIN PRODUCTION
Introduction
Iraq declared industrial-scale production and weaponization of sarin and cyclosarin1.
Both of them are lethal chemical warfare agents, belonging to a group of agents known as
nerve agents, which are powerful cholinesterase inhibitors.
Sarin (GB)2, O-isopropyl methylphosphonofluoridate, is volatile and therefore disperses
quickly in the atmosphere. Its analogue Cyclosarin (GF)3, O-cyclohexyl
methylphosphonofluoridate is more persistent4.
Iraq declared that during the period from 1984 to 1990, it produced 795 tonnes of sarintype agents (GB, GF and a mixture of GB/GF), approximately 732 tonnes of these agents
were weaponized. According to Iraq’s declarations, the production of cyclosarin and a
mixture of sarin and cyclosarin started in the beginning of 1988.
In addition to sarin and cyclosarin, Iraq researched other sarin analogues5. This was done,
according to Iraq for two reasons: to overcome the non-persistent features of sarin and to
add an element of surprise on the battlefield by including a novel agent6. UN inspectors
found some evidence suggesting that certain analogues were produced in more than
laboratory quantities.7, 8
Iraq also declared research and development work on sarin binary weapons systems (see
Chapter III.III on Research and Development) for both. According to Iraq, it carried out
experiments on ‘true’ binary systems using artillery shells and rockets between 1983 and
1990. These binary systems involved the precursors MPF and alcohol being kept separate
in the munitions. Sarin precursors separated by a membrane, mixed and reacted with one
another after the membrane was ruptured after firing. 9. Iraq declared it never produced
such munitions for its CW stockpiles.
1
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Part I, Chapter V and VI
2
GB is a NATO code for sarin
3
GF is a NATO code for cyclosarin
4
The term “sarin” is sometimes used to denote both sarin and cyclosarin
5
Letter from Iraq Ref. 2/1/C/388
6
UNSCOM Doc No 20007123
7
In November 1991 UNSCOM, while analyzing the content of sarin storage containers, found s-butyl, nbutyl and ethyl sarin mixed with GB or with GB+GF in some of the containers.
8
Iraqi document 113054 mentions “Substance: GS via “Secondary Butanol””; UNSCOM Bahrain
Analytical Results,
9
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Part I Chapter VIII, Para 8.9
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CHAPTER III.VII
In addition, Iraq declared that 1024 aerial bombs and 34 missile warheads were filled
with alcohols in 1990, as a crude type of binary system for sarin-type agents. This binarytype system involved filling a munition with alcohol and then manually adding the other
precursor (MPF) just prior to the munition being used in battle. This system is known as
the “Iraqi binary”.10.
Comment
Results of the chemical analysis conducted by UNSCOM 11in 1991 indicated that sarin
might have been mixed with mustard for use in the battlefield. This was not confirmed by
Iraq. Iraq explained that such results were possible due to the fact that the same storage
containers had been used for mustard and sarin without any cleaning in between. The
UN Commission could not confirm whether it was true or not, however a pre-1991MSE
quality control document taken from Iraq states that a storage container in which
mustard would normally be expected, contained sarin instead12.
Documentary evidence13 suggests that after the conclusion of its war with Iran, Iraq
intended to continue l aspects of sarin programme related to improvement of the quality
of this agent in order to achieve its strategic stockpiles. Although there are gaps in the
information provided by Iraq on the extent of its sarin programme especially in the post
Iran-Iraq war period, Iraq’s sarin programme was one for which the Commission has
accumulated considerable details. In general, sarin was one of the two agents that was
produced, weaponized and used by Iraq in the largest quantities (after mustard).
Process
Iraq declared that it had used two methods to produce all of its sarin-type agents.
From 1984 to 1987 Iraq applied a “classic” production method for sarin, widely known
from open literature.
The production process started with the imported trimethylphosphite (TMP) from which
dimethylmethylphosphonate (DMMP)14 was produced.
Then, DMMP was transformed into methylphosphonyldichloride (MPC)15.
MPC was fluorinated to methylphosphonyldifluoride (MPF).
Then the mixture of MPF with MPC was reacted with alcohol to produce sarin.
10
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Addendum, Para. 6.1
11
UNSCOM 17/CW-05, August 1992
12
UNMOVIC Doc. No 113011
13
Letter from Iraq Ref. 2/1/C/388
14
This reaction is known as the Arbusov’s rearrangement
15
In 1990 some MPC was produced from pyrophosphate, see “Alternative methods” Section.
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In the end of 1987, Iraq adopted the “only MPF” method (reaction of MPF with the
alcohol), which was also used in the production of the “Iraqi binary”.
Details of the above processes were included into Iraq’s declarations and assessed by the
UN Commission. A number of meetings were held with Iraq’s experts and officials in
order to map and account for the production part of Iraq’s sarin programme. Below, only
the most significant comments regarding sarin production are included.
Quality
When Iraq embarked on nerve agent production, during the first three years, sarin was
produced alternately with tabun, but in smaller quantities. Later, due to difficulties in the
production of good quality tabun 16, Iraq directed its attention entirely to the production
of sarin, which was more toxic but also more volatile than tabun. The lack of persistency
of sarin is one of the reasons why Iraq later decided to produce the more persistent
cyclosarin. Additionally, the toxicological and biological evaluation of GF and its
mixtures, conducted by Iraq, showed that the toxicity of GF and GB/GF mixture was
greater than that of sarin17. This phenomenon was associated with an increase in the
percutaneous activity of cyclosarin18.
On average, the purity of sarin and cyclosarin produced by Iraq was in the range of 4560%. This level of purity dropped below Iraq’s established quality control acceptance
level of 40%, some 3 to 12 months after production19 with the creation of gaseous and
solid (jelly) degradation products20.
The shelf life of sarin could be extended through purification and stabilisation. Iraq
declared that the only purification method it tried was distillation, which it could not
apply with success. Iraq tried to concentrate its efforts on improvement of the quality of
the immediate organophosphorous precursors, in particular MPC, but claimed that it did
not succeed even at the latest stage of its CW programme.
The “possibility of chemically enhancing” the purity levels of the stored sarin was
considered21 but probably never implemented.
Iraq acknowledged that they studied the stability and the storability of sarin-type agents
produced at the - industrial level in 1989. The results were discouraging and were not
implemented. To overcome these difficulties, in 1990 MSE decided to limit sarin
production by the stage of its immediate precursor MPF and only proceed further
16
See CHAPTER III.VI, “Tabun Production”
17
Iraqi document 200095.001
18
UNSCOM Doc No 200098
19
UNSCOM Doc 200096.014
20
Iraqi document 113054
21
Iraqi document 115112
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CHAPTER III.VII
(reacting this precursor with the alcohol) shortly before the nerve agent munitions would
be needed (‘Iraqi binary’ system).22
Comment
Iraq stated that in the initial years of sarin production, quality control didn’t practically
exist2324. The evaluation of some analytical reports may suggest that before 1986, Iraq
did not have a full understanding of the analytical methods required. With the
establishment of the Quality Control (QC) Department25 in 1987, Iraq made some
improvements in the consistency and quality of its sarin production. An Iraqi official
stated that only around 1987-88 reproducible results were obtained, but that these results
were still much below the results found in literature.
There is documentary evidence from 1988 that Iraq, while still engaged in its war with
Iran, recognized the importance of QC and technological operational procedures.
Sampling and testing of all materials received, stored and produced then became a
routine activity.
An extensive amount of experience and know-how was gathered by Iraq during the
production of sarin and sarin-type agents. Unless Iraq substantially improved its quality
control and production processes for sarin-type agents during the period 1989-1990, it
would not have been able to produce a storable quality product. With respect to the
unaccounted for weaponized sarin-type agents, it is unlikely that they would still viable in
2007although they still may represent a health hazard.
Chronology of sarin production
1970s Iraq found the basic information regarding sarin production in open source
literature. Iraq’s scientists started their familiarization with sarin’s characteristics and its
preparation technologies in 1974. One of the Iraqi officials stated that "the literature was
the source of so much data that we did not need to test or check so much."26 Iraq was
aware that the immediate (last stage) precursors of sarin, methylphosphonyldifluoride
(MPF) and/or methylphosphonyldichloride (MPC) were not commercially available. To
produce them domestically, Iraq had to construct new production plants. Iraq also
required precursors for them and these were available on the international market at that
time.
22
UNSCOM 30, July 1991
23
UNSCOM 170/CW-33, April 1992
24
It was not an impediment to its “successful” immediate use.
25
9 person strong
26
UNSCOM 74/CW-15, April 1994
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CHAPTER III.VII
1984 Iraq declared that the development work on sarin, consisting mainly of testing and
implementation of known27 methods at the pilot scale, started in 1984. Iraq purchased
from foreign supplier about 20 tonnes of trimethylphosphite (TMP) for the production of
MPC in March 1984. This initial quantity acquired was intended according to Iraq for a
pilot-scale plant; however a year later, Iraq imported another 100 tonnes of TMP28. In
December 1984, larger scale production of sarin began29 at the new P-7 plant, which had
a production capacity of 500-600kg/batch. By the end of the year, 5 tonnes of sarin were
produced.
1985 The production of sarin continued at the P-7 plant for the first half of the year.
Production of sarin was then halted and the plant was used for tabun production. About
30 tonnes of sarin was declared as produced during that year.
Comment
Iraq was probably experimenting with the production parameters of both sarin and tabun
during this time and hence the alternating production patterns at the P-7 plant. This may
support the concept that the development of agent production technology was
spontaneous although having planned elements. The CW programme was driven by war
requirements and production capability (technological experience and availability of raw
material and equipment).
1986 In the second half of the year, production of sarin was resumed at the P-7 plant with
the previous capacity of 500-600 kg a batch. Another 40 tonnes were produced and it was
not until later that year that some of the technical problems were solved.
1987 MSE staff spent the first half of the year engaged in the modernisation and repairs
of the plant. Iraq replaced a damaged reactor and installed new, bigger capacity and a
better quality reactor at the P-7 plant raising its capacity to two tonnes/batch. New
production technique was applied at the end of the year, which significantly shortened the
production time of each batch. The improved plant equipment plus the new production
method together resulted in about 209 tonnes of the agent being produced. The first batch
of sarin/cyclosarin mixture was produced as part of an experimental study.
1988 Cyclosarin was produced in significant quantities at the beginning of 1988, in
addition to the production of a sarin/ cyclosarin mixture. Iraq declared that it produced
over 333 tonnes of sarin and its mixture and 60 tonnes of cyclosarin. According to Iraq,
production was stopped in August 198830.
1989 Iraq declared no sarin production for the year 1989.
27
mainly from literature studies
28
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IIIA, item 4
29
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI, Para. 6.3.1.4
30
The time of the end of the Iran Iraq war.
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Comment
Iraqi scientists provided conflicting statements to the UN inspectors in 199531 stating that
bulk production of sarin took place at the first half of 1989 at MSE. A document found by
UNSCOM32 confirms that claim. Officially, however, Iraq has never admitted any sarin
production in 1989. .
1990 Sarin production was resumed in the second half of the year at the MSE at the rate
of one tonne/day. Sarin was produced both at H3 and at the P-7 plant. A total quantity of
117 tonnes was produced before production was interrupted in January 1991 on the
outbreak of Gulf War. Iraq’s concept of an "Iraqi binary" sarin was implemented in mid199033.
Production facilities
The following plants are mentioned in the CAFCD-CW 2002 as being involved in the
production of sarin, cyclosarin and its precursors: pilot plants H1, H2 and H3, Malik,
Mohammed, Ahmed 1, Ahmed 2, Ahmed 3 and P-7. All of these plants were located
within the Muthanna site (greater detail of these production plants at Muthanna site is
contained in Chapter III.II). The Iraqi designed and constructed P-7 plant was the main,
dedicated and most capable plant for the production of sarin-type agents. It contained
some general equipment necessary for the basic production processes but lacked some
specialized equipment such as vacuum and control instrumentation. The plant was
designed by engineers at Muthanna based on the data from its R&D Department and
using equipment available at that time. SEPP’s technical cadre also installed the process
equipment. Iraq considered the P-7 plant as its principle production site for sarin, and
frequently referred to it as the “sarin plant”.
Comment
Iraq declared many technical problems during the production process such as
“corrosion, unsuitable construction materials” of the process equipment (which was
replaced from time to time) and the lack of sufficient utilities in the plant. These
conditions, together with Iraq’s inability to purify effectively the precursors and absence
of the purification stage at the final step of production might have affected the quality of
intermediate and final products and many batches were “spoiled”.
The information available to UNMOVIC regarding the location of the plants, in which
sarin and its precursors were produced, appears reasonably accurate as well as the
31
UNSCOM 153/CW-31, May 1997
32
Iraqi Doc No 129131.001
33
Chemical CAFCD 2002, Addendum, Para. 6.1 and Chapter I, Para 1.8
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CHAPTER III.VII
timescale of its production. Some uncertainties remain, despite efforts to clarify the
inconsistencies in information provided by Iraq; these inconsistencies include the
differences found within the Chemical CAFCD of December 2002, between Chapter V,
“The Production Buildings and the Equipment Installed”, and Chapter VI, “Production
of Chemical Warfare Agents”, concerning timelines and locations.
Most of the production plants declared by Iraq to have been involved in sarin-type agent
production were found by UNSCOM to be damaged by aerial bombardment during the
Gulf War. Remaining chemical process equipment from these plants was subsequently
destroyed under UNSCOM supervision. One plant (P-7) was undamaged and was later
converted into the destruction facility.
Precursors
Dimethylmethylphosphonate (DMMP)
Iraq selected a well-known method for the production of dimethylmethylphosphonate
(DMMP). Iraqi scientists modified this method to make it compatible with the available
equipment and to increase the production capacity.
Iraq declared that it had produced 1025 tonnes of DMMP and achieved satisfactory yield
and purity34 (Table III.VII.I). The Iraqi production of DMMP was affected by the purity
of the imported precursor TMP.
34
Iraqi document 126001
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CHAPTER III.VII
Table III.VII.I DMMP production capacity
Time
Production Capacity
Quantity Produced
[Kg/day]
[Metric tonnes]
60 L/day
H3
1984
15
350 L/day
1985
Plant
H1
350 L/day
60
H1
H3
1986
850
250
H2
Second half of
1987
586
6,000
Malik
January 1988
1989 and 1990
114
No production declared
Comment
The gas-chromatograph analysis of TMP and DMMP is relatively simple and most
probably Iraq did not experience any problems and the quality control results obtained
were reliable. The results of the analysis performed by UN inspectors during the
destruction activities in 1992-1994 were compatible with Iraqi analytical results.
Methylphosphonyldichloride (MPC)
Iraq declared that it started MPC production in 1984 using small capacity equipment.
Production continued to the end of 1990 with output expanding. Various facilities and
equipment were involved. The majority of MPC was produced from DMMP. Iraq
declared that in 1990 it produced 19 tonnes of MPC through DMPH – pyrophosphate
route (Table III.VII.II). According to Iraq, the shortage of imported TMP and availability
of large quantities of PCl3 (which served as a starting material for the latter method) at
MSE in 1990 resulted in the necessary technology change.
There were no significant quantities of MPC remaining in Muthanna in January 1991
according to Iraq’s declarations, nor were such quantities found in inventory documents
that related to the last few months of 1990.
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CHAPTER III.VII
Table III.VII.II MPC production capacity
Production Capacity
Quantity Produced
[kg/day]
[metric tones]
1984
112
25
First half of 1985
200
Second half of 1985
300
Ahmed
1986
500
Ahmed 1
Time
Plant
H3
H2
60
90
130
First half of 1987
H1
130
H1
229
Second half of 1987
2,000
Mohammed
1988
285
Mohammed, Malik,
Ahmed-3
75
Mohammed, Ahmed-3
19
Dhia
1990
Comment
The analysis of MPC purity presented a problem to Iraq because of its volatility and
reactivity. For this reason Iraq used a combination of analytical methods, each with its
own limitations.
The examination of Iraqi Quality Control documents shows that the problem of finding a
reliable method for the analysis of the yield and purity of MPC was not solved at least
until 1988. This played a role in the quality of the next sarin precursor, MPF and the
sarin itself.
Methylphosphonyldifluoride (MPF)
Production of MPF has the same timeframe as MPC since both chemicals are key,
immediate sarin precursors. MPF was used by Iraq both for the production of unitary
sarin and as one component of the “Iraqi binary” system. Iraq declared the production of
530 tonnes of MPF using two production methods (Table III.VII.III). Its storage required
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CHAPTER III.VII
highly corrosion-resistant equipment and for that reason it was not stockpiled in high
quantities.
Production samples were routinely analyzed but the results fluctuated. Iraq concluded
that these fluctuations were the result of inconsistent sample preparation35. The analytical
methods mentioned to test the quality of the product included the gas chromatographic
methods and a colorimetric method similar to the one used for the determination of MPC.
Infra red analysis was also used for product identification but probably only at the R&D
level36.
Table III.VII.III MPF production
Time
Production Capacity
Quantity Produced
[Kg/day]
[Metric tonnes]
300
10
End of 1984
Ahmed
1985
1986
Plant
30
600
34
600
Ahmed
Ahmed
1987
127
400-500
H3
1988
229
Ahmed and H3
1990
100
Ahmed-2 and H3
Comment
Iraq declared extremely good and somewhat surprising results regarding the yield and
purity of MPF (declared purity was within 60-90% range) while using conditions other
than that considered optimal. But there is a possibility that its results of the chemical
analysis of MPF were not correct.
Analyses of MPF samples taken by UN inspectors showed that this chemical produced in
late 1990 largely degraded after a year of storage. The fast degradation of MPF,
however, could partially be explained by the way it was stored. Observations made by
35
UNSCOM Doc. No. 200095.017, UNMOVIC Doc.No.200213
36
UNMOVIC Doc No. 200213
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CHAPTER III.VII
UNSCOM in 1991 indicated that MPF was stored in jerry cans and consequently had
corroded most of the containers that were holding the chemical. For this reason, it seems
very unlikely that any MPF produced in 1990 or earlier is likely to be viable in 2007.
Sarin binary system
Iraq also studied a true binary system for sarin using artillery shells and rockets and
obtained encouraging results37. Iraq firmly denied any large-scale production of such
systems declaring: “The success reported was on a small scale for the field trials. Mass
production of munition suitable for the binary sarin involved large-scale modification and
additional manufacturing requirements at the munition manufacturing facility that needed
time and capital investments. By 1990, no decision on the investments was made and
consequently the results achieved were not utilized in mass production.”38 No such
munitions were found by UNMOVIC during its activities in Iraq. However, in the
absence of the documentation for the MSE production activities during 1990 period it can
not be ascertained whether Iraq developed its true binary weapons systems for sarin into
large-scale production or not.
Comment
According to Iraq’s quality control documentation the test results of stored sarin type
agents conducted by Iraq in 1988 were in the range of 1%39 - 80%40. This wide range
values shows that the reproducibility of product parameters was low. Iraq declared that
many batches “were spoiled”. Iraq was aware of the production problems and a study41
was launched to find the reasons the failure to produce high quality stable sarin. But the
results of the study did not give answers, which would have helped introduce changes in
the production department. It is not clear whether Iraqi researchers were familiar with
the methods suitable to analyze the highly polar by-products of sarin by the gaschromatograph method. Improper removal of HCl during the production process and the
fluctuating quality of the immediate precursors obtained in the batch type processes
contributed to the low quality of many batches of produced agent. The by-products,
solvents and impurities left behind in the "crude sarin” because of the absence of the
final purification stage contributed to the degradation of the agent over time.
The screening of samples of sarin-type agents taken by the Special Commission from
various types of munitions and storage containers during the period 1991-1994 showed
that agents had degraded to various levels and that the agent content was generally
below 10% and sometimes below 1%. In few cases the agent purity remained around 20
37
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter XIII
38
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter XIII, Ref. 2/1/C/234
39
UNSCOM Doc. No 142001
40
UNSCOM Doc. No 126001
41
UNSCOM Doc. No 129161.002
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CHAPTER III.VII
to 30 percent. The key parts of 2006 US National Ground Intelligence Center report
mentioned the recovery of approximately 500 chemical munitions in Iraq since 2003,
which contained degraded mustard or sarin nerve agent. However, the declassified parts
gave no details regarding the purity of the agents.42
According to Iraqi declarations43 the results for the purity of “Iraqi binary” were good,
reached its peak some hours after the mixing but was degraded below the required level
three days later. MSE personnel may have believed that by creating this type of binary
munitions, they were achieving two goals - the fulfilment of the President’s statement44
and probably his expectations as well as resolving the stability and storability problem.
The last problem was only partially solved because the storability of “Iraqi binary”
weapons depended on the construction material for the storage containers for MPF,
which is an aggressive chemical. MPF stored in jerry cans quickly degraded (lifetime
measured in months)45.
UNSCOM, and later UNMOVIC could not fully verify Iraq’s accounting for precursors it
had acquired for the production of sarin-type agents due to the manner in which they
were destroyed and stored. Iraq may have retained imported chemicals to produce MPC.
Such imported chemicals, thionyl chloride and phosphorus trichloride (if redistilled) may
be still viable.46 Documentary evidence and properties of PCl3 support to some extent
Iraq’s assertion that the chemical was lost during storage. No findings of these two
chemicals were reported by the ISG group.
42
UNMOVIC Quarterly Report to the SC, S/2006/701
43
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter XIII, Ref 2/1/C/432
44
The President announced that “binary” technology was available to Iraq and that Iraq had now joined the
ranks of advanced nations.
45
In the absence of water and in special containers is possible to store MPF for a long period of time. The
problems here are more related to the proper storage much less to its stability. MPF is very corrosive and
because of this difficult to store.
46
UNMOVIC UDIs document, March 2003
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CHAPTER III.VIII
CHAPTER III.VIII
VX
Introduction
Iraq declared that it had planned to produce nerve agents including VX since the beginning
of its CW programme. VX has the chemical name O-ethyl S-(2-diisopropylamino) ethyl
methylphosphonothiolate. It is a colourless to mildly yellow coloured liquid, without an
odour. The toxicity of VX is much higher than the toxicity of the G-agents (such as sarin
and tabun), and it can cause a lethal effect if inhaled or absorbed through the skin1.
Iraq declared that it included VX in its CW programme both for military and technical
reasons. VX was a new generation of nerve agent with much higher toxicity2; VX is more
stable in various atmospheric conditions than other nerve agents and is more persistent (the
affected area remains contaminated for longer time). In addition, Iraq by the mid-1980s had
already acquired an extensive experience with G-agents including related research and
development and production activities, which encouraged MSE personnel to consider VX
as a natural follow-on agent in the CW area.
Process
Based on information available (including original documents provided by Iraq or found by
the Commission, declarations, inspection reports and technical assessments produced by
the Commission) the UN Commission concluded that Iraq mainly concentrated its efforts
on four major synthetic routes for acquisition of VX3: route A, route B, route C and route
D. The description of these routes was taken by Iraq from the open literature.
Route A: The reaction of 2-(diisopropylamino) ethanol [“Iraqi Choline”] and O-ethyl
methylphosphonothioic chloride [monoester]. The product of this reaction known as Oethyl O-2-(diisopropylamino) ethyl methylphosphonothionate ‘false’ VX, is received in the
form of the salt [VX·HCl]. Final product VX or O-ethyl S – (2-diisopropylamino) ethyl
methylphosphonothiolate, also known as ‘true’ VX could be obtained in one easy step by
reaction of VX salt with sodium carbonate followed by thion-thiol isomerization;
Route B: The reaction of 2-(diisopropylamino) ethanol and ethanol with
methylphosphonothioic dichloride [“MPS”]. The product of this reaction is the same as for
route A.
1
Material Safety Data Sheet, US Army Soldier & Bio/Chem Command, Edgewood Chem/Bio Center, 29 Sep
1999
2
UNMOVIC Document “VX UDI”, April 2003
3
UNMOVIC Document “VX UDI”, April 2003
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CHAPTER III.VIII
Route C: The reaction of 2-(diisopropylamino) ethanethiol [“Thiocholine”] with O-ethyl
methylphosphonyl chloride [“oxymonoester”]. The product of this reaction - salt of ‘true’
VX - can be converted into VX via reaction with sodium carbonate. Iraq also considered
this reaction as suitable for obtaining binary VX.
Route D: The reaction of 2-(diisopropylamino)ethyl chloride [“Chlorocholine”] with the
sodium salt (or acid) of O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate. The product of this reaction is
salt of “true VX”.
Iraq declared the production of a total of 3.9 tonnes of VX and VX-hydrochloride (‘VX
salt’) in seven industrial size batches in the period of late 1987 to early 1988 and in April
1990 at three plants of the MSE, using routes A and B. Iraq also stated that no
weaponization of VX took place due to the poor quality of the VX produced, except for
three AALD-500 aerial bombs and one 122mm rocket warhead filled with VX for storage
(agent degradation) and corrosion tests. According to Iraq, two other routes, C and D, were
studied only on a laboratory scale.
Quality
Iraq declared4 that all VX and ‘VX salt’ produced on an industrial scale via routes A and B
had been of purity below 50% and had degraded rapidly and that the VX produced in 1988
and in 1990 had been unilaterally destroyed by Iraq either in 1988 or in 1991. Iraq stated
that the reasons which lead to the failure to produce good quality stable VX included the
improper scaling up of the VX production process, a lack of understanding of large scale
VX production process kinetics, an inability to produce good quality final
organophosphorous precursors and the lack of the experience in the purification of nerve
agents on a large scale. The other VX precursor, Iraqi choline, was of a very good quality
(the purity of more that 90%), stable during long-term storage and was produced by Iraq in
bulk quantities.
Chronology of VX production
During a technical evaluation meeting (TEM) in 1998, the Iraqi delegation indicated that
research on VX started even before the MSE era, as early as in the middle of 1970’s5. The
earliest documentary evidence regarding any activities on VX in Iraq, however, is the SEPP
Research Plan for the period of 1983-19846. This Plan outlines the scope of research and
development activities in the CW area at the MSE including the development of the best
industrial production methods for sulfur mustard, nitrogen mustard, tabun, DFP, sarin, VX
and BZ.
4
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
UNMOVIC Doc. No.GP001794D, Report on the TEM - 17 February 1998
6
UNMOVIC Doc No 200163.001
5
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CHAPTER III.VIII
1987-1988
Route A
Iraq declared that at the end of 1987 it had produced one experimental batch of VX using
pilot scale equipment7. Route A was chosen for this experiment after successful efforts to
synthesize VX and its precursors, monoester and choline, at the laboratory scale at the
Research and Development Directorate of MSE. When VX salt was produced via route A it
was converted into final product VX via one simple step
The MSE Director General reported to the Presidency of the Republic Special Security
Apparatus on 10 September 1987 that in order to verify VX preparation methods 12
experiments had been performed on the final and intermediate products at Salah al Din
laboratories of the Research and Development Directorate at the Muthanna State
Establishment8. The report suggested that it was technically possible to produce VX either
at the newly constructed production unit or at one of the available MSE production units
after its modification; VX could also be produced in the available glass reactors at the pilot
plants. According to the report some measures were undertaken by MSE to start
construction of the VX production unit and the modification of some existing production
lines in order to produce VX at the rate of 1 to 1.5 tonnes per day, while maintaining the
current production capacity of sarin.
Iraq declared that, at the end of 1987, route A was selected for the VX production for the
following reasons: simplicity of the process with acceptable yield and purity; availability of
precursor chemicals MPS (MPC) and choline; the method was well described in the
literature and this was thought to be applicable to the production plants available at MSE9.
The report of 13 September 1987 from the Director of the Ibn Hayan Plant to the General
Manager of MSE outlined the proposed course for industrial scale10 VX production by
route A. It suggested that since the reactors of the ‘Bin-Hayan–1’ (P8) plant did not require
many modifications, the agent ‘Blue’ (Iraqi code for VX) could be produced there.
According to the report the plant had necessary separation units from the one side and
reactors from the other. The P-8 plant was the MSE designated mustard production plant
constructed by the State Company for Construction Contracts. The technological
procedures for the VX production through route A were also proposed by MSE personnel,
including a final step when ‘AALD-500 bombs can be filled directly after the completion
of the production process.11
As of December 1987 the Head of Salah al Din section of the Research and Development
Directorate provided the details on route A noting that he would refrain from the discussing
7
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV
UNMOVIC Doc No 200036.001
9
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV
10
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.004
11
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.004
8
Page 121
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
other VX production methods since route A was selected for preparing VX12. He gave the
following comments regarding route A: ‘the preparation of this agent (VX) is simple; there
is a further study on the storage effects when using or non-using stabilizers”.
According to the report signed by the Deputy of the Director General of MSE on 5 January
1988, the first batch of VX was produced on 29 December 1987 at the P-8 plant through
the reaction of choline and monoester.13 It also provided data on the preparation of VX
precursors at the Bin-Hayan-2 (Malek) plant.
Iraq declared that the purity of VX produced at the P-8 plant in January 1988 was as low as
20% and after 4 hours of stirring it decreased even further. After the organic layer with VX
was obtained (about 600 kg) VX was transferred to Malik plant for removal of the solvent.
The remaining quantity (400kg of VX) was filled in three AALD-500 bombs for stability
test and one 122mm artillery rocket for corrosion and stability studies according to Iraq.14
After a one-month period the purity of VX decreased to 1%. Iraq declared that three aerial
bombs were destroyed in 1988 by draining the bomb’s content in the MSE graveyard
followed by the treatment of the drainage area with a solution of NaOH. Iraq also declared
that technical problems made this process unsuitable for the existing MSE equipment15.
The original report from the Director of Bin-Hayan plant of 26 January 198816 found at
Haidar Farm, also accounted for the problems which led to the failure to produce good
quality VX via route A. The report mentioned that the reaction conditions had changed
with the increase of the amounts in the reactor (temperature, pressure, type of solvents).
But the major reason why the production run at the P-8 plant resulted in spoilt VX was the
poor quality of the primary precursor monoester. According to the report the purity of
monoester used for VX production was identified incorrectly. The report concluded that the
concentration of monoester was measured incorrectly due to the fact that the purity of MPS
(the primary precursor for monoester) was wrongly identified as well. The report
mentioned that there were no problems with scaling-up of another VX primary precursor,
choline. The report also noted that in an attempt to decrease the addition time during VX
production process, at least two other production runs had been conducted at the plant
using reverse order for reagents. These two production runs were not declared by Iraq.
Comment
Given the above information, Iraq’s declarations on the number of batches produced via
route A (one batch only) are puzzling.
It is most likely that the VX produced via route A at the P-8 plant during December 1987 to
January 1988 was of poor quality due to the impurities in monoester and the inability of
Iraq to effectively remove the excess of the process heat.
12
UNMOVIC Doc No 200143.027
UNMOVIC Doc no 200107-CW-007
14
Chemical FFCD June 1996, p.1.14.1
15
CAFCD December 2002 Chapter VI, Addendum
16
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.014
13
Page 122
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
Follow-up activities on route A
Iraq declared that shortly after the January 1988, production attempt, MSE decided to
scale-up VX production using another method (route B). However the original MSE
documents indicate that at least during January-February 1988, MSE Production and
Research & Development Directorates continued its efforts on the improvement of the
quality of the monoester used in route A utilizing the Malek site, in parallel with the
production of VX via route B17. Iraq did not declare these activities. The report found at the
Haidar Farm outlined the problems that the personnel of the Malek plant faced. After about
240 kg of monoester was obtained it became clear that in order to produce monoester of
high purity, MSE was faced with two scenarios for the distillation phase. Distillation could
be completed either through:
1. the concentration of the monoester in the reactors at the Malek site and then
followed by pilot-scale distillation at the R&D Directorate, or
2. in order to conduct the large-scale distillation process at the Malek site enough
monoester was needed to fill the reactor connected with the distillation column.
Comment
As follows from the report, Iraqi opted for the second scenario and made a number of
technological suggestions regarding optimization of the distillation process. It is not known
whether the suggested modifications took place at the Malek site or if Iraq was able to
overcome problems with the industrial scaling-up of monoester production and was able to
optimize the parameters of the process A by which a better quality VX could be obtained.
If such modifications could be achieved, it could also result in the production of good
quality sodium salt (or acid) of O-ethyl methylphosphonothioate, a primary precursor
considered by Iraqi for VX production through route D.
Route B
The MSE leadership decided to simplify the process of VX production and instead of route
A opted for route B or the so-called “direct” method. This route allowed MSE to skip the
stage of the monoester production and the associated distillation step.
During the period from 16 February 1988 to 15 March 1988, MSE conducted about 50
optimization experiments for route B, including one run with its pilot scale reactor18. This
also included work with stabilizers, which are chemicals used to preserve the quality of the
VX produced. Seven VX samples prepared at Salah al Din section were stored, using
several types of solvents and stabilizers. After 10 days of storage the percentage of VX in
all seven samples remained stable. Later Iraq declared (TEM of February 1998) that it had
purchased a total of 2 kg of the VX stabilizer DCC (1,3-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide) and that
17
18
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.008
UNMOVIC Doc No 904009.001
Page 123
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
in March-April 1988 it conducted several laboratory experiments on VX stabilization using
only 2 grams of the DCC procured19. As a result of this research, the R&D Directorate
recommended the route B for industrial scaling-up concluding that the production process
was not difficult to implement.
Comment
Iraq explained to UNSCOM that it did not know the disposition of the remaining 1.998kg of
DCC after the Gulf War. In April 1997 traces of DCC and its degradation product were
found, along with VX degradation products, in soil samples taken by UNSCOM. Due to the
wide spread and depth of area over which DCC and its degradation product had been
detected, the Commission concluded that the analytical results were not consistent with
Iraq’s statement that it had only conducted gram-scale experiments with DCC.20 The
Commission concluded that the possibility existed that Iraq used more DCC to stabilize
higher quality VX that it produced by other than A and B routes, since it was aware that
DCC added to VX of purity below 40% would only extend the viability of the agent for a
few weeks.
UNMOVIC met with Iraqi counterparts in March 2003 to discuss Iraq’s proposal to
quantify Choline and VX unilaterally destroyed in 1991. Iraq presented a plan of sampling
the area where VX was destroyed, in order to establish the quantity of the agent and DCC
dumped there. That operation however was not completed before UNMOVIC’s withdrawal
in 2003. Moreover, UNMOVIC considered that the results would be charged with a high
margin of error.
According to the document21 , production of VX via route B started on 1 February 1988 at
the Malek site. However, according to Iraq’s declarations ”an attempt to produce a batch of
VX carried out by process B took place in March, 1988”22. This plant was initially
designed as a multipurpose plant, and then was modified to produce precursors for sarin
and tabun. Earlier the plant had been recommended for the VX production through route A
as being ‘the most appropriate’23.
The MSE R&D Directorate planned to study the possibility of the storage of intermediary
product (VX salt) and ”if the storage does not influence the substance, then bigger
quantities of VX salt could be produced and stored”.
Iraq’s declared that 350 kg of VX obtained at the Malek plant through route B (or 325 kg
according to the MSE original report24) were collected and filled in chlorine cylinders and
stored at the same site25. After a short period of time the purity of VX decreased. MSE
19
UNMOVIC Doc. No.GP001794D, Report on the TEM,17 February 1998
UNSCOM 186/CW-37 April 1997
21
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.001
22
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
23
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.005
24
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.001
25
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
20
Page 124
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
concluded that the degradation of VX within such a short time may have been due to the
long time of the production process which resulted in many side reactions. A concentrated
solution of NaOH was added to the spoiled VX in chlorine cylinders in 1988 and left at the
Malek plant.
According to Iraq’s December 2002 CAFCD the MSE Director General decided to limit
the VX activities to one production plant in order to prevent interference with other
activities at Muthanna and to solve technical problems affecting the VX production process
at one place. As result, the Dhia plant was chosen. The Dhia plant was initially designed
with sufficient capacity, which would allow for increasing the production capacity of sarin
and its precursors. The SEPP technical personnel chose and installed the suitable
equipment in the two production buildings of the plant.
In February 1988 a technical group from MSE started some modifications at the Dhia plant
in order to make it suitable for the production of VX and its precursor MPS26. These
modifications included installing various types of process equipment in addition to that
which already existed (Figure III.VIII.I).
Figure III.VIII.I Remnants of Dhia Plant located at MSE as of June 1994
Iraq declared that in May 1988 it had three attempts to produce VX via process B: batch 1
took place on 1 May 1988 (VX of purity 30% was produced); batch 2 and 3 took place on
26
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
Page 125
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
20 May and 24 May of 1988, respectively (with respective purities of final agent 33% and
41%). In total, 1,670 kg of VX were produced27.
Although all VX produced was not of good quality, according to the declarations the third
attempt gave the best result. All VX produced was filled in carbon steel chlorine cylinders
and stored at the site. The VX deteriorated within 17 days time to very low purity. The
R&D Directorate suggested that another two batches of VX should be prepared: one with
the use of a re-boiler and another one without it. It also proposed that the quantities of
precursors used for the VX production at the Malek plant and at the Dhia plant (batch #3)
should be adopted as a basis for the quantities entering the reactor, in order to arrive at a
final conclusion about the approximate time needed to produce one batch of VX.
According to Iraq it was not implemented28.
According to declarations, about 1,670 kg of VX of purity less than 1% produced at the
Dhia plant was filled into three chlorine cylinders and left at the site in 1988. It was
discarded in 1990 by adding NaOH solution and dumped at the MSE graveyard. This
statement by Iraq contradicts its other statement that neutralized VX was filled into three
cylinders, transferred to the bunkers and destroyed by Iraq in 199329.
Iraq declared that while the R&D Directorate insisted that method B was a suitable way to
produce VX, production personnel suggested that the VX production process was not
suitable due to the low yield, low purity and instability of MPS and the consumption of a
large quantity of MPC which was needed at that time for G-agent production. According to
Iraq, the Director General of MSE decided to stop VX and MPS production activities in
July 1988, except for choline because ‘its stability was not affected during long-term
storage and in order to justify the import of large quantities of materials before perfecting
the production process’. The R&D Directorate was to concentrate its efforts on solving the
problem of VX stability and finding another route for VX production.
Stability Study
Iraq declared it produced 4-5 litres of ‘VX salt’ around middle of 1988 via route B, which
were kept in polyethylene containers for monitoring the VX salt stability. Over the period
from mid-1988 to the first quarter of 1989, samples of VX salt were neutralized with
Na2CO3 solution and sent to the analytical department. The results of analysis proved that
the VX salt was stable for months (VX of purity 41% was obtained)30. This information
correlates with data included in the report of the Salah al Din section of the MSE R&D
Directorate on activities performed in 198831.
The report contains two references on the VX stability study. The first study called
“Preparing Blue VX by a new method and controlling its storage” mentions that route B
27
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter VI, UNMOVIC Doc No 904049
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, p.6.4.3.7
29
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, p.6.14
30
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter 6
31
UNMOVIC Doc No 200071.023
28
Page 126
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
“led to a new good storing method which helped preserve the Blue agent for a long period
of time”. The second study called ‘Storing VX using a new method’ recommended
eliminating the final step at the VX production process via route B. It suggested that the
product could be stored in the form of VX salts which Iraq named “dibis”. The storage of
the dibis was observed during eight months (May – December, 1988). Upon treating the
dibis, VX was obtained. No significant decrease in the purity of the VX over months of
storage was observed. Therefore it was recommended that route B could be used to
establish strategic stores of VX agent and that when needed the required amount of dibis
could be taken and converted via one easy step into the final VX. Another advantage of the
VX salt was related to its safe storage conditions.
Binary VX systems
The MSE R&D report found as part of the Haidar Farm cache of documents, and the TRC
report provided by Iraq to the UN Commission suggest that in 1988 Iraq became interested
in acquiring binary VX technology32. Two parallel projects on VX binary systems were set
up at the MSE and TRC. Both establishments came to the conclusion that route C was the
most suitable one for the VX binary artillery systems. According to the reports, some static
tests with VX binary systems for artillery shells were conducted and “results were found
encouraging”. It is not clear why Iraq cancelled the projects at the beginning of 1989 given
their successful outcome. Later, however, Iraq declared that the work on the binary VX
systems was continued by MSE through to 199033.
Comment
It is possible that Iraq had a plan to apply the same approach to binary VX as it had used
for sarin that is, an “Iraqi binary”, when one component was preloaded into munitions and
the second was added shortly before the munitions was to be used. Such a system however
was suitable only for aerial bombs or missile warheads, not for artillery munitions.
1989-1990
According to data in the possession of the Commission, after the end of Iran-Iraq war the
MSE tried to find some commercial application for its capabilities. In 1989 MSE started
various commercial projects, mostly in the area of pesticides and pharmaceuticals and also
collaborated with the Al Qaa Qaa Complex in the hydrazine research and development
area. There is no evidence that Iraq conducted any activities associated with the VX
programme during 1989, either on a pilot or industrial scale. At the same time the MSE
continued its R&D work associated with the nerve agents programme on a laboratory
scale34 For the 1989 period there is a significant lack of evidence that could confirm Iraq’s
statements regarding MSE activities, compare with the pre-1989 period. Iraq declared that
in April 1990, following the orders of General Hussein Kamel to resume VX production
32
UNMOVIC Doc No 200130, #701004
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter 4, Addendum
34
UNMOVIC Doc No 00130
33
Page 127
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
activity, Iraq made two attempts to produce VX at the Dhia plant using process route B35.
This plant although used for production of pesticides during 1989 kept its modified
configuration for any future requirement for VX production36. In total, 1,500 kg of VX salt
was produced in April 1990 using 800 kg of MPS redistilled from the stock of 1988. The
VX salt produced was unstable, according to Iraq. Several samples were taken from the
two batches of VX salt at different times and were tested for stability. The analysis results
showed that VX deteriorated rapidly within two days of the production (or, according to
other statements in the December 2002 CAFCD, VX purity decreased to 1% after two
months of storage).37 Iraq declared that this result, which was unexpectedly worse than the
previous attempts of 1988 clearly showed that serious problems existed with the production
of VX and there was no time to resolve the problems given Iraq’s imminent invasion of
Kuwait. According to Iraq, the stock of remaining MPC was needed for the production of
G-agents. The quantity of 1500 kg of VX salt produced in 1990 spoilt rapidly and was
considered nonexistent and therefore, according to Iraq, there was no record of such stock
in 1990 MSE storage inventories.
Comment
These inventories provided to the Commission by Iraq constitute a significant portion of
information about MSE activities during 1990 (although they refer only to the few last
month of 1990).
All VX of about 0.03% purity was stored in two chlorine containers at the Dhia plant until
May 1991 when it was unilaterally destroyed by Iraq in the MSE graveyard by adding
concentrated NaOH and draining the solution into the soil. Iraqi declarations conclude that
the grand total of 3,875 kg of VX produced over the years 1987-1990 were completely
degraded and no VX remained in Iraq.
Comment
No original documents related to the CW production or R&D activities conducted by MSE
during the period 1989-1990 similar to those of 1988 have been identified by the UN
inspectors, despite the fact that the existence of such records in 1990 was confirmed by
Iraqi personnel38. On one of the documents, “The report on Follow up activities of MSE for
1990 of December, 10 1990” General Hussein Kamel made a hand-written comment which
gave directions to concentrate on the production of MPC, the main precursor for G-agents
as well as on final product VX39. The UN Commission was unable to verify whether any
activities associated with this order took place at MSE.
35
2002 CAFCD, Chapter VI
UNMOVIC Doc. No.GP001796D, 17 February 1998, Attachment 9
37
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, p.6.4.3.9 and p.4.48
38
UN Doc No S/1998/1106, 1998 TEM
39
UNMOVIC Doc No 700057
36
Page 128
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
Precursors
Iraq declared the following material balance of precursors imported, produced and
processed for VX production as shown in Table III.VIII.I40:
Table III.VIII.I Material Balance for Precursors place of this table to be adjusted
Precursor Imported
Type
(Qty.
tonnes)
P2S5
250
Ethylene
39
oxide
Produced
Processed
Destroyed
during
Gulf War
Destroyed
by Iraq
unilaterally
-
8
29
85
-
157
-
Used to
produce
other
chemicals
-
Destroyed
under UN
supervision
Diisopropyl
amine*
2-chloro
ethanol
MPC
MPS
250
-
40
174
-
-
10 tonnes
remained &
returned to
Iraq
22
202
-
-
200
-
-
1.9
-
1.625 (8590%)
55
757
-
-
-
22
3.85 (8085%)
0.35
3.1
-
Monoester
Choline
784
6 (8590%)
0.8 (50%)
58
-
-
0.05
-
*12 tonnes of diisopropylamine was sent by Iraq to a modern paint company in 1991 and later
destroyed under UNSCOM supervision.
MPS (methylphosphonothioic dichloride) production
MPS is an important precursor used by Iraq for VX production. It was used as a primary
precursor for route B and as a secondary precursor for route A. It can also be used for VX
production via route D.
According to its declarations, Iraq produced about six tonnes of MPS of good quality in
total in 1988, 2.5 tonnes of which were used for VX production in 1988. Another 1.4
tonnes were redistilled in April 1990 and the resultant high purity MPS was used for VX
production. Iraq declared that 0.5 tonnes of MPS was polymerized and discarded in 1988 at
Fallujah/Saqlayia and 1.6 tonnes of MPS had been hydrolyzed and drained into the soil at
the MSE dump site in 199141. The analysis of soil sample taken in 1997 by UN inspectors
40
41
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter XI
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
Page 129
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
confirmed the presence of the degradation products of MPS. No quantification of the
destroyed MPS was possible42.
Iraq declared that at the end of 1987, MPS was produced at the Mohammed Plant using the
Kabachnik process through the reaction of phosphorus pentasulfide and MPC. In total three
batches were produced. The Mohammed plant was equipped for the production of
precursors for sarin and tabun. It contained corrosive resistant process equipment.
In his report of 13 September 1987 to the General Manager of the MSE, the Director of the
Ibn Hayan plant proposed technological procedures for the production of MPS at the
Mohammed plant consisting of several steps.43
According to Iraq, the first batch of MPS was polymerized due to improper process
conditions. The crude MPS obtained from the next two batches was transferred to the
Malik plant for distillation. About 700 kg of distilled MPS was used to produce the VX
precursor monoester. In the beginning of 1988, the production of MPS via the Kabachnik
process continued at the Mohammed plant. In total, after distillation at the Malik plant
1322 kg of MPS of good quality was produced.44. Iraq declared that in February and March
of 1988, two batches of distilled MPS were produced at the same plant (820 kg and 1000
kg respectively). Those quantities were subject to further purification and, finally, a total of
about 1400 kg were produced.
In May 1988 three batches of MPS were produced and distilled at Dhia plant after VX
related modifications took place. The total quantity of distilled MPS of purity 85-90%
obtained was about 2000 kg. According to a document provided by Iraq, the MPS
preparation process lasted for 24 hours while the distillation of one batch lasted for another
24 hours. The MPS produced was filled into 200 litre barrels for storage45. The document
suggested that another batch of MPS should have been prepared taking into account the
quantities of the materials entering the reaction, their percentages, quantities of the
substances produced and the percentage of conversion into MPS.
Probably because of the stoichiometry problem associated with the Kabachnik process and
the need for the import of P2S5 banned worldwide by that time Iraq was also looking for
alternative methods to produce MPS, that is,. from locally available elemental sulphur.
MPS was prepared at the laboratory scale through the reaction of MPC with sulphur. Iraq
stated that no further scaling –up for this process happened.
Comment
Iraq declared that during storage period of about one month the purity of MPS decreased.
A likely cause of this decrease would have been the reaction stoichiometry for the
42
UNSCOM 186/CW-37 April 1997
UNMOVIC Doc No 0107.004
44
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
45
UNMOVIC Doc No 700005.004
43
Page 130
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
Kabachnik process that Iraq declared it had used, which was incorrectly described in open
literature46. However, it is not clear whether Iraq was aware of the problem with the
stoichiometry for the Kabachnik process or not since previously Iraq declared a correct
amount of reagents for MPS production and claimed it obtained MPS of higher purity and
better yield.47.
Iraq has accounted for the limitations of the MPS production process at the Dhia plant:
problems with the manual addition of MPS precursors, insufficient mixing rate and
problems with the temperature control.
The role of MPS in the VX programme can hardly be overestimated. Iraq’s researchers
knew very well how important it was and put a lot of effort into improving its quality.
UNMOVIC considers that at that time, that is, in 1990, there was still room for
improvements in the MPS. Such improvement may have been less for its application in
routes A and B, but even for these two processes, results could have led to an acceptable
quality of VX as the final product. Such improvement if successful, would have, however be
of key importance for route D.
“Iraqi Choline” (2-(diisopropylamino) ethanol) production process
“Iraqi Choline” is a primary precursor of VX, which is required for the production of this
CW agent via routes studied by Iraq.
Iraq declared that it had produced in total 58 tonnes of ‘Iraqi Choline’ during the period
from the end of 1987 to the first quarter of 1988 and again in the fourth quarter of 1988 and
then again in the beginning of 198948.
According to Iraq’s declarations, choline was produced from the DIPA and ethylene oxide
using a modified chlorine gas cylinder. The process first took place at the end of 1987
outside of the Malek plant. The organic layer containing choline of purity 90-95% was
collected, 120 kg per batch. The total quantity of choline produced in 1987 was about 4,400
kg. In the first quarter of 1988 choline was produced by the same procedure at MSE; the
total quantity produced was about 2,400 kg and then production was stopped. Production of
choline started again in the fourth quarter of 1988 until the beginning of 1989 with
production capacity of 360 kg/day (3 batches daily) or 240 kg/day (2 batches daily).
According to Iraq, the stability of choline was not affected during the long-term storage.
Choline produced was filled mainly into empty DIPA barrels. The production process for
choline was simple except for the necessity to use large quantities of ethylene oxide during
the process.
Iraq declared that 3.1 tonnes of choline had been processed into the VX and 55 tonnes
destroyed unilaterally by draining into an open pit near Samarra in 1991. The UN
46
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
Chemical FFCD March 1995
48
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Chapter VI
47
Page 131
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
Commission through sampling and analyses did confirm the presence of traces of choline
and its degradation products but was unable to quantify the amount of choline destroyed by
Iraq.
UN inspectors have no additional data relating to any further attempts to produce choline
by Iraq. UN inspectors found a draft protocol of an official meeting of 29 July 1990
between representatives of the ministries involved in Iraq’s CW program, which stated
‘substance N27 (‘Iraqi Choline’) is currently being prepared at MSE plant’49. Iraq stated
that the Arabic original of the protocol should be translated as ‘the substance N27 is
currently present at MSE, as opposed to ‘currently being prepared’. UN inspectors accepted
this translation.
Comment
The MSE report50 provides information regarding MSE’s interest in acquiring
dimethylamino ethanol (the “true” Choline) on a large scale, which could be used instead
of Iraqi Choline as ‘a raw material to prepare VX’. MSE had ‘large quantities of
dimethylamine hydrochloride in storage’ (about 570 tonnes was procured – 1996 FFCD)
and it had to be used for the production of the VX precursor “in order to prevent this
material from the deterioration”. It is not known whether Iraq utilized this compound for
its VX program, but had capabilities to do so since the production process for
dimethylamino ethanol would be similar to the one for choline.
Monoester (O-ethyl methylphosphonothioic chloride) production process
Iraq declared two attempts to produce monoester, which is a primary precursor for VX
production process via route A.
According to its declarations, Iraq made two attempts to produce monoester at the end of
1987. The first attempt was at the Mohammed plant. The second attempt was at the Malek
plant by the same procedure. The total quantity of monoester produced was about 400 kg
and this quantity was used to produce VX via route A.51
The MSE report of September 1987 described the production procedure for monoester at
the Malek plant. It also mentions the production outcome for monoester: about 290 kg for
one reactor and 580 kg if two reactors were used.52
Iraq declared no further attempts to produce monoester, although the MSE personnel had
planned to improve monoester quality through the modifications of the Malek plant. Table
III.VIII.II shows the MSE plants associated with VX production activities and respective
timelines.
49
UNMOVIC Doc No FOTO 5123
UNMOVIC Doc No 200096.027
51
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI
52
UNMOVIC Doc No 200107.004
50
Page 132
UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.VIII
Table III.VIII.II VX production activities
Substance
MPS
Plant
P-8
Mohammed
Malek
Dhia
Choline
Monoester
-
-
-
End of 1987 –
beginning of
1988
- distillation –
end of 1987beginning of
1988
-production –
Feb-Mar, 1988
-
End of
1987
- May, 1988
- distillationApr 1990
-End of 1987;
End of
-beginning of
1987
1988;
- end of 1988
- beginning of
1989
(p.6.4.3.2)
-
VX
Dec, 1987
-
Feb, 1988
-May, 1988
-Apr, 1990
Technical requirements for VX and its primary precursors
Iraq declared that technical specifications for VX primary precursors MPS and choline
were established by the Director General of MSE, based on the results of R&D trials and
recommendations of the leading technical staff. According to Iraq no decision was made
regarding the accepted level of purity for VX, since all VX produced deteriorated within
days while in storage53.
Comment
This explanation given by Iraq to the UN Commission demonstrates an inconsistency in
their declarations for nerve agents. For example, there was an accepted level of purity for
sarin during and after the Iran-Iraq war. Given that the first order from MOD to produce
and weaponize VX into aerial bombs came in late 1987 it is possible that VX of similar
purity was sufficient for the purposes of ‘immediate consumption’, given that VX itself is
more toxic than sarin. It also can not be excluded that based on the fact that ‘VX salt’
remained stable during storage (according to the experiments conducted by MSE’s R&D
Directorate) Iraq may have acquired such salt in quantities for long-term storage.
Other issues
The need for the immediate “consumption” of large quantities of the toxic agents in the
battlefield during the Iran-Iraq war put the pressure on MSE to operate on a large scale,
without giving much priority to the quality of the agents produced. In November, 1987
53
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV
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MOD provided MIC with the special munitions requirements for an upcoming battle.
Amongst others, the requirement to produce 750 BR-250 bombs filled with VX (which
constitutes about 70 tonnes of the agent) was outlined54. No VX was weaponized according
to Iraq since all VX produced by MSE was of low purity and not stable.
After the end of the Iran-Iraq war in 1988 the defining criteria for the CW programme
changed. A new long-term concept of this programme was developed by the Iraqi
leadership in the second half of 1988. New military requirements for the CW programme
were established including acquisition of strategic stores of stable CW agents. During the
period of the second half of 1988 and beginning of 1989 MSE started a few research
projects in order to improve technology for the VX production and to obtain a pure and
stable agent through various routes. Iraq studied the concept of the VX binary artillery
systems as well during the period 1988-199055.
According to Iraq, there were no military requirements for CW established by MOD for the
period of 1989-199056. After August 1988 large-scale production of CW agents at the MSE
was stopped due to the fact that “the CW agents produced by MSE through the previous
years was in the crude state containing many impurities which affected the stability and the
storability of the agents”. MSE in the 1989 concentrated mostly on the civilian application
of its production capabilities. According to Iraq, in the CW area, MSE conducted only
research projects related either to synthesis of some new CW agents or to improving
stability and storability of known agents.
The Iraqi leadership’s re-evaluation of its strategic perceptions in the beginning of 1990
prompted the resumption of the CW activities at MSE at the production level including VX
production.
In 1996, referring to the VX issue, General Amer al Sa’adi stated to UN inspectors that
“Hussein Kamel (God bless his heart!) could not distinguish between success on the
laboratory scale and success at the production scale”57. And, that most likely, the report of
General Hussein Kamel leading to the statement of the Iraqi leadership on 2 April 1990
referred to the success with VX at the R&D level but not on a large scale. Another
statement by General Sa’adi to the inspection team that the ‘VX programme was under
immense pressure’ from the Iraqi leadership, was not consistent with the picture of the VX
related efforts painted by Iraq in their declarations
Comment
In February 1998, UNSCOM convened a Technical Evaluation Meeting (TEM) in Baghdad
to discuss the VX issue with Iraqi technical experts and senior government officials. The
TEM concluded inter alia that, “Iraq was capable of producing significant quantities of VX
before January 1991. This may have been as much as 50 to 100 tonnes of VX, albeit of an
54
UNMOVIC Doc No 138008
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter IV
56
UNSCOM 138/CW-28 May 1996
57
UNSCOM 170/CW33, December 1996
55
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CHAPTER III.VIII
uncertain quality”. The TEM also assessed that “Iraq had the capability to stabilize the VX
produced, and may have done so”.
The UN inspection teams conducted sampling as well in an attempt to verify unilateral
destruction of VX and its precursors; however no quantification was possible with regard
to VX and its key precursor, choline.
In UNMOVIC’s view, it would have made no sense for Iraq to conceal a programme that in
its estimation was a failure and in which it had no future interest. It is possible that the
programme was not quite the failure claimed by Iraq or Iraq wished to retain some
capability to restart the programme in the future, for example, through the retention of
precursors and know-how.
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CHAPTER III.IX
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF IRAQ’S CW PROGRAMME
Introduction
In the second half of 1988, Iraq’s high-level authorities established a policy for the
further development of chemical weapons. This was articulated in a letter to the President
dated 20 July 1988 from Iraq’s Ministry of Defence. The following two excerpts reflect
the main idea of that document: “The possession and development of chemical and
bacteriological weapons by our country are considered the best weapon to deter the
enemy in this domain.” Further, the letter mentions some active measures that should be
undertaken, the first of which was: “Develop and expand the chemical weapons, both
quantitatively and qualitatively in terms of munitions, delivery methods and storage,
according to the capabilities made available by the Military Industrialization
Commission”.1
Changes in operational requirements
Iraq’s chemical warfare doctrine was developed gradually2. At the beginning of the
programme, Iraq gained knowledge about chemical weapons in the course of their studies
and training abroad, from the open source publications, foreign patents and international
conferences and forums. But this knowledge often theoretical and lacking many
important technical details was not copied or applied by Iraq automatically. It was rather
a process, which started with general ideas first tested on a small scale to identify and
adjust unknown parameters of the synthesis of CW agents that could not be found in the
open sources and then developed and scaled up to chemical weapons production in bulk
and its combat use. In general, Iraq did not develop its own methods for the production
of CW agents. At the beginning of its programme, Iraq’s main concept was to replicate,
at an industrial scale, known foreign methods and techniques of the production of CW
agents. Later, however, when Iraq gained more experience both in the area of the CW
production and the combat use of chemical weapons, it applied modified technologies to
suit its own capabilities (for example VX production or ‘Iraqi binary’ concept).
One type of evidence supporting such an evolution in doctrine is official documents
pertaining to Chemical Corps units, their role, tasks and combat doctrine issued by Iraq in
1984 and 1985, which replaced doctrine from 1974. Only some of these documents were
made available to the Commission.3
1
UNMOVIC Doc No 902024
Assessment regarding Iraq’s chemical warfare doctrine is based on various sources including open
publications, declassified intelligence reports, Iraqi armed forces manuals and number of statements by
Iraqi officials
3
Manual of Instructions and operating procedures of chemical units
Guide to the use of the Chemical Corps in all phases of combat
2
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One of the reasons, given by Iraq for its use of chemical weapons against Iran was to
combat and deter the so-called “human waves” that, according to senior Iraqi officials,
could not be countered using conventional weapons. Iraq used this argument to explain
how it tried to overcome overwhelming dominance of Iran in manpower during the war.
But as was eventually confirmed by Iraqi officials, Iraq did not consider chemical
weapons used during the Iran-Iraq war as weapons of mass destruction but rather saw it
as a supplement to conventional weapons in achieving specific tactical and operational
goals. As known from reports at the time, various Iranian military units such as artillery
positions, command posts and logistics bases were among frequent targets of Iraq’s CW
attacks.
It took Iraq many years to improve the effectiveness of its use of chemical weapons and
so to take greater advantage of its physical and psychological impact. From isolated,
poorly coordinated attacks of chemical weapons Iraq gradually moved to the use of CW
as an element of combined arms operations. Iraq maximized the use and effectiveness of
its CW in the second half of 1987 and in 1988.
Iraq gained much of its experience in the use of CW through trial and error, suffering
sometimes from its own weapons, when used improperly. Iraq declared that it gave
priority to Muthanna to increase the production and weaponization of chemical agents
during the Iran/Iraq war especially when the benefits of the use of CW became apparent.
These benefits included the psychological impact of CW, which created a fear factor,
according to Iraq as powerful as the chemical weapons itself. Although Iraq used
weapons systems for both tactical and strategic purposes, the chemical weapons gradually
became of greater strategic value. There were, however, difficulties in chemical weapons
production and use that Iraq was not able to overcome till the end of the Iran-Iraq war.
Thus, during the Iran-Iraq war Iraq’s CW programme was not able to produce nerve
agents of sufficient quality to be stored as strategic reserves.
The escalating use of chemical weapons in 1987 and 1988 was a result of its proven
effectiveness against mostly unprotected Iranian troops. Such success resulted in a
growing demand for chemical weapons and its use in the battlefield. Such demand
provided an incentive for further improvements in the quantity and quality of both CW
agents and munitions.
Iraq declared that based on its experience from the war with Iran, it considered chemical
weapons as an important factor in building its predominant role in the Middle East and
also as a deterrent against potential enemies. Chemical weapons were seen as an
important element in a protective shield of national security. After the end of the war with
Iran, Iraq was convinced that chemical weapons were an effective force multiplier and
supplement to its conventional combat capabilities.
Iraq declared that despite the important role played by CW, the end of the war with Iran
created an immediate vacuum within Iraq’s CW programme. The continuous demand for
both chemical warfare agents and munitions suddenly stopped. For some time Muthanna
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continued the production of empty bombs but the continued production of CW agents
made no sense, according to Iraq. Also it was stated to the Commission that the
production of phosphor containing immediate precursors for nerve agents was stopped
due to their deterioration rate if held in storage. “Iraqi Choline”, a VX precursor was an
exception because it had high purity (over 90%) and stability in long-term storage. Thus,
Iraq claimed that after 1988 a large portion of existing CW production capacities at MSE
remained unused.
Comment
This statement of Iraq could not be verified by the Commission due to the lack of the
original documentation associated with the MSE activities during the period 1989-1990.
However, during interview taken by the UN inspectors in 1995, MSE personnel stated
that they produced sarin and sarin-type agents at the first half of 1989 on a large scale.
Later this information was confirmed in the original quality control record of MSE of
1989.
Although Iraq considered CW a supplement and not the main factor of military
capabilities and force projection, after the end of the war Iraq’s chemical programme was
focused on the improvement of previously produced agents and on the development of
more powerful and better quality agents.
In order to take advantage of a period where there was no demand to produce and use
CW agents immediately, Iraq focused on the weaknesses and shortcomings of the
production of CW agents and chemical munitions. These weaknesses were known to Iraq
and so Iraq incorporated a plan to address them. The existing scientific and technical
potential of the CW programme was used to improve existing weapons and to build the
foundation of a future CW potential. Iraq declared that there was a new concept of its
CW programme including:
Development of better quality CW agents
Production of reliable chemical munitions
Development of binary weapons
Development of new CW agents and means of their delivery
Indigenous production of precursors
Maintenance of industrial capabilities for the resumption of chemical
weapons production when needed.
o Chemical weapons stockpiles suitable for long-term storage
o
o
o
o
o
o
Better quality agents
During the Iran-Iraq war, Iraq gained substantial experience in using chemical weapons
both in offensive and defensive operations. It also learned how various parameters of
weather, terrain and means of delivery might affect the weapons effectiveness. Although
there is little documentary evidence in this field, these factors became the challenges for
Iraqi military scientists and efforts were undertaken to face them after the war was ended.
Those efforts included:
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o Persistency of chemical agents. High temperatures and direct sunlight
caused fast evaporation of the nerve agent sarin and strong atmosphere
convection led to the prompt removal of the agent cloud. Iraq recognized
these problems but was not able to overcome them. One of the methods
used by Iraq to partly solve the issue was the use of a mixture of sarin and
cyclosarin, which had lower volatility in comparison to pure sarin.
According to Iraq4, usually the mixture of two alcohols was used in
production process but some 60 tonnes of cyclosarin was also produced
separately. Following this direction, other sarin derivatives were subject to
research and tests after the war.5
o Stability of chemical agents. The low purity of chemical nerve agents was
one of the main problems of Iraq’s CW programme. After August 1988,
MSE was tasked to improve the quality of sarin-type agents to ensure their
longer storage. This work was conducted in 1989 and 1990. Sarin and its
derivatives as well as VX were subject to such studies and production
trials.6 Iraq stated that these attempts however did not make a break
through and were not able to significantly improve agent quality. In order
to effectively stabilize chemical agents, their purity needed to be much
better and the type of impurities needed to be well known before
appropriate stabilizers could be selected. Iraq was able to produce good
quality nerve agents on laboratory or pilot-scale levels but had difficulties
with industrial scale production. Therefore, according to Iraq it decided in
1990 to develop and produce in bulk a ‘Iraqi binary’ system for aerial
bombs and missile warheads in order to overcome the problems of
stability for unitary sarin-type weapons. Iraq also decided in 1990 to
concentrate its efforts on production high quality MPC – a vital precursor
for both sarin-type and VX agents.
Chemical munitions
Iraq’s approach to chemical munitions production during war time was very pragmatic in
terms of taking advantage of any existing shortcuts that could allow the munitions to be
produced quickly and in quantities. Simple adaptations of conventional types for
chemical agent filling and reverse engineering were the most common. The critical
components that made these munitions technically suitable for CW applications were
optimized buster charges of specific size and shape and other components, such as
sealing rings, filling ports and agent containers. But such modified conventional
munitions could not meet all the requirements of long storage with regard to agents and
their degradation products being usually aggressive chemicals. The use of chemical
weapons by Iraq during the Iran-Iraq was driven by the specific conditions of that war
and the related operational requirements. However, the optimal efficiency of munitions
4
UNSCOM 239/CW-47, April 1998
UNSCOM 17/CW-05, August 1992
6
UNSCOM 153/CW-31, May 1997
5
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CHAPTER III.IX
was not in itself the prime criteria for the selection of munitions for use with a chemical
warfare agent. The core of Iraq’s CW arsenal of Iran-Iraq war period was comprised of
modified conventional aerial bombs and artillery projectiles and rockets.
After the end of the war Iraq considered new types of chemical munitions. The research
on more sophisticated types of chemical munitions was initiated. In order to achieve selfreliance in munitions, Iraq’s CW programme produced indigenously munitions casings,
including a variety of aerial bombs, using raw materials for the production of
conventional munitions and manufacturing equipment procured from foreign suppliers.
The production of CW munitions was linked directly to the design and production of
conventional munitions by Iraq.
Iraq stated that it considered its 122mm CW rockets as very effective weapons and had
decided to continue their development. Although cooperation with some of the foreign
suppliers discontinued by the end of the war, some suppliers were still offering either
warheads suitable for chemical fill or conventional rockets, the motors of which could be
used to launch indigenously manufactured warheads.
Being aware of the short shelf life of nerve agents produced, Iraq knew it could not keep
large chemical weapons stockpiles for a long period of time. To maintain a certain level
of operational readiness, the nerve agents stocks would have to be replaced almost every
year. In addition to the problem of stability of nerve chemical agents produced, many of
Iraq’s chemical munitions suffered from the corrosion caused by chemical agents, their
degradation products or impurities and from leaking. These problems caused further
difficulties in the handling and storing of such munitions. With the exception of 155mm
artillery shells filled with mustard many of the other types of munitions used for filling
with chemical agents had those defects.
Comment
A survey by the UN Commission of the Iraqi chemical weapons arsenal in 1991 revealed
that the condition of filled munitions (including aerial bombs, artillery projectiles and
rockets) remaining after the Gulf war varied from site to site. While some locations had
well-preserved chemical munitions, at other places they were corroded and leaking.
Binary munitions
Iraq declared that it considered binary chemical munitions as a solution to the issue of
stability of nerve agents. Iraq was aware of all the benefits of binary weapons, including
easy and safe handling and longer shelf life.
Iraq undertook efforts to develop true binary chemical weapons, in 1983 for the first time
but abandoned it due to poor results7. Further work was resumed in late 1987 and early
1988 and continued with selected weapons types throughout 1990. All groups of weapons
used for unitary chemical agent dissemination: 152mm and 155mm artillery shells,
7
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VIII, paragraph. 8.9
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CHAPTER III.IX
122mm rockets, “250”-type bombs were included in the programme and subject to
research and tests. The most advanced and promising results were achieved for artillery
shells but in spite of that, no large production followed according to Iraq. Only around
200 prototype shells and twenty 122mm rockets were produced and tested. Iraq declared
that it needed time and resources before any type of reliable true binary munitions could
be produced in quantities.
During 1990 period Iraq developed an approach, which it called “Iraqi binary”, involving
the filling of munitions with one binary component and having another binary component
separately stored and available for the loading onto these munitions immediately before
their planned deployment. Thus, the mixing of binary components and the formation of
CW agents inside munitions would take place prior to their combat release.
This concept materialized in the filling of special missile warheads for the Al Hussein
missile and R-400 aerial bombs with binary components of sarin and cyclosarin. This
very simple and easy way of building stockpiles also required high quality, stable
precursors and could not be applied to artillery shells or rockets due to filling problems.
Regarding chemical warfare agents, an Iraqi laboratory tested all three main compounds:
sarin, mustard and VX. Research results and field tests on binary systems for these agents
were often declared as “positive”8, however, they were not implemented according to
Iraq.
Comment
According to UN inspectors, Iraq’s achievements in the field of binary systems remain
unclear due to limited technical documentation related to such weapons. Those
documents available for example, the Technical Research Centre report9 on development
of sarin true binary systems for artillery projectiles suggests that Iraq attached high
importance to binary projects in the post-war period. On the other hand, Iraq claimed10
that between 1988 and 1991, unitary V and G agents were a more likely direction, than
binary or “Iraqi binary” due to problems with storage and mixing problems with both G
and V type precursors in munitions.
New chemical agents - VX as strategic weapons
The first industrial-scale trials to produce VX took place in the late 1987 – beginning
1988. The war with Iran ended in August 1988 thus Iraq declared that it had only limited
time to develop VX production and weaponization prior the beginning of the Gulf war in
1991. However, in May 1988 MSE finalized the modifications at the Dhia plant – the VX
dedicated production facility. The nature of these modifications was never fully explained
by Iraq to the UN Commission thus causing questions on extent and advancement of the
VX programme. The Dhia facility according to Iraq’s technical personnel was kept ready
8
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VIII
UNMOVIC Doc No. 200130
10
Report on the TEM, 17 February 1998, para. 10.2
9
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CHAPTER III.IX
to restart VX production until the beginning of 1991 Gulf war. Iraq always maintained
that it had not weaponized any of its chemical munitions with VX.11 Iraq admitted that
development efforts associated with various aspects of VX programme however were
continued throughout 1989 and 1990.
Iraqi officials stated that the CW agent VX was not planned as a simple replacement for
other CW available agents (sarin and mustard), but it was considered for use in strategic
weapons. Iraq considered mustard and sarin to be tactical weapons12. On the other hand
Iraq intended to use the same types of munitions it used for mustard or sarin and no
special types of munitions were produced for VX. It was the possession of VX per se as
the most advanced and most toxic agent available that made it more important than
others.
Iraq denied that any dynamic tests involving binary VX weapons took place13, although
in September 1997 during meetings and interviews conducted by UNSCOM some efforts
involving static tests were described14. A binary VX study was also included into MSE
research plan for 198915. Later Iraq declared that it continued development of a VX
binary system on a laboratory scale through 1990 period.
Indigenous production of precursors
Figure III.IX.I A precursor plant at Muthanna
Indigenous production of
precursors
was
of
primary importance for
Iraq after 1986, when it
faced problems and
interruptions
in
the
acquisition of precursor
chemicals from foreign
suppliers. Stockpiles of
chemicals bought in the
mid-1980’s were running
out
and
further
acquisitions
became
increasingly difficult due
to limitations on exportimport
of
dual-use
chemicals imposed by
international groups.
11
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VI, para 6.4.3.8
Report on the TEM, 17 February 1998, para. 11.2.50
13
Report on the TEM, 17 February 1998, para. 11.3.14
14
UNSCOM 202/CW-41, September 1997
15
UNMOVIC Doc No 200130
12
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CHAPTER III.IX
Thus, Iraq attempted to procure equipment and technology for the indigenous production
of critical precursors and had largely succeeded in its efforts. By 1990, Iraq had
constructed a production plant for the manufacture of thionyl chloride, the precursor for
the production of mustard and sarin. The construction of a phosphorus trichloride and
phosphorus oxychloride (precursors for the production of tabun, sarin and VX)
production plant was at the final stage. The construction of the trimethylphosphite
(starting material for the production of G-agent and VX precursors) production plant was
still in progress. (Figure III.IX.I shows a precursor plant at the Muthanna State
Establishment).
Comment
In UNMOVIC’s view, if these efforts had not been interrupted by the 1991 Gulf war and
following international monitoring and verification, Iraq would have achieved a
substantial degree of self-reliance in the production of major chemical precursors by
1992.
In the period from 1988 to 1990, Iraq made other inquiries to acquire both starting
materials and technologies to indigenously produce precursors for chemical weapons
even those for very basic ones like elemental phosphor. Since Iraq possesses large
deposits of phosphate ore, its production would create conditions for unconstrained
development of the phosphor – a necessary element for production of G and V agent
precursors. But, according to Iraq’s declarations and verification conducted by
UNSCOM, those efforts were not successful16.
Chemical agents for long-term storage
According to Iraq, the majority of mustard produced by Iraq throughout the period of its
CW programme was of high purity (over 80%-90%) although some of it formed a
viscous tar (polymerized material) while in storage. It was unable, however, to produce
high purity, stable nerve agents in bulk quantities. For example, the average purity of
tabun produced was within the range of 50-60%. Iraq stated that it had abandoned the
tabun programme in 1986 because it had decided to concentrate on the production of the
more toxic agent, sarin. On average, the purity of sarin and sarin-type agents produced
by different methods both during and after the Iran-Iraq war was within the range of 4560%, although some batches could contain up to 80% of this agent.
Besides failing to achieve the production of high purity nerve agents, the level of purity
varied from batch to batch. Iraq explained that this variation and the failure to achieve
production of high purity tabun, sarin, cyclosarin and a sarin/cyclosarin mixture was due
to both the poor quality of the immediate precursors used and to technical problems
associated with the production steps. Iraq further explained that the overall technological
problems included difficulties with the optimization of the configuration of production
equipment and process parameters for agents and their immediate precursors.
16
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter III B
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CHAPTER III.IX
Iraq monitored the quality of both bulk and weaponized chemical warfare agent.
However, Iraq provided only a small part of its quality control records to inspectors,
stating that the rest had been destroyed. Fragmentary information provided in these
records indicates that the mustard filled in munitions or stored in bulk containers had a
very low rate of degradation and was therefore suitable for long-term storage. The
records for nerve agents show that sarin had a tendency to degrade to varying degrees
over a few months of storage because of the presence of large quantities of impurities.
The Iraqi data17 indicated that while sarin of initial purity 45-60% degraded rapidly
during the first two months of storage (by 25 to 30%), it degraded further by only 3 to
5% during the third and fourth months of storage. In the absence of more
comprehensive quality control records however, it is not possible to extrapolate
degradation rates for Iraq’s nerve agents over longer periods of time.
Building chemical weapons stockpiles
In order to be able to fulfill the military requirements of future battles with chemical
weapons, MSE was informed in advance of the MOD requirements specifying types and
quantities of weapons to be produced and deployed. Documents issued by Iraq’s Ministry
of Defence on this issue provided an insight into Iraq’s offensive CW doctrine and
planning. According to these documents18, requirements for 7 and 23-day full operations
with the use of chemical weapons prepared by the MOD in December 1988 and
communicated to the MSE comprised some 150,000 chemical munitions requested by the
armed forces. This quantity of chemical munitions was larger by 50% than a total number
of chemical munitions declared by Iraq as used during the Iran-Iraq war.
The document reflected a growing interest of the MOD in chemical weapons. For the
wartime operational readiness, the MOD required a combination of various types of
chemical munitions filled with different CW agents. It may also indicate that quantities of
chemical weapons supplied previously by the MSE to the army during the war with Iran
were considered, as insufficient and actual required quantities were much larger. At the
end of 1990, the MSE achieved a capacity to produce up to 10 tonnes of mustard and one
tonne of sarin per day19. And yet this capacity would not be sufficient to meet the military
requirements within a short period of time. Thus, increasing production on the one hand
and improving storability of agents and filled munitions on the other, was a matter of
strategic importance.
Commercial activities at MSE after Iran-Iraq war
According to Iraq, immediately after the end of Iran-Iraq war MSE could not consider
further production of agents or munitions without orders placed by the MOD.
Consequently, production was stopped. Iraq claimed that the establishment found itself in
17
18
19
UNMOVIC Doc No.129140.001
UNMOVIC Doc No 700037
UNMOVIC Doc No 700031
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CHAPTER III.IX
situation where there was no demand for its main production output and, subsequently, its
source of income.
In February, 1989 the General Director of MSE, Major General Faiz Shahine addressed
the Senior Deputy to the Minister of Industry and Military Manufacture regarding
merging of Iraq’s drug establishments and MSE.20 Noting that such merging will present
future benefits for Iraq, Shahine stated that MSE capabilities would allow expanding the
medicine production base significantly. The plan outlines that ‘connecting the drug
industry with the MSE will create a state of joint responsibility in conditions of peace and
the diminishing of the demands of armed forces’ and that ‘skilled and capable manpower
in MSE should be employed in support of drug industry; ….some of them are at present
holding senior responsibility in most of the factories belonging to the drug industry’.
Further the plan suggests that ‘the activities must take place in merged MSE and drug
establishment factories independent from each other, with priority for the production of
drugs, general chemical material and toxic agents. The activities of research and
development should be in the sphere of chemistry, drugs and lethal agents and military
research ’.
Additionally this plan stated that “Indeed the drug industry can provide a suitable cover
for importing activities of MSE in dealing with the companies and in particular as that
this industry has been established for a number of years and is known to a large number
of companies and has extensive dealing with them’.
Figure III.IX.II Fallujah-2, a satellite of MSE
Thus, the MSE turned to
commercial activities. Since its
infrastructure from the beginning
was constructed as a dual-use
complex no major changes were
required to start manufacturing
commercial chemicals. There are
documents describing these
efforts.21
To achieve that goal, alternative
facilities were needed to change
its production profile into civilian
applications. Iraq had a plan
called “4 x 2” which meant four
sites with two production units in each prepared to produce precursors and agents.22 This
project however was not implemented due to problems with the acquisition of equipment.
20
Iraqi Doc. No 904014 Merging of joint Activities for the al-Muthanna and Drug Establishments.
UNMOVIC Doc Nos. 60030, 904009.003, 200071.023, 200098, 700057
22
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, para 13.8
21
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CHAPTER III.IX
Although CW-related activities were reduced at MSE, by no means, however, was the
establishment deprived of its central role in Iraq’s CW programme. It was rather heading
towards a concept of dual-use facilities in order to preserve CW production capabilities.
In the field of commercial production by MSE, the goals were to produce basic chemicals
important for civilian chemical industries. At the same time their production was to be
useful in sustaining their capacity as CW precursors. One of the main tasks in this field
was to finalize the construction of multipurpose satellite facilities at Fallujah 1, 2 and 3,
(Figure III.IX.II) and to produce final commercial products, mainly pesticides and
insecticides, at these facilities while maintaining the chemical weapons production
capabilities.
Resumption of chemical weapons production in 1990
According to Iraq’s declaration, in late 1989 and early 1990, there was a marked increase
in media attacks on Iraq and growing threats of preemptive strikes. The tense military
situation in the region presumably led up to the statement made by President Saddam
Hussein, in April 1990 threatening any potential aggressor to retaliate with “binary”.
There is strong evidence that the statement rekindled the CW programme since the MSE
officials explained that instructions to resume the CW production were also issued by
MIC in April 1990. From May, MSE started intensive production of chemical munitions
and in April it also produced VX at Dhia plant although according to Iraq without any
specific orders from the MOD. Only late in the year did the Ministry of Defence use the
previously submitted munitions requirement and set its orders according to the 7-day
option.23
In addition to chemical munitions produced by the MSE during the Iran-Iraq war, two
new types of munitions that were under the development and testing by that time were
included into the production schedule for 1990. These included types of weapons
considered as strategic by their nature, capable to deter potential foes from taking any
steps against Iraq for fear of consequences. The perceived deterrent role of CW in 1990
concentrated more on new delivery means (the Al Hussein warhead and R-400 bomb) but
not on new CW agents, except for the concept of ‘Iraqi binary’ for sarin. These systems
are discussed in more detail in the following chapter on weaponization.
Comment
In general, at the end of 1990 MSE was again a fully operational CW production facility
with growing capabilities given CW’s role and importance in Iraq’s political and military
doctrine. The above facts and assessment were either declared by Iraq or revealed by
UNSCOM and verified to the extend possible. In most cases it was corroborated by the
ISG report. But still some questions remained open due to Iraq’s lack of transparency,
unilateral destruction and lack of documentary evidence.
23
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Addendum para 4.2 and 4.3
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CHAPTER III.X
CHEMICAL WEAPONS
Introduction
Selection of CW delivery means
The selection of suitable munitions and delivery systems for CW agent’s commenced in 1981,
following the establishment of SEPP and Project 922. Prior to this date, pilot production of CW
agents had occurred at the Al Rashad laboratory-scaled facility and CW agents had undergone
laboratory testing, however, there is no evidence to suggest that Iraq had attempted
weaponization.
For the weaponisation of its CW agents, Iraq relied mainly on its available and sustainable
delivery systems. Iraq’s main delivery systems included artillery guns and howitzers, multiple
launched rocket systems (MLRS) and a variety of both Eastern and Western designed aircraft.
The production limitations of munitions that would most effectively disperse chemical agents
and issues such as munitons production technology and material supply were certainly important
but were secondary considerations to the initial acceptance of a suitable means of delivery.
Within the constraints set by the availability of sustainable delivery systems, operational, tactical
and technical considerations underpinned the selection process for Iraq’s chemical munitions.
Specific operational goals, combined with target characteristics, were the main determinants
behind the selection of many munitions filled with CW agents: the optimal efficiency of
dissemination of CW agents was not in itself the prime criteria for the selection of munitions for
use with a particular CW agent.
The Special Tactical Group (STG), formed as part of Project 922, prepared the operational
requirements for chemical weapons and selected suitable delivery means. During the Iran-Iraq
war, the group was responsible for targeting information required for chemical attacks, and the
identification of logistics requirements for operations. The STG was comprised of senior staffers
from Project 922 and representatives from various departments and services of the Ministry of
Defence (MoD), responsible for Armament and Supplies.
The Salah Al Din section of the research and development (R&D) department of SEPP/MSE was
responsible for all studies related to weaponization and dissemination of CW agents, including
static and dynamic testing. Dynamic testing of CW munitions was coordinated with the Iraqi Air
Force (IAF) and artillery units of the Armed Forces, and was primarily conducted to determine
the ability of an explosive charge to rupture a munitions case, or to assess flight characteristics of
bombs, and firing tables for artillery systems.
In 1981 when SEPP and Project 922 were established, neither the Army nor the Iraq’s scientific
community had much experience with the production, storage or weaponisation of chemical
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agents. A number of munitions were tested before the decision was made to select a particular
type of munition for combat use based on the criteria mentioned above.
Trials of CW weapons systems continued up until the 1991 Gulf War.
Major Munitions Weaponized
A. Artillery Projectiles and artillery rockets
130mm artillery projectile
The selection of the 130mm as a prototype munition was based on the availability of the M-46
130mm field gun within Iraq’s armed forces (Figure III.X.I and II).
Figure III.X.I 130mm artillery projectile
Figure III.X.II 130mm artillery projectile (“DTS-1 SMK” type)
In 1982, SEPP conducted the first successful field trials of 130mm artillery projectiles filled with
agent simulants. However, later tests of 130mm projectiles filled with tabun were not as
encouraging. These poor results were attributed to tabun’s low flash point; tabun was ignited by
the thermal effects of the explosive burster charge However, additional testing of 130mm
projectiles filled with mustard proved the viability of agent dissemination using this munition.
In 1983, according to Iraq, a conventional 130mm artillery projectile was modified for filling
with mustard. Only minor technical modifications were required. The Hutteen State
Establishment indigenously produced and supplied SEPP with 4000 empty 130mm smoke
artillery projectile bodies. Components, including modified explosive charges and fuses, were
produced and supplied by the Al Qaa Qaa State Establishment. The projectile was manually
filled with approximately 1.9 litres of agent through the open nose section, and sealed. Iraq
declared that all 4,000 of these munitions were filled with mustard in 1983 and consumed during
the Iran-Iraq war.
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Evaluation of other delivery means
In order to increase a single CW payload, SEPP continued its evaluation of other available
delivery means within Iraq’s armed forces, whilst still evaluating the 130mm projectile for
dissemination of CW agents. Delivery systems under consideration included the 122mm rockets
for MLRS and artillery projectiles for 155mm howitzers.
In July 1982, Iraq declared that it conducted with a help of the foreign company a number of
static tests of 8 inch and 155mm artillery projectiles and 122mm rockets, filled with liquid and
dry stimulants. Test goals were to evaluate the extent of dispersion of liquid payloads and to
establish the optimal bursting charge, whilst considering dissemination size and shape. The tests
confirmed the feasibility of liquid dispersion through detonation of 122mm rockets and 155mm
projectiles using extended length buster tubes.
155-mm artillery projectile1
Following acceptance of tests results by Iraq’s MoD on behalf of SEPP, Iraq’s armed forces
procured 40,000 empty 155mm empty smoke projectile bodies. This included all accessories
and components required for the final assembly.
Figure III.X.III 155-mm artillery projectile
Figure III.X.IV Filling of 155mm projectiles
with Mustard
The procurement contract was completed in
1983. An additional batch of 10,000
projectiles was procured in 1984 by SOTI on
behalf of SEPP, and in 1985 a further 35,000
1
UNSCOM Doc No 200110
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projectiles, with accessories and components were procured by the MoD for SEPP. In total,
85,000 155mm projectiles were received by SEPP from foreign suppliers.
Originally, SEPP had planned to fill 155mm projectiles with sarin however; multiple static tests
conducted by SEPP did not produce acceptable results, according to Iraq. Therefore, the 155mm
projectiles were filled with mustard, using similar filling technology tested and used with the
130mm projectiles. The 155mm projectiles had a payload of 3.5 litres by volume, significantly
increasing the total quantity of CW agent capable of being delivered by a single artillery unit,
when compared to 130mm projectile.
Iraq declared that from 1984 until 1990, SEPP/MSE filled some 68,000 155mm projectiles with
mustard. Of these, 54,550, as declared by Iraq, were used between 1984 and 1988.
Comment
The 155mm projectiles filled with mustard were the most reliable chemical munitions ever
produced by Iraq’s CW programme. Emerging at the earlier stages of production, in 19841986, problems with the leakage of agent, through the fuse pocket, were eventually solved. In
contrast to other types of chemical munitions, a solid projectile body with thick walls, combined
with high purity mustard, assured the reliability of this projectile and its suitability for long-term
storage. Several analyses of agent samples taken from some remaining munitions in 1997 and
2003, revealed high purity of mustard (over 90%).
Evidence exist that Iraq filled 155mm projectiles, marked externally as smoke rounds, with
chemical warfare agent. These projectiles were filled through the nose opening and subsequently
sealed. These projectiles appear to be similar to conventional smoke munitions, however they
differ in that they do not have the telltale signature of the burster cup assembly visible from the
outside. The possibility that munitions filled with chemical agent, may have been mistaken with
smoke rounds made their determination as chemical munitions problematic not only for UN
inspectors and later the Iraq Survey Group personnel, but also for Iraq itself.
122mm rockets2
Flight dynamics limited the use of chemical agents in artillery projectiles. SEPP recognized this
fact and evaluated the use of artillery rockets as an alternative to artillery projectiles. Artillery
rockets have the advantage of being simpler to produce, experience much slower acceleration
forces, and can carry far greater agent payloads than artillery projectiles such as the 130mm and
155mm shells. Batteries of MLRS can launch a salvo of rockets against a target from multiple
launch tubes, mounted on a mobile vehicle. The feasibility of the use of liquid payload in a
122mm rocket was already confirmed in 1982 by tests. In addition a single payload of a 122mm
rocket, depending on its design and number of internal containers, can carry from five to eight
litres of agent, in comparison to the 3.5 litre volume of a 155mm projectile. Moreover, few
battalions of MLRS are capable of firing a large number of rockets within short period of time,
creating an agent cloud with high concentrations of such agents as sarin.
2
UNSCOM Doc No 200126
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“Firos-25” type 122mm rockets
Figure III.X.V Firos-25” type 122mm (body and plastic containers)
In 1985, SEPP procured 10,000 empty 122mm “Firos- 25” type rockets, including warheads,
motors, and components (Figure III.X.V). Another 15,000 rocket assemblies were procured by
SEPP in 1986. The foreign producer, made several modifications to these warheads including a
longitude buster tube and two plastic containers used for the filling of a liquid payload. The
volume of the two plastic containers totaled approximately six litres.
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“SAKR-18” type 122mm rockets
Figure III.X.VI “SAKR-18” type 122mm rockets
In 1986, SEPP procured 10,000 122mm, “SAKR-18”type rockets. Another 12,000 rockets were
procured in 19893 (Figures III.X.VI and VII) from the same company. The warhead was
designed to hold liquids with a density of between 0.8 and 1.2 gm/cm3. There were several
warhead configurations, which varied the warhead payload capacity from between six to eight
litres. Most warheads contained two plastic agent containers although some were know to have
up to three agent containers.
Figure III.X.VII “SAKR 18” type (upper) “Firos 25” type (lower) rocket warheads
3
UNSCOM Doc No IQ 000258
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“SAKR-30” type 122mm rockets
A comparison between SAKR-18 and SAKR-30 rockets is shown in Figure (III.X.VIII)
Figure III.X.VIII “SAKR-18” type (L) and “SAKR-30” type (R) rockets
Figure III.X.IX “SAKR-30” type 122mm rockets; warhead, motor and one section of the agent
container
The “SAKR-30” type 122mm rocket was specifically intended for filling with sarin. Its design
and construction, was far more complex than either “SAKR-18” type or “Firos-25” type. The
“SAKR-30” type warhead comprised three individually fused sub-munitions. Within each of
these sub-munitions, was a plastic agent container, and an all-ways acting fuse. The forward
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sub-munition was shorter and smaller in capacity than the two rear identical sub-munitions. A
mechanical time fuse was used to dispense the sub-munitions above the ground, and the
subsequent impact of the individual sub-munitions with the ground would initiate the burster by
means of the all-ways acting fuse. In 1986 SEPP procured 6,500 “SAKR-30” type rockets. Iraq
later made attempts to reverse engineer the ‘all-ways’ acting fuse for use in other special
munitions.
Indigenously assembled 122mm rockets
Iraq developed the “Al Borak” type 122mm warhead (Figure III.X.X) as well as its own copies
of “Firos-25” type and “SAKR-18” type warheads in steel and aluminium.4 Iraq declared that it
produced 16,000 aluminium warheads up until the end of August 1988. Production
recommenced in 1990 with a new design, utilizing two aluminium agent containers with a steel
warhead body; 4,500 of these warheads were produced.
Figure III.X.X Iraq developed “Al Borak” type 122mm warhead
In addition to 122mm rockets, which Iraq procured, SEPP assembled additional quantities of
rockets from imported and locally produced components. In 1985, SEPP procured 5,000
complete 122mm rockets, with the intention of using only the motor and electrical components
in an indigenously assembled CW munition. Additionally, 30,000 122mm rockets from within
the Iraqi armed forces stockpiles were transferred to SEPP for use in the indigenous production
of chemical rockets. Project 144, Iraq’s missile establishment, produced some 18,000 aluminum
122mm warheads, between 1988 and 1990. These warheads were required as part of the final
assembly to complete the chemical rocket.
Weaponization of 122mm rockets
From 1986 until January 1991, about 38,000 122mm rockets of various designs were declared by
Iraq as filled by SEPP with sarin. According to Iraq, 27,000 of these were used during the IranIraq war, between 1986 and 1988.
Comment
Chemical rockets for the 122mm MLRS constituted the most powerful tactical chemical weapons
developed by Iraq. They were especially effective against unprotected and untrained troops.
The “Firos-25” type 122-mm rocket was trialed in 1984 to evaluate the correct size and strength
4
UNSCOM Doc No IO 000460, UNSCOM Doc No 200063
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of burster tube. From the technical documents issued by the foreign company follows that the
Firos-25 was used with liquids of a specific gravity of 1.2, similar to that of mustard; however,
Iraq declared that they only used these rockets with sarin, which has a specific gravity of 1.01
Multiple leakage problems occurred after the filling of rockets with sarin. “SAKR-30” type
rockets were extremely difficult to handle once filled. Due to their containerized design involving
sub-munition fuses and electrical wiring, it was virtually impossible to prevent agent leaking.
Because of difficulties involved in handling and leakage, SAKR-30 rockets were considered as
less reliable.
B. Aerial Bombs
Evaluation of aerial delivery means
Experience in the adaptation of conventional artillery munitions mainly smoke munitions filled
with white phosphorus (WP), for CW purposes set the groundwork for Project 922 when Iraq
embarked on the evaluation of a number of foreign aerial bombs. The munitions evaluated were
chosen on the basis that they could be loaded and released from both Western and Eastern
designed aircraft, thus allowing greater tactical flexibility. “BR-250” type and “BR-500” type
aerial bombs, originally designed for use with WP, were considered suitable for filling with CW
agents, and required only minor modifications (Figure III.X.XI).
“BR-250” type and “BR-500”type aerial bombs
Figure III.X.XI “BR-500”type aerial bombs
In 1982, without preliminary testing, Iraq’s MoD procured, for SEPP, 5,000, “BR-250” type and
2,500 “BR-500” type empty bomb casings. The materials were delivered in 1983, and
successfully tested with CW agents by SEPP. As the BR series of bombs were constructed of
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steel, SEPP experienced a number of technical and logistic problems with bombs associated with
corrosion. Filling of these bombs with mustard began in 1983.
In 1983 and 1984, Iraq carried out a number of static tests, using the BR series of bombs filled
with oil at Al Muhammadiyat. According to Iraq, the results were encouraging. Similarly,
dynamic tests were performed at both Al Muhammadiyat and Al Razaza with the same positive
outcomes. Further tests were conducted using liquids of varying densities to ensure validation of
the initial test data, which used oil alone. Testing continued with bombs filled with CS (liquid) to
establish the extent of agent dissemination.
Iraq conducted a number of dynamic tests into the effects of temperature due to air friction
during flight, on bombs and their liquid contents. The tests involved the use of temperature strips
mounted both internally and externally on the bomb’s body. The bombs were then subjected to a
number of tactical flight scenarios ranging from 15 to 30 minutes. In 1987, Iraq performed the
first dynamic tests of sarin-filled BR bomb using live animals housed in caravans at Al Razaza as
a target.
“AALD-250” type aerial bomb
“AALD-250” type aerial bomb was modified to simplify its manufacture and to optimize its
efficiency and effectiveness as a means of delivery. Initially it was filled through the nose with
mustard. The bomb was modified by the addition of a filling port, which allowed for easier
filling of the bomb at unit level. This modification meant that filling the bomb did not require the
aid of specialized machinery. The filling process itself was very crude. An individual dressed in
protective clothing filled the bombs manually. Once the burster tube was installed and the bomb
was sealed, the bomb would be transported to the dispatch area for removal to storage or issued
directly to combat units.
Figure III.X.XII A frame from a video recording of flight tests of a modified “AALD-250” type
aerial bomb
In 1988, flight tests of a modified “AALD250” type aerial bomb, designated the Al
Muthanna-3, fitted with aluminium agent
containers were performed at the Habaniyah
air base (Figure III.X.XII). Iraq experienced
stability
problems
with
the
flight
characteristics of the bomb, which were fixed
in later versions.
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Indigenous production of aerial bombs, “AALD-250” type and “AALD-500” types
With intent to increase its self-reliance in CW munitions, SEPP established an indigenous
capability for the manufacture of aerial bombs. Raw materials were received for the production
of 10,000 “AALD-250” type low drag general-purpose aerial bombs in 1983 from a foreign
contractor. However, the supporting technical documentation and additional machinery
requested by SEPP were not supplied.
In 1984, SEPP procured technical documentation, equipment and additional raw materials for the
construction of an aerial bomb production workshop. This facility was designed for the
manufacture of “AALD-250” type and “AALD-500” type low drag general-purpose aerial
bombs, which could be modified and filled with CW agents. Raw materials included semifinished metal plates, un-machined forged parts, and a set of moulds to form bomb components.
SEPP received raw materials for the production of 2,000 “AALD-500” type bombs, 3,000
“AALD-250” type aerial bombs (Figure III.X.XIII) in 1985. Also in 1985, the remaining
equipment and technical documentation was delivered. Raw materials for the production of an
additional 10,000 “AALD-500” type bombs (Figure III.X.XIV) were delivered 1986. The aerial
bomb production workshop at the Samarra site of SEPP, also known as the “Nasr Factory”, was
ready to start the production by 1986.
Figure III.X.XIII “AALD-250” type low drag general-purpose aerial bombs
In 1986, Iraqi technicians were trained on production and assembly procedures with trial
assembly runs for 2,000 “AALD-250” type bombs. However, the mass production of 10,000
“AALD- 250” type did not start until the first quarter of 1987. Several modifications to the
production process were introduced during the course of the bombs manufacture. The first
modification was to simplify the nose section. Additionally the steel booster cover was welded
directly to the nose. The second modification involved reducing the number of parts for the nose
assembly to a single unit. The fin was welded directly to the bomb body because of some
problems with tail section during flight.
The Nasr Factory in the course of manufacture of AALD-250 and AALD-500 aerial bombs
performed the numerous production operations.
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In order to complete the production line for “AALD-500” type bombs, SEPP tried to procure
additional equipment and technical documentation, including 400 and 100 tonne hydraulic
presses, a 400 tonne mechanical press, a circular submerged arc welding machine, two sets of
dies and assembling tools and equipment. According to Iraq, this equipment was not received by
Iraq by August 1988 when hostilities with Iran had ceased.
Figure III.X.XIV “AALD-500” type low drag general-purpose aerial bombs
Filling of “BR-250”, “BR-500” and “AALD-250”, “AALD-500” type aerial bombs with CW
agents
The “BR-250” and “AALD-250” type bombs, which had a capacity of 60 litres of agent, were
filled by SEPP/MSE with mustard, tabun and sarin from 1984 until January 1991. In total, nearly
8,000 250 kg bombs were filled with CW agents, of which some 6,500 were declared as used by
Iraq during the war. A few hundred of BR-250 and AALD-250s were filled with CS.
The “BR-500” and “AALD-500” type bombs, which had a capacity of 120 litres of agent, were
filled by SEPP/MSE with mustard, tabun and sarin from 1983 until January 1991. In total, over
14,000 bombs were filled with CW agents, with over 12,000 used by Iraq during the Iran-Iraq
war. Additionally, according to Iraq, in 1988, three bombs were filled with VX for corrosion and
stability tests. A few hundred were also filled with CS.
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Comment
Despite a number of technical issues with the above mentioned bombs: corrosion, relatively fast
degradation of G-agents, polymerization of mustard, and leakage of agents, these munitions
formed the cornerstone of Iraq’s chemical weapons arsenal. These bombs were filled with almost
75% of all agents weaponized by SEPP/MSE. The bombs were not intended for long-term
storage and, in fact, were used within months of production, during the Iran-Iraq war. However,
they were accepted by the air force and fitted to all available aircraft. They were simple to
produce, handle and deploy. The use of these bombs for weaponization of CW agents represents
an example of the adaptation of conventional munitions, requiring only minor technical
modifications and adjustments, for CW purposes.
According to Iraq’s original documentation, in the second half of the 1987 Iraq’s MoD
requested MSE to fill 750 AALD-250 bombs with VX. The Director –General of MSE reported
back that it would be possible after sufficient quantities of VX precursors would be produced by
MSE. However, the Commission cannot confirm whether such order was ever fulfilled during the
first half of 1988, when VX production was conducted. Iraq always denied weaponization of any
chemical munitions with VX.
Aerial bombs reverse engineered for dissemination of CW agents
DB-2 aerial bombs
Figure III.X.XV “SKS-360” type incendiary bomb
Another group of aerial weapons
evaluated by the SEPP/MSE for use with
chemical agents comprised multiple
versions of incendiary bombs and tanks.
The major advantage of these devices
was their large (several hundred litre)
payload. “SKS-360” type incendiary
bomb was selected as a prototype (Figure
III.X.XV). In 1987, it was reverse
engineered by the State Establishment for
Mechanical Industries (SEMI) at the
request of MSE, and given the designator
DB-2. The DB-2 had a capacity of 260
litres of agent which was almost two
times larger than the 140 litre capacity of
the “BR-500” and “AALD-500” type
bombs. Iraq planned to fill the DB-2 bombs with sarin. The construction material of the original
prototype had been changed by SEMI from steel to aluminum to prevent body corrosion and
reduce the degradation rate of the chemical agent. The DB-2 was armed with either mechanical
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impact fuse or airburst proximity fuse. However, due to the design and structural restrictions of
the bomb it was manufactured with Eastern block suspension points only (Figure III.X.XVI).
Figure III.X.XVI DB-2 aerial bomb
Production of the DB-2 bombs began in February 1988. Iraq declared that it produced 1,389
bombs until August of that year when production was suspended. Due to its extremely soft and
thin aluminum body, the DB-2 bomb presented problems for the Iraqi Air Force. Because of its
thin body, when being jettisoned the bomb could rupture releasing the chemical agent.
Additionally the agent –filled bomb was susceptible to damage during routine handling by
ground staff because of its payload weight and was therefore deemed unacceptable by the Iraqi
Air Force command. However, according to Iraq, 155 DB-2 bombs were filled with sarin5 and
used in combat in 1988. UN inspectors found evidence that a dozen of these bombs were also
filled with sarin/cyclosarin in 1990.
5
UNSCOM Doc No 700024
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“R-400” type aerial bombs 6
Figure III.X.XVII “R-400” type aerial bombs
In April 1990, MIC, through its Air Force and Navy armament departments, investigated the
development of a chemical bomb capable of being dropped from low altitudes and suitable for
deep ground penetration.
The “BRIP-400” type a foreign-designed conventional high explosive bomb (Figure III.X.XVII)
was used as a template for the design and construction of a new chemical bomb. This bomb was
designated the M-400, or Muthanna 400/Challanger, and was later called the R-400, R standing
for (parachute or “high drag”) retarded. The conventional BRIP-400 bombs had already been
flight and release tested by the Iraqi Air Force several times between 1986 and 1989. The bomb
had passed acceptance trials and was cleared for flight. The Iraqi Air Force tested 123 bombs in a
number of configurations, using different fuses and types of tails.
6
UNSCOM Doc No 700044
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Figure III.X.XVIII R 400 Filling port
Once selected, the prototype and
components of two sets of bomb bodies
and tail assemblies were sent to the Al
Nasr State Establishment for reverse
engineering (as distinct from the Nasser
bomb factory at SEPP/MSE). The project
commencing in April 19907 was rushed
into production in May of the same year.
The bomb was constructed from carbon steel, made up of three sections welded together. Finally
a high drag, parachute retardation tail was attached. A longitudinal booster tube was fitted from
the front of the bomb and secured by welding and a filling port added (Figure III.X.XVIII).
Finally the tail and parachute assembly were fitted; the tail and parachute were not manufactured
by Iraq but came from the stocks of the conventional “BRIP-400” type bomb. Iraq claimed that
the tail assemblies were too complex to indigenously manufacture in the time available, and
accordingly were sourced from exiting Iraqi Air Force stocks. The foreign contractor delivered a
number of variants of these tails to Iraq in the mid-1980s. The R-400 bomb was suitable for
fitment to both Western and Eastern aircraft, and after successful flight and drop testing MSE
ordered 1000 bombs in May/June of 19908, followed by an additional 24 bombs, for quality
control testing. The production of the R-400 was carried out in June, July, and the order
completed and delivered in July of 1990.9
In 1990, over 1,000 R-400 bombs, each having about a 100 litre capacity, were filled with a
mixture of alcohols, isopropyl alcohol (20 litres) and cyclohexanol (20 litres) which were
components of a binary sarin-type nerve agents. Forty litres of MPF, the other binary component,
was to be added to each bomb at airfields prior to loading the bombs onto the aircraft.
(R-400 bombs filled with BW agents are discussed in another chapter)
Comment
The development and production of R-400 bombs significantly upgraded Iraq’s arsenal of
chemical munitions in terms of expanded operational parameters of their deployment rather than
efficiency in dissemination of CW agents. Using the “binary” system allowed the bombs to be
pre-deployed to airbase and shorten the time for their use. However, this was only true whilst
Iraq maintained air superiority. In comparison to the previous generation of low drug aerial
bombs, R-400 bombs were capable of ensuring a higher precision in covering selected targets
and allowing carrying aircraft to penetrate enemy air defense at a low flight altitude.
The new bomb did not bring additional benefits for the optimal dispersion of agents. However,
with its 12mm steel body it was more robust and easily handled by ground crews with minimum
7
UNSCOM Doc No 700056
UNSCOM Doc No 700060
9
UNSCOM Doc No 700101.097
8
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fear of leakage or agent release through accidents. In addition, bombs without toxic agents
could be handled with greater ease and less conspicuously. As long as the R-400 bomb was
filled with the mixture of alcohols only it was suitable for a longer storage period. This was not
true however if the full binary mixture was already loaded in to the bomb as corrosion and agent
degradation would occur in a similar manner as for other carbon steel bombs. The efficiency
with which the binary components would mix during flight was largely unknown.
C. Missile Warheads
Al Hussein chemical warhead10
In April 1990, MIC instructed MSE and Project 144 to investigate the use of an Al Hussein
conventional warhead for use with CW agents (Figure III.X.XIX). Tests were conducted in April
and May of 1990, beginning with static tests and later flight tests using warheads filled with
water, oil or spoilt sarin.
Figure III.X.XIX “SCUD” type missile
Initial studies by Iraq indicated that in order to maximize the effectiveness of the chemical agent,
the warhead would need to explode above the ground. However, the fusing system for the
conventional Al Hussein high explosive warhead was an impact fuse rather than a proximity
fuse. Since no proximity fuse was available for the Al Hussein warhead in Iraq at the time, nor
was it likely that one be procured in the near future, a decision was made to retain the existing
impact fuses. On 8 and 18 April 1990, Iraq conducted two flight tests, one warhead with oil and
water and the second test with live agent.
10
UNSCOM Doc No 700061, UNSCOM Doc No 700033
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Following these field trials, an agreement was reached between MSE and Project 144, to initiate
production of the warhead. Of the approximately 80 containers manufactured for sarin, five were
consumed for ground tests; three in warheads for a static test, and another two containers during
hydrostatic tests as part of Project 144. In all 20 containers were rejected because they failed
pressure tests. Some agent containers were made from aluminium because of Iraq’s experiences
with other chemical munitions and corrosion and some were made from stainless steel because it
was easier to manufacture than from aluminium.
There is no difference between the chemical and conventional warhead airframe design for the
Al Hussein missile. The chemical (and biological) agent warheads have internal containers made
of aluminium or stainless steel and three burster tubes but externally the airframes have the same
appearance.
Special warheads for the Al-Hussein missile
Figure III.X.XX Al Hussein Agent Containers
In 1990, Project 144 modified 75 warheads for the Al-Hussein missile, by placing an internal
150-litre container, made of aluminum or stainless steel, inside the warhead airframe (Figure
III.X.XX). Modifications included balancing of the warheads, to maintain a similar center of
gravity to the conventional version. MSE filled 50 of these warheads with CW agents and binary
components. Sarin and cyclosarin were filled into 16 warheads and another 34 warheads were
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CHAPTER III.X
filled with alcohols as a binary component similar to the one used in the R-400 bomb. The
concept involved alcohol, as one binary component being loaded into each warhead, then prior to
launch, MPF, the second binary component would be added to the alcohol, which would mix
together in flight to produce sarin. This concept did constitute what became colloquially known
as an “Iraqi binary” munition (Figure III.X.XXI)11.
Figure III.X.XXI Al Hussein Chemical Warhead
D. Binary Munitions
In addition to weaponizing unitary CW agents, SEPP evaluated filling binary agents into
different types of munitions including projectiles, rockets and bombs. In August 1988, after the
successful test of the 152mm binary projectiles, a recommendation to the Special Munitions
Committee, stated that the system worked and that it would be suitable for other artillery
munitions like 155mm.
Binary artillery projectile
In 1983, prototype “binary” 155mm projectiles (10 items) were supplied to Iraq. These
projectiles were fitted with two carbon steel containers and two fuses. One fuse was required to
allow mixing of the binary agents after firing, and the other to dissemination of the mixed agent
11
Biological warheads are addressed in another chapter
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after an appropriate flight time. According to Iraq12 however, these prototypes were not effective
in the mixing of agent and no contract was signed with the company for further production. Iraq
continued studies into producing a binary artillery projectile. By the end of 1987 or the beginning
of 1988, Iraq was developing a system that used the acceleration and spin forces of the projectile
in flight to mix binary components. Further trails, using both 155mm and 152mm projectiles
were conducted at a number of sites in Iraq in 1988 and 1989, with nearly 200 projectiles being
tested.
Comment
It is likely that the initial designs and concepts for Iraq’s binary munitions were acquired
through the technology transfer from the foreign company, whose 155mm binary designs were
used and modified with some success by Iraq.
152mm Binary Mustard
According to Iraq, as a result of a joint research project between MSE, MIC, and Al Noaman13 a
binary munition was tested in July 1989. The main aim of this project was to include a design
characteristic for the projectile, which would allow the mixing of two binary components in
flight to produce a toxic agent prior to arrival at the target. The concept was for the “Binary”
system to have the following characteristics:14
a.
Chemicals must be easy to produce, transport, and store,
b.
Chemicals must preserve their potency over long periods of storage,
c.
Weapons must be easily accessible when needed,
d.
General cost will be reduced because of the lack or need for preventative
measures.
Iraq declared15 that it modified a number of 152mm propaganda, base ejection projectiles to
carry two aluminium containers. The containers were filled with the raw materials for the
production of mustard agent. However, according to Iraq, during testing of the projectiles, they
experienced difficulties controlling the rate of reaction between the two agent precursors. Iraq
declared that it did not pursue a solution to this problem for mustard, and UN inspectors found
no further evidence to the contrary.
Comment
Assessment by UNMOVIC experts has concluded that sufficient energy could be produced from
such a reaction to prematurely initiate the projectile fusing system.
12
Chemical FCFD February 1998, 8.12.3
UNSCOM Doc No 904009.003 Attachment III.2 to the Verification chapter Chemical FFCD of June 1996
14
TRC document on binary munitions 1988
15
Chemical FCFD 1996 8.9.1.5
13
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Figure III.X.XXII Base ejection for 152mm artillery projectile
155mm Extended Range Full Bore Boat Tail (ERFB-BT) Binary Sarin
Figure III.X.XXIII 155mm Extended Range Full Bore Boat Tail (ERFB-BT) Binary Sarin
In 1989, following the lessons learnt with the 152mm binary
mustard tests, Iraq fitted and fired at least 120 items of the
155mm ERBB artillery projectiles (Figure III.X.XXIII). These
projectiles were fitted with two aluminium containers similar to
those in the 152mm projectile tests for binary mustard. The
binary components for sarin were loaded and the projectiles
fired at a target area containing live animals. According to
Iraq’s declaration, these tests were more positive than the
152mm tests, however Iraq did indicate that these munitions
never went into series production.
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152mm Binary VX16
Iraq declared that a foreign 152mm illumination projectile was used in these tests. The
illumination charge was removed from the projectile, and replaced by a two-piece aluminum,
copper or polystyrene, container separated by two barriers each having a specified density,
thickness and shape, and made of either aluminum or thick plastic. This design was chosen to
examine the efficiency of the deterioration in the separating membrane due to the acceleration
and centrifugal forces imparted on the projectile upon firing. The containers filled with binary
components were fitted into the projectile from the rear. Three laboratory tests conducted using
the aluminum and plastic barriers showed encouraging preliminary results, surpassing the
original design concept, which required a glass container and electrical circuitry to break the
membrane barrier. The reaction of some of the VX agent preparations using a catalyst, gave
encouraging results, which Iraq thought, may be suitable for binary weapons use.17
122mm binary rockets
In 1989, a workshop at MSE tested 122mm binary rockets, which contained two plastic canisters
each. A mechanical valve designed to control the mixture of the binary sarin-type components
separated the two containers in the warhead. The results of tests were positive. In the light of the
above, a number of aluminum containers were manufactured with a ball made of carbon steel for
rupturing the membrane between the containers.
A test of modified 122mm warheads filled with coloured liquid, achieved encouraging results.
The tests were re-conducted in 1990 using MPF and isopropanol, by launching five rockets
without explosives; once again, the results were encouraging, but not reliable enough for
production, according to Iraq.
Prototype binary bomb
Iraq modified a number of indigenously produced aerial bombs (Nasr-250, CB-250) in an
attempt to produce a binary aircraft bomb. In 1989, Iraq tested a number of prototypes to
establish the mixing efficiency of binary agent precursors. Additionally a CB-250 bomb was also
modified in much the same way. Only a few of these prototypes were produced and according to
Iraq, destroyed during the bombing campaigns of the 1991 Gulf War. The designs provided by
Iraq lack the inclusion of any centralized burster tube, indicative of all Iraqi chemical bombs.
16
17
UNSCOM Doc No 701004
UNSCOM Doc No 701004
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E. Other Munitions Evaluated
Artillery Rockets
122mm chemical warheads
In 1987 Iraq declared that it received from the foreign contractor aluminium made samples of its
version of the “SAKR-18” type rockets. This version used a steel adapter to attach the warhead
to the rocket motor. These warheads were provided to Iraq with documentation indicating that
they were, at the very least tested if not specifically designed, for use with liquids of a specific
gravity similar to that of mustard. The offer from that foreign company was not taken up by Iraq
and Iraq pursued the development of its own aluminum warheads. Also in 1987 discussions were
held between Iraq and the foreign contractor on the use of common agent containers for both
SAKR-18 and SAKR-30 chemical warheads; however, no procurement happened.
107mm rocket
Iraq declared that, “Other ideas presented by Project 144, for binary systems were conversion of
warheads for C-24, and 107mm rockets”, and that no prototypes were produced.” UN inspectors
observed the 107mm rockets with conventional warheads in Iraqi ammunition depots. The
107mm rocket is similar to the larger 122mm rocket; however, it has a much smaller payload and
shorter range.
Comment
The components found at the Al Taji munitions depot in 2003 by UNMOVIC appear to be
unfinished base assemblies for a rocket of approximately 107mm in diameter. The similarity in
design of this item, when compared to the base assembly of the 122mm Firos-type chemical
warhead, and other 122mm base plates for chemical warheads, suggests that this item is indeed
a component of a chemical warhead.
Larger Rockets
Iraq considered a number of artillery rocket systems offered by foreign companies including
“SAKR-80”, “SAKR-100”, “SAKR-200” and “Firos-60” types. A number of tests were
conducted with these rockets. Their warheads were filled with liquids of a specific gravity of
around 1.2 grams per cubic centimeter, similar to the chemical agent, mustard.
450mm FROG artillery rocket
In May 1988, Project 144 offered to design a cluster warhead for CW agents to be used on the
FROG-7 rocket. A mock-up prototype was made and according to Iraq, the project was
abandoned because of a lack of interest. Iraq declared, that in May 1988 a project designated
“Luna S” was initiated to convert the FROG rocket warhead into a cluster warhead constructed
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of aluminum and using certain components of the Ababil-50 rocket. According to Iraq, MSE
rejected the proposal to use an aluminum projectile as a container for CW agents and the project
was abandoned in July 1988. Iraq stated that only sketches had been produced and that no
prototypes had been built.
UNMOVIC discovered a cluster warhead fitted with live explosive cord, for the FROG (Luna)
rocket, at the Al Naoman factory in Baghdad in 2003. The warhead was empty and therefore
could not be conclusively linked to prohibited use, however was fitted with live explosive
detonating cord which would indicate that this was more than just a mock up version.
Aerial Bombs
DB-0 and DB-1 aerial bombs
Figure III.X.XXIV indigenously produced aircraft drop tanks
From 1984 until the end of Iraq-Iran war in 1988, SEMI at Iskandariyah produced over 4,500
aluminium bombs. These bombs were similar to the foreign “BIN” type18, and provided to the
Iraqi Air Force. Consequently 61 such bombs, designated the DB-0, were subjected to trials at
18
Note: a carbon steel napalm tank was recommended by Air Forces as a prototype. It was reverse engineered by
the bomb workshop at MSE and produced from aluminum. An original MF-1000 fuse was used. Components were
produced at the Hutteen State Establishment.
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MSE, for possible use as a large capacity chemical munition. Iraq planned to drop this bomb
from transport planes in a stacked in a pile with a parachute (Figure III.X.XXIV). Therefore, the
DB-0 and DB-1 bomb had no suspension holders. For the purpose of mechanical stability the
bomb was covered with a fiberglass. The DB-0 proved to be unsuitable for safety reasons19, and
according to Iraq’s declarations, the project was abandoned. Also trials with the DB-1 bomb did
not produce the desired results.
SDN aerial bombs20
Figure III.X.XXV SDN aerial bombs
Figure III.X.XXVI DB-1 bomb –body covered with fiberglass
In 1986 Iraq was supplied with 12 “SDN-750”
and “SDN-500” type bombs. Iraq filled a
number of these bombs with agent for
corrosion resistance evaluation (Figures
III.X.XXV and VI). In 1987, “SDN-750” type
bombs were filled with oil and tested at Al
Habaniyah for their suitability for use as a
chemical weapon. The bomb was not pursued
as a means of chemical agent delivery because
of problems encountered during flight tests.
Iraq had two versions of “SDN” type bomb:
one produced in steel and the other in aluminium.
19
It was produced from 2mm thick aluminum and the soft body of the bomb was not able to withstand the forces it
experienced when filled and piled into the configuration Iraq had chosen.
20
UNSCOM 12/CW-04, September 1991; Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter VII, para 8.12.1
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CHAPTER III.X
Nasr-7
Figure III.X.XXVII Nasr-7 Aerial bomb
Also in 1987, testing was performed on the Nasr-7 bomb to determine its suitability for use with
chemical agent (Figure III.X.XXVII). Flight test results indicated that even after only 15 minutes
the temperature on the bomb, due to the friction, was too great and unacceptable according to
Iraqi engineering requirements.
Al Qaa Qaa-250 and Al Qaa Qaa-500 aerial bombs
Figure III.X.XXVIII Al Qaa Qaa-250 aerial bomb
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In 1987, Iraq conducted a number of static and dynamic tests using both the Al Qaa Qaa-250 and
Al Qaa Qaa-500 aerial bombs at Al Habaniyah airfield, with the assistance of the Al Qaa Qaa
State Establishment (Figure III.X.XXVIII). As a result of these trials the bomb was found to be
unacceptable and was not pursued further.
Aluminium AALD-500 aerial bombs
In 1987, four aluminium “AALD-500” type bombs were supplied to Iraq for reverse engineering,
to produce its own version of this bomb. The project was not pursued by Iraq and according to
Iraq no contracts were signed for this new bomb.
Indigenously produced cluster bombs
Iraq indigenously produced at least two known types of cluster bombs and some cluster
warheads for rockets and missiles. Evidence of a 120kg class cluster bomb was found by
UNMOVIC, at the Al Taji Munitions Depot in February of 2003.
Comment
In UNMOVIC experts’ opinion, the technology that lends itself to the successful design and
manufacture of conventional cluster munitions, may by virtue of its very design21 contribute to
the efficient dissemination of chemical or biological agents.
CB-250
Figure III.X.XXIX Sub-munitions for a cluster bomb
In July 1989, a joint research project
between MSE, MIC, and Al Naoman22
was initiated to manufacture a cluster
bomb, which was a copy of CB-250, to
be loaded with chemical agent submunitions. The sub-munitions which
were manufactured from aluminum
tubing similar to that used for the
122mm
artillery
rockets,
held
approximately 3.5 litres of liquid, and
could be fitted with an all-ways acting
fuse23.
21
Cluster sub-munitions are multiple point source, giving effective dissemination of chemical agent
UNSCOM Doc No 904009.003
23
UNMOVIC, Iraqi Special Weapons Guide, 122 mm SAKR30
22
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CHAPTER III.X
The fuse used in the “PM-1” type anti-material sub-munitions was fitted to at least two versions
of the chemical sub-munitions and after some eventual success; a number of bomblets were
manufactured and arranged inside the CB-250 dispenser. Iraq stated that in the summer of 1987,
flight tests were carried out with two bombs charged with 18 bomblets full of a liquid (oil).
Another two bombs dropped at the Airfield 37 test range, gave negative results because they
were released outside the operating parameters of the sub-munitions and bombs fuses. The tests
were discontinued although the concept was not abandoned. It is clear from information
contained in Iraqi documents on the production of the all-ways acting fuse24 that one of the
primary reasons for its development was for use in “CB-250” type cluster bomb to more
efficiently deliver chemical agent (Figure III.X.XXX).
Figure III.X.XXX Iraqi cluster aerial bomb (“CB 250” type)
Figure III.X.XXXI A frame from a video recording of a cluster bomb experiment
During an interview 25 in 199626, one Iraqi
researcher stated that Iraq had experimented with
the use of cluster bombs for biological agents. On at
least one other occasion, biological agents and
cluster bombs were mentioned in statements made
by Iraqi officials. The statement was later recanted:
he indicated that this kind of bomb was never used
or intended for being used for VX or biological
agent. He was presumably talking about the use of
the CB-250, fitted with the 122mm containers.
According to Iraq’s declarations27 the CB-250’s,
one for each agent, were filled with mustard, sarin,
and cyclosarin for corrosion and agent stability
tests. Another possible explanation for this
24
UNSCOM Doc No 200097
UNSCOM Document No 920004 of 02 Sep 1999
26
UNMOVIC Doc No 901010
27
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter I, para.1.14.1
25
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CHAPTER III.X
statement was that Iraq was considering the use of their indigenously produced version of “CB470” type cluster bomb.
Comment
What is clear is that Iraq did intend and in fact manufactured a number of cluster bomb submunitions that were designed for use with chemical agents. The nature of cluster munitions is
such that once the concept if proven and tested with conventional sub-munitions, it can easily be
applied to chemical or biological sub-munitions.
Spray tanks
Iraq declared that it had modified an aircraft’s external fuel tank to trial the spraying of chemical
agents at MSE. However, apparently the work conducted was inconclusive and was abandoned
in August of 1988, at the end of the Iran Iraq war. It is unclear whether a 1990 reference by the
director of MSE to the use of mustard from spray tanks was indeed just that, or whether he
confused this project with the biological spray tank project, which occurred in November 1990
as he later said.
All-Ways acting fuse
In 1987, Iraq reverse engineered the “All Ways” fuse, used by the sub-munitions in “SAKR-30”
type chemical rocket warhead. Iraqi copies of these fuses were fitted to 122mm sub-munitions,
Figure III.X.XXXII All-Ways acting fuse
similar to those used in the CB-250 (Figure III.X.XXXII). Iraq first experimented with an “All
Ways” fuse in the first week of November 1987.
Iraq tried to indigenously produce an all-ways acting fuse at Al Qaa Qaa so as to be compatible
with a range of Iraqi CBW munitions. The fuse was intended as both a primary and secondary
means of initiation for munitions. According to Iraq, its plan was to have available in it’s
inventory a mechanical fuse, which would function regardless of orientation at impact, was
sensitive enough to work on both hard and soft targets, and was able to be used in a number of
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different munitions. Iraq was concerned about Unexploded Ordnance (UXO) of a chemical or
biological nature, and the international attention this would generate should Iraqi “special”
weapons be recovered by Iran or by international organizations.
From a technical point of view, Iraq saw the development of the all-ways acting fuse, and the
122mm sub-munitions they had tested in “CB-250” type cluster bomb, as a method of increasing
the efficiency of their chemical munitions.
Iraq tried to indigenously manufacture the all-ways acting fuse, for both efficiency and economic
reasons. The fuse could be manufactured using locally available raw materials. It could be
produced much cheaper than the version supplied. The fuse could be integrated into existing
“special” munitions designs to increase efficiency of agent delivery and dispersion, and would be
more reliable, and therefore less likely that there would be telltale evidence of the use of
chemical weapons through the presence of UXOs.
Munitions filled with CS28
Figure III.X.XXXIII Munitions filled with CS
In addition to the weaponization of major CW agents, SEPP evaluated filling of different types
of grenades and mortar bombs with the riot control agent CS, for use as direct fire support for
attacking troops (Figure III.X.XXXIII). From 1982 until 1984, Rocket Propelled Grenades
(“RPG-7” type), 82mm and 120mm mortars were successfully tested with CS. From 1984 until
1985, an unknown number of “RPG-7” type grenades, and over 1,000, 82mm, and 20,000
120mm mortars were filled with CS. “RPG-7” type grenades and 82mm mortars were
indigenously produced by Iraqi companies and supplied to SEPP. Empty 120mm mortars casings
were procured in 1985. According to Iraq’s declarations, a number of 120mm mortars were filled
with mustard, tabun and sarin for corrosion and stability tests. There is also documentary
evidence that at some stage that Iraq planned to fill these munitions with sarin, however,
according to Iraq, this did not happen. In addition, a few hundred 250kg and 500kg bombs were
also filled with CS.
28
UNSCOM Doc No 200110
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CHAPTER III.X
Gas canisters
A test using a smoke canister containing Adamsite, CS and smoke generating chemicals was
carried out at a chemical proving ground in 1988. According to Iraq’s declarations the result was
not encouraging. This statement is contradictory to other Iraqi documents29 indicating that the
results of trials with Adamsite were acceptable to the Special Weapons Acceptance Committee.
Dusty agents
The term “dusty agent” is used to refer to a CW agent that has been adsorbed on a finely divided
solid carrier as a means to disperse a liquid agent as a dust.
Iraq denied that it had had any interest in dusty agents. UN inspectors found a document30 in the
Haidar Farm cache titled “Drawings for Dusty Agent Research” which dealt with the equipment
required for the production of the dust, and referred to a “generator of the black dust”.
Comment
The “black” in Iraq’s “generator of the black dust” could suggest that Iraq was studying the use
of activated charcoal as the absorbent, or that the active agent was Sarin, as Iraq also used the
term “black” as a code for this agent. Although Iraq was familiar with dusty agent technology
and also had the necessary materials, equipment, and experience in coating solids to produce
dusty agents, UNSCOM found no evidence that Iraq produced dusty agents. More likely that Iraq
would have focused on more effective uses of its resources than for weaponization of dusty
agents.
Filling of munitions with CW agents
Figure III.X.XXXIV A frame from a video record from a filling plant
In 1982, the filling station at SEPP, the
Al Farez Plant, consisted of two dual
sheds. Each shed contained an
improvised filling unit, compiled by
SEPP from a domestic gas cylinder
filling line procured from an overseas
company, and glass pipes locally
manufactured at the glass workshop.
From 1983 to 1985, 130mm and 155mm
projectiles were filled manually using
this equipment (Figure III.X.XXXIV).
The volume measurement and control
was crude using a visual observation of
29
30
UNSCOM Doc No 200095.001
UNSCOM Doc No 701006
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CHAPTER III.X
agent level through a glass tube that was fixed to the loading vessel. Munitions casings were
manually placed on a conveyor and transported inside the shed. The projectiles were filled with a
volumetric tank, equipped with manually operated control valves. The filling capacity was about
35 projectiles per hour.
After filling, a burster tube was inserted by hand and then mechanically pressed to seal in the
agent. Prior to 1986, all aerial bombs were filled manually in the open in the vicinity of the
filling station. Later, “LD-250” type bombs were stored standing upright and taken by forklift
truck to the filling rig. The bombs were then manually filled with agent through the nose via an
operator dressed in protective equipment and a hose. The operator would then insert the burster
tube and fuse well assembly, which was then press fitted into the bomb, sealing in the agent.
This type of filling operation was later changed when Iraq modified their stocks of chemical
weapons by introducing a transverse filling port, thus simplifying the process of bomb filling.
Figure III.X.XXXV Robotic equipment installed at the filling station for the filling of 122mm
warheads
In 1985, a semiautomatic filling line was
built at the filling station, using equipment
procured as well as locally manufactured
parts and components. The line was intended
to fill and seal aerial bombs. Starting in 1986,
the bombs were filled by barrel pumps and
were sealed with a locally manufactured
mechanical press. The unit had a capacity of
twenty 250 kg or twelve 500 kg bombs per
hour.
In 1986, robotic equipment was procured and
installed at the filling station for the filling of
122mm warheads. Volumetric sensors were
used to doze and control filling operations.
By the end of 1990, there were four
operational filling lines at the filling station,
including dedicated filling units for aerial
bombs, artillery projectiles, 122mm rockets
and 120mm mortars. The sheds housing the
filling units were equipped with scrubbers,
air coolers and ventilation equipment.
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Quantities of CW agents, in metric tonnes, weaponized by SEPP/MSE for the period from 1983
to 1990 are shown in Chart III.X.I below:
Chart III.X.I Tonnes of CW Agent in Munitions by Year, as declared by Iraq
Aerial bombs
Artillery munitions
1990
1988
Artillery munitions
Aerial bombs
1987
1986
1985
1984
1983
1000
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990
Artillery munitions
10
27
61
Aerial bombs
53
220 284
32
243
110 123
292
931
807 126
There was no bulk chemical agent produced or weaponised in 1989 according to Iraq’s
declarations. It produced an unknown number of weapons (probably small) in 1981 and 1982.
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CHAPTER III.X
More than 80% of CW agents were filled in aerial bombs. According to Iraq, of the total of
some 3,850metric tones of chemical warfare agent produced, over 3,300 tonnes of CW agents
were weaponized, including some 2,400 tonnes of mustard, 140 tonnes of tabun and over 700
tonnes of sarin as shown in Chart III.X.II.
Chart III.X.II Tonnes of Agent Weaponized by Year, as declared by Iraq
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1990
1986
TABUN, t
SARIN, t
MUSTARD, t
M
U
ST
AR
SA D,
t
TA RIN
BU , t
N
,t
1983
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1990
60
TABUN, t
SARIN, t
MUSTARD, t
63
187
69
10
24
15
122
507
67
252
299
1052
410
182
There was no bulk chemical agent produced or weaponized in 1989 according to Iraq’s
declarations. It produced an unknown number of weapons (probably small) in 1981 and 1982.
In the period from 1981 to 1991, Iraq weaponized some 130,000 chemical munitions. Of these,
over 101,000 munitions were used in combat, according to Iraq.
Quality control at SEPP/MSE
Significant technical problems with chemical munitions were caused by corrosion and the
degradation of CW agents. The degradation rate, which occurred for different agents in
particular weapons depended on both the quality of agents and construction material of
munitions. The major parameters of agent quality comprised their purity, combination of subproducts and by-products and volume concentrations of resulting impurities. Some by-products
and sub-products of CW nerve agents, such as hydrogen fluoride, were extremely aggressive
chemicals that dramatically accelerated the corrosion process.
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Heavy corrosion between the carbon steel of the munitions bodies of the BR and AALD series of
bombs and the CW agents, led to unacceptable agent leakage. Leakage also occurred due to
mechanical damage to munitions during their transportation and handling. Multiple instances of
leakage resulted from mechanical defects and poor workmanship during the production of
munitions casings.
Mounting internal gas pressure in aerial bombs filled with CW agents was the result of ongoing
chemical reactions involving chemical warfare agents and other reagents contained in the
impurities in combination with corrosion processes. High internal pressure led to the rupture of
munitions. Additionally, a specific problem occurred with the polymerization of mustard in
munitions, mainly aerial bombs.
In 1985, SEPP established a Quality Control section to oversee and control the production of CW
agents, their key precursors, munitions casings and components, weaponization and to monitor
the quality of filled chemical munitions and bulk CW agents.
Several attempts were made to mitigate leakage of chemical munitions, these included the dozing
of munitions filling operations at the filling station to prevent overloading munitions casings
beyond 90% (by volume), which could contribute to increased gas pressure within the munitions.
The Quality Control section established minimal acceptance criteria for major CW agents to be
weaponized by SEPP/MSE; 40% purity for tabun and sarin and 80% purity for mustard.
According to records of the Quality Control section, the average purity of tabun and sarin, from
1984 to 1988 was between 45% and 50%.
Bulk and weaponized nerve agents produced at MSE although low in purity remained viable
until 1992. International inspectors had reached such conclusions prior to the destruction of bulk
and weaponised nerve agents, which occurred under international supervision.
Conversely, the average purity of mustard produced was above 85%. This mustard is known to
have remained at average 80% purity level until 1992, when its remaining quantities were
destroyed under international supervision. The purity of mustard produced and filled into 155mm
artillery projectiles, remained at 95% purity level until 2003, when the last remaining munitions
were destroyed under international supervision.
Chemical weapons, produced by SEPP/MSE during the Iran-Iraq war, from 1981 to 1988, were
not intended for a long-term storage. Most of the chemical weapons produced during this period
were deployed and consumed in the same year, therefore the low purity of CW agents generally
affected only munitions remaining in storage after 1988.
After the end of the Iran-Iraq war, Iraq’s MoD outlined new operational requirements, including
a capability for the long-term storage of chemical munitions as well as the need for more lethal
agents. From 1989 until 1990, MSE conducted several studies, and ran production trials, to
develop technology for the production of higher purity CW agents, mainly sarin and cyclosarin
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and experimented with a mixture of sarin and cyclosarin. In addition, Iraq continued the
development of binary agents such as those described above.
Although these efforts helped slightly to improve the agent quality, they did not achieve any
revolutionary breakthrough. The average purity of sarin/cyclosarin produced in 1990, according
to records, was still only around 50%, and did not exceeded 60%. The purity of sarin/cyclosarin
formed from the binary composition did not exceed 55%. However, a true binary concept solved,
to a certain degree, a problem of stability.
System of chemical munitions and operational requirements
Standard battle scenarios prepared by Iraq’s MoD envisaged both, defensive and offensive
operations and thus comprised requirements for different types of chemical munitions to assure
operational flexibility.
The following types and numbers of chemical munitions were required for a seven-day battle
scenario, as of 1987:
Munitions type
Aerial bomb
Aerial bomb
Rocket warhead
Artillery projectile
CW fill
Mustard
Sarin
Sarin
Mustard
Caliber
AALD-500
AALD-500
122mm
155mm
Quantity of munitions
1,232
1,232
8,320
13,000
Iraq acknowledged that regular military combat units in operational theatres, using conventional
munitions, were to receive and use chemical weapons if necessary, under special directives. This
suggested that even if chemical munitions were stored and handled separately from conventional
munitions at ammunition depots, that they could have been inadvertently issued or accounted for
as conventional munitions by the user units. Iraq’s ammunition marking codes were notoriously
inconsistent and still remain unclear.
Storage and handling of chemical munitions
Filled munitions
SEPP/MSE was the major contractor to MoD, and was solely responsible for the provision of all
chemical munitions to Iraq’s armed forces. According to Iraq’s declarations, interviews with
Iraqi officials and documents found in Iraq, over the period from 1981 to 1991 SEPP/MSE filled
and delivered to the MoD over 130,000 chemical munitions. These numbers do not include
mortar bombs filled with riot-control agents.
Of the nearly130,000 munitions filled with CW agents, some 105,000 were supplied to the Iraqi
armed forces during the Iran-Iraq war between 1981 and 1988. Of the 105,000 munitions,
101,000, filled with about 3,000 tonnes of CW agents, were deployed, and used in combat by
Iraq over the same period. The remaining 25,000 filled chemical munitions, were delivered by
MSE, to the armed forces after the Iran-Iraq war, and shortly before the 1991 Gulf War.
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During the 1980s, SEPP only accumulated stocks of filled chemical munitions within the scope
of specific orders from the MoD as described above. Prior to their shipment by trucks to the
armed forces, temporary storage of chemical munitions occurred at reinforced concrete bunkers
in the storage area at SEPP/MSE, and at dedicated storage areas controlled by SEPP, at two
conventional ammunition depots, Muhammadiyat and Al Ukhaider. Chemical munitions were
shipped to central and regional conventional ammunition depots and air bases. From here
munitions could be issued to artillery units and Air Force regiments. After chemical munitions
had been issued, SEPP/MSE maintained responsibility for the periodic technical inspection and
maintenance of munitions in the possession of the armed forces units.
Defective or leaking chemical munitions were routinely recalled and handled by SEPP/MSE,
resulting in the accumulation of hundreds of filled and defective munitions held at SEPP/MSE
establishments. According to documents found in Iraq, some unused chemical munitions were
returned to MSE in August 1988 after the end of the Iran-Iraq war.
Comment
It remains unknown whether all the remaining chemical weapons were actually collected and
returned to MSE. Iraq did not provide sufficient production, deployment, and consumption
records, for its chemical weapons, to verify this question.
The second large-scale chemical weapons production campaign occurred from April 1990 to
January 1991. During this period MSE produced and supplied the armed forces with 25,000
chemical munitions referred to above. According to Iraq’s declarations, the weapons were
deployed to 17 ammunition depots, airbases and airfields throughout Iraq. The locations of these
depots are provided in the supporting table and shown on the following map. There was no
evidence suggesting that they were issued to field military units, with the exception of 50
chemical warheads for the Al Hussein missiles deployed to the Technical Battalion of the
Surface-to-Surface Missile Corps.
In addition to chemical munitions delivered by MSE to the Iraqi armed forces in 1990-1991,
hundreds of chemical munitions remained in MSE’s custody; these weapons consisted of
munitions left over after the Iran-Iraq war and defective munitions not suitable for combat use.
According to Iraq’s declarations, most of these munitions were destroyed or damaged by the
coalition through the aerial bombardment during the 1991 Gulf war.
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Location of munitions filled with CW as of January 199131
#
Storage name
1.
2.
Airfield 37
Bakar air base
3.
Murasana air base (H3 NW)
4.
Qadissiyah air base
5.
6.
Sa'ad air base (H-2)
Munitions
250 kg aerial bombs
Saddam air base
7.
8.
9.
10.
Tabaat air base (H3 SW)
Talha air base
Tamuz air base
(Habaniyah)
Tuz air base
11.
Waleed air base
12.
Ukhaider ammunition depot
13. Khamissiyah ammunition depot
14.
15.
16.
17.
31
R-400 aerial bombs
250kg aerial bombs
500 kg aerial bombs
R- 400 aerial bombs
R- 400 aerial bombs
250 kg aerial bombs
500 kg aerial bombs
R- 400 aerial bombs
R-400 aerial bombs
250 kg aerial bombs
500 kg aerial bombs
R- 400 aerial bombs
R- 400 aerial bombs
R-400 aerial bombs
250 kg aerial bombs
250 kg aerial bombs
500 kg aerial bombs
R- 400 aerial bombs
250 kg aerial bombs
500 kg aerial bombs
122mm rockets
155mm artillery shells
122mm rockets
Muhammadiyat
ammunition 250 kg aerial bombs
depot
DB-2 aerial bombs
155 mm artillery shells
Mymona ammunition depot
122mm rockets
Nasiriyah ammunition
155mm artillery shells
depot
Muthanna State Establishment
122 mm rockets
250 kg aerial bombs
500 kg aerial bombs
155 mm artillery shells
UNSCOM Doc No 700030, UNSCOM Doc No 700029
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CHAPTER III.X
Figure III.X.XXXVI Location of munitions filled with CWA as of -January 1991
Saddam air base
Muthanna State Establishment
Tuz air base
Qaddisiyah
Sa’ad air base
Bakar air base
Murasana airbase
(H3NW)
Nasiriyah Ammunition Depot
Waleed air base
Khamysia Ammunition Depot
Mymona Ammunition
Depot
Tabaat air base
Talha air base
Muhammadiayt Ammunition
Depot
Airfield 37
Tamuz air base
(Habaniyah)
Ukhaider Ammunition Depot
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CHAPTER III.X
Empty munitions
According to Iraq’s declarations, in addition to munitions filled with CW agents, 98,000
munitions were acquired or produced by SEPP/MSE, for CW purposes. These munitions
remained unfilled up until 1991. Empty munitions were kept at multiple storage areas in the
vicinity of MSE under its control, and at several military ammunition depots and munitions
production facilities within in Iraq. The locations of these munitions are shown in the following
table and on the supporting map.
Comment
SEPP/MSE was able to implement its major function and to supply a variety of chemical
munitions to the armed forces. Within the constraints imposed upon it, SEPP/MSE worked to
develop chemical weapons that were effective within context of their perceived threat and
operating environment.
Iraq had a relatively sophisticated technical work force, however, was limited in its ability to
transcend some critical technological barriers, such as issues related to design and construction
of complex delivery means, including electronic fusing and control systems.
As a consequence of the Iran-Iraq war, Iraq developed methods to address the technical issues it
experienced when handling chemical munitions. By storing sufficient war reserves of filled
munitions for short periods only and by keeping the remaining weapons as bulk agents and
empty munitions, the issue of agent degradation and corrosion were partially overcome.
Empty munitions, their raw materials and production equipment, procured by Iraq from foreign
suppliers, largely contributed to the success of its weaponization efforts. An indigenous
conventional munitions production capability facilitated Iraq’s ability to modify and reverse
engineer munitions for use with chemical agent. The transfer of foreign technology was essential
for Iraq to achieve the level of indigenous production of its delivery systems
Iraq developed knowledge and experience in the modification of conventional munitions, to hold
and disseminate CW agents based on the initial testing of 130mm and 155mm chemical artillery
projectiles and 122mm rockets. The basic design principles used for this development was
transferred to modification and reverse engineering used in all of Iraq’s chemical munitions.
These included a means for filling and emptying munitions with liquids, increasing explosive
burster tube lengths, changing explosive charges, and addition of agent containers of various
materials to prevent corrosion and reduce agent degradation.
The experience of verification of Iraq’s chemical munitions showed that to recognize the subtle
modifications used to convert conventional munitions into chemical munitions a detailed
understanding of the original munitions materials, design and manufacturing process was
required. Understanding all conventional delivery means available to Iraq was essential for the
recognition of Iraq’s chemical weapons munitions, their distinctive parts and components.
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CHAPTER III.X
Location of unfilled chemical munitions as of January 199132
#
Storage name
Munitions
1.
Ukhaider ammunition depot
122 mm rocket motors
2.
Fallujah ammunition depot
122 mm rocket motors
3.
4.
Haditha 1 ammunition depot
Haditha 2 ammunition depot
122 mm rockets
122 mm rockets
122 mm rockets
5.
Muhammadiyat
depot
ammunition 250 kg aerial bombs
DB-2 aerial bombs
6.
7.
8.
32
Salah Al-Din ammunition 122 mm rockets
depot
Taji ammunition depot
155 mm artillery shells
Muthanna State Establishment 122 mm rockets
250 kg aerial bombs
UNSCOM Doc No 70030, UNSCOM Doc No 700029
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CHAPTER III.X
Figure III.X.XXXVII Chemical Weapons test sites
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CHAPTER III.X
Chemical Munitions Tests carried out within Iraq
• Bahr Al Najaf
o 130mm Tabun (1982, 1983)
• Al Muhammadiyat
o BR-250, BR-500 (1983, 1984, 1985)
o BR-250 CS (1984)
o 155mm projectiles burster strength (1984)
o 155mm projectiles Sarin (1984)
o 122mm Al Borak Sarin (1988)
o AALD-250 White Phosphorous (1988)
o 155mm Binary Sarin (1989)
• Airfield 37
Alternate names: Air field 37 Al Muhammadiyat
o CB-250 18 bomblets (1987)
o R-400 bombs (1990)
• Al Muthanna
o AALD-250 White Phosphorous (1987)
o 122mm Al Borak burster strength (1987)
o DB-2 (1988)
o 122mm Al Borak burster strength (1988)
o RPG-7 (1988)
o 122mm Firos-25 with canisters (1988)
o All-ways acting fuse (1988)
o 122mm agent containers for binary Sarin (1989)
o 122mm binary Sarin (1990)
o CB-250 and Nasr-250 binary bombs (1990)
• Al Razaza
o 122mm SAKR-18 (1987)
o BR-250 Sarin (1987)
• Al Habaniyah air field
o Al Qaa Qaa-250, Al Qaa Qaa-500 (1987)
o AALD-250 with four canisters (1988)
• Jerf Al Sakhar
o 82mm 120 mm mortars (1982, 1984)
o Smoke rockets (1983, 1987)
o RPG-7 (1983)
o 122mm Firos-25 burster strength (1985)
o 122mm Firos-25 test fire (1985)
o 122mm SAKR-30 colored liquid (1988)
o 122mm Al Borak oil (1988)
o 152mm binary Sarin (1988)
o 152mm binary VX (unknown)
o 152mm binary Mustard (1988)
o 155mm ERBB binary Sarin (1988)
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CHAPTER III.X
Overseas Tests:
•
•
•
122mm SAKR-18 and SAKR-30 (in 1984, 1985 and 1986)
155mm projectiles (1983)
122mm Firos-25 (1984)
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
APPENDIX: UNMOVIC FINDINGS REGARDING CHEMICAL MUNITIONS IN IRAQ
Introduction
Between 27 November 2002 and 17 March 2003, UNMOVIC conducted over 90 inspections of
munitions related facilities in Iraq. During the course of these inspections a small number of
either proscribed munitions, components of proscribed munitions or suspect related items were
either discovered by UNMOVIC inspectors or examined as the result of declarations by Iraq.
UNMOVIC inspectors examined examples of seven types of chemical or biological munitions
previously known to UNSCOM and discovered evidence of six additional types. Additionally,
UNMOVIC inspectors discovered evidence of two types of cluster munitions possibly related to
chemical or biological munitions that had not been noted by previous UN inspectors. Lastly,
UNMOVIC inspectors examined two types of munitions that had possibly been intended for use
with chemical agents but were instead loaded with high explosives.
Organization of the document
UNMOVIC’s findings regarding chemical munitions examined are divided into three groups
according to UNMOVIC’s approximate degree of certainty regarding the purpose of the
munition. These groups include the following:
Group A: Findings Regarding Confirmed Chemical Munitions
Group B: Findings Regarding Munitions and Components Linked to Prohibited Programmes
Group C: Findings Regarding Munitions and Components Whose Purpose is Under Review
This document includes also comments stemming from UN and Iraqi documents revisited in the
light of Iraq’s declarations of 2002 and UNMOVIC findings in the period November 2002 –
March 2003.
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Group A. Findings Regarding Confirmed Chemical Munitions
Disposal of Mustard Filled 155mm Artillery Projectiles
Background
Artillery projectiles (the munition) were configured to disseminate their chemical agent load by
various means including explosive aerosolisation; thermal aerosolisation; base ejection of bulk
fills; and via the ejection of sub-munitions of various types. The most commonly encountered
configuration is a projectile designed to aerosolize a load of liquid unitary agent via the
detonation of an internal explosive burster.
Projectiles can either be designed specifically for use with chemical agents or they may be
modifications of projectiles designed for other purposes. In some cases projectiles designed for
one purpose are suitable for use with certain chemical agents without modification. For example,
projectiles designed to explosively atomize smoke producing compounds are suited for use with
chemical agents.
Discoveries
Four 155mm artillery projectiles were discovered at the Ukhaider Ammunition Depot during UN
inspections in 1997. A further ten similar projectiles were discovered at the same facility in
1998. Four of these projectiles were opened and their contents sampled and drained during
operations conducted by UNSCOM. The contents were determined to be the chemical warfare
agent mustard. The remaining ten filled projectiles, along with the mustard agent from the four
that had been drained, were moved to the Muthanna State Establishment for storage and
proposed destruction. The proposed destruction did not take place prior to the withdrawal of UN
inspectors from Iraq in late 1998.
On 4 December 2002, UNMOVIC inspectors examined the ten filled projectiles and the bottles
containing the remaining mustard agent at the Muthanna site. The projectiles were all 155mm
smoke projectiles intended for use with white phosphorus. These projectiles have a central
explosive burster and are suitable for the dissemination of mustard without modification. The
projectiles and the plastic pails containing the bottles of mustard are shown below.
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
Figure III.X.IA Ten 155mm mustard filled Figure III.X.IIA Plastic pails containing bottles of
projectiles at Muthanna
mustard at Muthanna
Disposal Operations:
Disposal operations began on 11 February 2003 at Muthanna. All stages of the disposal were
implemented by UNMOVIC’s inspectors. The first projectiles were opened and sampled using
the remotely controlled MONICA drilling device on 12 February. During subsequent drilling
operations all the projectiles were opened and their contents sampled and analyzed. The samples
taken from the shells showed that mustard produced over 15 years ago was still of high quality 97% purity.1
Figure III.X.IIIA Remote drilling into
amustard filled projectile with MONICA
The mustard agent was drained from all ten
projectiles and subsequently destroyed by
chemical
neutralization
with
sodium
hypochlorite. The empty projectiles were
destroyed with explosives on 3 March 2003.
The disposal operation was completed on 5
March 2003 with the final decontamination of
1
All samples of mustard stored in the Commission’s chemical laboratory were destroyed the day before withdrawal
of UNMOVIC’s staff from Iraq in March, 2003. No quantities of live agents were left behind in the BOMVIC’s
offices at the Canal hotel.
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
the barrels used for neutralization of the mustard.
Conclusions:
UNMOVIC identified, handled, opened, sampled, analyzed, neutralized and disposed of a small
quantity (approximately 49 liters) of mustard filled into 155 mm artillery projectiles remaining
from the UNSCOM period.2
Examination of Five Types of 122 mm Rocket Warheads3
Background
Several types of 122mm rocket warheads relevant to UNMOVIC’s mandate were either declared
to UNMOVIC by Iraq or were discovered by UNMOVIC inspectors during the course of their
work. These warheads are described in the following paragraphs.
Discoveries and Analysis
122mm “Sakr 18” type chemical warheads:
During the course of inspecting the Ukhaider Ammunition Depot on 16 Jan. 2003 the inspectors
discovered 12 boxes containing 122 mm “Sakr 18” type chemical warheads and motors. Eleven
of the warheads were sealed in what appeared to be their original plastic protective bags and
were separated from their motors. The twelfth warhead, no longer in its plastic bag, was attached
to a rocket motor. This warhead was x-rayed and found to contain two plastic containers and
several litres of an unknown liquid. The liquid was subsequently sampled, analyzed and assessed
by UNMOVIC’s laboratory to be primarily water.
Figure III.X.IVA Twelve boxes of 122mm “Sakr 18” type
rockets
The warheads and motors were packed in
wooden boxes that were all similar in
construction and markings. Metal bands
sealed most of the boxes. There was no
evidence of tampering with the bands.
An example warhead and the boxes found are
shown in the following photographs.
2
UNMOVIC-03-00585-CW-NONE-1042
3
In total, 18 chemical warheads were tagged by UNMOVIC for destruction
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
Figure III.X.VA Nose of “Sakr” type warhead
Figure III.X.VIA Base of “Sakr” type
warhead
The boxes were painted dark green and lettered in English in yellow paint. Each box was marked
as follows: In transit, L/C, Contract, shipping date, weights, box number, and the destination - Al
Qaa Qaa Establishment. Both the L/C number and the contract number mentioned in Iraqi
declarations concerning the acquisition of chemical munitions during the 1980’s.
Figure III.X.VIIA Destination markings on Sakr type warhead boxes
An additional empty “Sakr 18” type chemical warhead (without motor) was discovered on 4
February 2003 at the Al Taji Ammunition Depot. This warhead was identical to the warheads
discovered at Ukhaider with the exception that it was neither in its plastic bag nor was it in a
shipping box.
122mm “Firos 25” type chemical warheads
On 20 January 2003, the Iraqi government notified UNMOVIC that four 122mm Firos 25 type
chemical warheads had been found at the Al Taji Ammunition Depot. Inspectors examined these
warheads on 21 January and discovered that one contained a small quantity of unidentified
liquid. Samples of this liquid were extracted on 9 February and subsequently analyzed at the
BOMVIC laboratory. The liquid was found to be primarily water.
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
Figure III.X.VIIIA 122mm “Firos 25” type chemical
warheads at Al Taji
Figure III.X.IXA Base of “Firos”
type warhead
122 mm Al Buraq chemical warhead
Figure III.X.XA X-ray of “Firos” type
warhead showing burster tube and liquid
During an inspection of the Al Taji Ammunition Depot on 9 Feb. 2003 an empty warhead was
discovered that has been identified as a 122 mm Al Buraq. The Al Buraq is an Iraqi produced
aluminum warhead designed for use with chemical agents. The warhead was damaged and not
suitable for use.
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Figure III.X.XIA 122 mm Al Buraq chemical warhead at Al Taji
Figure III.X.XIIA Base of Al Buraq
warhead
122mm Steel Warheads Filled With TNT
During the inspection of the Al Taji Ammunition Depot on 9 February 2003, two unusual
122mm warheads were examined. The warheads were manufactured from steel and had the
general profile of “Sakr 18” type chemical warhead. However, they were approximately 4-5
inches longer than “Sakr 18” type warhead. Physical examination disclosed that they had a fulllength burster tube similar to what is typical for a chemical warhead. The warheads were,
however, filled with what appeared to be the explosive TNT. Sampling and subsequent analysis
at the BOMVIC laboratory confirmed that the filler was TNT. Photographs follow below:
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
Figure III.X.XIIIA 122 mm explosive filled warhead
Figure III.X.XIVA Nose
of warhead showing
Figure III.X.XVA Base of
warhead showing TNT filler
The Al Karama Co controlled the Al Taji bunker where the warheads were found. The Iraqi
government representatives assisting the inspection were unable to provide any details
concerning the origin of these warheads.
The physical characteristics of the warheads are similar to a chemical warhead. Iraq is known to
have produced 122mm steel warheads for use with chemical agents. It is possible, but not
established, that these warheads were initially produced for use with chemical agents but
subsequently filled with TNT for unknown purposes.
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
Unidentified 122mm Rocket Warhead Components
An additional discovery during the inspection at the Al Taji Ammunition Depot on 9 February
2003 included the warhead nose, part of the body and a base plate of what appears to be a
previously unreported type 122mm chemical rocket warhead.
The design of this warhead is, in some regards, similar to the design of the 122mm “Sakr 18“
type warhead. The nose, with attached burster tube, is threaded into what appears to be the
forward portion of the warhead body. The design suggests that the nose was intended to be
removable which in turn suggests that the warhead was intended for use with internal agent
canisters rather than be bulk filled. The tapered, rather than ogival, nose is unusual as is the
heavier than typical thickness of the nose body.
Figure III.X.XVIA Nose of
unknown 122mm warhead
Figure III.X.XVIIA inside view of
unknown warhead
A steel base plate for a chemical rocket warhead was also discovered at Al Taji on Feb. 9th. The
base plate is appropriate in diameter for a 122 mm warhead and includes both a threaded hole
that appears to be a filler port and a machined recess that appears to be for a buster tube. The
plate is similar, in general design, to the base plate of a 122 mm “Firos” type chemical warhead.
The possible relationship between these plates (shown below) and the warhead nose assembly
described above is unknown because the nose assembly was separated from the remainder of the
warhead body by sawing.
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Figure III.X.XVIIIA Forward
side of base plate showing recess
for burster tube
These items were discovered in the same
Al Buraq warheads described above.
components was available.
Figure III.X.XIXA Rear side of
base plate showing possible filler
Al Taji bunker as both “Firos” type warheads and the
No further information regarding these warhead
Comment
UNMOVIC examined three types of previously known 122mm chemical rocket warheads and two
other types of warheads that may have been originally intended for use with chemical agents.
None of these warheads appears to incorporate technology that differs from that observed
during the UNSCOM inspections. Indeed, “Sakr 18” type, “Firos 25” type and Al Buraq
warheads are identical to warheads described by UNSCOM. The two remaining types of
warheads, the steel TNT filled example and the unknown type found at Al Taji, were not
described by UNSCOM but do not incorporate significant novel concepts. The dates of
manufacture of these latter two types of warheads have not been determined but they do not
appear to have been manufactured recently.4
Evaluation of a 2.5 Litre Cylindrical Sub-munition
Background:
The term sub-munition refers to one of the primary components in a cluster munition. A cluster
bomb or cluster warhead contains multiple (typically dozens to hundreds) sub-munitions. Each
sub-munition is a complete munition comprising a body, fuse, filler and other necessary
components.
4
UNMOVIC-03-00142-MD-none-1851;UNMOVIC-03-00521-MD-none-1851; UNMOVIC-03-00052-MD-none1088
UNMOVIC-03-00158-MD-Sampling Mission –1851; UNMOVIC-03-00523-MD-011-1088;UNMOVIC-03-00153MD-0011-1088
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Cluster munitions releasing agent filled sub-munitions create multiple points of agent dispersal.
This facilitates target coverage regardless of wind direction (assuming that the sub-munitions are
distributed across the target). Sub-munitions are an efficient and effective means to disseminate
either chemical or biological agents.
Discovery at Al Noaman:
An inspection team inspected the Al Noaman Factory in Baghdad on 2 February 2003. During
the course of the inspection, a sub-munition capable of being used with either chemical or
biological agents was discovered. The factory manager denied knowing what the item was and
declared that it was scrap. NMD personnel initially concurred with the factory manager but
ultimately acknowledged that the item might have been an experimental chemical munition.
They adamantly denied that the item was intended for use with VX.
Figure III.X.XXA 2.5-litre sub-munition found at the Al Noaman Factory
Fins
Nose piece
is missing
The item was an aluminum cylinder 122 mm in diameter and approximately 480mm long. It has
a central burster tube, a welded base plate and a four-bladed aluminum tail fins assembly
threaded into the rear of the sub-munition. The forward end plate and nose assembly were
missing. This munition appears identical to the 2.5 litre sub-munition example in the BOMVIC
munitions collection. The item also appears identical to the munitions shown in Iraq videotapes
of tests of experimental chemical or biological sub-munitions.
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Fuse mounts
to rear of
burster tube
Burster tube
Figure III.X.XXIA Burster
tube inside sub-munition
Figure III.X.XXIIA Base of the sub
munition (without fins) showing rear
of the burster tube
Fuse
Fuse mount
Figure III.X.XXIVA Base of the
sub-munition showing position
of fuse. Fuse retainer is not
Figure III.X.XXIIIA Base of
the sub-munition showing fins
in place and rear of the
Relevant data from Iraq’s CW CAFCD and other documentary evidence:
Iraqi declarations in CW CAFCD Sec. 8.10.4 Aerial Bomb / CB-250
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
“In 1987 cluster bomb / CB-250 manufactured by Al-Noaman factory of fiber glass 18
bomblet made of (AL) by Al-Noaman factory, were modified. The bomblet are closed
cylinder of 3.5 L. capacity and equipped from the rear side by an ordinary fuse for CB
bomb manufactured by Al-Noaman factory as in several test were conducted for studying
the possibility of using those bomblets. The first tests were to drop the bomblet from
different altitudes (10,20,30m) to determine the function of bomblet.”
“In view of those tests, a number of bomblets were manufactured and arranged inside
the cluster bomb / CB-250. In summer of 1987 flying test was carried out for two bombs
/CB-250 charged with 18 bomblet full of a liquid (oil). Another test was conducted for
dropping two bombs/CB-250 on airstrip 37. The results were negative because some of
the fuses did not operate due to insufficient altitude. The tests were abandoned. An idea
was suggested to add another fuse as shown in…. This kind of bomb was never used or
attend to be used for VX or biological agent.”
UNSCOM Document No. 600324 (video)
This 1987 video shows flight tests of the CB 250 cluster bomb filled with 2.5-litre submunitions.
UNSCOM Documents No. 600328 and 600370 (videos)
These 1987 videos show the 2.5-litre sub-munition being dropped from cranes at Al
Muthanna and Al Noaman.
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Fuse
Retainer
Figure III.X.XXVA 2.5-liter submunition being loaded on crane
Figure III.X.XXVIA Plastic
sleeve for retaining fuse
being removed.
Discussions were held with Iraqi personnel at the Al Noaman Factory 2 February and 5 February
2003.
During the inspection of the Al Noaman factory several technical discussions were held
concerning the items discovered including the 2.5-litre sub-munition. Several of these
discussions were captured on videotape and digital voice recorders and have been transcribed.
The most relevant material from the transcriptions of these discussions is included in the
analytical section of this report.
Drawings and Photographs of the 2.5-litre sub-munition recovered by UNSCOM and residing in
the BOMVIC munitions collection.
The following photograph shows a munition that is essentially identical to the munition
recovered at Al Noaman.
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
Figure III.X.XXVIIA 2.5-litre sub-munition in the BOMVIC
Information gathered from UNSCOM interviews and other documents. Comments made during
interviews conducted by UNSCOM 17 and 140 and interviews with General Hussein Kamel in
Jordan are included in the analysis section of this report. Additional information was extracted
from the Muthanna State Establishment Annual Report of 1988.
Analysis
1. Is the 2.5-litre sub-munition discovered at Al Noaman and the 3.5-litre sub-munition
mentioned in Iraqi declarations the same item?
The sub-munition recovered from Al Noaman is missing the forward internal closure plate. The
sub-munition is otherwise identical to the completely intact example held at BOMVIC. Based on
an examination of both munitions, the internal volume of the sub-munition is calculated to be
slightly in excess of two litres.
If we consider only the total length of the body of the munition and its internal diameter then the
volume is theoretically 3.6 litres. However, this requires that we ignore the significant loss of
internal volume due to the burster tube and the recessed closure plates at both ends.
During discussion of the 2.5-litre sub-munition at Al Noaman, the Iraqi officials stated, “we
expect this to hold about 3.5 litres.”
Comparing the diameter to length ratio of the recovered munition to the munitions shown in
Farm Document Videos suggests that they are identical. The videos record tests of what they
describe as a 3.5-litre sub-munition.
The available evidence clearly suggests that the 2.5-litre sub-munition discovered at Al Noaman
and the 3.5-litre sub-munition referred to in the prior FFCDs are one and the same.
2. What is the relationship between the 2.5-litre sub-munition and the CB 250 cluster
bomb?
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APPENDIX CHAPTER III.X
CW CAFCD refers to tests of fiberglass CB 250 cluster bombs holding 18 aluminum 3.5-litre
sub-munitions.
“In 1987 cluster bomb / CB-250 manufactured by Al-Noaman factory of fiber glass 18
bomblet made of (AL) by Al-Noaman factory, were modified. The bomblet are closed
cylinder of 3.5 L. capacity….”
The Al Noaman Factory included a plant for producing fiberglass CB 250 cluster bombs.
Numerous components for the CB 250 cluster bomb were found in building 27 along with the
2.5-litre sub-munition.
Al Noaman is not the only facility in Iraq that made fiberglass munitions. A label found on a
cluster warhead for a 540mm rocket suggests that the Al Bahrani Company also manufactured
fiberglass munitions. However, Al Noaman is the only Iraqi company known to have produced
the CB 250 cluster bomb.
Videos of Iraqi dynamic tests of the CB 250 cluster bomb and the 3.5-litre sub-munition
analyzed by UNMOVIC include close-up images of the recovered sub-munitions. The sub
munition shown in that report appears identical to the sub-munition recovered at Al Noaman
with the exception of the rounded nose that is missing from the munition discovered at Al
Noaman.
It appears that the 2.5-litre sub-munition discovered at Al Noaman was intended for use with the
CB 250 cluster bomb. However, it should be noted that this sub-munition is probably suitable for
use with other cluster munitions including the larger CB 500 also produced by Al Noaman.
3. What agents were intended for use with this sub-munition?
The 2.5 litre sub-munition is similar to other known Iraqi chemical munitions in that it is
cylindrical and has an explosive burster extending most of its length along its central axis. The
agent to burster weight ratio is 14:1, that is sufficient to effectively disseminate a volatile agent
such as sarin.
The CAFCD-Chemical (Sec. 8.10.4) contains the following declaration relating to the agent in
sub-munitions:
“In summer of 1987 flying test was carried out for two bombs /CB-250 charged with 18
bomblet full of a liquid (oil)…. This kind of bomb was never used or attend to be used
for VX or biological agent.”
Comment
The Iraqi declarations and comments to UNMOVIC inspectors were consistent in their insistence
that the 2.5-litre sub-munition was intended for use with a chemical agent other than VX.
However, for some unexplained reason they were unwilling or unable to give any hint of what
agent that was.
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Despite repeated requests to reveal the agent intended for use with this munition the Iraqis only
restated the list of agents declared as being available at the time. Additionally, both in
declarations and during the discussions at Al Noaman Iraq emphatically stated that neither VX
nor biological agents were considered for this munition. Further, the Iraqis stated that someone
else would select the agent at a later time.
Based on the Iraqi statements and the physical characteristics of the munition, sarin and
cyclosarin would seem to be the most likely chemical agents for this munition.
4. What was the relationship of this sub-munition to the development and testing of
122mm chemical and biological rocket warheads?
The 2.5 litre sub-munition is very similar in several aspects of construction to the 122mm Al
Buraq chemical warhead. Specifically, they share the following characteristics: both are 122mm
in diameter; both are made of aluminum of similar thickness; both have an explosive burster
extending most of their length along their central axis and both have similar end plates. The submunition bears a strong resemblance to the rear half of the Al Buraq.
The principle differences between these munitions are their length, the type of fuzing, and the
presence of a fin assembly attached to the rear of the sub-munition.
The following photographs illustrate the physical similarity of the 2.5 litre sub-munition and the
122mm Al Buraq chemical warhead.
Figure III.X.XXIXA Rear end
(base) of the Al Buraq warhead
Figure III.X.XXVIIIA Front end
(nose) of the 2.5-litre sub-munition
The Muthanna State Establishment Annual Report for 19885 contains the following statement in
the munitions section:
5
UNSCOM Doc No 200097
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“It will be possible, in the future, to suppress the plastic canisters and the metallic
canisters, equipping the above-mentioned rocket and the cluster bombs (special), and to
rely on canisters made out of aluminum alloys only, with the same moulds used to
manufacture aluminum tubes which will be used to produce special warheads made out
of aluminum. “
This statement indicates MSE’s intent to use the same equipment and raw materials to produce
both 122mm warheads and sub-munitions.
Examination of the both the 2.5-litre sub-munition and 122mm Al Buraq warhead reveal
significant similarities in construction. Additionally, Iraq admitted in their statements to
UNMOVIC inspectors and state in a document from Muthanna, that both the 2.5 litre submunition and the 122mm aluminum warheads were produced by the same people, using the same
materials and technology and, to some degree, the same components.
It is clear that substantial linkage exists between the development of the 2.5-litre sub-munition
for the CB250 cluster bomb and aluminum warheads for 122mm rockets. The Iraqi statement to
UNMOVIC inspectors that “There is no relationship at all…” is clearly false.
Comment
1. The 2.5 litre sub-munition discovered at Al Noaman is identical to the munitions described by
Iraq as 3.5 litre sub-munitions in both discussions and prior declarations.
2. The 2.5 litre sub-munition discovered at Al Noaman was intended for use with the CB 250
cluster bomb.
3. It is not possible, with the information currently available, to conclusively determine what
agents were intended for use with the 2.5 litre sub-munition. The available information suggests
that sarin, cyclosarin and biological agents are credible alternatives.
4. Substantial linkage existed between the programmes to develop and produce aluminum
122mm rocket warheads and the development and production of the 2.5 litre sub-munition.
Group B. Findings Regarding Munitions and Components Linked to Prohibited
Programmes
Evidence Concerning a 107mm Rocket Warhead
Background:
Iraq’s military inventory included substantial quantities of short-range 107mm surface-to-surface
rockets with high explosive warheads. The declaration of December 2002 mentions that Iraq
considered development of a chemical warhead for this rocket.
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Discovery:
On 9 February 2003, UNMOVIC team inspected the Al Taji Ammunition Depot with the
intention of sampling 122mm warheads declared by Iraq the previous month. While inspecting
building 31 a box was discovered that contained various machined aluminum parts that appeared
to be components of chemical or biological rocket warheads.6
Figure III.X.XXXA Box of aluminum warhead parts
discovered at Al Taji on 09/02/03
Amongst the items in the box was a single example of a machined aluminum component 106
mm in diameter. The component is generally similar in design to the base assembly of a
chemical rocket warhead. The photo below shows this item:
6
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Figure III.X.XXXIA
Aluminum base plate possibly
for 107 mm rocket warhead
Relevant declarations:
Chemical CAFCD (page. 7-6): Aluminum Warheads for 122 mm Rockets. “Other ideas
presented by Project 144 for binary systems and not pursued further were conversion of
warheads for C-24, 107 mm rockets. No prototypes were produced.”
Analysis:
The component shown above appears to be an unfinished base assembly for a rocket of
approximately 107mm diameter. The similarity in basic design of this item to the base assembly
for a 122mm FIROS type chemical warhead and other 122mm base plates for chemical warheads
suggests that this item is indeed a component of a chemical warhead. Lending further credence to
this conclusion is the Iraqi declaration regarding consideration of a chemical warhead for the
107mm rocket.
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Hole
for
filler plug
Hole
for
filler plug
Figure III.X.XXXIIA Base plate for
107mm warhead
Figure III.X.XXXIIIA Base plate
for 122mm “FIROS” type
chemical warhead
Comment
There is insufficient evidence to draw any conclusions regarding the possible Iraqi development
of a liquid filled bursting warhead for 107mm rockets. Additionally, the available evidence does
not afford an adequate basis to evaluate the accuracy of Iraqi declarations regarding a chemical
warhead for 107mm rockets. However, certain comments can be made including the following:
1. At some point Iraq considered the development of a liquid chemical warhead for 107mm
rockets.
2. The aluminum component discovered at Al Taji appears to be an unfinished base assembly for
a liquid filled bursting warhead for a 107mm rocket.
3. If this component is part of such a warhead then it appears that, in contradiction to CAFCD
declarations, Iraq had, at least, begun the production of prototype warheads.
4. If this warhead was indeed intended for use with chemical or biological agents then the
existence of this munition should have been declared.
5. No conclusion can be reached regarding the extent of development or the number of warheads
produced.
A fuller understanding of Iraq’s programme to develop warheads for 107mm rockets would
require more relevant documents by and detailed interviews with relevant personnel.
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Examination of a 540 mm Cluster Warhead for The Luna Rocket7
Background:
The Iraqi military inventory included significant quantities of 540mm Luna (FROG-7) surfaceto-surface rockets. Iraq’s known holdings of these rockets included only high explosive
warheads. The declaration of December 2002 includes a statement regarding development of a
cluster warhead for Luna for use with chemical agents.
Discovery:
On 2 and 5 February 2003, UNMOVIC inspected the Al Noaman Factory. While examining the
contents of building 32 the inspectors observed two items that were generally similar in size and
shape to a warhead for a large rocket. These items are shown in the photograph below.
Wooden mock-up
of the cluster
warhead
Fiberglass
cluster
warhead
Figure III.X.XXXIVA 540mm Warheads discovered at the Al
Noaman Factory
The factory staff initially stated that the items were cluster bombs for aircraft (the Al Noaman
Factory formerly manufactured cluster bombs). During further discussions with NMD
7
UNMOVIC-03-00511-BW-0091-1279; UNMOVIC-03-00596-BW-0091-1279
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representatives on 5 February 2003, the inspectors were informed that the items were Laith
warheads for the Luna (FROG-7) rocket and that they were intended for use with the same
conventional sub-munitions used with the Ababil 50 rocket.
While similar in size and shape the two items are very different in construction. Both are
approximately 2.7 metres in length and 540mm in diameter. One item is fabricated from
fiberglass and steel and is apparently a cluster warhead for the Luna rocket. The other item is
fabricated from wood and is apparently a full-size mock-up of the cluster warhead. Drawings and
photographs of these items are shown below.
Figure III.X.XXXVA Sketch of the cluster warhead found at the Al Noaman
factory
The cluster is apparently designed to open during flight by the detonation of three longitudinal
lines of detonation cord embedded in the fiberglass warhead body. These lines of detonation cord
were visible where they came together at the nose ring.
Detcord
Figure III.X.XXXVIA Warhead nose ring
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Figure III.X.XXXVIIA Nose section of the Laith cluster
warhead
Figure III.X.XXXVIIIA Sketch of the steel ring at the rear of the Laith warhead
Figure III.X.XXXIXA
Side view of steel ring
Figure III.X.XLA Rear view of
steel ring
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The inspectors noticed a label affixed to the steel ring at the base of the cluster warhead. The
label includes the name Bahrani Plastics Materials Co. and two Baghdad phone numbers.
Figure III.X.XLIA Labels attached to the ring
at the rear of the warhead
When asked about the Bahrani Plastics Materials Co. the NMD personnel stated, “it is a private
company working with fiberglass.” NMD further stated that Bahrani manufactured the samples
of the Laith warhead. However, NMD personnel denied knowledge of where Bahrani might be
located.
Related Information from Declarations:
1. CW CAFCD Chapt. VII
“In May 1988 Project 144 offered to design a cluster warhead for CW agents to be used
on the missile Luna. A mock-up prototype was made and the Project was abandoned for
lack of interest.”
2. BM CAFCD Chapt. IV
1. Name Of The Project: Laith
2. Missile System Involved:
B. Name: Luna Cluster
C. Dimensions: Dia. = 500mm L
D. Range: 68 Km
E. Payload: 450 Kg
F. Warhead: 450 Kg
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H. Propulsion System: Solid Surface to Surface Unguided
3. Objective Of The Project: equipping Luna missile with cluster warhead
Analysis:
Physical examination by inspectors and statements by Iraqi representatives during inspections at
the Al Noaman Factory on 2 and 5 February 2003, confirm that the warhead discovered at the Al
Noaman Factory is a cluster warhead for the Luna rocket.
Iraq has declared two projects pertaining to cluster warheads for the Luna (FROG) rocket. The
first project was reportedly started in May of 1988 under Project 1448. This project proposed the
development of a cluster warhead to be filled with chemical sub-munitions. The declaration
states that a mock-up was produced but the project was abandoned. Subsequently, in June of
1988, Project 144 proposed a cluster warhead to be filled with conventional sub-munitions9. This
warhead was known as the Laith. Iraqi representatives stated that at least two prototype warheads
were produced under the Laith project before it was abandoned by the end of July 1988. Iraqi
representatives denied that the Laith warhead was intended for use with either chemical or
biological sub-munitions.
The cluster warhead discovered at the Al Noaman Factory is constructed in a manner generally
similar (fiberglass body designed to be opened in flight by the detonation of linear strips of
explosive) to the cluster bombs previously produced at the factory. This type of construction
facilitates use with a variety of shapes and sizes of sub-munitions. Further, this type of
construction is appropriate for both conventional sub-munitions and for sub-munitions filled with
either chemical or biological agents. The warhead discovered at the Al Noaman Factory appears
equally suited for use with either conventional sub-munitions or with sub-munitions filled with
either chemical or biological agents.
The warhead is approximately 2.7 metres long and 0.5 metres in diameter and is constructed of
fiberglass and steel. The fiberglass components are large and include precisely aligned
cylindrical and conical sections. Embedded in the fiberglass section are three lengths of
explosive and unique steel backing plates. At each end of the fiberglass section are precisely
machined rings. The rear ring is large and has dozens of precisely located holes, grooves and
other machined surfaces to facilitate mating with the fiberglass section and proper alignment and
attachment to a Luna rocket motor. The forward ring, while smaller and less complicated, is
nonetheless precisely made. The Iraqi representatives repeatedly stated that this warhead was
conceived and fabricated in less than two months and that nothing more than the crudest sketches
were prepared to guide the fabricators. The physical size of the warhead and the complexities of
its design are such that it seems very improbable that the Iraqi statements are true. Despite
repeated requests for these sketches, none were provided.
8
9
Chemical CAFCD December 2002
Ballistic Missiles CAFCD December 2002
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The Iraqi declarations state that mock-ups of the proposed chemical cluster warhead were built.
The declarations pertaining to the proposed conventional cluster warhead do not mention the
fabrication of prototypes. Neither engineering drawings nor sketches for either warhead were
provided to UNMOVIC. The Iraqi representatives stated that the warhead and the wooden mockup discovered at the Al Noaman factory were Laith warheads for conventional sub-munitions but
provided nothing to substantiate this claim. There is no apparent mechanical reason why the
warheads for the two projects would have to be constructed differently. Given that the same
organization, Project 144, proposed both projects and that these projects were consecutive (May
through July 1988) and that no conflicting information has come to light it seems reasonable to
presume that the warhead discovered at the Al Noaman Factory may have been intended for use
with both projects.
The role of the Bahrani Plastic Materials Co. is unclear. The presence of their label on the
fiberglass warhead and the statements by the Iraqi representatives suggest that Bahrani had some
role in the fabrication of both this and possibly other warheads.
An Iraqi official present during the inspection at Al Noaman stated that there had never been any
thought to using chemical or biological agent filled sub-munitions with either the warhead being
examined or with any other missile. This statement is in direct contradiction to the declaration in
the chemical CAFCD.
Comment
1. The cluster warhead for the Luna rocket and the wooden mock-up of this warhead discovered
at the Al Noaman Factory are the warheads separately described in the chemical and missile
CAFCDs.
2. This warhead may have been intended for use with both conventional and chemical or
biological sub-munitions.
3. The Iraqi representative’s statements denying that Iraq had ever contemplated the use of
chemical or biological sub-munitions in rocket warheads are contradicted by the Iraqi
declarations. Additional statements by the same representative denying that chemical or
biological sub-munitions had never been considered for use with the warhead discovered at Al
Noaman appear to be false.
4. The role of the Bahrani Co. in the fabrication of these warheads and other munitions could
not be established and required further clarifications.
Cluster Munitions Summary10
Introduction:
10
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UNMOVIC inspectors examined various cluster munitions in Iraq. Some of these cluster
munitions were produced in Iraq while others were procured abroad. Cluster munitions consist of
the cluster body (outer shell of the munition), multiple sub-munitions, a fuzing mechanism and a
fin assembly. Sub-munitions can be configured as cylinders, spheres, cubes or various other
shapes. Sub-munitions contain either conventional (shaped explosive charges, fragmentation, or
incendiary) or prohibited (chemical, biological or radiological) fillers. To some extent submunitions of different size, shape and filler are interchangeable in a cluster munition. It is
relatively unusual to see two different types of sub-munition loaded together in one cluster
munition but it is not unusual to see one type of cluster munition filled with any one of several
different types of sub-munitions.
Cluster munitions are an efficient means to disseminate chemical. Iraq declared that they had
tested chemical agent stimulant filled sub-munitions in a cluster bomb originally designed for
anti-personnel and anti-vehicular use. Iraq also declared a proposed project to develop a
chemical cluster warhead for the 540 mm Luna rocket.
“CB250” type Cluster Bomb:
A production line for these cluster bodies, along with production lines for the conventional submunitions, was established at the Al Noaman Factory in the mid 1980’s. Al Noaman reportedly
produced several thousand of these munitions.
Figure III.X.XLIIA “CB 250” type cluster bomb at the
Ukhaider Ammunition Depot
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Figure III.X.XLIIIA Conventional
sub-munitions in the CB 250 cluster
Figure III.X.XLIVA Airburst fuse on a CB
250 cluster bomb
Figure III.X.XLVA Fiberglass bodies for CB 250 cluster
bomb near the Al Nida factory
The CB 250 has a thin fiberglass body and metal tail fins. The bodies were manufactured at Al
Noaman from moulds produced by Al Nida. The CB 250 incorporates three longitudinal lines of
explosive to rupture the fiberglass body and free the sub-munitions. The fuse mounted in the
nose of the cluster bomb body initiates these lines of explosive.
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Lines of explosive
(detcord) covered
by steel plates
Fiberglass
body
Reinforcement for
access cover
Figure III.X.XLVIA Interior of a CB 250 cluster bomb
Figure III.X.XLVIIA Moulds
for CB 250 cluster bomb
“CB 500” type Cluster Bomb:
Like the CB 250, the CB 500 was produced at Al Noaman from moulds supplied by Al Nida. Al
Noaman personnel said that only a small number of CB 500 bombs were produced and that the
design was successful for delivery at other than high angles of attack. No evidence was offered
to support of these statements.
The CB 500 is a 500 kg class bomb that incorporates a thin fiberglass body, metal fins, an
airburst fuse and sub-munitions. Visually, the rounded nose and longer body length of CB 500
distinguish it from the otherwise very similar CB 250. There is also a minor difference in the
design for the forward portion of the tail fins.
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The CB 500 could be used with a variety of sub-munitions of various shapes, sizes and fillers.
Figure III.X.XLVIIIA CB 500 cluster bomb on display at the 1989 Baghdad
military exposition
Body of
the fin
assembly
Fins
Figure III.X.XLIXA Fin assembly for the
CB 500 bomb
Figure III.X.LA
Moulds for CB 500
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CB 250
bodies
CB 500
bodies
Figure III.X.LIA CB250 and CB 500 fiberglass bodies at Al Nida
Nasr 28 Cluster bomb:
Like the CB 250 and CB 500 the Nasr 28 was produced at the Al Noaman factory. Al Noaman
personnel said that approximately twelve Nasr 28 cluster bombs were produced. UNMOVIC
inspectors found approximately one dozen Nasr 28 cluster bombs in various stages of assembly
and parts for approximately two dozen more.
Figure III.X.LIIA Partially assembled Nasr 28 cluster
bombs at Al Noaman
The Nasr 28 is a 500 kg class bomb that works in a manner very different than the CB 250 and
CB 500 bombs. The Nasr 28 consists of 40 short ejection chambers arrayed in rows around the
circumference of the bomb body. Each ejection chamber contains one 155mm diameter spherical
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sub-munition. Following release from the aircraft, and a short delay, the nose fuse initiates an
expelling charge. The sub-munitions are then ejected radially away from the bomb.
Figure III.X.LIIIA Nasr 28 cluster bomb
showing covered and uncovered ejection
Figure III.X.LIVA Nasr
28 ejection chambers
The number of launch tube and the distinctive features of the tail fins distinguish the Nasr 28
from the very similar CB 470 bomb. The Nasr 28 is similar in size to the CB 500 cluster bomb
but uses the CB 250 tail fins.
Figure III.X.LVA Nasr 28 tail fin
Figure III.X.LVIA CB 470 tail
fins
Unlike the CB 250 and CB 500 cluster bombs, the Nasr 28 is not compatible with sub-munitions
of different sizes and shapes. To function reliably, the Nasr 28 design requires sub-munitions to
be spherical and 155mm in diameter.
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Figure III.X.LVIIA Nasr 28 cluster
bomb with 155mm diameter spherical
200 mm Cluster Warhead:
Evidence of a 200 mm diameter cluster warhead was discovered on 3 Feb. 2003 at the Al
Noaman Factory storage area owned by the Al Nida State Enterprise. Iraqi personnel declared
that a fuse discovered in building 27 at the Al Noaman factory was part of the sub-munition
intended for this warhead. An intact warhead has not been found and no drawings were made
available.
Mould for 200 mm
warhead
Figure III.X.LVIIIA Moulds for fiberglass munitions
in an Al Noaman storage area
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540 mm Cluster Warhead:
A cluster warhead for the Luna (FROG-7) rocket was examined at the Al Noaman Factory on 2
and 5 Feb. 2003. Except for its much thicker body, the warhead is constructed in a manner
similar to the CB 250 and CB 500 cluster bombs. Based on an analysis of Iraqi declarations, the
warhead was intended for use with both chemical and conventional sub-munitions. There is no
indication that the warhead was mass-produced.
Summary:
Five distinct types of Iraqi produced cluster munitions were examined by UNMOVIC. Iraq
declared interest in using the CB 250 cluster bomb and 540mm cluster warhead for the Luna
rocket with chemical agent filled sub-munitions. Iraqi statements suggest that chemical fillers
may have been considered or tried in a sub-munition for the Nasr 28 cluster bomb. All of these
munitions are suitable for use with either chemical or biological agents.
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Group C. Findings Regarding Munitions and Components Whose Purpose is Under
Review
UNMOVIC inspectors discovered munitions and munition components that are not described in
Iraq’s declarations of December 2002, although they have characteristics consistent with
chemical or biological munitions. It was not possible to clarify the actual purpose of these items
prior to the withdrawal if inspectors.
Examination of a 81mm Rocket Warhead11
Background:
Iraq produced the 81mm “Medusa” type rocket. Initially intended for use as a air-to-ground
munition for helicopters, the Iraqi’s used 81mm rocket as a ground-to-ground munition.
Discovery:
On 28 December 2002, UNMOVIC inspected the Air Munitions Test Site near Hadre. During
the course of this inspection numerous fragments of munitions were discovered. One of these
fragments appears to be the base assembly of a rocket warhead of approximately 81mm
diameter. This fragment includes what appears to be a filler plug similar to what has been
observed on other chemical or biological warheads. Samples taken for analysis did not indicate
the presence of either chemical or biological agents. Photographs of this fragment are shown
below.
11
UNMOVIC-03-00153-MD-0011-1088; UNMOVIC-02-00029-MD-0008-1195
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Figure III.X.LIXA Rear face of a possible
base assembly for 81 mm rocket warhead
found at Hadre. Note hole for burster tube.
Figure III.X.LXA Forward face of the
Hadre fragment
On 9 February 2003 UNMOVIC’ team visited the Al Taji Ammunition Depot with the intention
of sampling warheads previously declared by Iraq. While inspecting building 31 a box was
discovered that contained various machined aluminum parts that appeared to be components of
chemical or biological rocket warheads. Other related parts were discovered elsewhere in the
bunker. Following careful inspection of all recovered parts it was discovered that some of these
fit together to form a 81mm rocket warhead. The following photographs illustrate what was
found.
1
3
4
3
2
4
Figure III.X.LXIA Parts for 81 mm rocket warhead found at Al Taji
1 = rear body, 2 = forward body, 3 = base plug, 4 = forward internal burster
support
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Figure III.X.LXIIA Base assembly of
81 mm warhead. Note- base plug is
not fully in place
Figure III.X.LXIIIA Opposite view of
base showing burster tube recess.
Relevant declarations:
No declarations pertaining to 81mm rockets were provided in the CAFCD 2002
Analysis:
81mm rockets with conventional warheads have been observed in Iraqi ammunition depots.
Examination of the various parts suggests that at least two types of warheads had been evaluated
– one made of steel and one made of aluminum. The presence of a burster tube recess in the
aluminum example and the central hole in the steel example suggest that both warheads were
intended for use with a central explosive burster. The hole through the center of the steel base
assembly also suggests that it may have been intended for use with canisters to contain the agent
whereas the blind hole in the center of the aluminum base assembly suggests that it was intended
for bulk fill.
Comment
Sufficient evidence was discovered to conclude that Iraq had explored liquid filled bursting
warheads for 81mm rockets. However, the available evidence does not afford an adequate
understanding of either the scope or scale of these developments.
1. At some point Iraq initiated development of a liquid filled bursting warhead for 81mm rockets.
2. At least two warheads were in development for this rocket including a steel warhead and an
aluminum warhead that where somewhat different in design.
3. These warheads appear to have been useable either with smoke agents, toxic chemicals or
biological agents.
4. If either of these warheads were indeed intended for use with chemical or biological agents
then the existence of these munitions should have been declared.
5. No conclusion can be reached regarding the extent of development or the number of warheads
produced.
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Evidence of 200 mm Rocket Warheads12
Discoveries:
On 3 February 2003, UNMOVIC inspected a storage area adjacent to the Al Nida State
Company. This area is used by the Al Noaman Factory for the storage of scrap and components
of past projects. During the course of this inspection the team discovered a mould that Iraq
eventually admitted was for the production of the fiberglass body of a warhead for a 200mm
diameter surface-to-surface rocket. A photograph of cross section of this mould is shown below:
Figure III.X.LXIVA Fuse for sub-munitions found at the Al Noaman Factory
Figure III.X.LXVA Cross section of the warhead mould found at Al Nida
On 5 February 2003, the UNMOVIC team returned to the Al Noaman Factory to conduct a
detailed inspection of the contents of buildings 27 and 32. These buildings house the remains of
prior work on cluster bombs, sub-munitions and missile warheads. During the course of this
inspection the team discovered a unique sub-munition fuse.
12
UNMOVIC-03-00615-BW-0092-1048; UNMOVIC-03-00153-MD-0011-1088; UNMOVIC03-00596-BW-0091-1279
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On 9 February 2003, the UNMOVIC team visited the Al Taji Ammunition Depot with the
intention of sampling warheads previously declared by Iraq. While inspecting building 31, a box
containing what appeared to be various parts for chemical or biological rocket warheads was
discovered. Following careful inspection of all recovered parts they discovered that some of the
parts appeared to be components for a chemical or biological rocket warhead of approximately
200mm diameter. The following photograph illustrates what was found.
Base plates for a bursting warhead of
approximately 200 mm diameter
Figure III.X.LXVIA Warhead parts found at Al Taji
Iraqi declarations, statements and admissions:
No mention of a 200mm diameter rocket has been found in the CAFCD.
Regarding the mould –
When the warhead mould was discovered at Al Nida on 3 February, the representative from the
Al Noaman Factory stated that it was for a cluster bomb to be dropped from an aircraft.
Additionally, he maintained that it was a notional item conceived by a junior engineer and that it
was not further developed or produced. A senior representative from NMD’s missile team was
summoned when the inspectors challenged these assertions. After initially backing up the
explanation offered by the Al Noaman representative he acknowledged that the mould might be
for a rocket warhead.
During a meeting at Al Noaman on 5 February with representative from NMD, the Al Noaman
Factory, former employees and others, the Iraqi side acknowledged that the mould was for a
rocket warhead. They stated that the rocket was under development in the early 1980’s and was
subsequently superseded by the Ababil 50 in the mid-1980s. Additionally, they stated that a
small number of warheads and the associated sub-munitions were produced and tested but that
all work had ceased with the acceptance of the Ababil 50.
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Regarding the fuse –
Following protracted discussions on 5 February the Iraqi’s stated that the fuse was part of a
unique sub-munition intended for the 200mm cluster warhead that would be produced by the
moulds UNMOVIC had found on 3 February They stated that the sub-munition associated with
this fuse was similar to the sub-munition used with the Ababil 50 rocket. Despite requests, the
inspectors were neither shown one of these sub-munitions nor were drawings presented. When
asked, the Iraq absolutely denied that this sub-munition was ever intended for use with either
chemical or biological agents.
Regarding the parts found at the Al Taji Ammunition Depot –
Both the base commander and the NMD representatives stated that they had no information
regarding the box of warhead parts found in building 31.
Analysis:
Based on the physical evidence collected and the Iraqi statements it can be concluded that at
some point in time a 200mm diameter rocket was being developed by Iraq. The exact time frame
of this development work is, however, uncertain. During the discussions on 5 February, Iraq
stated: (1) work began on the 200mm rocket in 1983, (2) development of this warhead preceded
work on the Ababil 50 and (3) all work on this warhead stopped with the introduction of the
Ababil 50. These statements appear to be in contradiction with Iraqi declarations that state that
the agreement with a foreign country concerning the Ababil 50 was signed in 1980.
Based on the characteristics of the warhead mould and the Iraqi statements, it is safe to conclude
that it is intended to produce a cluster warhead. However, there is considerable uncertainty
regarding its functioning. The design of the mould includes no obvious provision for the
customary fuse in the nose of the warhead. Possibly, the fuse is located in the base, a feature that
is both unusual in small diameter warheads and one that cannot be verified without access either
to complete drawings or an actual warhead. The mould is designed such that the warhead
apparently has a removable panel a short distance behind the nose. This is also an unusual
feature in a small diameter rocket warhead and needs further explanation.
Little is known about the sub-munition intended for use with this warhead other than the Iraqi
statement that it was a conventional explosive design. The Iraqi claim that the sub-munition is
similar to the one used in the Ababil 50 is suspect. First, the sub-munition for the Ababil 50 is
compact, effective and may have already been in production in Iraq by 1983. Second, the
substitution of the fuse discovered on 5 February would almost double the length of the Ababil
50 sub-munition without adding to its effectiveness.
The fuse that was found on 5 February is an apparent modification of the fuse used with the
122mm diameter chemical/biological sub-munitions in 1987 cluster bomb tests. The following
photographs offer a comparison of these fuses.
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Fuse reportedly for
use with a submunition for the
200mm rocket
warhead
Fuse for 2.5-litre
sub-munitions
Figure III.X.LXVIIA Comparison of fuses found at the Al Noaman factory
The large aluminum base plates in the box of parts found at Al Taji on 9 February are 183mm in
diameter. This diameter is approximately what would be expected for a base plate designed to
screw into the rear of a warhead of approximately 200mm in diameter. However, it is very
unlikely that these base plates are intended for use with the warhead produced from the mould
described above. The design of the base plates incorporates both a recess suitable for a burster
tube and a threaded hole essentially identical in both size and placement to the screw plugs found
in other well-documented chemical warheads. These features are strong evidence that these base
plates are components of a warhead equipped with a central explosive burster and intended for
filling with either unitary liquid chemical, biological or smoke agents. Additionally, the absence
of any observable provision for a base fuse suggests that the warhead associated with these parts
incorporates a nose fuse. These points are illustrated in the following photographs.
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Recess for
burster tube
Threaded
hole for
filler plug
Figure III.X.LXVIIIA Rear face of base plate found at the Al Taji Ammunition
Depot
Threaded
hole for
filler plug
Figure III.X.LXIXA Front face of base plate found at the Al
Taji Ammunition Depot
Comment
There is insufficient evidence to support definite conclusions regarding Iraq’s development of
200mm rockets and warheads. However, the limited evidence allows the following comments can
be made.
1. Iraq initiated development of a 200mm rocket system at some point in the 1980’s
2. At least two warheads were in development for this rocket including a cluster warhead and a
bulk liquid warhead intended to be filled with either chemical, biological or smoke agents
3. The cluster warhead may have been intended for use with chemical or biological submunitions.
These preliminary conclusions must be validated via document analyses when available and
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further interviews with the relevant Iraqi personnel.
Examination of 155mm Spherical Spray Sub-munitions13
Background:
Previously observed Iraqi chemical munitions create airborne clouds of agent either by explosive
aerosolisation or by hydraulic or pneumatic spray. Aerosol clouds can also be created by other
means including thermal aerosolisation. This technique involves rapidly raising the temperature
of the agent to the point where it either boils or sublimates. Subsequent condensation of the agent
in the air results in an aerosol of small diameter droplets.
Discovery:
During the period 2-5 February 2003 UNMOVIC conducted a series of inspections focused on
the development of cluster munitions by the Al Noaman Factory. On 3 February 2003 the same
team inspected an Al Noaman Factory storage site owned by the Al Nida State Enterprise.
During each of these inspections the team observed spherical sub-munitions (bomblets) and
cluster bombs designed to use these munitions. Factory personnel informed the inspectors that
the cluster bombs were reversed engineered “CB 470” type cluster bomb. The copy produced by
Al Noaman is known as the NASR 28. A photograph of this cluster bomb follows:
Figure III.X.LXXA NASR 28 cluster bomb at the Al
Noaman Factory
13
UNMOVIC-03-00511-BW-0091-1279; UNMOVIC-03-00615-BW-0092-1048; UNMOVIC03-00596-BW-0091-1279
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The NASR 28 is designed to contain and eject spherical sub-munitions from a series of short
tubes arranged in rows along its body. One sub-munition is contained in each tube. These tubes
are loaded with a sub-munition and then covered with a metal plate held in place with small tabs.
Apparently several versions of the NASR 28 were developed. The inspectors noted versions with
between 33 and 40 ejection tubes. While the CB 470 used a pyrotechnic charge to eject the submunition, the ejection mechanism used with the NASR 28 is not clear. Photographs showing the
relationship between the sub-munition and the ejection tubes are shown below.
Tabs to retain
sub-munition
Empty ejection
tube
Steel submunitions
Plate covering
loaded tube
Figure III.X.LXXIA Arrangement of sub-munitions and
ejection tubes in the NASR 28 cluster bomb
Inspectors discovered two types of sub-munitions intended for use with the NASR 28 cluster
bomb. One type was a 135mm steel sphere covered with a 10 mm thick coating of rubber giving
it a total diameter of 155mm. Examples of this type (the rubber sphere) were discovered filled
with either wax, sand or possibly explosives. Only one type of fuse was observed with these submunitions and it was apparently designed to initiate on impact then detonate the sub-munition
after a very short delay. The Al Noaman Factory personnel stated that the rubber sphere was a
conventional high explosive munition and that the rubber covering was intended to facilitate it
bouncing (2-3 metres) in the air prior to detonation. A photograph of the rubber-covered submunitions follows:
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Impact fuse
Figure III.X.LXXIIA Rubber covered submunition at Al Noaman
The second type of sub-munition discovered was a 155mm steel sphere. These sub-munitions
(the steel sub-munitions) were not covered with rubber but did incorporate a pattern of small
holes drilled in the body. The Al Noaman Factory personnel stated that these particular submunitions were designed to spray smoke rather than explode. They further explained that the
steel sub-munitions had been produced to aid the development of the rubber-covered submunitions by allowing technical personnel to observe the spraying of the smoke when the steel
sub-munitions bounced in the air and thereby judge the height to which the rubber-covered submunitions bounced. A photograph of the steel sub-munition follows:
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Fuse well
Pattern
of
drilled holes
Figure III.X.LXXIIIA 155 mm steel sub-munition at Al Noaman
When asked to elaborate on the spraying of smoke the Al Noaman Factory personnel stated that
white phosphorus was the smoke agent spray from this munition. They remained consistent in
their claim even when inspectors pointed out that white phosphorus was not a liquid and
therefore could not be sprayed in the manner described.
The Al Noaman Factory personnel were also asked to help the inspectors understand why Iraqi
engineers believed that a 155mm diameter steel sphere would accurately simulate the physical
behavior (bounce) of a 135mm rubber-covered sphere. The Iraqi side offered no explanation. A
comparison of the two munitions is shown below:
135mm steel
core of the
rubber-covered
sub-munition
155mm steel
spray submunition
Figure III.X.LXXIVA Comparison of spherical sub-munitions
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Relevant Declarations:
No declarations refer to either spray sub-munitions, steel sub-munitions or to the NASR 28
cluster bomb.
Analysis:
1. The first question to be answered relates to the plausibility of the Iraqi explanation of the
purpose of the 155 mm steel sub-munition. The Iraqi’s claimed that this munition was designed
to (a) spray (b) smoke from the (c) pattern of holes in order to facilitate (d) measurement of the
(e) height of bounce of the rubber-covered sub-munition. An examination of each of the
numbered points follows.
(a). The Al Noaman Factory representatives were very clear in their claim that the steel submunition was designed to spray smoke from the holes. These holes are several millimetres in
diameter and therefore are much more likely to create a narrow stream of agent rather than a
spray.
In order to eject agent via the holes there must be a source of either hydraulic or pneumatic
pressure. Detonation of the explosive booster attached to the fuse is likely to rupture the welded
steel sphere rather than acting as a source of pressurizing gas. It is therefore unlikely that the
components shown to UNMOVIC inspectors could produce the effect Iraq claimed.
(b). When asked about the specific smoke composition used with this munition the Al Noaman
personnel agreed that it was white phosphorus. White phosphorus is a very dense gel used almost
exclusively in bursting smoke munitions. It is very difficult to image how a dense gel could be
sprayed from this munition. The only other smoke compound that Iraq is known to use is
hexachlorethane, a solid. The principal liquid-smoke agents, smoke generating fog oil (SGF) and
titanium tetrachloride have not been observed in Iraq.
(c). Each 155 mm steel sub-munition has four holes both above and below its equatorial junction.
Each set of holes is approximately equally, but not precisely, spaced around the circumference of
its respective hemisphere. The diameter of the holes was consistent for an individual submunition but varied between sub-munitions. Hole diameters ranged from approximately three to
six millimeters and appeared to have been drilled. The range of hole diameters observed suggests
that experiments had been performed to determine optimum hole diameter for whatever effect
was being sought.
(d). The Al Noaman personnel said that the steel sub-munition was intended to initiate spraying
of smoke at the uppermost point of its bounce. Furthermore, the ejection of smoke at this
moment would allow observers to thereby judge the height of bounce and, by inference, the
height at which the rubber-covered sub-munition would detonate.
There are at least two problems with this claim. First, no matter what the orientation of the submunition is at the moment that spray is initiated, half of the holes will point downwards. If the
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munition does indeed create a spray then the size of the “ball” of smoke produced is likely to
completely obscure the height at which it occurred. Second, white phosphorus produces a very
hot smoke that rises very rapidly. This characteristic produces the well-known vertical column
effect that would yet further complicate any effort to visually discern relative minor differences
in the height of functioning. Bear in mind that Iraq believed the height of bounce for the rubbercovered sub-munition to be only 2-3 metres.
(e). It seems highly unlikely that the height of bounce of an explosive filled rubber-covered 135
mm diameter steel sphere will be the same as a white phosphorus filled 155 mm diameter steel
sphere that has no rubber covering.
2. If the 155 mm steel sphere was not actually intended to spray white phosphorus as claimed
then what was its purpose?
Drilling a number of holes in the body of a munition is a technique used to distinguish a practice
or dummy munition. It is, therefore, possible that the steel sub-munitions are meant merely to
roughly simulate the rubber-covered sub-munitions for some unexplained purpose. While this
explanation is attractive for its simplicity the Iraqi representatives denied it. Instead they
specifically stated the sub-munitions were meant to spray smoke. Additionally, rubber-covered
sub-munitions filled with sand or wax (practice or dummy munitions) were observed and none
had holes.
Alternatively, the steel sub-munition could be intended to spray something other than smoke.
One obvious choice would be thermally stable low volatility toxic agents such as mustard or VX.
Munitions designed to disseminate mustard in this manner are mentioned in Volume II of the
SIPRI report entitled Problem of Chemical and Biological Warfare, which Iraq has declared as
consulting as a technical reference.
The 155 mm steel sub-munition could function adequately well to generate a thermal aerosol of
either mustard or VX if two conditions exist. First, there must be source of heat that burn hot
enough and long enough to boil a significant percentage of the liquid contents of the submunition. Replacing the explosive booster attached to the bottom of the fuse with a comparable
sized pyrotechnic charge is likely to meet this requirement. Second, the holes must be adequately
plugged to both contain the agent during storage and transportation and to allow substantial
pressure to build up as the agent begins to boil. Suitable plugs could be made from plastics, sheet
metal or, perhaps, even wax. Although neither suitable pyrotechnic charges nor plugs were
observed during the inspection, neither was being sought at the time and therefore may have
gone unnoticed.
Comment
1. Based on the unequivocal statements by Iraqi officials, it is almost certain that the steel submunition was intended to spray something.
2. Iraqi statements regarding the spraying of white phosphorus for the purpose claimed are
completely unsupported by the available evidence and the experience of the inspectors.
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3. The most likely, but not only, explanation of the purpose of the 155 mm steel sub-munitions is
the intent to disseminate either mustard or VX via thermal aerosolization.
4. The existence of a programme to thermally aerosolize low volatility agents and the existence
of these munitions should have been declared.
Evidence of an Unidentified Sub-munition14
Background:
The previously described 2.5 litre sub-munition is suitable for use with chemical agents. This is
due to both to its volume and high agent to burster weight ratio. A smaller sub-munition with a
lower agent to burster weight ratio would be more efficient for biological agents. Statements by
Iraqi technical personnel clearly indicate that they were aware of this deficiency in the 2.5 litre
sub-munition.
Discoveries:
During the inspection of the Al Noaman Factory on 5 February 2003, the inspectors examined an
unusual fuse. The fuse is a modification of the standard fuse produced by Al Noaman for use
with the CB 250 sub-munition. The modified fuse has four long fins rather than the
approximately eight short vanes used with the original fuse. Additionally, the long fins are not
canted as are the short vanes. Canting the fins causes either the fins or the entire munition to
rotate during flight. This feature is commonly used to arm fuses in the air following release from
a cluster bomb.
Figure III.X.LXXVA Fuse for an unknown sub-munition found at the Al
Noaman Factory
Declarations:
14
UNMOVIC-03-00511-BW-0091-1279; UNMOVIC-03-00596-BW-0091-1279
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During an inspection of building 27 the Al Noaman Factory on 2 Feb. 2003 an Iraqi official
stated that the 2.5 litre sub-munition that was being discussed was too large for use with
biological agents and held too much explosive. He gestured with his hands while describing a
“much smaller” sub-munition for use with biological agents. When asked if he was declaring the
existence of another sub-munition he responded that he was not.
During discussions at the Al Noaman Factory on 5 February 2003, the Iraqi engineer responsible
for the development of this fuse and the related sub-munition stated that the sub-munition was
conventional but was unable to describe its size, weight or other characteristics. The engineer
indicated that the sub-munition was intended for use with the 200 mm rocket warhead described
in a previous section of this report.
Haidar Farm Documents #. 600328 and 600370 (videos): - These 1987 videos show the 2.5-litre
sub-munition and a smaller object being dropped from cranes at Al Muthanna and Al Noaman.
The following pictures are from these videos.
Four fins possibly similar to
the fuse found at Al Noaman
Note the difference in size
between these munitions
Figure III.X.LXXVIA Drop test with unidentified small sub-munition (left
photograph) and with 2.5 litre sub-munition (right photograph)
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During the discussions at Al Noaman on 5 February 2003 the inspectors asked the Iraqi
representatives about the small munition that was observed on the videotape of the 1987-drop
tests. The engineer shown in that video was present at this meeting. He stated that there was no
small munition, only the 2.5 litre sub-munitions. When pressed on this point the engineer
eventually said that there could have been a smaller sub-munition.
Analysis:
Based on their statements, Iraqi technical personnel were clearly aware of the deficiencies of the
2.5 litre sub-munition for use with biological agents. One Iraqi technical expert specifically
stated that a small sub-munition would be more efficient for use with biological agents.
The Iraqi representatives were unable to provide even the simplest description of the submunition intended for use with the fuse discovered at Al Noaman on 5 February 2003. The fins
on that fuse bear some similarity to the fins on the small sub-munition.
The engineer who conducted the drop tests of the munitions was present for the discussions at Al
Noaman on 5 February 2003 even though UNMOVIC had not specifically asked that he attend.
When asked about the small sub-munitions the video shows him dropping, he denied that any
such munition was tested that day.
The Iraqi representatives stated that the fuse was intended for use with a conventional submunition for the 200mm rocket warhead that Iraq had declared just days before. However, they
provided no evidence to substantiate their statements.
Comment
1. It appears that Iraq was, in 1987, developing a small sub-munition. That this munition was
drop tested during the tests of the 2.5 litre chemical sub-munition suggests, but does not prove,
that the small sub-munition may be related to either a chemical or, more probably, a biological
munitions programme.
2. The fuse found at Al Noaman may be related to this unidentified small sub-munition.
3. The delivery system for the small sub-munition remains unclear
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CHAPTER III.XI
DESTRUCTION OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS AND RELATED ITEMS UNDER UN
SUPERVISION
First steps
Resolution 687 (1991) was adopted on 3 April 1991. Three days later Iraq accepted the
resolution1. On 18 April 19912, in accordance with paragraph 9 (a) of resolution 687
(1991), Iraq submitted a declaration of the locations, amounts and types of items
relating to its chemical weapons. In a letter of April 18 the Iraqi Government also
accepted the arrangement of an immediate on-site inspection of the sort described in
paragraph 9 (b) of resolution 687(1991).
The first Iraqi declaration was very brief (one page and half). Iraq acknowledged a CW
stockpile of about 550 tonnes of CW agent, including about 350 tonnes in bulk form
and about 200 tonnes in weapons, mainly in aerial bombs and artillery. The agents
declared were mustard, sarin and tabun. The Iraqis declared that their chemical weapons
were stored at their Samarra CW complex (Muthanna) and at six airfield sites. No
ground forces sites were included.
The initial declaration was assessed by the permanent members of the Security Council 3
and declared as falling short of requirements. Some Council members were concerned
that Iraq had under-declared the number of sites associated with CW, the details of
activities at the named sites and the types and quantities of weapons and agents in its
possession.
UN Data Declaration Requirements were established in a letter of 16 April 1991 from
the Department for Disarmament Affairs of United Nations4 to the Permanent Mission
of Iraq to the UN. According to these requirements Iraq was required to declare:
A. Names, location and condition of each facility engaged in research,
development, production (including precursor production), filling, test and
evaluation, and storage of CW agents or weapons.
B. Names, location and organizational affiliation of the commander of each unit
with CW munitions; managers, scientists, and engineers at each CW agent or
1
A letter dated 6 April 1991 from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
Iraq to Secretary General and to the President of the Security Council.
2
A letter dated 18 April 1991 from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of the Republic of
Iraq.
3
UK Assessment of Initial Iraqi Declaration, 23-Apr-91; US Assessment of Initial Iraqi
Declaration, 6-May-91.
4
The Secretary-General in discharging his mandate under section C of the resolution
was being assisted by the Department for Disarmament Affairs.
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CHAPTER III.XI
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
precursor production facility, munitions-filling facility, and research,
development, test and evaluation site.
Location and condition of CW munitions, to include all components (by type of
agent mixture, type of weapon and quantity), line drawings, description of
explosive and propellant system used, quantity of agent per weapon,
weapon/agent marking systems and storage configuration).
Location and condition of current and past bulk storage sites and the quantity
and condition of agent currently in bulk storage (by type, quantity and form).
Other than at the facilities listed above, the location and condition of research
and development, production and filling, and test and evaluation equipment. This
included facilities with reactor vessels larger than 5 litres used for chemical
warfare purposes (including associated processing and separation equipment)
and chemical reactors made of high nickel (greater than 30%) alloys.
Technical data on all chemical agents developed, produced or weaponized by
Iraq, including the chemical name, CAS number, physical characteristics and
any special additives.
Location and quantity of unfilled munitions capable of being filled with
chemical agents.
The storage configuration of the stockpile by location, agent type and munitions
or bulk.
Location and characteristics of facilities for CW destruction, if any.
The Chemical and Biological Warfare (CBW) Working Group held its first meeting in
New York from 6 to 17 May 19915. At the outset it agreed that it would be guided by
the ongoing work in the Conference on Disarmament (CD) in Geneva and in particular
by the contents of the most recent version of the text of the draft Convention being
negotiated by the CD's Ad Hoc Committee on Chemical Weapons (CD Document
CD/1046 of 18 January 1991)- also known as the Rolling Text. It would also be guided
by the results of the 1986 Review Conference of the Biological Weapons Convention
and the confidence building measures and information and data exchange mechanisms
established by the 1987 Ad Hoc meeting of Scientific and Technical Experts.
The main task of the group was to develop conceptual solutions for the implementation
of paragraph 9 of Security Council resolution 687 for Iraq's chemical and biological
capabilities. It subdivided its work into three broad categories:
- Verification of Iraq's declarations of its chemical and biological capabilities,
- Inspection of those capabilities,
- Destruction of those capabilities
After intensive discussions of the details given in the declaration by Iraq of its chemical
weapons and related capabilities, the CBW Working Group decided to recommend the
5
CBW Working Group Report for the Period 7-13 May 1991; CBW Working Group
Record of Discussion from 13-17 May 1991.
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CHAPTER III.XI
dispatch of a letter to Iraq requesting more information. The Working Group stated that
declarations of the amount of agents and number of sites given were inadequate and
that it would be necessary to conduct on-site inspections at undeclared sites in Iraq. The
final decision as to which sites would be inspected should be made after the reply of the
Iraqi government and the receipt of information to be supplied by other governments.
Iraq affirmed its willingness to cooperate and, by its own efforts voluntarily to destroy
or render harmless the weapons6 in a way that “would achieve the desired objective
under the supervision and to the satisfaction of United Nations experts”.
The Government of Iraq also affirmed that it was prepared to discuss this subject with
United Nations experts in order to confirm the destruction plan formulated by its
technicians and to establish the plan's exact details by carrying out practical tests. Iraq
expected the UN experts to determine what additional measures and resources would be
required and expressed its opinion that participating in this way would reduce the cost
of destruction and the period of time required for implementation of the destruction
plan. Iraq also expected that these measures would reduce the dangers arising for the
United Nations inspection teams during the destruction process, especially at a time of
extremely hot and dusty local weather conditions.
There was also a continued exchange of communications between the Special
Commission and the Government of Iraq with a view to obtaining additional
information and clarifications7. Iraq's declared holdings of chemical weapons have
grown with each successive letter on this subject. 8,9
6
Letter Dated 9 June 1991 from the Charge d'Affaires A.I. of the Permanent Mission of
Iraq to the United Nations Addressed to the Secretary-General, S/22682.
7
Letter of the Permanent Representative of Iraq to the United Nations to the SecretaryGeneral of United Nations of 18 April 1991; Letters of Executive Chairman of the
Special Commission the Permanent Representative of Iraq to the United Nations of 30
April 1991, 14 May 1991; A letter signed by the Minister of Industry & Military
Industrialization addressed to the Iraqi Foreign Ministry giving information concerning
mass destruction weapons in connection with SC Res. 687, May 16, 1991.
8
In the letter of 16 May, in addition to those munitions listed in the 18 April
declaration, Iraq also listed 20,000 CS-filled 120mm mortar bombs, 12,634 mustardfilled 155mm artillery shells and a substantial quantity (approximately 75,000) of
unfilled CW munitions, including 24,000 unfilled mortar bombs. Two hundred sarinfilled DB-2 aerial bombs listed in the 18 April declaration as being located at Muthanna
were stated in the 16 May letter to be at Muhammadiyat. The letter of 20 July recorded
a further “growth” in the Iraqi stockpile. The number of mustard-filled AALD-500
aerial bombs has grown from 140 in the declaration of 18 April and the 16 May letter to
675 in the 20 July letter. Two categories of filled mortar munitions listed: 120mm and
80mm.
9
Iraqi Declarations of their Chemical Weapons Stocks, 26 July 1991.
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CHAPTER III.XI
It was necessary for the Commission to work out the technical modalities with a view to
ensuring the complete and safe handling of chemical weapons and related items for
their subsequent destruction, removal or rendering harmless. It was also necessary for
the Commission to identify and evaluate safe destruction techniques that could be made
operable within stringent time frames taking into account the paramount importance of
maintaining acceptable safety standards for the disposal teams and for the local
population given the resources available.
There was no prior international experience, although some state-possessors had begun
destruction operations of CW stockpiles. Since the expertise needed was not found
among the members of the existing CBW Working Group, a special destruction
advisory panel had to be established under the aegis of the CW coordinator10.
The Executive Chairman of UNSCOM approached the governments of Canada, Russia,
the UK and the US and asked if they could provide specialists experienced in the
chemical weapons field. The countries agreed to provide experts in this field, and these
experts (five in total), a representative from the World Health Organization (WHO) and
an independent expert in combustion engineering formed a Chemical Weapons
Destruction Advisory Panel (DAP) 11.
The function of the CW DAP was to consider possible approaches for the destruction of
Iraq's chemical weapons and chemical weapons facilities and make recommendations to
the Executive Chairman of the UN Commission. In particular, it had to advise him on
destruction methods, sources of destruction equipment and personnel, standards for
safety and environmental protection and feasible schedules.
The first task of the DAP12 was to assess the magnitude of the problem, to select the
safe destruction methods and then to plan and supervise the implementation of the
destruction operations. In order to do this, all the available options for the destruction of
Iraq’s CW stockpiles were reviewed. The question of who would undertake the actual
destruction operation was still open. The possible options included the involvement of
member states, commercial companies and Iraq itself. A general policy on what items
were to be destroyed, removed or rendered harmless, what sequence of the destruction
operations had to be established and respective responsibilities had to be assigned to the
sides responsible for destruction. The Flow Chart III.XI.I below prepared by the DAP
reflects the general outline of the destruction operations and associated activities.
10
Special Commission Advisory Board on CW Destruction, 30 May, 1991.
Report by the Executive Chairman of the Special Commission, established by the
Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 9 (b) (i) of Security Council resolution 687
(1991), UN doc No S/23165, 21 Oct 1991, para. 21.
12
The DAP met for the first time in New York 24-28 June 1991. It subsequently met at
regular intervals to review the progress of the destruction programme and to provide
further technical advice as appropriate.
11
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CHAPTER III.XI
Chart III.XI.I Flow chart of on-site activities
Iraq
Special Commission
Declarations
Governments
Undeclared Sites
Specification of sites to be inspected
On-site Survey
On-site Inspection, sealing, tagging
Official handover to the Special Commission
Moving of all CBW items to the central location
Destruction of CBW assets or rendering them harmless
The analysis of difficulties and constraints
Environmental constraints
Whichever disposal method or methods were to be adopted, the results had to be
achieved with a high standard of environmental safety. In difficult and hazardous
operations, setting environmental emission standards at realistic and scientifically
justifiable levels was essential.
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The added difficulty was that the environmental standards varied widely between
different countries and there was often little common ground. For example, under
United States environmental legislation, CW agents were proscribed substances and
their emission to the environment was forbidden. The European approach was
somewhat different. Although standards still varied between individual states, the
environmental standards were based on two principles: Best Available Techniques Not
Entailing Excessive Cost and the Best Practical Environmental Option. In the case of
hazardous materials, the regulations required the potential human and environmental
impact to be identified, the risk to be assessed and appropriate action taken to reduce
this risk to the minimum practical level.
CW destruction methods evaluation by DAP
In general, the DAP selection approach for the destruction methods was based on
following criteria: such methods should be simple, safe and easy from the point of their
technological implementation. The following methods were evaluated by the experts of
DAP as possible methods of destruction for CW agents and their precursors in Iraq:
Open pit burning
Open pit burning could be used for the disposal of mustard. This process, however,
results in the releases into the atmosphere of large amounts of acid combustion products
together with quantities of partial combustion products and often some quantities of
unburned toxic agent. This method of disposal therefore was only to be adopted as a
last option when no other safe methods existed or was possible to apply.
Chemical degradation
An option widely acceptable was chemical degradation, which is the elimination or
reduction to an insignificant level of the “highly toxic CW agents” by transforming
them into other chemicals. For example sarin is rapidly hydrolysed by the treatment
with a 10% to 20% aqueous solution of sodium or potassium hydroxide. The hydrolysis
rate of tabun and cyclosarin is markedly slower, due to their lower solubility, but the
addition of ethanol to the decontaminant eliminates this problem. Mustard can also be
hydrolysed satisfactorily using aqueous/alcoholic solutions of sodium or potassium
hydroxide. A 10%-20% chlorine bleach solution was known to be equally effective.
Once the agent degraded, there remained the problem of the disposal of the degradation
products. Possible solutions to this problem included incineration or concentration
followed by land burial.
The organic content of the hydrolysate can be further degraded by high temperature
incineration. However, the very low calorific value and high salt content of the material
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make this a demanding and expensive solution. Also the problem of disposing of the
inorganic salts recovered from the incinerators effluent gas cleaning plant would
remain. Since the potential hazard from this material was considered to be low, this
somewhat drastic treatment was deemed unnecessary.
The option adopted was concentration followed by land burial. In this approach the
products of hydrolysis would be first placed in an open-air evaporation lagoon and the
liquid phase would be evaporated. The residual salts would then be collected and buried
in a properly constructed landfill capable of preventing any leakage. Given the high
ambient temperature in Iraq this was an attractive option. It was safe, cheap, energy
efficient and environmentally acceptable when carried out correctly.
Incineration
The majority of CW agents are flammable and have reasonable calorific values.13
Therefore, they can be destroyed by incineration. Although non-flammable, even sarin
can be satisfactorily destroyed by this method. It had already been demonstrated by that
time that in properly designed and operated plants a complete disposal14 of these agents
could be achieved.
There had been sufficient experience with direct, high temperature incineration of
stocks of mustard in other countries. No problems were experienced with the process
and the procedure was environmentally acceptable. It was expected that the provision of
an incineration plant in Iraq should not pose major technical problem since it could be
constructed from commercially available components. It was therefore decided to opt
for incineration as the method of destroying Iraq’s stocks of mustard.
It is an equally effective method of destroying G agents, but their higher volatility and
greater inhalation toxicity makes the operation more difficult. The problem is not in the
actual incineration step, but rather in the handling and feeding of the waste to the
furnaces and the protection of the operating staff. Even the best commercial hazardous
waste incinerators available at that time provided only a limited degree of containment.
The capability to design incineration plants with the necessary level of containment for
the safe handling of nerve agents was very limited in case of Iraq. Plants of this type, by
their very nature, require advanced and complex technology. Thus, incineration for
nerve agents was not optimum disposal solution.
It was obvious to the UN Special Commission that destroying CW agents and related
materials and their associated production and storage facilities was going to be both
technologically difficult and hazardous. And although it would be possible to apply
13
14
The notable exception being sarin.
99,9999%.
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certain general principles to the overall destruction programme, the actual destruction
of each category of CW related materials and its associated facilities would need to be
tackled on a case by case basis.
Evaluation of Munitions disposal options
It was clear to the DAP that the major problems were not likely to arise with the final
destruction step, but would rest instead with the transportation and preparation of the
munitions for destruction. These problems might differ in severity for each of the
different categories of material filled into munition and type of munitions.
The destruction of the bulk stocks of agents at their storage locations is less
complicated, in comparison with the destruction of CW munitions and CW production
facilities. The principal problem in this situation is the provision of the appropriate
level of containment and protection for the operators undertaking the work. Protection
procedures were well established by those countries, which produced such weapons,
including Iraq. Also, Iraq had the well-trained necessary expertise in the area of
chemical weapons.
However, in the view of the DAP the transfer of the bulk stocks to a centralized location
for destruction would involve problems connected with the safe transportation. It would
be necessary to have appropriate packaging, determine acceptable routes of
transportation and draw up emergency procedures to deal with any incidents that might
arise.
CW munitions without an explosive or propellant component could be treated in a
manner similar to bulk agent storage containers, and therefore would not pose any
significant additional problem. The situation with Iraq’s CW munitions, which
contained explosives or propellants would be, however, entirely different. Destruction
of these items in a safe manner posed a major problem resulting from environmental
constrains and explosive associated hazards. The historical solution to this problem deep sea dumping – was rejected by the DAP. Instead, two other approaches were
considered. One involved the separation of the explosive component from the CW
material and then the separate destruction of each element by an appropriate safe
method. The other approach was to develop a process capable of safely handling the
combined hazard.
The first option was used in other countries for the disposal of occasionally found old
chemical munitions. Munitions were placed in a specially designed chemical
containment facility, either drilled or cut open remotely, and the CW content then
removed by personnel wearing full individual protective equipment. The CW material
recovered was either treated chemically or incinerated in a high integrity incineration
plant designed for the purpose. The explosive component was destroyed by open
burning and the decontaminated metal components buried in a secure landfill.
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The technique proved to be safe, relatively cheap and no major problems had been
experienced with it. However, it was slow and the disposal throughput was fairly low.
Where large numbers of similar munitions were involved, the throughput could be
greatly improved by the use of automation. The process needed to be designed in such a
manner that an accidental explosion would not present any risk to the staff involved. .
Concerning the second approach a cryogenic fracture process was considered as an
option. In this process, the complete munitions should be cooled in liquid nitrogen, to
make them brittle, and then mechanically fractured into small pieces. These pieces
supposed to undergo a further treatment at a high integrity incineration plant. The
system should be designed to provide complete chemical and explosive containment.
Plants of this type would require sophisticated technology and engineering. They would
involve a lengthy design, construction and commissioning period and would be
expensive. The DAP decided not to opt for such a method.
Production Plant, Filling and Storage Facilities Dismantling
In order to decontaminate the associated CW production plant and equipment once the
bulk of the agent was removed, a detailed knowledge of the plant’s functioning and
configuration would be required. Any potential points where remaining toxic liquid
might be trapped or held up had to be identified.
The first step would be to drain the facility down and remove as much of the CW agent
as possible. The plant process lines would be then completely filled with a 10-20%
sodium hydroxide solution to complete the neutralization of the equipment and left to
stand for a lengthy period of several weeks. On removal, the sodium hydroxide solution
would be checked for the presence of any anti-cholinesterase activity and disposed of
accordingly. However, the plant, now free of gross contamination, might still contain
traces of agent. For example gaskets, seals as well as building construction materials
(such as concrete and tiles) might still be contaminated with the traces of agents.
In the view of the DAP, dismantlement of the plant should start at the top and gradually
worked down, piece-by-piece. All joints would need to be broken; gaskets removed and
potentially contaminated surfaces exposed. Where practicable the individual plant items
would be submerged in decontaminant. The decontaminated components could then be
buried in a secure landfill. An additional problem was associated with the fact that
many of such facilities were severely damaged during 1991 bombardment by Coalition
forces.
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Selection of destruction location
In general, the decision concerning whether to destroy the CW munitions and materials
at their storage locations or move them to one or two centrally located destruction
facilities depended on at least three factors. Firstly the condition and the services
available at the respective CW storage sites, secondly, the difficulties associated with
moving the CW safely across the country and finally, the destruction method selected.
For example, all incineration plants need ready access to significant amounts of power,
fuel and water (if wet scrubbers are used) and require a high level of maintenance
support. The situation with incineration plants suitable for handling CW materials is
even more complicated.
After considering all aspects of the problem and based on the results of the initial
evaluation inspections of Iraq’s pre-1991 remaining CW stockpiles, it was decided by
the DAP to centralize the destruction operation at a single site and to transport all
munitions deemed safe to be moved to this location. It was decided to conduct the
destruction operation at the Muthanna CW production site. All the bulk stocks of
chemical agent and most of the precursor chemicals were already at the site. In
addition, although damaged by 1991 bombardment, much of the necessary
infrastructure for the destruction operation was present.
Working personnel requirements
A risk assessment of the effect of destruction activities on the people involved15 was
made. The following general rule was adopted: where protection from exposure would
be necessary this would be achieved by primary containment and the use of engineering
controls as well as by the use of personal protective equipment.
The need for routine atmospheric monitoring for the presence of toxic substances and
routine medical surveillance of staff was also recognized. For the task to be carried out
successfully, with the minimum risk to the operators and the surrounding population,
the staff involved required knowledge of the hazards and adequate training. Emergency
procedures were drawn up and later, their effectiveness regularly tested.
A workforce, teams of engineers and craftsmen with the experience and training
necessary to undertake the destruction of CW related materials and facilities, was
required. Experience in this field was largely limited to those countries that had CW
production knowledge, including Iraq. In addition a wide range of other skills was
15
This would include both normal and abnormal operating conditions.
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required. These included chemists, safety personnel, occupational hygienists, analysts,
medical staff, maintenance personnel and ventilation engineers.
Other considerations
Taking into account the complexity, difficulties and constraints associated with the
destruction process, any practical arrangements had to be preceded by an on-site
evaluation of each facility or storage locations. This was carried out by UNSCOM
teams made up of scientists and engineers with hands-on experience of CBW materials.
With the acceptance of Iraq’s request16 to undertake the operation using its own process
equipment and personnel, the major logistical problem associated with transporting
such equipment and international technical personnel to Iraq was removed. Another
consequence of this was that the destruction techniques had to be a reliable solution
within Iraq’s existing capabilities.
Detailed discussions were therefore held between the UNSCOM experts and their Iraqi
counterparts to establish whether the Iraqi proposal to handle large-scale destruction
operations was feasible. As a result of these discussions it was agreed that Iraq would
construct the facilities required for the destruction of its CW stockpiles and operate
them under UNSCOM supervision and direction17. The decision to have the destruction
centralized at MSE ensured that the major safety and environmental hazards would be
limited to one site, and therefore more easily controlled18.
During the MSE site evaluation, inspectors noted a high level of hazards as a result of
both bombardment and the past chemical weapons programme. The first UNSCOM
inspection team reported from Muthanna in 1991 19 “chemicals at Muthanna are stored
in many places, indoors and outside, in containers and weapons, many of which are
leaking. It constitutes significant safety hazard”. Lots of barrels of chemicals and
weapons including 250kg and 500kg aerial bombs were dispersed all over the MSE
territory. Taking care of these poorly secured munitions represented one of the first
tasks to be carried out by UN inspectors.
16
Iraqi Letter No 212 to the SG concerning voluntary destruction of weapons; Iraqi
letter proposing chemical and missile destruction plans 19 May 1991.
17
UNSCOM 09/CW-2, August 1991, Para 4.7; Iraqi letter No 1-7-333, The Approval of
UNCOM to Iraq's use of Pilot Site No 2, Aug 22 1991; Executive Summary of Factfinding Mission to Iraq 11-14 August on CW Destruction, 1991; Cost of Destruction of
Iraq's CBW; Destruction of Iraqi CW Agents and Munitions Potential Options.
18
Environmental Protection during UNSCOM chemical agent destruction operations,
May 1 1992
19
UNSCOM 02/CW-1, June 1991.
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General destruction policy
In October 1991, UNSCOM established a general policy20 on destruction21, removal22
or rendering harmless of Iraq’s CW23. The policy included following:
1. All weapons and weapons systems (whether fully functional or not) including all
their related subsystems and components were to be destroyed.
2. Equipment and materials:
a. Equipment or material specially designed or used for prohibited under
SCR 687 activities were be destroyed (or removed from Iraq if
destruction would not be practically possible);
b. Dual purpose, multi-purpose or general purpose equipment or materials
i. that were exclusively or primarily used (or intended to be used) in
prohibited activities or activities related to prohibited items shall
be destroyed (or removed from Iraq if destruction is not practically
possible);
ii. that were only in part used (or intended to be used) in prohibited
activities related to prohibited items shall be destroyed unless the
special Commission upon specific written request from Iraq
authorizes their use as an exception in activities not prohibited by
resolution 687 (1991).
3. Buildings
a. Buildings that have distinctive features making them specifically suitable
for prohibited activities related to prohibited items shall be destroyed (if
it is not practically possible to destroy the building, its distinctive features
shall be destroyed);
b. Standard buildings shall be destroyed unless the Special Commission
upon specific written request from Iraq authorizes their use as an
exception in activities not prohibited by resolution 687 (1991)
The criteria for the release of equipment, materials and building from destruction were
not precisely spelled out, which later resulted in arbitrary decisions on whether or not
an item might be released.
20
Guidelines For The Destruction, Removal or Rendering Harmless of Prohibited Items
Under Resolution 687 (1991).
21
“Destruction” meant physical demolition of an item; (for chemical it was appropriate
chemical transformation).
22
“The removal” meant moving an item outside Iraq.
23
"Rendering harmless” meant modification of an item to such a degree that it no
longer possesses specific features that rendered it capable of use by Iraq in prohibited
activities or readily amenable to re-conversion.
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Comment
The decisions made by the Commission with regard to release of some process
equipment from MSE for commercial activities in 1994 were later changed. It became
apparent that Iraq falsely declared the purpose of the equipment installed, for example
at the Dhia plant (VX facility). This equipment used for and intended for production of
VX was declared as pesticide formulation equipment. Later, in 1997 UNSCOM
destroyed this VX related equipment as well as other equipment previously removed
from MSE (in total 200 pieces).
Destruction Operations
After the destruction plan was drafted and UNSCOM discussed with the United Nations
Environmental Programme destruction methods selected,24 Iraq was instructed to start
collecting chemical filled and unfilled munitions and other related items and materials
from various locations and bringing them to the Muthanna site. Only munitions and
chemicals representing immediate health and environmental hazards and assessed as too
unsafe to transport were destroyed by Iraq under UNSCOM supervision at sites where
they had been located25.
In the autumn of 1991 Iraq destroyed the first batch of unfilled chemical munitions
under UNSCOM supervision26. By the summer of 1992, most of Iraq’s chemical
weapons stockpiles were already accumulated at Muthanna. The construction of two
main destruction plants was also underway27. The direct destruction activities under
UN supervision started in September 1991.28 Unfilled chemical weapons munitions,
122 millimetre rocket warheads and dies used for making bombs were destroyed. But
large-scale destruction began in June 1992 when a special Chemical Destruction Group
(CDG) was formed. During the period from June 1992 to June 1994 Iraq, under the
supervision of UNSCOM’s CDG, destroyed thousands of tonnes of warfare agents and
24
A letter of 4 May 1992 to the Executive Director of United Nations Environmental
Programme, Environmental Protection during the Special Commission Chemical
Destruction Operations; Communication of Environmental Protection during CDG
destruction operations in Iraq of 15 May 1992.
25
Second report of the Executive Chairman of the Special Commission, established by
the Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 9 (b) (i) of Security Council resolution 687
(1991), UN Doc No S/23269, 4 Dec 1991, Para. 19; Fact Finding Mission Regarding
CW Destruction In Iraq, August 1991; UNSCOM 20/CW-6 paras 23 and 141d.
26
UNSCOM 12/CW-04 August 1991.
27
Third report by the Executive Chairman of the Special Commission, established by
the Secretary-General pursuant to paragraph 9 (b) (i) of Security Council resolution 687
(1991), UN Doc No S/24108, June 1992, para. 13.
28
UNSCOM 12/CW-04 August 1991.
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their precursors along with tens of thousands of chemical munitions29. This destruction
included 22,000 filled and over 16,000 unfilled chemical munitions, 690 tonnes of CW
agents (both bulk and weaponized), more than 3,000 tonnes of precursor chemicals and
over 100 major items of CW production equipment.
The last destruction activities under UN supervision occurred in February 2003, when
UNMOVIC disposed of small quantities of 155mm artillery shells and the mustard they
contained.30
Below is a summary of all UN missions related to the destruction of CW related items,
a description of the methods used and material balance of items destroyed.
Destruction related missions
UNSCOM 2 (9-14 June 1991)31
The first chemical weapons related inspection was a survey of the Al Muthanna State
Establishment. One important task of the survey team was to evaluate the hazards as
well as to make a preliminary assessment of the site and of Iraqi declarations as a
necessary preliminary step to a subsequent full, detailed and safe inspection of the site.
Personal safety issues were considered to be a priority during this survey because of the
unknown nature, magnitude and extent of hazards. The site had been heavily bombed
during 1991 and it was expected that the site would be in a very hazardous condition,
not only because of the presence of damaged and leaking chemical weapons munitions
and bulk chemical weapons agents stored there but also due to unexploded ordnance
and construction hazards. .
Other tasks of this survey team included:
• a general description of the Al Muthanna State Establishment;
• a detailed description of specific areas (identifying any that would require
particular attention during the subsequent inspections) ;
• identification of any particular problems likely to be encountered during the
subsequent inspections
• any indicators of undeclared activities relevant to Security Council resolution
687 (1991) ;
• any factors relevant to the use of the site for the destruction of chemical
weapons; and a brief description of the Iraqi chemical weapons munitions
present .
29
Executive Summary Report – Chemical Destruction No. 3 (CD3), 1994.
Thirteenth quarterly report of the Executive Chairman of the United Nations
Monitoring, Verification and Inspection Commission in accordance with paragraph 12
of Security Council resolution 1284 (1999), May 2003, S/2003/580.
31
UNSCOM 02/CW-01 June 1991.
30
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CHAPTER III.XI
The following were the principal outcomes of the inspection:
(a) None of the information gathered was significantly at variance with the Iraqi
declaration of 1991;
(b) No evidence was found at this site for non-chemical weapons activities relevant to
Security Council resolution 687 (1991);
(c) The site was in a highly dangerous condition;
(d) The site would provide a suitable location for the centralized destruction of Iraq’s
chemical weapons agents and munitions, but the technical details regarding the
destruction of those items, particularly the involvement of Iraqi personnel, remained to
be fully defined.
UNSCOM 9 (15-22 August 1991)32
The second chemical weapons inspection consisted of one day at each of three chemical
production sites in the Al Fallujah area, two days inspecting the pilot plants at Al
Muthanna and one day inspecting the declared storage site at Tammuz (Al Taqqadum)
Air Base at Habaniyah. Discussions with Iraqi officials during the inspection clarified
previous ambiguities about the Al Muthanna State Establishment.
The inspections of the Al Fallujah sites in general confirmed the Iraqi declarations. The
site Fallujah 1 had never been completed and had therefore not been used for the
production of chemical weapons-related items. According to Iraq, plans for the largescale production of other materials such as PCl3, POCl3, SOCl2 and other precursors at
Fallujah 2 were not realized. Fallujah 3 had never been used for the production of
chemical weapons agent precursors; instead it had been used for the formulation of
pesticides, the active ingredients being imported. Some commercially available
chemical weapons precursor chemicals were found at this site. Bombing during 1991
extensively damaged all three sites.
The Iraqi authorities stated that chemical weapons agents were neither produced nor
stored at any of these sites. The team found no evidence, which contradicted this
statement.
The inspections of the pilot plants at Al Muthanna revealed that one had been destroyed
by bombardment, but two others were still in relatively undamaged condition. These
two pilot plants were inspected in detail and UN inspectors concluded that they could,
as proposed by Iraq, be adapted for use as a pilot-scale facility to develop a method for
the destruction of the Iraqi nerve agents based on caustic hydrolysis. The team
recommended that Iraq be given permission to carry out the necessary modifications
and the relevant process development.
32
UNSCOM 09/CW-02 August 1991.
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CHAPTER III.XI
In the course of the inspection of the Tammuz (Al Taqqadum) Air Base at Habaniyah,
200 aerial bombs were counted and recorded. Analysis of air samples from two of these
bombs, selected at random, confirmed that they contained mustard agent. These
findings were consistent with the Iraqi declaration that 200 mustard-filled aerial bombs
were stored at this site.
UNSCOM 11 (31 August - 9 September 1991)33
The third chemical weapons inspection visited declared sites at Dujayl, Al Bakr Air
Base and the auxiliary Al Mutassim Aerodrome, the Proving Ground at Al Fallujah and
undeclared sites designated by the Special Commission at Al Fallujah General
Headquarters and Al Taji. In the depot at Al Fallujah General Headquarters, which had
not been declared as containing any chemical weapons items, UN inspectors found
chemical protective equipment and related material as well as a variety of grenades
containing the riot control agent CS but no other chemical filled munitions.
The team examined the 30 chemical-filled ballistic missile warheads declared by Iraq
and found by UNSCOM some 30 kilometres from the location notified to the Special
Commission. Iraq had informed the Special Commission that 14 of the warheads were
of the so-called binary type filled only with a mixture of isopropanol and cyclohexanol,
the organophosphorous component (MPF) required to produce the nerve agent was to
be added immediately prior to use. The resulting agent would have been a mixture of
the nerve agents GB and GF. Fifty-six plastic containers filled with MPF were also
found; these bore evidence of extensive leakage. Iraq stated that the other 16 warheads
were filled with a mixture of nerve agents GB and GF. Analysis of samples taken from
they binary warheads, one of the nerve agent filled warheads and MPF container, by
laboratories outside Iraq confirmed Iraqi declarations. Iraq was instructed by the team
to transport the warheads to Al Muthanna for disposal.
At Al Bakr Air Base 25 type 250 gauge aerial bombs and 135 type 500 aerial bombs
filled with mustard agent had been declared by Iraq. These were found at Al Mutassim
Aerodrome, an airfield auxiliary to the Al Bakr Air Base, situated about 30 kilometres
to the north of the Base. They had evidently developed internal pressure since four had
already burst spontaneously and mustard agent vapour was detected at the site,
necessitating the use of full individual protective equipment when working close to the
bombs or downwind of them. Samples were taken from four of the bombs, which were
then resealed. Iraq was instructed to transport the bombs to Al Muthanna subject to
strict safety precautions and after venting the excess pressure.
The site of Al Taji was a large military installation, which had been declared in
connection with ballistic missiles but not for chemical weapons. UN inspectors
33
UNSCOM 11/CW-03 August1991.
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CHAPTER III.XI
observed approximately 6,000 empty aluminium containers intended for filling with
nerve agent and insertion into 122mm rocket warheads.
At the Al Fallujah Proving Ground, Iraq had declared the storage of 6,394 mustardfilled 155mm artillery shells. They were stored in the open and appeared to be in good
condition. Analysis of samples taken from four of the shells confirmed the presence of
mustard agent. In discussions with Iraqi officials contradictory statements were made
regarding the marking of chemical munitions. Iraqi officials also failed to respond
satisfactorily to requests for information on Iraq's past chemical weapons programme,
particularly as regarding foreign suppliers of munitions, equipment and precursor
chemicals.
UNSCOM 1234 (31 August -5 September 1991)
The fourth chemical weapons inspection (UNSCOM 12) had two primary tasks. The
first was to direct the destruction, by Iraqi personnel, of all unfilled chemical weapons
munitions currently at Al Muthanna. The second was to reconnoitre, select and show to
Iraqi officials the locations at Al Muthanna where bulk agents, chemical munitions and
intermediate precursor and other chemical weapons-related chemicals would be
collected and the locations where future destruction operations would be carried out.
The destruction operations were successful. A total of 8,157 unfilled chemical weapons
munitions, consisting of six different varieties of bombs, 155mm artillery shells and
122mm rocket warheads were destroyed either by crushing with a bulldozer or cutting
with an oxyacetylene torch. Subsequently, parts of chemical munitions and 3,672
122mm rocket warheads were destroyed. Dies used for making bombs remained to be
destroyed.
During the inspection two incidents took place, which reminded the team that Al
Muthanna was an extremely hazardous site and that the recovery and destruction of
Iraq's chemical weapons munitions (and agents) would be a protracted and dangerous
undertaking.
During this destruction work, a supposedly unfilled 122mm rocket warhead burst and a
nearby Iraqi worker was exposed to nerve agent. Owing to the prompt action of a
member of the inspection team the casualty was very quickly taken to the site hospital
where he received appropriate and timely treatment from Iraqi medical personnel. He
recovered over a period of a few days. A separate incident occurred in the case of the 30
chemical-filled ballistic warheads removed to Al Muthanna from Dujayl in two separate
shipments. In the first shipment, 14 warheads stated by the Iraqis to be filled with the
mixture of alcohols, and considered relatively harmless, were moved. Ten were opened,
found to contain the alcohols and were drained preparatory to destruction. At this point
34
UNSCOM 12/CW-04 August 1991.
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CHAPTER III.XI
the senior Iraqi official present said that the remaining four were filled with the nerve
agent sarin. Apparently these warheads had been moved during the night prior to
dispatch to Al Muthanna and the sarin-filled warheads had been confused with alcoholfilled ones.
According to the inspection report “Iraq has declared 6,120 sarin-filled 122mm rocket
warheads and their attendant motors. They are stored in the open but have not been
counted nor have their contents been verified. They present a significant hazard both
from the point of leakage of sarin and instability of the rocket propellant. In order to
improve safety the Iraqis were directed to move the warheads to the designated storage
area; the rocket motors were to be separated and moved to another storage area separate
from the warheads. They will remain in these locations until both warheads and motors
have been separately counted and verified. A suitable storage location at Al Muthanna
for chemical weapons agents and munitions was identified and the Iraqi officials
briefed and given detailed maps of the area. Four possible destruction sites at MSE
were identified.”
UNSCOM 1735 (7 October - 8 November 1991)
The purpose of the fifth chemical weapons inspection (team of over 50 persons) was to
conduct a detailed and full survey of Al Muthanna in preparation for the destruction
phase. The team compiled a comprehensive and detailed inventory of the site, including
facilities, munitions, agents, agent condition, precursors and intermediates. Among the
salient findings were the discovery of small quantities of the nerve agents’ sec.butyl
sarin, n-butyl sarin and ethyl sarin, although Iraq has disputed the identification of the
latter two agents. While the quantities found were of no direct military significance, the
relevance of the finding lies in the fact that Iraq clearly had carried out research on
nerve agents other than those previously declared.
Although the mustard agent at Al Muthanna was generally of good quality (typically 90
per cent), the nerve agents were found to have undergone extensive degradation and the
agent content was very low, generally below 10 per cent and in some cases below the
one per cent level.
In general, the findings of the inspection at Al Muthanna were in substantial agreement
with Iraq's declaration. In the case of the 122mm rockets however, a precise and full
count was not possible due to hazards associated with the very dangerous condition of
the rockets and the fact that the bunker which contained some 2,500 sarin filled rockets
was partly damaged by 1991 bombardment (it contained an unexploded bomb inside).
35
UNSCOM 17/CW-05 September 1991.
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According to inspectors, an explosive demolition would be the safest method of the
destruction of the rockets since opening and draining operations would be particularly
hazardous.
Technical visit by UNSCOM (11 to 15 November 1991)
A four-person mission visited Iraq for detailed technical discussions with their Iraqi
counterparts on several issues related to the destruction of chemical weapons and
agents, with particular emphasis on the direct involvement of Iraq in this process and on
safety aspects. Issues discussed and on which the Special Commission team made
recommendations included the Iraqi design for a mustard agent incinerator, the
destruction of nerve agents by caustic hydrolysis, and the opening munitions and
draining agent out of munitions. .
The discussions on the destruction of chemical weapons and agents resulted in a
considerable improvement in technical understanding by both sides, including issues of
the potential hazards involved in some operations and the technologies potentially
available for implementing the various destruction processes.
UNSCOM 2036 (22 October - 2 November 1991)
The sixth chemical weapons inspection team was tasked to inspect the declared storage
sites, which were not visited previously, including some that are widely separated
geographically.
In order to complete its tasks in the time allocated, United Nations helicopters were
used. The chemical weapons munitions were verified, counted and recorded. Where it
was safe to transport the munitions to Al Muthanna, the necessary instructions were
given to Iraqi personnel. At Al Tuz, Khamissiyah and Muhammadiyat sites numbers of
munitions were discovered, including 122mm rockets, which were considered to be too
unsafe to move to MSE and for which a drilling and draining operation would be very
dangerous as well. A recommendation was made that these items should be destroyed
in-situ by explosive demolition. In a few cases, due to extensive destruction by
coalition bombing, it was not possible to observe and count all munitions; when the
damage had been less extensive the number and types of munitions observed were well
correlated with the Iraqi declarations (at this point of time Iraq did not disclosed yet its
large-scale unilateral destruction activities with the bulk agents, precursors and
munitions and refused to discuss in any form the number of munitions consumed during
Iran-Iraq war, which affected the UNSCOM ability to verify the material balance for
munitions).
36
UNSCOM 20/CW-06, October 1991.
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UNSCOM 2137 (18 November - 1 December 1991)
A combined chemical and biological weapons inspection team revisited Salman Pak,
and a number of sites designated by the Special Commission as being of potential
chemical weapons and/or biological weapons interest; some 13 sites were inspected. In
the course of the inspection a small sub-team was dispatched to Al Muthanna to witness
an Iraqi experiment with a stimulant D4 (precursor of tabun) to test the use of the
modified pilot plant for exploratory work on the destruction of nerve agents by caustic
hydrolysis.
At the Mosul Sugar Factory, almost 100 items of metal working machinery from the
bomb workshop and general workshop at Muthanna were discovered. This machinery
had been used for the manufacture of 250 and 500 gauge bombs. These items were
marked and catalogued and the Iraqi officials were requested in writing to return all the
items to Muthanna for further destruction.
UNSCOM 2638 (27 January - 5 February 1992)
The 10 sites inspected had either been declared by Iraq or were designated for
inspection by the Executive Chairman. The inspection team was also able to verify the
return to Al-Muthanna site of the bomb-making equipment from Mosul and to observe
preparations for and completion of one experimental test run of nerve agent hydrolysis
at the pilot plant. Changes to the experimental conditions and procedures were
requested by the team, largely on safety grounds, but also including some technical
aspects. The team concluded after the test run that additional test runs would be
required to establish and prove satisfactory operating conditions and procedures.
UNSCOM 2939 (21 February to 24 March 1992)
The team directed, controlled and observed the destruction of the 122mm rockets at the
Khamissiyah site (this site was damaged by 1991 bombardment) by Iraq’s personnel
and provided technical expertise and equipment (including explosive ordnance
destruction expertise, decontamination and medical cover, atmospheric sampling and
agent monitoring equipment) as necessary. These rockets were not transportable due to
their hazardous status and therefore the decision was made to destroy them at the area
of their location. Owing to a combination of technical problems, the work experienced
initial delays; in addition more rockets were present than expected and further rockets
were discovered, buried on the site, some of which were recovered and destroyed
during the operation.
37
UNSCOM 21/CBW-1, November 1991.
UNSCOM 26/CW-07, January 1992.
39
UNSCOM 29/ CD-1, April 1992.
38
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CHAPTER III.XI
A total of 463 rockets (389 filled, 36 partially filled and 38 unfilled) were destroyed,
approximating to 2.5 tonnes of agent (a GB/GF mixture). Safety and environmental
concerns were of paramount importance throughout the whole operation, and the
Special Commission's requirements were strictly observed. A system for atmospheric
monitoring was established with two linear arrays, at 200 metres and 1,800 metres,
downwind of the destruction area. No evidence of any significant atmospheric
contamination by the nerve agent was obtained.
UNSCOM 3240 (5 to 13 April 1992)
The team assessed progress and the need to provide expert technical guidance related to
preparations for the destruction of CW agents at Muthanna. The team noticed
considerable progress with the construction of the mustard agent incinerator and
estimated that the work was approximately 70 per cent complete. The major elements
were in place but further work, including modifications required by the team, was
necessary before commissioning could be considered.
The experimental work on nerve agent hydrolysis carried out to date, together with the
four experiments directed and observed by the team, demonstrated the feasibility of the
process. Consistent achievement of the destruction limits set by the Special
Commission had yet to be convincingly demonstrated owing to the need to check the
analytical procedures. In the team’s opinion further experimental runs were required to
fully define operating parameters once the effectiveness of the analytical procedures,
based on gas liquid chromatography, had been proven. The construction of the largescale nerve agent hydrolysis plant progressed well but further work and modifications
requested by the team as a result of their inspection were required.
The team also conducted following activities:
• selected areas at Al Muthanna where the ballistic-missile chemicals41 could be
safely stored to await destruction there;
• discussed with Iraq possible means of destruction and also safe transportation of
chemicals to Muthanna;
• identified a suitable building for use as an operations room, offices, medical
room and other facilities at Al Muthanna for UN inspectors supervising the
destruction operations at MSE
40
UNSCOM 32/ CD 2, April 1992.
Just prior to UNSCOM 32's departure for Iraq, the Special Commission decided that
ballistic-missile-related
chemicals
(ammonium
perchlorate,
hexamethylene
diisocyanate, tolylene diiaocyanate, and aluminium powder - all used in the production
of solid rocket propellant) should be transferred from their existing locations to the AlMuthanna site for controlled destruction there.
41
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CHAPTER III.XI
•
inspected a roller mounted cradle with a fitted remotely operated electric drill,
developed by Iraq for the remote drilling of potentially hazardous 155mm shells,
and agreed that it would be safe and effective but would be time consuming and
labour-intensive.
UNSCOM 3542 (15 to 29 April 1992)
This team visited 14 sites to verify, to the extent possible at that time, Iraq's
declarations relating to CW items unilaterally destroyed by Iraq during July 1991.
Additionally, the team carried out a no-notice inspection of a suspected documentation
centre. The team also visited the previous headquarters of the Technical Research
Centre. No activity of relevance to the Security Council resolution 687 (1991) was
observed.
UNSCOM 3843 (CDG) 18 June 1992- 16 June 1994
A dedicated UNSCOM team, the Chemical Destruction Group (CDG) was deployed in
Iraq at MSE to supervise and monitor destruction operations carried out by Iraq,
including regular environmental monitoring during the period 1992-1994. When CDG
begun its operations some fact-finding missions and destruction operations related to
CW had already been performed by Iraq under UNSCOM supervision (see above).
The work at Muthanna site was conducted in cooperation with Iraq. The CDG
established and refined destruction techniques in coordination with the members of
Destruction Advisory Panel. The Iraqi side, under the CDG supervision, then
implemented all destruction operations. The CDG’s developed operational procedures
that covered physical destruction operations and chemical reconnaissance. It also
provided decontamination and medical support to Iraqi personnel. Over 100 experts
from 25 countries served with the Group during the period of its work in Iraq. Owing to
the dangerous nature of the work and the hazard inherent in the destruction area, utmost
attention was given to minimizing the health and environmental impacts of the
destruction of CW and their components. The group personnel suffered no serious
injures during destruction operations. The final sampling and analysis conducted by
UNSCOM upon the completion of the destruction showed that no significant chemical
weapons related environmental hazards existed at the Muthanna State Establishment.
The CDG utilized a number of techniques to achieve its mandate. Mustard agent and
other flammable precursors were destroyed in an incinerator designed and built by Iraq
from items of equipment procured and used in the past by Iraq’s CW programme. This
incinerator at MSE was commissioned by UNSCOM. While the incinerator was
42
43
UNSCOM 35/CW-08 April 1992.
UNSCOM 38/ CDG, Executive Summary Report.
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.XI
operated by Iraq, the CDG monitored its operation and monitored the exhaust products.
The CDG developed and implemented detailed medical support procedures.
The nerve agents sarin, cyclosarin and tabun and their precursors D4 and MPF were
hydrolysed using a converted former Iraqi sarin production plant. The facility was
converted from production to destruction activities by Iraq under UNSCOM's guidance
and supervision.
Destruction on an ad hoc basic through explosive venting and simultaneous burning
was implemented for chemical munitions damaged during the 1991 Gulf War. These
munitions represented immediate health and environmental hazards and for safety
considerations could not be transported to the designated destruction plants at Iraq’s
former chemical weapons complex.
In order to fulfil its mandate, the CDG borrowed and purchased a large amount of
specialized equipment. Nearly all of the materials needed to effect the destruction of the
Iraqi chemical weapons had to be imported. The CDG benefited greatly from the
UNSCOM helicopter and fixed wing aircraft capabilities. Helicopter support was used
for transport from Baghdad to Muthanna and other operating areas, for site surveys and
was on hand for Medical Evacuation support.
All hazardous waste resulting from the destruction of CW was safely sealed at several
structures and areas of the Muthanna State Establishment with reinforced concrete and
brick walls covered with earth. These included two bunkers, one of which was damaged
by aerial bombardments in 1991 and contained 122mm artillery rockets and munitions
remnants that had been filled with the nerve agent sarin. To maintain security and
safety, in a signed protocol with UNSCOM, Iraq undertook to inspect the sealed
structures at least once a month to ensure that the seals were intact and warning signs
had not been removed, damaged or defaced for as long as SC resolution 715 (1991)
remained in force.
Comment
Iraq’s UN-supervised destruction of chemical weapons shows the importance of longterm continuity in the site security and safety arrangements and hazardous materials
disposal.
UNSCOM 3944 (26 June - 10 July 1992)
This team conducted inspection activities at declared and undeclared Iraqi sites,
essentially in the search of documentation concerning Iraq's proscribed weapons
activities. The team also surveyed and recorded reconstruction activity at the Fallujah
44
UNSCOM 39/CBW-2 June 1992.
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.XI
sites. In addition, it supervised the destruction of the majority of the chemical bombmaking equipment at MSE.
UNSCOM 4445 (21 - 29 September 1992)
The aim of this mission was to verify the location and quantity of chemical munitions
and agents awaiting destruction and hence to assess whether Iraq had implemented in
full the Commission's instructions to move all identified agents and munitions to the
central destruction facility at the Muthanna State Establishment. With the exception of
the mortar rounds at Fallujah and whatever remained in the damaged and unsafe
bunkers at Muhammadiyat and Khamissiyah, this was found to be the case. A full
survey of the agents and munitions at Muthanna was carried out and a comprehensive
inventory, which formed the baseline for destruction activities 1992-1994, was drawn
up.
UNSCOM 4746 (06-14 Dec 1992)
Through a series of inspections of undeclared sites that were primarily CW-related and
through interviews with Iraqi personnel, the team sought information to fill gaps and
clarify ambiguities in Iraq's declarations of its programmes relating to both chemical
weapons (CW) and biological weapons (BW).
UNSCOM 5547 (6 - 18 April 1993)
A number of potentially chemical weapons-related sites were visited, including the
Fallujah sites. A Chief Inspector handed over to the Iraqi side a letter requiring the
removal of certain items of equipment used in the PCl3/POCl3 production plant at
Fallujah to Muthanna for destruction under the Special Commission supervision. These
items had been procured by Iraq specifically for the production of chemical weapons
precursors and as part of Iraq's chemical weapons programme. Consequently, the
Commission decided that the whole PCl3/POCl3 plant needed to be dismantled. .
UNSCOM 6748 (1 to 11 February 1994)
The team inspected sites at which dual-purpose chemical production equipment was
located, inventoried all the equipment at the sites visited and tagged approximately 240
pieces of dual-use chemical production equipment procured under the auspices of Iraq’s
chemical warfare programme. It also assessed how and when the Chemical Destruction
Group at al Muthanna should terminate its operations there.
45
UNSCOM 44/CW-08, September 1993.
UNSCOM 47/CBW-3, December 1992.
47
UNSCOM 55/CW-10, April 1993.
48
UNSCOM 67/CW-13, February 1994.
46
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.XI
UNSCOM 7649 (31 May to 12 June 1994).
The aim of the inspection was to take environmental samples and to analyse them in
real time at Muthanna in order to provide data on the state of the Muthanna site at the
time of handover to Iraq.
UNSCOM 7750 (8 to 14 June 1994)
The results of the analysis of environmental samples taken by UNSCOM 76 were
incorporated into the Muthanna handover protocol51. UNSCOM 77 conducted a final
inspection and found no presence of the traces of toxic compounds in environmental
samples and transferred responsibility for the Muthanna site back to the Iraqi
authorities.
UNSCOM 15352 (2-17 May 1997) and UNSCOM 19553 (1 - 4 July 1997)
The missions contributed to unravelling the history of the Muthanna State
Establishment in terms of CW production plants and equipment used for CW purposes.
Only under pressure from the Commission did Iraq admit that 48 pieces of the
equipment released from destruction under UN supervision had actually been used in
Iraq’s VX- activities. A comprehensive description of CW production activities at MSE
and their chronology was established by inspectors, including the detailed inventory of
specifically designed and standard process equipment involved or intended for
production of CW agents and their precursors.
UNSCOM 19654 (29 Sep - 09 Oct 1997)
The team was tasked to supervise the destruction of process equipment, analytical
equipment and glassware admitted by Iraq to have been procured for its CW
programme. On the first day of the mission part of the analytical equipment and the
fragile graphite elements of the heat exchangers were destroyed. Conventional gas
welding equipment used for cutting proved to be unsatisfactory because the rate of
progress was very slow. Even when, on the second day, two plasma cutters and an extra
crane were provided, the amount of cutting required destroying the large, jacketed
49
UNSCOM 76/CW-17, May 1994.
UNSCOM 77/CW-18, June 1994.
51
In order to ensure accurate transfer of results and full coordination, UNSCOM 77 and
76 inspections overlapped by three days. On 14 June 1994, the Chemical Destruction
Group (UNSCOM 38) and UNSCOM77/CW-18 left Iraq, and the Chemical Destruction
Group was disbanded.
52
UNSCOM 153/CW-31, May 1997.
53
UNSCOM 195/CW-38, July 1997.
54
UNSCOM 196/CW-18, September 1997.
50
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.XI
reactor vessels meant that the aim of the mission could not be achieved in time.
Therefore UN inspectors decided that filling the vessels with concrete would be an
acceptable destruction technique and quicker method of destruction, although some
cutting of the vessel was still required. A second advantage was that this method did not
require the burning of tank residues and therefore the amount of toxic fumes coming
out from equipment was minimized.
The concrete trial was carried out on the third day of inspection, and proved
satisfactory. Unfortunately, the poor state of the tyres on the cement mixer meant that
only two reactors could be destroyed with one load of concrete (3m3). The remaining
analytical equipment and the glassware were destroyed with no difficulty on the fourth
day of the mission.
In the final three days, the Iraqis managed to destroy all of the equipment at Fallujah 2,
Muthanna and Ibn AI Beytar. The team's active approach, with the many detailed
suggestions and advice offered to Iraqi personnel, combined with the expertise of the
Iraqi site engineers lead to the successful conclusion of the mission
Chemical Group, CG-1155 (1-9 Sep 1997)
CG-11 (chemical residential monitoring group) was tasked to support the mission of
UNSCOM 196 in the phase of the preparations for the equipment destruction by
supervising the dismantling of equipment designated for the destruction and during the
destruction operation itself. It also discussed the procedure for the destruction of
isopropanol (precursor for sarin) and diisopropyl amine (precursor for VX) transferred
by Iraq in 1991 from MSE, with Iraqi representatives and supervised the destruction
process of these precursors at the Dawrah Oil Refinery.
Mustard filled 155-mm artillery shells
Under UNMOVIC supervision, Iraq destroyed mustard filled 155mm shells remaining
in Iraq. The shells found in 1997, were stored at a declared location at the former
Muthanna State Establishment56. In total, there were 14 shells, containing
approximately 49 litres of agent — four of them had been earlier emptied and sampled
by UNSCOM57. The agent was destroyed at the site in February 2003 by chemical
reaction and the empty shells destroyed with explosives. Samples taken from the shells
55
CG-11, CW precursor destruction reports September 1997.
Declarable changes for the site covered by monitoring in the chemical field since 16
December 1998 para 35.3 (Iraq’s Semi-Annual Declarations Jul. 1998-Jul.2002), Iraq’s
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Addendum, UNMOVIC-02-00007-CW-0008
December 2002;
57
UNSCOM 229/CW-45, March 1998 UNSCOM 210/CW-48 May 1998.
56
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.XI
showed that mustard gas produced over 15 years earlier was still of high quality — up
to 97 % purity.
Thiodiglycol
A small quantity of thiodiglycol (500ml) was also destroyed under UNMOVIC
supervision in January 2003. That prohibited mustard precursor was found at the Al
Basil Jadiriyah complex along with some other dual-use chemicals (also of laboratory
quantity) by the chemical inspection team58. According to the Iraqi site representatives,
the chemical had been left over by a previous occupant of the site — the Scientific
Research Centre — and had not been used by the Al Basil complex for any purpose.
The entire quantity of the chemical was destroyed on-site by chemical reaction and
combustion59. Inspection activities following the finding did not reveal evidence of any
research being done at the site regarding the chemical agent mustard or the precursor
itself60.
58
UNMOVIC Site Inspection Report 5 Jan 2003, UNMOVIC-03-00172-CW.
UNMOVIC, 19 Jan 2003, UNMOVIC-03-00400-CW.
60
UNMOVIC Site Inspection Report, 24 Jan 2003, UNMOVIC-03-00472-CW.
59
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CHAPTER III.XI
122mm artillery rockets
Figure III.XI.I Examination of an artillery rocket warhead by an UNMOVIC inspector
An UNMOVIC inspection team found 12 undeclared 122mm chemical warheads and
motors at the Al Ukhaider ammunition depot (11 of them were unfilled and 1 filled with
water)61. Iraq notified the Commission on 20 January 2003 that four more warheads had
been found at the Al Taji ammunition depot (Figure III.XI.I)62. In February 2003,
another UNMOVIC team discovered an additional two undeclared 122mm chemical
warheads at the same depot (one of the six warheads discovered at the Al Taji depot was
filled with liquid that was subsequently identified as water)63. In total, 18 chemical
61
UNMOVIC Site Inspection Report, 16 Jan 2003, UNMOVIC-03-00142-MD.
UNMOVIC Site Inspection Report, 21 Jan 2003, UNMOVIC-03-00052-MD.
63
UNMOVIC Site Inspection Report, 9 Feb 2003, UNMOVIC-03-00153-MD; Sample
Analysis Report No MD101, 9 Feb 2003.
62
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UNMOVIC
CHAPTER III.XI
warheads were tagged by UMOVIC for destruction. The destruction did not take place
due to the withdrawal of UNMOVIC from Iraq.
In its submission of the backlog of semi-annual monitoring declarations in October
2002, Iraq declared that it had repaired and transferred one piece of process equipment,
previously destroyed in 1997 at MSE, from the MSE storage area to the phenol factory
of Fallujah II. It further declared that five other items of production equipment from the
former Al Muthanna weapons plants had been recovered, repaired and installed in a
production plant of Al Qaa Qaa 64. In its declaration of 7 December 2002, Iraq had
declared that an additional piece of destroyed equipment (a heat exchanger) had been
installed in the chlorine factory of Fallujah II65. Following technical discussions on 9
February 2003, Iraq submitted a letter to UNMOVIC explaining the use of previously
destroyed equipment in Fallujah II and declared that a third piece of previously
destroyed equipment (a pump) had been repaired and then installed at the phenol
factory66. UNMOVIC conducted inspections to verify the declarations and clarify the
issue. Those three pieces of equipment at Al Fallujah II and five pieces of equipment at
Al Qaa Qaa were to be destroyed under UNMOVIC supervision. However, that
destruction was not carried out prior to the withdrawal of the inspectors.
64
Declarable changes for the site covered by monitoring in the chemical field since 16
December 1998 (Iraq’s Semi-Annual Declarations Jul. 1998-Jul.2002;
65
Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Part II.
66
Repaired chemical processing equipment destroyed under UNSCOM supervision, 9
Feb 2003.
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CHAPTER III.XI
Destruction methods67
Destruction of Bulk Agent
Hydrolysis Plant Operation
Alkaline hydrolysis (around 15 to 20% solution of aqueous sodium hydroxide) was
selected for the destruction of nerve agents and their precursors after a number of pilotscale tests. The batch hydrolysis plant was made by conversion of the former sarin
production plant (former P-7 plant), which was not severely damaged during 1991
bombardment. This facility was converted from a production to a large-scale
destruction facility by Iraq under UNSCOM supervision (Hydrolysis plant – Figures
III.XI.II and III). The final plant design was agreed with Iraq in April 1992 and it was
commissioned by UNSCOM in September 1992. The plant commenced its first test run
in September 1992. The destruction of agents began in October 1992. The nerve agents
tabun, sarin/cyclosarin and their precursors D4, MPF were destroyed there.
67
Approved Destruction Activities for Precursor Chemicals, 8 March 1993; Chief
Inspector's Report, CD Commissioning Team, 31 Mar 1993; Destruction of Chemicals
Remaining at Muthanna, Jan 6 1994; Cees Wolterbeek, “Destruction of Iraqi Chemical
Munition, UNSCOM-38/Chemical Destruction Group”, in Proceeding 5th International
Symposium Protection Against Chemical and Biological Warfare Agents : Supplement
Stockholm, Sweden, 11-16 June 1995; R. G. Manley. “UNSCOM’s experience with
chemical warfare agents and munitions in Iraq”, in The Challenge of Old Chemical
Weapons and Toxic Armament Wastes, T. Stock and K. Lohs (Eds.), pp. 241–252,
Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, Oxford University Press
(1997).
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CHAPTER III.XI
Figure III.XI.II General view of the hydrolysis plant
Figure III.XI.III Closer look at the furnace for the destruction of vapours from the
hydrolysis plant (visible also on the left hand side of the previous photograph)
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CHAPTER III.XI
The plant was situated in a bunker and was divided into a control room maintained
under slightly positive pressure and a reactor room, a fully contained area maintained
under negative pressure. On the control panel there were all electrical switches for all
pumps and machinery inside the reactor room. Through a large Plexiglas window the
reactor room could be observed. A diagram of the hydrolysis plant is shown in Figure
III.XI.IV.
Figure III.XI.IV. Hydrolysis plant flow diagram (only main elements shown)
P12
Exhaust Fan
Buffer/
Measure tank
P13
VO3
VO7
Condenser
P10
CO1
Caustic Soda
P11
Tr
Heat
Exchanger
ST1
ST2
Recoil Vessel
HE1
VO4
Agent Container
VO2
Reactor
Vessel
SC1
From Water Station
R1
P01
Quencher/Scrubber
Water Tank
VO1
Agent Measure Tank
P05
P07
P06
C2
P08
P01
Cooling Installation
V06
C1
V05
P03
Comp
Compressor Tank
P04
Cooling Tank
To the Lagoon
(concrete 10x10x3m)
The control room and the plant area were continuously monitored for the presence of
vapours of toxic agents. The destruction process was as follows: A storage tank (V04),
for the agent being destroyed, was brought in and placed in an earth berm in the plant
area68. A Teflon pipe was placed inside the tank and two electrical vacuum pumps (P12,
P13), located on the roof, were used to create vacuum necessary to empty the agent
68
The bulk agent GB/GF was mostly stored in two-tonne containers (sometimes in onetonne containers). D4 was stored in 200 litre barrels.
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CHAPTER III.XI
storage containers through the Teflon pipes. The agent was transferred to a 750 litre
agent measure tank (V01), located in the reactor room. A level, on the outside of the
agent storage tank, would indicate the amount of agent inside. After the transfer of the
agent into the V0l tank was completed, two dosing pumps (P08, P08) transported the
agent from the V01 tank into the 3m3 reactor (R1). Caustic soda was fed into this
reactor by gravity from an external storage tank (V03) causing neutralisation through
hydrolysis.
To absorb the heat generated during the destruction process a cooling system was used.
Nevertheless the high temperatures (80-90°C) inside the reactor caused the agent to
boil. A reflux cooler returned the vapours to the reactor vessel and cooled the exhaust
gases. The exhaust gases proceeded to the scrubber and then were released into the
atmosphere.
The completeness of the reaction was checked in the laboratory. If laboratory analysis
determined that excess caustic was less than 3% more caustic was added to the reactor.
The valve at the bottom of the reactor was opened and the mixture flowed into two
circulation pumps (P05, P06). The circulation pumps in turn pumped the mixture to the
two-way directional valve. The valve was turned so the mixture would flow back into
the reactor. This would also ensure better mixing. In cases, when the laboratory results
of greater than 3% of caustic soda were obtained, the same procedure would be
followed. At the point where the agent concentration fell below the detection limit of
1ppm, the reaction mixture was transferred to a holding tank. After a final analytical
check the directional valve was turned so that the generated waste would travel to an
open concrete-lined reservoir (lagoon) located outside the plant, where it was allowed
to evaporate naturally into the air.
After water evaporated a residue in the form of a salt stone mixture remained. Once all
destruction of chemicals had been completed the salt stone was covered with 20cm of
soil and then 10cm of concrete as a cap. With the exception of tabun waste, all
hydrolysis mixtures went to the lagoon. Tabun hydrolysis wastes (containing large
amounts of sodium cyanides) were collected in separate steel tanks and then transported
to the bunkers area and sealed there.
Operating Parameters
mixture for
2500 litres of 15-20% caustic soda aqueous solution per 250reactor
300 litres of agent (per batch)
pH
12 - 14 (dosing pumps were switched off, when pH was less
than 12)
excess caustic
Greater than 3%
temperature
80° C – the dosing was stopped, 90° C - the cooling system
was turned on
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CHAPTER III.XI
Comment
The method was found to be expedient and cost effective. The containment within the
reaction unit was a problem. Due to the high caustic content, some leaks developed.
Valves and flanges required drip pans underneath them. All valves were manual. An
individual would have to wear full IPE to change flows and to conduct sampling.
Operators entered and exited the contained area through a decontamination area.
Incinerator
General Remarks
Mustard, its main precursor TDG and some other flammable materials (such as
morpholine, phenol, dichlorphenol, trichlorphenol and pyridine) were destroyed by
incineration.
No suitable plant existed at Al Muthanna for the incineration, and therefore it was
decided to design and construct such an incinerator. UNSCOM and Iraqi experts agreed
on the final design of the plant in November 1991. The construction of the plant began
at Al Muthanna in January 1992 at the former munitions filling area. Construction
continued throughout 1992 with UNSCOM providing advice and assistance. Iraqi
personnel under the direction of UNSCOM commissioned the plant in November
1992.69 (Figure III.XI.V, VI and VII). In total, nine months were spent by Iraq to
complete plant construction and commissioning.
69
Executive Summary Report – Chemical Destruction No. 3 (CD3), August 1994, Para
8,; Executive Summary of Fact-finding Mission to Iraq on CW Destruction, August
1991; Nerve Agent Hydrolysis--Pilot Plant Process Assessment, Annex B to
CD2/MUT/01, March 1992,; Commissioning of Mustard Agent Incineration Plant, 26
March 1992,; Report of the CW Destruction Advisory Panel of the UNSCOM for the
period 18-22 January 1993;
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CHAPTER III.XI
Figure III.XI.V View of the incinerator
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CHAPTER III.XI
Figure III.XI.VI Furnace of the incinerator
Figure III.XI.VII Lagoon area of the incinerator
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CHAPTER III.XI
Incinerator Operations
The plant was composed of three major parts: the tank farm and mixing area, the
furnace area and the pollution abatement system. Mustard was transferred to one of the
bulk storage tanks in the tank farm area and mixed with fuel oil and a petroleum
fraction containing benzene and toluene (V04 – see the process flow diagram below).
The purpose of this was to prevent the mustard from solidifying in the tanks and feed
lines when the ambient temperature fell below 14°C, and to provide a uniform feed
stock to the burners. Pilot scale tests had shown that the mustard would not readily
dissolve in the fuel oil and a co-solvent was necessary to produce a homogeneous
solution for feeding to the burner guns. The petroleum fraction used was a by-product
from Iraq’s oil industry and thus readily available. The optimum mixture was found to
be 12 parts mustard, 2 parts petroleum fraction and 1 part fuel oil70. Two circulation
pumps agitated this mixture. During the winter months this mixture was pumped
through a heating system to keep the mustard from freezing71.
A diagram of the incineration process is shown in Figure III.XI.VIII.
70
After mixing, the tank contained 6 m3 mustard agent, 1 m3 fuel oil, and 0.5 m3
Benzene-Toluene. The mixture was measured by volume and monitored by a gauge on
the outside of the tank. The incinerator was originally designed to use a 50/50 %
mustard- Fuel Oil mixture but the first experiments showed that it was impossible to
obtain a one-phase mixture (solution). The separated phases of the mixture caused
irregular burning.
71
Due to additives, the Iraqi mustard was still fluid around 0°C
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CHAPTER III.XI
Figure III.XI.VIII Incinerator flow diagram (only major elements shown)
CU1
V10
V08
CU2
HE2
HE3
HE4
From Water Station
V07
V05
V02
From Water Station
B1/2
D1
HU1
CH10
SC1
F3, F4
V032
F2
D4
TU1
SC2
V031
V06
D3
B1
D5
D2
F1
V04
AS
HE11
From Tanker
Lagoon
V01
PV1
V01
fuel tank
V02
mixing tank
V03
mustard tank 20m3
V031, V032
mxing tank 20m3
V04
feeding tank 4m3
V05
overflow tank
V06
makeup tank (H2O)
V07
caustic soda solution 40m3
V08
tank with fuel for secondary burners
V09
H2O supply 180 m3
HE
heater/cooler
F1,F2 combustion blower
B1
main burner
B1/2
2 secondary burners
CH10 combustion chamber (free diameter 2.6m, lenght 4 m)
TU
tunnel (diameter 1.1m, lenght 26m)
AS
air supply, cooling unit (10 000 m3/hr)
SC1
quenching unit (H2O, flow rate 30 m3/hr),
spray column diameter 1.4 m, hight 4 m, storage 20 m3 of H2O)
SC2
scrubber unit (NaOH circulating 45m3/hr,
diameter 1.3 m, hight 4m3, storage 20m3 of solution) induced draft fan
F3, F4 2 blowers 25 000 m3/hr for blowing the scraubbed flow gases
Com1
Com2
Com3
A standard brick-lined furnace (CH10), constructed in a trench cut in the desert floor,
was brought up to temperature by operating the main burner gun and secondary burner
gun on fuel oil from V01. Once the temperature reached 1000°C the main burner was
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switched to the mustard gas petroleum fraction/fuel oil mixture. The mustard/fuel
mixture would feed into the combustion chamber by gravity. However, the pipe, leading
into the combustion chamber, had another pipe over it. It was through this pipe that
forced air flowed through creating a sort of jet spray into the combustion chamber.
The combustion efficiency of the plant was monitored by means of an emissionmonitoring system, which continuously measured and recorded the levels of excess
oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide in the exhaust gases.
The furnace conditions
Combustion Chamber Temperature
Excess oxygen levels
Carbon monoxide level
Flow rate mixture of the mustard
gas/fuel mixture.
Average destruction rate per day
1000–1200°C
8–14 %
20–50 ppm
450 kg/hr
1500 kg
Exhaust
The hot exhaust gases from the furnace were diluted by the injection of ambient air and
cooled by passing them through a conventional water quench tower (SC1). The
majority of the hydrogen chloride formed in the combustion process was removed.
Then the gases would travel to the scrubber/atomizer (SC2) to be sprayed with a 5–10
per cent sodium hydroxide solution. This removed the remaining hydrogen chloride and
most of the sulphur dioxide. The cleaned gases then passed through the induction fan
before being finally discharged to the atmosphere via a high smokestack.
The waste liquids from both the quench tower and the packed scrubbing tower were
collected in an underground storage tank. Any overflow was piped to a large lagoon
where the bulk of the water evaporated. The lagoon was lined along the bottom, with
limestone. Thereby, any materials leaching into the ground would not harm any
underground water table. At the end of the operation the residual salts were recovered
and disposed of in an appropriate manner.
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The target emission standards for the incineration plant at Al Muthanna72
Emission
Stack concentration limit (mg/m3)
SO2 (80% removal efficiency)
500
HCl (90% removal efficiency)
100
Particulates
180
Carbon monoxide
100
Mustard gas
0.03
The Destruction Advisory Panel established the target emission standards for the plant
outlined in the table above. These values could realistically be achieved and were
appropriate for emissions from a plant at a remote desert site according to DAP
evaluation. When plant became operational all of these emission targets were readily
achieved with the exception of that set for sulphur dioxide. At the maximum throughput
of the plant, this limit could not be met owing to the lower than anticipated efficiency
of the packed scrubbing tower. It therefore proved necessary to reduce the mustard feed
rate to the furnace to nearer 300 kg/hr, thereby reducing the load on the packed
scrubber and improving the sulphur dioxide removal efficiency. Like all incinerators the
plant suffered a number of maintenance related problems. However, it continued to
operate and when the incineration of the mustard was finished by Iraq in 1994
approximately 400 tonnes of mustard had been destroyed.
Bulk storage containers with mustard
One tonne containers
Containers of mustard, that could not be manually opened, were opened or vented in the
"Pit Area" by established EOD procedures. Containers were then transported, by truck,
to the incinerator area. All containers were measured for content using the dipstick
method and recorded. In the incinerator area a truck, with a vacuum pump and mounted
storage tank, connected three (3) mustard storage containers together. This connection
was done using a series of pipes interconnecting the containers. The pump was turned
on and the mustard was transferred to the storage tank by vacuum. Once this procedure
was complete the truck would drive to the Storage Tank, V04, and fill the tank.
Containers of mustard, that could be manually opened, were drained by vacuum into a
truck with a mounted storage tank. The truck would then go to the tank V04 and fill it
up.
72
Report of the Destruction Advisory Panel of the United Nations Special Commission
on Iraq for the period 24–28 June 1991 (June 1991).
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Destruction of munitions
Transportation and removal of the agent
The transportation of the chemical munitions from the various depots in Iraq to Al
Muthanna, had to be done in a safe manner. Prior to being moved, each munition was
checked to ensure that it was free from explosives. Leaking munitions were sealed
using a variety of techniques, and then checked to confirm that they were no longer
hazardous.
The munitions were placed in specially designed racks and packed into International
Standards Organisation (ISO) transport containers, which had been modified to ensure
that they were both liquid and vapour-tight. A deep layer of absorbent material was
placed on the floor of each container. As an additional precaution refrigerated
containers were used for the munitions containing mustard. Such method allowed to
transport mustard, which solidifies at 14°C, in a solid form. A small number of
munitions, judged to be too hazardous condition to be moved, were set aside for on-site
disposal at a later date.
UNSCOM supervised all transport operations conducted by Iraq. Each shipment was
accompanied by sufficient security, monitoring, decontamination and medical personnel
and equipment that would allow personnel involved to deal with all possible incidents.
Shipments were carefully monitored during the transfer process to ensure that any leaks
would be promptly detected and appropriate action taken. Routes were planned, as far
as possible, to avoid populated areas in Iraq. On arrival at Al Muthanna the munitions
were placed in storage in a remote area of the site. Using these procedures all of the
munitions that could be moved were safely transferred to Al Muthanna without
incident.
The removal of the chemical agent from the munitions for its subsequent disposal
constituted the most difficult step in the destruction of chemical weapons. At Al
Muthanna the operation was further hampered by the absence of a suitable operational
containment facility. As a result the draining operation had to be undertaken by Iraqi
personnel working in full protective clothing. This, together with the high summer
temperatures in the desert and the need to implement individual draining techniques for
each type of munitions, resulted in a long and difficult operation.
Aerial Bombs
For the aerial bombs73 filled with mustard a specially designed vacuum transfer system
was used when possible to suck the liquid mustard out of the bombs (Figure III.XI.IX).
If the filling plug could not be removed, appropriately sized holes were drilled in the
73
120 litres (500 gauge) and 60 litres (250 gauge)
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casing of the bomb using a remotely operated drill or two small shaped explosive
charges. In the later case mustard-filled bombs without fuses and detonators were
placed in the pits area and two small shaped explosive charges were attached to the
external surface of each bomb and detonated. The holes made by the charges were then
plugged and the bombs transported to the incinerator area where a vacuum transfer
system removed the chemical agent and transferred it into a storage tank from where it
was fed into the incinerator. The emptied bombs were taken back to the pit area.
Figure III.XI.IX Installation used for empting the storage containers and aerial bombs
and for transportation of the agent to incinerator.
After removing mustard, a varying quantity of viscous tar, consisting primarily of
polymerised mustard with about 7 per cent entrained mustard remained in each
munition. The drained bomb cases were therefore filled with a 20 per cent solution of
sodium hydroxide in isopropanol and left for several hours. An explosive charge was
then placed on the bomb casing and detonated remotely. The explosion ruptured the
casing and ignited the isopropanol. When the destroyed bomb casings had burnt out
each was carefully checked to ensure that no trace of mustard remained. The technique
worked well and several thousand bombs were successfully processed in this manner.
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Figure III.XI.X CW aerial bombs
Some amounts of corroded or leaking 250kg and 500 kg aerial bombs filled with
mustard, which could not be opened manually and were too hazardous to open using the
shaped charge method above, were opened by explosion at the pit area, in a container
with fuel. The explosion also ignited the fuel oil and benzene simultaneously burning
the agent.
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Al Hussein missile warheads
Figure III.XI.XI Destruction of an Al Hussein missile warhead
It was not possible to remove the filler plugs of the Al Hussein missile warheads
(Figure III.XI.XI). Various techniques were considered for opening these warheads, and
the technique finally used was to blow a small hole in the nose of each warhead using a
‘shaped’ charge. The contents were then removed using the vacuum transfer system
developed for the aerial bombs. Any residual agent was neutralized by filling the
warhead with alcoholic caustic soda. Once neutralization process inside warheads was
completed and no traces of contamination left, the warheads were destroyed by
mechanical means.
Mustard -filled 155mm artillery shells
The mustard filled 155mm artillery shells74 posed a particularly difficult problem as
they had no filler plugs and the thick-walled cases were not easy to drill. Owing to the
presence of hydrogen gas and other gaseous degradation products of mustard in many
74
Iraq used 155mm carbon steel artillery shells M-110 with a total weight 41kg and a
payload of about 4.5kg (or about 3.5 litres) of mustard.
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of the rounds, there was not only considerable internal pressure but also a high risk of
ignition during the drilling operations.
Figure III.XI.XII Sampling of 155mm artillery mustard rounds
Besides wearing out the drill bit
every three or four shells, the
method
also
proved
unacceptably slow with an
average opening rate of less
than one shell a day.
In order to increase the
effectiveness of the opening
operation the following method
was used: Firstly, the shipping
plug and explosives from the
buster tubes were removed.
About 50 shells were placed in
an iron transport pallet; nose up,
to prevent them from falling
during the procedure. For each
shell a small charge, consisting
of knot at the end of detonation
cord covered with 15g ball of
explosive C-4 (PE4A) was
lowered
into
tube.
The
explosive charge was just
enough to rupture the burster
tube and its positioning was
such that when it was fired the
explosive force cut the burster
tube just below the point where
it joined the neck of the shell.
The rounds were wired up and
opened in batches of 200
(Figure III.XI.XII).
A siphon hose from a mobile vacuum transfer system was then lowered into ruptured tube and
the agent was removed and taken for destruction in the incinerator. To destroy the
polymerized agent residue remaining in the emptied shell cases they were filled with alcoholic
caustic soda and, after soaking for a period of time, were burnt out. The number of shells
opened by the buster tube method was gradually increased from 30 to several hundred per
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day. The maximum amount opened in a single day was 1000. The main limit to destruction by
this method was the thermal decontamination process requiring usually more than one
burning.
The shells from which the shipping plug could not be removed were destroyed using 20 kg of
explosive for each. The projectiles were completely encapsulated with explosives to ensure
complete thermal treatment of the chemical agent filling. Then the munitions were submerged
in a container with benzene and fuel oil to ensure agent residue was burned (Figure
III.XI.XIII).75.
In December 1993, after the destruction of bulk mustard was finished, more than 2000
munitions were found.76
The CDG decided to fill all the emptied but still contaminated shells with mixture of
caustic soda and alcohol and place them into Bunker #41 of the MSE bunker area. The
CDG did not issue a separate destruction certificate for the munitions placed into
Bunker #41.
75
The destruction of 155mm shells filled with mustard was preformed in the Pits area.
On 17 February 1994 UNSCOM 38/CDG reported that they started sweeping the
destruction area again and they found a lot of “forgotten” munitions. However, the
number and condition of munitions were not mentioned. In the end of March 1994, the
Iraqi personnel flattened out some sand hills in the Graveyard and the “Old chemical
pits” area and at that time the CDG reported about 1800 munitions were found in
different conditions: 250 sealed with shipping plug, 778 without shipping plug but still
containing mustard, 204 clean, and about 600 had to be investigated.
76
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Figure III.XI.XIII 155 mustard-filled projectiles prepared for opening (rupturing buster
tube)
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Artillery Rockets
The disposal of the 122mm nerve agent rockets posed a particularly difficult problem (Figures
III.XI.XIV to XVI). Owing to internal pressure created by degradation products of sarin and
sarin-type agents many of the filler plugs in the internal plastic agent containers had been
ejected and agent was therefore leaking into the metal rocket cases, which were not fully
sealed. In addition, a significant number of the rockets were fitted with solid fuel motors.
Without the use of a purpose-built, fully contained plant, the risks from attempting to open
these rockets and drain the contents were considered to be extreme and unacceptable.
Constructing a remotely operated plant would have required many months and the use of
technology that was not available in Iraq. During this period the rockets would have continued
to release agent to the environment at an ever-increasing rate. An alternative solution had to
be found.
Figure III.XI.XIV Preparation of 122mm sarin-filled artillery rockets for transportation
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Figure III.XI.XV Preparation of 122mm sarin-filled artillery rockets for destruction
The process developed and adopted, consisted of explosive venting and simultaneous
burning.
The rockets, 20 at a time, were placed on top of containers with diesel fuel in the bottom of a
deep pit. Each rocket was wired with three small explosive charges—one to disable the solid
fuel motor and one to rupture each of the two agent containers. An igniter charge was also
placed in the fuel container. When preparations were complete helicopter reconnaissance was
carried out to ensure that the area up to six km downwind was clear. Immediately thereafter
the explosive charges on the rockets were fired and a fraction of a second later the fuel
ignited. The resulting fuel–air explosion generated a high-temperature fireball and the agent
released from the rockets underwent instantaneous thermal degradation to simple non-toxic
molecules. 77
77
Environmental Protection during UNSCOM chemical agent destruction operations,
Letter to UNEP, Geneva, April 1992.
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When it was possible to disassemble the rocket into a warhead and a rocket motor and
then to separate the propellant from the motor tube, the rocket cases were destroyed by
burning. The separated warheads were then placed across containers filled with oil.
Liner charges were used to open munitions and a small thermite charge to ignite the
fuel mixture in pits, as described above. If it was not possible to disassemble the motor,
the complete motor was put under a massive concrete block and ignited with a remote
firing device. During trials of this method downwind sampling arrays were erected at 100m
and 200m intervals. Although agent vapour was detected in some of these samples the levels
were low78. Burnt out rocket cases and soil samples from the pits were also checked for
residual contamination. No significant contamination was found.
There were some exceptions to the general procedure. For example, the 122mm rockets,
formerly filled with sarin and stored in a bunker #13 at MSE bunker area damaged by aerial
bombardment during the 1991 Gulf War, were considered as destroyed. According to
Iraq, this bunker was filled with about 2,500 rockets. And since the access to the
rockets was not safe and presented a considerable health hazard, the CDG did not
attempt to recover or account them79. Instead Iraqi personnel sealed the hole remaining at
the bunker top by filling the inner bunker space with the soil through that hole to the top level
of the bunker and sealing it with concrete. All entrances to the bunker were sealed with
over one metre thick reinforced concrete walls and the bunker was a subject to UN
monitoring after completion of destruction operations in 1994. Some precursor
chemicals were also placed in this bunker. Another bunker 80 in the same area of
Muthanna (bunker #41) was used to entomb parts from disassembled destruction
equipment, storage containers and other materials that could not be thoroughly
decontaminated. The bunker was also sealed. Procedures for sealing these bunkers and
other structures containing toxic wastes were agreed between the Government of Iraq
and UNSCOM (Figure III.XI.XXVII).
During the final sweep of Muthanna at the end of destruction operations a 122mm rocket
warhead with unknown liquid content was discovered in the area of the old bomb making
facility. This item was transferred to the accumulation area and destroyed using a large excess
of explosives. No chemical contamination was detected right after the destruction operation.
Comment
The sophisticated drilling technologies, such as diamond drilling or cutters using a fine
water jet, were not available in Iraq. Accordingly the CDG had to design destruction
methods that were fast, effective, safe and environmentally clean. The CW stockpile of
leaking and corroded munitions often with charged buster tubes with irremovable
explosives necessitated a rigid solution to the destruction problem. The CDG always
78
The agent concentration was in the order of 10-4 mg/m3, which is the level to which
unprotected workers can be exposed for up to 8 hours per day.
79
Hand-Over Protocol For Al-Muthanna State.
80
Iraqi number of the bunker was 6, UNSCOM referred to it as bunker 41.
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required opening munitions mechanically. When it could not be done, it would use
shaped charges with a minimal amount of explosives to open the munitions for
subsequent draining. Unstable and cracked munitions were opened in the place of their
location, to minimize any additional contamination of the environment. Clouds from
explosive venting were analysed to assess whether contamination occurred. No cases
of dangerous releases of the agent into the air were registered. Before initiating an
explosion, reconnaissance of the surroundings by a helicopter was standard practice.
Personnel in charge of the destruction process always monitored the environment and
wore full individual protective equipment. A medical team and EOD personnel were
always on site, and a rigid clean/dirty line policy was enforced. After finishing the
entire destruction process and cleaning operations, an environmental survey of
Muthanna was conducted. No contamination was detected in about 200 randomly taken
samples.
Unfilled Munitions
Most of the unfilled munitions and related equipment were mechanically destroyed using a
welding torch and/or a bulldozer. Sometimes to destroy equipment explosive charges were
also used (Figures III.XI.XVI and XVII).
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Figure III.XI.XVI Destroyed empty aerial DB-2 bomb
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CHAPTER III.XI
Figure III.XI.XVII Bomb empty cases being destroyed
Destruction of CW agent precursors and missiles program related chemicals
In addition to the destruction of chemical warfare agents, the Commission was also
responsible for the destruction of the chemicals used in their production including precursors,
catalysts and solvents, as well as some chemicals used in the missiles programme. Large
quantities of these precursor chemicals were present at both Al Muthanna and Al Fallujah.
Among these chemicals were large quantities (about 3000 tonnes) of highly reactive
compounds. The storage containers with precursors were highly corroded and, in many cases,
leaking. It was thus necessary to adopt a disposal method, which minimized the need to
handle or transport these containers, primarily 200-litre drums.
Incineration
The stocks of combustible organic precursors such as thiodiglycol, isopropanol and the like
were destroyed by incineration once destruction of the mustard stocks had been completed.
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Neutralization and Entombment
The precursor chemicals of an acidic nature (such as HF and SOCl2) were neutralized in
a number of large lagoons constructed closely to each of the storage sites (Figures
III.XI.XVIII to XX). Each lagoon was filled with a mixture of crushed limestone and water.
Wherever practical, the contents of each container were piped to the bottom of the lagoon
where they reacted with the limestone–water mixture to form a nontoxic, relatively insoluble
calcium salt. When it was deemed too dangerous to handle a container manually it was picked
up by a crane and lowered into the lagoon and, if not already leaking, the container was
ruptured with a mechanical prod. Once the operation had been completed the lagoons were
allowed to evaporate to dryness under the desert sun. Eventually the dried salts were
permanently sealed in concrete.
Figure III.XI.XVIII Semi-underground storage tank used for neutralization and
entombment
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CHAPTER III.XI
Figure III.XI.XIX Thionyl chloride lagoon during neutralization operation
Figure III.XI.XX Thionyl chloride lagoon sealed with concrete after neutralization
operations
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Open air burning
Flammable chemicals (such as chlorobenzaldehyde and di-isopropylamine) were
destroyed by open-air burning using halves of 200 litre barrels cut crosswise. White
phosphorous was destroyed in specially built ground pits (Figure III.XI.XXI). Usually
about seven white phosphorus barrels were simultaneously opened by explosion and the
hypergolic reaction of WP with air moisture led to self-ignition and vigorous burning
(Figure III.XI.XXII).
Figure III.XI.XXI White phosphorous destruction site
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Figure III.XI.XXII Explosive destruction of white phosphorous
Entombment
Some of the wastes resulting from the destruction process along with some chemicals
and contaminated equipment were entombed into bunkers and lagoons of the bunker
storage area. This is discussed in more detail later in this section.
Spreading over the land
Since ammonium perchlorate, a missile propellant component, had ingredients that
were useful as a fertiliser, it was sprayed over the ground with the density accepted in
agriculture for ammonium mineral fertilisers. The spraying was done at the
accumulation area of MSE (left side from the main road) about 10 x 4 metres for each
barrel, and once sprayed the ammonium perchlorate was soaked several times with
water until all salt was dissolved. Then the affected soil was harrowed carefully to
ensure that the fertiliser penetrated and was spread throughout the soil (Figure
III.XI.XXIII).
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Figure III.XI.XXIII Destruction of ammonium perchlorate
The solutions adopted for the destruction of chemicals were as follows:
DF
hydrolysis
D4
hydrolysis
Thiodiglycol
incineration
Morpholine
incineration
Phenol
incineration
2,4 Dichlorophenol
incineration
Trichlorophenol
incineration
Sodium cyanide
entomb
Potassium cyanide
entomb
Chlorobenzaldehyde
fresh air burning
Diisopropylamine
fresh air burning, burning at refinery
Ethylenechlorohydride
fresh air burning
Dimethylaminehydrochloride
hydrolysis
As2O3
entomb
AsCl3
entomb
Thionylchloride
hydrolysis
Monoethyleneglycol
fresh air burning
KF.HF
entomb
NaF
entomb
KI
entomb
CH3 I
hydrolysis
Triethanolamine
fresh air burning
AlCl3
hydrolysis
Mandelic acid
fresh air burning
Malononitrile
fresh air burning
Pyridine
incineration
Chloracetic acid
fresh air burning
Malathion
fresh air burning
Dichlorobenzene
fresh air burning
Dichloroethane
fresh air burning
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Propanol-2
Hydrogen sulphide
2-Diethylamino-ethanethiolhydrochloride
Toluene
CH2Cl2
3-Hydroxymethylpiperidine
Thiokolpolysulphide
Dimethylamine
Glycolic acid
HF
Na Monochloracetate
Methanol
PCl3
POCl3
White Phosphorous
Ethanol
Isopropanol
fresh air burning
fresh air burning
fresh air burning
fresh air burning
evaporation
fresh air burning
fresh air burning
hydrolysis
fresh air burning
neutralization
entomb
fresh air burning
hydrolysis
hydrolysis
explosive
fresh air burning
incineration
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Destruction of production facilities and related equipment
Figure III.XI.XXIV Preparatory work for the destruction of a building
Destruction of production facilities was the major remaining task in UNSCOM’s chemical
weapon destruction operations (Figure III.XI.XXIV). With the exception of the old sarin
production facility, used for the destruction of the nerve agent stocks, and two pilot plants all
other former CW production facilities, the laboratories at Al Muthanna and the precursor
production plants were severely damaged during the 1991Gulf War and were no longer able
to be operated. However, in order to fulfill its mandate UNSCOM was required to ensure that
all process equipment, which was considered critical to the production of chemical agent, was
also destroyed. Given the condition of the plants and laboratories this was a difficult and
hazardous task.
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Figure III.XI.XXV
Preparatory work for the
destruction of a building
First, the critical components
of the process lines had to be
identified and a decision
taken as to whether they
could be recovered and
destroyed or whether they had
to be destroyed in situ
(Figures III.XI.XXV and
XXVI). In the latter case the
preferred
method
of
component destruction was
explosive demolition using
appropriately placed, shaped
cutting
charges.
Where
components
could
be
recovered they were first
decontaminated and then
destroyed
either
by
mechanical
deformation,
cutting into sections or, in the
case of some tanks and
reactors, by filling with
concrete.
Upon completion of its work,
the hydrolysis plant was first decontaminated and then destroyed to prevent its possible reconversion to a CW production plant. Iraq was permitted to retain some dual-purpose items of
the chemical plant which could not be clearly identified with its CW programme. However,
each item was permanently tagged and was to be subject to regular ongoing monitoring by
UN inspectors.
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Figure III.XI.XXVI A tank destroyed by cutting out a hole
.
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CHAPTER III.XI
Figure III.XI.XXVII Sealed entrance of a bunker
In addition to the two Muthanna bunkers both known to have contained chemical
munitions and agent residues, there were a number of other structures and locations
previously used in the destruction operations. They included 26 large underground
concrete water reservoirs (lagoons), three pilot production plants, and a number of pits
and landfills where chemicals and wastes from the destruction process were entombed
or dumped. Figure III.XI.XXVIII shows the destruction sites at Muthanna.
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Destruction location at Muthanna
Figure III.XI.XXVIII the destruction sites at Muthanna.
Bunker Area
Chemical
Storage Area
Incinerator
Hydrolysis Plant
SOCl2 lagoon
CW Destruction
Pits
Old Pits Area
White Phosphorus
Lagoon
PCl3-Transfer
Station
Accumulation
Area
Graveyard
Area
Tank Area
White Phosphorus
Area
The usual route of munitions or a container filled with an agent was the following. All
items were collected and sorted out at the secured accumulation area. From there they
were transported to CW destruction pits – in reality there were two separate places next
to each other, one for mustard-filled munitions and containers, the second - for nerve
agents (Figures III.XI.XXIX and XXX).
They were opened with a small charge of explosives (due to corroded or blocked
valves). Depending on the content, the storage container or the bomb was transported to
the Incinerator or Hydrolysis Plant for emptying and destruction. The agent was
decanted to a tank, and the empty container was transported to the Graveyard for
decontamination and destruction. Some storage containers with residues of solidified
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agent were moved to the Bunker Area, filled with a mixture of caustic soda and alcohol
and finally put inside the bunker.
Some precursors were neutralized in lagoons called Thionyl Chloride and White
Phosphor lagoons. White Phosphorous previously stored there was destroyed in a
nearby area by explosion. The majority of lagoons were located in the Bunker Area (22
lagoons).
There are some more locations marked on the above map. These are:
- the Chemical Storage Area where most of precursors were stored.
- the Old Pits Area – used at the beginning of destruction operation for emptying and
destruction of munitions, later abandoned.
- the Tank area – where bulk storage containers were buried.
- the Phosphorus-Trichloride-Transfer Station – with a number of big storage tanks of
that chemical.
Figure III.XI.XXIX View of destruction pits
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Figure III.XI.XXX Indication of a sealed destruction location (lagoon)
Completion of CDG activities and the Handover Protocol
The final phase of the CW destruction operation was completed in May 1994. At that time
UNSCOM conducted a final sweep of the entire Al Muthanna site to identify and dispose of
any item that might have escaped earlier notice. All areas of the site where destruction
operations had been undertaken were cleaned up, checked to ensure that they were free from
contamination and, to the extent possible, restored to their original condition. Two inspections
were then conducted in May and June 1994: first, to undertake an environmental survey of the
site, and second, to document the status of the site prior to its reversion to Iraqi control.
Finally, on 13 June 1994, a Handover Protocol81 was signed which included an
obligation on Iraq to control and protect the integrity of the site. The whole protocol
contains 183 pages including eight pages of main text. It documents:
• the activities of the Chemical Destruction Group
• the state of the site at the time of close out
• Iraq’s continuing obligations and
81
UNSCOM Hand-Over Protocol For Al-Muthanna State.
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CHAPTER III.XI
•
the hand over of control of the site to Iraq.
It was clearly defined in the Protocol, which locations had been used for the destruction
operations – by name and geographical coordinates and depicted on an attached
diagram. Those locations were also divided into three groups depending on the threat
posed by the hazardous materials remaining there. The first group contained locations
where munitions, large quantities of wastes and some precursor chemicals were
entombed. It included Bunker 13 and 41.
The second group comprised sites where the destruction processes was carried out
while three sealed underground pilot plants (one of them contained an inhalation
chamber) constituted the third group.
Provisions of the Hand-Over Protocol82
The Hand-Over Protocol of 1994 ended UNSCOM’s direct control of the Muthanna
site, which it had had while destruction operations were in progress. However,
UNSCOM included in the Protocol special requirements concerning safety and security
in the Bunker Area. This included:
1. So long as SC resolution 715 (1991) is in force, Iraq shall notify UNSCOM, and
receive permission prior to opening or entering the following sealed structures:
bunkers 13 & 41, lagoons in bunker area, hydrolysis plant lagoon, and white
phosphorus lagoon. However, no such request was made.
2. Iraq shall immediately inform the UN Commission in the event a bunker seal is
damaged.
3. Repairs to the seals shall be made as soon as possible; however, UNSCOM
reserves the right to postpone the repair until an inspection is performed; - In
this regard no seal damage was ever reported or observed during
UNSCOM/UNMOVIC presence in Iraq.
4. The protocol provides instruction on how the bunker 13 should be re-entered if
needed.
5. Iraq shall maintain warning signs in the areas that are known to contain
hazardous materials.
6. These areas should be inspected by Iraq at least once per month to ensure that
the warning signs are in place and legible and the seals are intact. Regarding this
point Iraq in fact did more than required, especially in the period up to 1998
when there was a permanent guard presence. According to Iraq, in 1999 that
permanent guard was withdrawn but Iraqi personnel were still present on a daily
basis.
82
UNSCOM Hand-Over Protocol For Al-Muthanna State.
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CHAPTER III.XI
7. In the event that a sign has been removed or damaged, Iraq shall replace or
repair the sign; Iraq shall maintain warning signs in the areas that could
potentially contain hazardous materials;
8. Any actions taken by Iraq in these areas should be undertaken with appropriate
caution;
9. All tagged production equipment remaining at Muthanna may not be moved
without prior notification by Iraq and confirmation of receipt of notification by
the UN Commission.
10. Other requirements specified by UNSCOM included the maintenance of rooms
for use by UNSCOM, maintaining a telephone line there and a helicopterlanding site in an adjacent area.
After the Protocol was signed, control over the Muthanna site was return to Iraq but
UNSCOM teams regularly inspected the site. Under SC resolution 715 and the OMV
Plan, Muthanna was regularly declared as a site previously involved in chemical
weapons activities. The disabled tagged chemical production equipment was also stored
there. UNSCOM monitored the equipment and the sealed structures.
A second reason for visiting the site frequently was the presence of two air samplers
installed by inspectors, one next to the Bunker Area and the second close to the
chemical storage area (Figure III.XI.XXXI). Those samplers required maintenance and
the changing of their sampling tubes every 24 days. During those inspections, the
integrity of the bunkers and other sealed structures were checked. After UNSCOM was
withdrawn, Iraq kept guarding the site. In 1999, the UNSCOM samplers were
dismantled by Iraq and removed.83
83
“Declarable Changes for the sites covered by monitoring in the Chemical Field since
December 16, 1998 (July 2002)” document submitted during Vienna Height Level
Talks, October 2002.
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Figure III.XI.XXXI Air samplers installed at Muthanna site (automatic, driven by a
solar panel)
Long-term environmental implication
Until the start of the 2003 war, Iraq fulfilled most of its obligations under the Handover
Protocol and the Special Commission monitored it. When UNMOVIC inspected
Muthanna in November 200284, a small team of Iraqi personnel was present at the site
and all sealed structures were found intact. The last UNMOVIC inspection team was at
Muthanna on 14 March 200385.
After 14 March 2003 the situation changed. Iraqi Survey Group Report86 stated that all
sealed structures at the site had been breached and some equipment and materials were
84
UNMOVIC-02-00007-CW December 2002.
UNMOVIC Daily Report, 14 Mar 2003.
86
ISG Report, October 2004.
85
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CHAPTER III.XI
removed. There was also information that the bunkers tested positive for the presence
of chemical warfare agents87.
In 2005, based on satellite imaginary analysis, UNMOVIC noticed88 that some
agricultural activity had started inside the perimeter of the former Muthanna State
Establishment, some as close as 500 metres from the bunkers. In February 2006
UNMOVIC further reported to the Security Council on the developing security and
safety conditions at MSE with regard to increased agricultural activity. UNMOVIC is
unaware of whether any measures to reseal broken structures with hazardous materials
were undertaken at the MSE.
In the period September-October of 2006 UNMOVIC provided Iraq upon its request
with CD-ROMs containing large number of destruction certificates issued by the
UNSCOM during the period 1991-1997, the MSE handover protocol and 54 documents
regarding unresolved disarmament issues. These documents were requested by Iraq in
view of its plans to accede to the Convention on the Prohibition of Chemical weapons.
The history of bunkers 13 and 41
On 8 February 1991, during the Gulf War, bunker#13 was damaged by aerial
bombardment. According to Iraqi declarations, 2,500 122mm artillery rockets were
stored inside the bunker at the time of the bombing.89 During the aerial bombardment of
1991, the roof of bunker #13 was hit by a bomb.
The bunker #13 and bunker #41 were selected for entombing of materials resulted from
the 1992-1994 destruction operations at MSE, because they were very solid structures,
located in an isolated from population area and they could also be easily sealed.
Entombing all the hazardous items in these bunkers combined with long-term
monitoring was considered a reliable and safe way of rendering them harmless both by
the DAP and the CDG.
Bunker #13 and # 41 were closed by sealing all entrances before the end of CDG
mission. Each seal consisted of two brick walls with a 5cm layer of tar between them.
Then a third brick wall at a distance of one metre from the second wall was built and
the space between them was filled with reinforced concrete. Altogether, such a seal was
over 1.5 m thick. The hole in the roof of the bunker #13 was also sealed with reinforced
concrete.
87
When military type detectors are used for the survey they might indicate the presence
of CW agents when only degradation products are present.
88
UNMOVIC’s 23rd Report to the Security Council, 29 November 2004.
89
Letter from Iraq of 16 April 1998.
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Some detailed information on the materials remaining at the two sealed bunkers is
presented below, as well as issues stemming from an evaluation of the current situation
at the site.
Bunker contents
Based on the information available, both from Iraqi sources and CDG documentation,
the following items were recorded as present in the two sealed bunkers as of March
2003:
Bunker # 13
- 2,500 122mm chemical rockets (as declared by Iraq – but not verified) filled with the
chemical nerve agent sarin stored in wooden boxes, partially destroyed or damaged by
bombing during the Gulf War.
- About 180 tonnes of sodium cyanide, a very toxic chemical and a precursor for the
warfare agent tabun, was brought to MSE from another location in Iraq where it had
been stored. Due to the poor condition of the packages in which it had been held, it was
placed in the bunker mostly as loose salt.
•
about 200 tonnes of cyanides, procured by MSE in the past for tabun
production, stored as salt in cardboard boxes.
•
75 kg of arsenic trichloride, a precursor in the synthesis of blister warfare
agents.
•
170 one-tonne containers previously used for tabun storage. Due to
difficulties in emptying them fully, (because of crystallized salts) they
were filled with caustic soda and left for gradual decomposition of the
agent residue.
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Bunker 41
•
2,000 empty 155mm artillery shells contaminated with mustard. These
155mm shells were found by inspectors in a dumpsite at Muthanna during
a survey of the site after the completion of the CW destruction operation.
Despite efforts by the CDG, complete agent decomposition was not
achieved. For this reason those shells were sealed inside the bunker.
•
605 one-tonne mustard containers with residues of polymerised agent
were placed to the main chamber of the bunker. They were filled with a
solution of caustic soda and alcohol to allow the degradation process to
continue over time.
•
Equipment from the incinerator. After the unit was dismantled, all the
contaminated pumps, pipes, valves, heat exchanger and tanks were partly
cleaned by burning, and stored in the bunker, as their thorough
decontamination was impossible. Some 200 litre barrels after chemical
agents or other toxic chemicals were also moved into bunker # 41.
•
Construction material scrap. Heavily contaminated bricks, concrete
slabs and soil from the destruction sites (incinerator, CW pits), were
crushed, partly decontaminated by splashing with fuel and burning and
then sealed in the bunker.
The main entrance to the bunker # 41 was completely filled to the top with bricks,
shells and soil. The D4 (tabun precursor) barrel leakage had caused serious
contamination of the bunker.
Comment
A. agents and chemicals
Bunker 13
UNMOVIC has neither a comprehensive record of the exact number or condition of
munitions stored in the bunker and associated quantities of sarin and sarin-type agents.
The last estimated inventory was done by UNSCOM in 199490. According to Iraqi
declarations, the storage bunker in question contained different types of 122mm
chemical rockets filled with sarin with various kinds of internal compartments for the
warfare agent.
90
Annex B to CDG Situation report 171, March 1994.
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Sarin
According to Iraq's declarations and documentary evidence, sarin produced and filled
into munitions was of poor quality and not suitable for long-term storage. The agent
would have been loaded into polymer-based containers inside the munitions, which
would not have contributed to the degradation of the agent. On the other hand, those
rockets that were filled directly with agent into their metal housings without internal
containers would have reacted with the metal and degraded substantially. To the extent
of UNMOVIC's current knowledge regarding Iraq's sarin production, the agent stored
with or without internal containers would largely be degraded after years of storage
under the conditions existing there. This conclusion is reinforced by the fact that no
sarin-filled munitions discovered by UNSCOM were ever found to contain high purity
agent.
Tabun
The tabun filled containers previously used for storage were all treated with
decontamination solution prior to being placed in the bunker, and can therefore be
assumed to no longer contain agent. The residue of this decontamination would
contain cyanides, which would still be a hazard.
Cyanide salts
Sodium and potassium cyanide salts were placed in bunker #13 as loose salts and in
cardboard boxes. While these are not chemical warfare agents per se, they are
inherently blood toxins, and should be treated as hazardous materials. The level of
danger posed by these chemicals cannot be ruled out until the area is investigated
through detailed sampling and analysis.
Chemicals containing Arsenic
The arsenic compounds contained in the bunker are not per se chemical warfare agents.
However, these chemicals do constitute a major toxicological hazard since all
degradation products of these chemicals are hazardous.
91
Nineteenth Quarterly Report of UNMOVIC, UN Doc No S/2004/129.
Comprehensive Report of the Special Advisor to the DCI on Iraq’s WMD, 30 Sep
2004, Vol. III, page 78.
93
Twenty-Third Quarterly Report of UNMOVIC, UN Doc No S/2005/742.
92
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Bunker 41
Mustard
The mustard contaminated 155mm artillery shells; agent containers and chemical
equipment in the bunker do not constitute a CW proliferation issue. However there
might still be some residue of polymerised mustard in the containers, even if they had
been filled with a decontamination solution of caustic soda and alcohol. Such residues
of polymerised mustard, although no longer useful as chemical warfare agent due to
solidification, remain highly toxic.
B. Munitions and explosives
Bunker 13
Given the status of this bunker as described above, it was not possible to identify type
and number of 122mm rockets stored there. There might also be a number of other types
of munitions located within this facility. The munitions inside the bunker may be both
filled and unfilled, armed or unarmed, in good condition or deteriorated, and may be
unsafe to move.
It cannot be confirmed whether these 122mm rockets were all or partially fitted with
their respective rocket motors, nor whether they still contain their explosive burster
assemblies, and fuses. It is possible that these munitions still pose a significant safety
hazard because of the explosive propellant in the motors. The effects of aging and the
unstable nature of the explosive compounds used in the munitions systems, requires that
caution be exercised when dealing with the bunker’s contents.
Bunker #13 rockets were not included in the inventory of 122mm filled sarin rockets
destroyed under UNSCOM supervision. They were declared by Iraq as “Destroyed in
Gulf War” In a worst-case scenario there could be nearly 50 tonnes of double based
propellant and 15,000 litres of chemical nerve agent.
Bunker 41
About 2,000 artillery shells emptied during destruction operations and stored in the
bunker had been treated according to the destruction procedures before being placed
inside. This included breaking of their burster tubes, chemical destruction of the agent
inside the shell and then burning the shells to enhance agent decomposition. By these
actions they became unusable as chemical munitions but still constitute a health
hazard.
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UNMOVIC has had no physical access to the Muthanna site after it was withdrawn
from Iraq in March 2003. However UNMOVIC was also to survey the site status, to
some extent, by using commercially available imagery. Thus, in 2004 it was noted that
chemical production equipment rendered harmless and tagged by UNSCOM was
removed from MSE to an unknown destination as the sheds in which they were stored
were completely dismantled91. UNMOVIC was concerned when in its September 2004
report, the ISG92 noted that all sealed structures at Muthanna had been breached and
that some equipment & materials had been removed; bunkers tested positive for
chemical agents.
Information (imagery and open-source media reporting) available to UNMOVIC
indicated that as of 2005 agricultural activities were carried out in the close vicinity of
the bunker area Current state of the site (as of June, 2007) is not known. In its
December 2005 report93 to the Security Council UNMOVIC noted that agricultural
activities were taking place within the perimeter of the site and in an area 500 m from
the bunkers with hazardous content.
Several issues remain over the current status of bunkers 13 and 41 stemming from
disarmament, security and safety concerns:
•
There is no verifiable evidence regarding the contents of bunker #13 prior to its
bombardment, or the number, types and composition of the stockpiled sarinfilled munitions declared by Iraq as destroyed during the bombardment in 1991.
•
The 122mm rockets stored in bunker #13 are designed to be chemical warfare
agent delivery systems and pose a proliferation risk. Since the state of their
destruction by the bombardment has not been possible to verify, it may be that
some if not many of the rockets inside the bunker remained intact.
•
The levels of degradation of the sarin filled in the munitions cannot be
established without exploring the bunker and taking samples from intact
warheads.
•
Bunker #13 contains hundreds of artillery rocket motors with propellant and an
unknown quantity of burster charges and fuses that in combination with the
possible presence of sarin makes physical exploration of the bunker very
dangerous.
•
About 200 tonnes of cyanides and arsenic containing compounds entombed in
bunker #13 may pose an environmental threat. The remnants of munitions
hardware and bulk containers with the residues of polymerized mustard left after
the destruction operations and entombed in the bunker #41 may pose a similar
threat to human health if handled improperly.
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The presence of thousands of tonnes of various chemical compounds, resulting from
destruction operations, buried in the underground structures concentrated at the bunker
area make the land unsuitable for agricultural activities without preliminary
evaluation. Due to the unknown state of any leakage of chemicals emanating from the
bunkers or the effect on the water table or hydrological condition of the site, a safe
distance for agricultural activities cannot be defined.
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APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
Iraq’s Chemical Weapons Accounting by the UN Commission
Introduction
In its 1996 Chemical FFCD Iraq revealed a much broader scope of its CW programme.
Numbers and quantities of the CW were verified by UNSCOM to the extent possible and
a material balance prepared, including the status of verification and remaining
uncertainties. All results were presented by UNSCOM in January 1999, in a report
submitted to the President of the Security Council and published as UN document
S/1999/94 (also known as the Butler Report). That report was analyzed by UNMOVIC
along with other Commission’s findings, assessments and original Iraqi documents after
it took over the responsibility from UNSCOM. The respective issues were included into
the Draft Work Programme on Unresolved Disarmament Issues of March 2003.
The Material Balance
Iraq declared overall holdings of more than 200,000 unfilled and filled special munitions
(those produced and procured for CW and BW purposes) during the entire period of the
implementation of its CW programme. Special munitions included aerial bombs, artillery
shells, rockets for multiple launching systems and missile warheads. According to Iraq,
about half of the declared total holdings, filled with CW agents, were consumed or
disposed of in the period of the Iran-Iraq war, up until August 1988.
With respect to the munitions, which existed in Iraq as of January 1991, Iraq declared
127,941 filled and unfilled special munitions. These munitions were declared by Iraq and
were accounted for by the Commission as follows:
a) 56,281 munitions [22,263 filled munitions and 34,018 unfilled munitions] declared by
Iraq as having remained after the 1991 Gulf war:
•
•
40,048 munitions were destroyed under UNSCOM supervision [these comprised
21,825 filled munitions and 18,223 unfilled munitions],
16,263 munitions were not destroyed, but nevertheless accounted for by UN
inspectors. These include 15,616 unfilled munitions, which were converted by
Iraq for conventional weapons purposes in 1993-1994. These also include 438
filled munitions destroyed, according to Iraq, during a fire accident.
b) 41,998 munitions [5,498 filled munitions and 36,500 unfilled munitions] declared by
Iraq as having been destroyed during the 1991 Gulf war:
The Commission has accepted the destruction of about 34,000 munitions
on the basis of multiple sources, including physical evidence and
documents provided by Iraq. However, it was not possible to achieve a
numerical accounting of destroyed munitions due to the damage of the
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CW storage facilities, where these munitions had been stored during the
Gulf war, the destruction of about 2,000 unfilled munitions remain
uncertain and 550 filled munitions remain unaccounted.
c) 29,662 munitions [854 filled munitions and 28,808 unfilled munitions] declared by
Iraq as having been destroyed unilaterally:
The destruction of about 13,660 munitions, both filled and unfilled, has
been accepted by the Commission on the basis of multiple sources,
including physical evidence and documents provided by Iraq. However, it
has not been possible to make a numerical accounting of these munitions
due to destruction method used by Iraq (demolition). Accounting for
15,900 unfilled munitions which, according to Iraq, had been melted, has
not been possible.
The material balance of 127,941 unfilled and filled special munitions
declared by Iraq remaining as of January 1991 is provided in Table I
Table I The material balance of special munitions remaining as of January 1991
Iraq’s Declarationsi
Munition Type (fill)*
Accounting Status1
Quantity
1. Munitions declared by Iraq as remaining
After the 1991 Gulf war
250 gauge aerial bombs (mustard) 1,243
1,233 aerial bombs were accounted
for by UNSCOM. They were
destroyed by Iraq under UNSCOM
supervision during 1992 and 1993.
250 gauge aerial bombs
1) 7,627 aerial bombs were accounted
for by UNSCOM. They were
destroyed by Iraq under UNSCOM
supervision during 1991 and 1993.
8,122
(Unfilled)
2) About 500 aerial bombs have not
been found. According to Iraq, 500
aerial bombs were delivered damaged by
a foreign supplier.
500 gauge aerial bombs (mustard) 1,426
1
UN Doc No S/1999/94 p. 77-78
Page 321
1) 980 aerial bombs were accounted
for by UNSCOM. They were
destroyed by Iraq under UNSCOM
supervision in 1992-1993.
UNMOVIC
APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
2) Remnants of several hundred
destroyed aerial bombs from 438 bombs
declared by Iraq as destroyed in a fire
accident in 1988, were seen by
UNSCOM.
500 gauge aerial bombs (unfilled)
422
1) 331 aerial bombs were accounted
for by UNSCOM and destroyed by
Iraq under UNSCOM supervision.
2) Some 100 aerial bombs have not been
found. According to Iraq, 100 aerial
bombs were delivered damaged by a
supplier.
R-400 aerial bombs
337
1) 337 aerial bombs were accounted
for by UNSCOM. 336 bombs were
destroyed by Iraq under UNSCOM
supervision in 1992.
(binary components of sarin)
2) One bomb was removed for analysis
outside Iraq by UNSCOM2.
3) Evidence of a few R-400 bombs
produced by Iraq for BW purposes has
been found among 337 CW bombs
declared by Iraqii.
R-400 aerial bombs (unfilled)
58
58 aerial bombs were accounted for
by UNSCOM and destroyed by Iraq
under UNSCOM supervision.
DB-2 aerial bombs (unfilled)
1,203
1,203 aerial bombs were accounted
for by UNSCOM. They were
destroyed by Iraq under UNSCOM
supervision during 1992 and 1993.
122mm rockets
6,610
6,454 rockets were accounted for by
UNSCOM. They were destroyed by
Iraq under UNSCOM supervision
during 1992 and 1993.
6,880
7,305 rockets were accounted for by
UNSCOM and destroyed by Iraq
under UNSCOM supervision.
13,000
12,7923 shells were accounted for by
UNSCOM They were destroyed by
(sarin)
122mm rockets
(unfilled)
155mm artillery shells (mustard)
2
3
UNSCOM 12/CW-04 September 1991 Annex 8
The number does not include 14 artillery rounds destroyed by UNMOVIC
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APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
Iraq under UNSCOM supervision in
the period 1992-1994.
155mm artillery shells (unfilled)
16,950
1) 1,700 shells were accounted for by
UNSCOM and destroyed by Iraq
under UNSCOM supervision.
2) In 1998, Iraq presented documents on
the conversion of 15,616 shells to
conventional munitions. Of these, 1,779
converted shells were accounted for by
UNSCOM.
Special missile warheads
30
(sarin/binary components of sarin)
1) All 30 warheads were accounted
for by UNSCOM.
2) Of those, 29 warheads were destroyed
by Iraq under UNSCOM supervision
during 1992 and 1993, and
3) One warhead was removed for
analysis outside Iraq by UNSCOM.
Sub total of munitions remaining
after the 1991 Gulf war
56,281
2. Munitions declared by Iraq as destroyed during the 1991 Gulf war
500 gauge aerial bombs
116
1) No remnants of destroyed bombs
have been found.
(CS)
2) In 1995, documentary evidence was
provided by Iraq that 116 bombs filled
with CS had been stored at a facility
destroyed during the Gulf war.
R-400 aerial bombs
160
1) In 1992, remnants of bombs
consistent with the declared quantity
of bombs were seen by UNSCOM.
(binary components of sarin)
2) The circumstances of destruction
have not been fully clarified.
DB-2 aerial bomb
124
1) In 1991, remnants of up to 50
bombs were seen by UNSCOM 5.
(sarin)
4
5
UNSCOM Doc No 70029 - Chemical FFCD November 1995 Annex 3
UNSCOM 20/CW-06 October 1991 paras. 94-96
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2) In 1996, documentary evidence was
found by UNSCOM that DB-2 bombs
had also been filled with mustard (which
was not declared). In 1997, Iraq stated
that only a few bombs were filled with
mustard for trialsiii.
122mm rockets
4,660
(sarin)
1) In 1991, two locations were seen
by UNSCOM where rockets had been
destroyed.
Evidence
of
many
destroyed rockets was found.
2) In the period 1991-1998, remnants of
about 4,000 rockets were recovered and
accounted for by UNSCOM.
122mm rockets
36,500
(unfilled)
1) Completely destroyed hangars
where rockets had been stored were
seen by UNSCOM. Evidence of many
destroyed
rockets
was
found.
Accounting for the remnants was not
possible due to the extent of the
destruction.
2) In 1995, documentary evidence was
provided by Iraq that 36,500 rockets had
been stored at a facility destroyed during
the Gulf war.
155mm artillery shells (mustard)
550
1) No evidence has been found of 550
shells declared by Iraq as having been
lost shortly after the Gulf war.
2) In July 1998, Iraq provided a progress
report on its ongoing internal
investigation.
Sub total of munitions destroyed
during the 1991 Gulf war 1
41,998
3. Munitions declared by Iraq as
destroyed unilaterally
250 gauge aerial bombs
125
Remnants of bombs consistent with
the declared quantity were seen by
UNSCOM.
2,000
1) Remnants of 1,400 destroyed
bombs were accounted for by
(CS)
250 gauge aerial bombs (unfilled)
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APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
UNSCOM.
2) UNSCOM was presented with ingots
declared to be from the melting of 600
bombs. The material presented could not
be assessed as adequate for proper
verification.
R-400 aerial bombs
527
1) Remnants of bombs consistent with
the declared quantity were seen by
UNSCOM.
(binary components of sarin)
2) Iraq presented supporting documents
on the destruction of 527 bombs.
R-400 aerial bombs (biological
warfare agents)
157
1) In the period 1992 to 2003,
remnants of around 130 bombs were
accounted for by the UN inspectors
(Details in Chapter V).
2) Supporting documents on the
destruction were presented by Iraq
(without reference to the type of agents
filled into them).
R-400 aerial bombs (unfilled)
308
1) No evidence was presented of 117
bombs declared by Iraq as having
been melted.
2) No evidence was presented of 191
melted bombs declared as defective.
122mm rockets
26,500
(unfilled)
1) Remnants of 11,500 rockets
destroyed through demolition were
seen by UNSCOM. Accounting was
not possible due to the state of
destruction.
2) UNSCOM was presented with ingots
declared to be from the melting of
15,000 rockets. The material presented
could not be assessed as adequate for
proper verification.
Special missile warheads (binary
components of sarin / biological
warfare agents)
6
456
1) In the period from 1992 to 1998,
remnants of 43-45 special warheads
were recovered and accounted for by
UNSCOM.
UNSCOM 31 March 1992; Iraq’s Chemical FFCR 1992 Annex 24
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APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
2) In the period from 1997 to 1998,
remnants of 3 additional warheads
declared as special training warheads
were recovered.
3) In 1998, degradation products of CW
agent VX were found on some of the
remnants of special warheads.
4) Supporting documents were provided
by Iraq on the overall accounting for
special warheads and on the unilateral
destruction of 45 warheads.
Sub total of munitions destroyed
unilaterally
29,662
Bulk CW Agents7
Iraq declared the overall production of some 3,8508 tonnes of CW agents during the
entire period of the implementation of its CW programme. According to Iraq's
declarations, mustard, tabun and sarin were produced in large quantities. Not
withstanding the admitted production of 3.9 tonnes of VX, Iraq states that attempts to
produce VX had failed.
According to Iraq, of the declared total quantity of 3,859 tonnes of CW agents produced,
some 3,300 tonnes of agents were weaponized. Iraq declared that about 80% of the
weaponized CW agents were consumed in the period from 1982 to 1988. In addition,
some 130 tonnes of non-weaponized CW agents were claimed to have been discarded by
Iraq in the 1980s.
Iraq declared that 412.5 tonnes of bulk CW agents available in Iraq as of January 1991.
These have been accounted for as follows:
411 tonnes of bulk CW agents were destroyed under UNSCOM
supervision,
1.5 tonnes of CW agent VX were discarded unilaterally by Iraq and
remain unaccounted for.
The material balance of 412.5 tonnes of bulk CW agents remaining in Iraq as of January
1991 is provided in Table II.
7
8
Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter XI, Table VIII
Calculated based on data in Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Table VIII
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Table II
Iraq’s Declaration
Bulk CW Agent
Quantity
( storage form)
(tonnes)
Mustard
295
295 tonnes of mustard were destroyed
by Iraq under UNSCOM supervision.
76
76 tonnes of sarin were destroyed by
Iraq under UNSCOM supervision.
40
40 tonnes of tabun were destroyed by
Iraq under UNSCOM supervision.
1.5
1) According to Iraq, 1.5 tonnes of VX
were discarded unilaterally by
dumping on the ground.
(20m3 / 1m3 containers)
Sarin and its mixtures
(2m3 containers)
Tabun
(2m3 containers)
VX
(1m3 containers)
2) Traces of one VX-degradation product
and a chemical known as a VX-stabilizer
were found in the samples taken from the
VX dump sites and remnants of special
warheads.
3) A quantified assessment is not
possible.
Total
412,5
Iraq also destroyed under UNSCOM supervision, about 300 tonnes of agents retrieved
from munitions or destroyed without emptying them. The quantities of agents were
established based on calculations of the average payloads of the munitions and their
quantity. Moreover, quantities of agents produced represent crude quantities. Therefore,
the quantities of agents produced and their subsequent disposition do not precisely
balance.
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Material Balance of key CW Precursor Chemicals
Iraq declared that some 20,150 tonnes of key precursor chemicals had been produced by
Iraq and procured from abroad for the production of CW agents during the entire period
of the implementation of its CW programme.
According to Iraq, of the declared total quantity of over 20,000 tonnes of key precursors,
14,500 tonnes were used either for the production of CW agents or for the production of
other key precursors for these CW agents. The rest, 5,650 tonnes, was not used in the
production of CW agents.
Iraq declared that 3,915 tonnes of key precursors remained in Iraq as of January 1991.
According to Iraq, the discrepancy between calculated quantities of precursors left over
from the production of CW agents (5,650 tonnes) and quantities of precursors declared by
Iraq as remaining in January 1991 (3,915 tonnes) could have occurred due to the lack of
sufficient information and full records on the actual delivery by former suppliers, on the
consumption of precursors in the production of CW agents, and on the losses of key
precursors, including through unsuitable storage, spillage and leakage.
The 3,915 tonnes of key precursors remaining in January 1991 have been accounted for
as follows:
•
•
•
2,850 tonnes were accounted for by UNSCOM. Of these, 2,610 tonnes of key
precursors were destroyed under UNSCOM supervision,
823 tonnes were declared by Iraq as having been destroyed during the Gulf war.
The Commission was able to confirm qualitatively the destruction of these
precursors. It was not possible to make a quantitative verification,
242 tonnes were declared by Iraq as having been destroyed unilaterally in the
summer of 1991. These include all precursors for the production of VX. The
declared destruction of these 242 tonnes of key precursors was only partly
accounted for.
The material balance of 3,915 tonnes of key precursors declared by Iraq remaining as of
January 1991 is provided in Table III9.
9
UN Doc No S/1999/94, Table 3; Chemical CAFCD December 2002 Part I, Chapter XI, Table VII
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APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
Table III The material balance of key precursors remaining as of January 1991
Quantity of key
Precursor left
CW over from the
Production of
CW Agents in
tonnes
Key Precursor
Iraq’s Declarations
(related
agents)
(In tonnes)
(calculated
quantity)* *
Quantity of key
Precursor
destroyed
during the Gulf
war in 1991
Quantity of key
Precursor
destroyed
unilaterally by
Iraq in summer
1991
Key
Precursors
physically
remaining in
Iraq and
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
Supervision
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
D4*
166
none
None
166 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
47710
none
None
576 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
295
30
None
272 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
(tabun)
2
POCl3**
(tabun)
3
Dimethylaminohydrochloride
( tabun)
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
2) Accounting
was not
possible due to
the state of
destruction.
10
In the Chemical FFCD June 1996Iraq declared the import of 946 tonnes of POCl3 and quoted a
number of letters of credit (LCs) in support (Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Part I, Chapter
IIIA, item 7). Iraq declared that, of the 946 tonnes, 469 tonnes of POCl3 had been processed into
the CW agent tabun10.
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APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
Sodium cyanide 371
none
None
**
(tabun)
5
Thiodiglycol*
377
( mustard)
120
180 tonnes
were
destroyed
(entombed)
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
None
188 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
None
282 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
2) Accounting
was not
possible due to
the state of
destruction.
6
Thionylchloride* none
100
**
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
(mustard, GB, GF
and VX)
2) Accounting
was not
possible due to
the state of
destruction.
7
PCl3 **
2,422
none
None
650 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
67
9
30
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
20 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
2) Accounting
2) Accounting
(mustard, GB, GF
and VX)
8
MPF*
(GB, GF)
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9
HF **
181
was not
possible due to
the state of
destruction.
was not possible
due to the state of
destruction.
none
None
( GB, GF)
1) 11 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
2) About 200
tonnes were
released by
UNSCOM
for civilian
use.
60 tonnes
thereof have
already been
consumed
and 140
tonnes remain
under
UNSCOM
monitoring.
10 Isopropanol
465
none
None
445 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
120
105
None
Tens of
tonnes were
consumed
by Iraq in
the 1990s
for civilian
purposes
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
**
( GB)
11 Cyclohexanol
( GF)
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
2) Accounting
was not
possible due to
the state of
destruction.
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UNMOVIC
APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
242
85
157
(VX)
13 Diisopropyl
amine
210
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM.
2) 168 empty
barrels (200L)
from P2S5
sufficient for
34 tonnes were
accounted for
by UNSCOM.
2) 153 tonnes
were accounted
for by UNSCOM.
174
None
22 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
None
2 tonnes
were
destroyed
under
UNSCOM
supervision.
551
none
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM
(VX)
none
2) Accounting
was not
possible due to
the state of
destruction.
14 Chloroethanol
202
(VX)
200
1) Evidence of
destruction was
seen by
UNSCOM
2) Accounting
was not
possible due to
the state of
destruction.
15 "Iraqi" Choline*
551
none
(VX)
1) UNSCOM
took samples
from the dump
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APPENDIX I TO CHAPTER III.XI
site.
2) Degradation
products of
choline were
found in the
samples.
2) Accounting
was not possible
due to the state of
destruction.
16
Sub total
5,6502
823
242
2,810
1 - Quantities of key precursors declared by Iraq in 1995 as having been destroyed
unilaterally in 1991.
2 - Only key precursors that Iraq declared as remaining as of January 1991 are included
in the column. The following key precursors, according to Iraq, were fully consumed
prior to 1991: DMMP, MPC, TMP, MPS, and they are not included in the table.
* - Key precursors, which Iraq was able to produce indigenously in varying quantities
(including DMMP, MPC, MPS and TMP)
** - According to Iraq, discrepancies in rows # 2,4,6,7,9, 10 between calculated
quantities of precursors left over from the production of CW agents (column 3) and
quantities of precursors presented by Iraq (column 6) could have occurred due to the lack
of sufficient information and/or proper record keeping on their part:
a)
on
the
actual
delivery
of
precursors
by
foreign
suppliers,
b) on the actual consumption of precursors in the production of CW agents, and
c) on the losses of key precursors, including through unsuitable storage, spillage and
leakage.
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Accounting for Iraq’s CW programme was not an easy task for many reasons.
Quantification of chemical agents and chemical munitions both acquired and used or
destroyed, was one of the most challenging tasks due to the large amounts and numbers
involved, time that had past and lack of documentary evidence. Nevertheless, UN
inspectors pursued the objective for years, especially in cases where it was important for
accounting for the programme as a whole. For example it accumulate a large archive of
data related to procurement of items and materials from abroad, including letters from
respective governments. Uncertainties however remained. The key ones have been
addressed in the 2003 Draft Work Programme on Unresolved Disarmament Issues as Key
Remaining Disarmament Tasks.
i
Chemical FFCD June 1996, Chapter XI; Chemical CAFCD December 2002, Chapter XI, page 1119, 11-20,11-21 Ref.: 2/1/C/1012; some values were calculated based on values declared by Iraq;
ii
UNSCOM 238 April 1998
iii
UN Doc No S/1999/94 p 78 and UNSCOM Doc No 129134.001
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APPENDIX II To CHAPTER III.XI
Comments on CW destruction operation conducted under UNSCOM supervision in
Iraq
Summary
The supervision of Iraq’s destruction of its chemical weapons stockpiles was one of the
main achievements of the UN verification agency. It was the first CW destruction
operation supervised by an international organization. Using the best expertise available
internationally and applying optimal operating procedures, UN inspectors were able to
ensure that this dangerous operation was conducted as rapidly and as safely as possible.
Due to the dangerous nature of the work and the hazards inherent in the destruction area,
utmost attention was given to minimizing the health and environmental impacts of the
destruction of chemical weapons and their components. The operation provided lots of
lessons learned by experts who took part in it. Some of them were later utilized in the
preparation of the text of the Chemical Weapons Convention and its Verification Annex.
Below are selected comments and lessons presented in the way as they were drawn by
UNSCOM and CDG staff members, during and after the destruction operation was
completed, supported with other views stemming from a later assessment of Iraq’s CW
programme from disarmament viewpoint.
Destruction Advisory Panel
The Destruction Advisory Panel (DAP) was established to provide scientific advice to
UNSCOM and acted as its highest “chemical destruction authority". This panel
represented the highest scientific expertise and was working closely with the CDG. DAP
recommendations established the basis of CDG rules and guidelines. The panel met on a
regular basis to discuss on-going technical matters arising from destruction operations
and their reports documented the status of activities and their recommendations.
DAP decisions had a direct impact on CDG work, including destruction procedures and
technological issues. Sometimes, however, the communications path of information from
the CDG to New York and then to DAP members at their home countries was time
consuming and not all DAP members could take part in that process and respond in time.
Comment
It was recommended by the CDG that an advisory panel be maintained but that it is
framed in the role of scientific advisor and monitor, rather than a real time decision
maker. Decision making authority needed to be delegated to experts from the
Commission headquarters, to keep the lines of communications short and to coordinate
efforts of all sides involved.
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Standard Operating Procedures
CDG standard operating procedures (SOPs) were not finished when the destruction
process started, despite the fact that much of the inspection and engineering/technical
data were accumulated by the Commission. Because of this the CDG had to work
simultaneously on destruction operations and on the development of standard procedures.
It was a huge challenge for the group and provided a number of lessons. An example of
this is as follows:
Ammunition destruction at Khamissiyah was the one of most difficult operation
implemented by Iraq under CDG supervision. Because the site was heavily damaged
during the war the CDG had little knowledge of the type and technical condition of the
munitions. This created a significant risk factor for the destruction operation. The primary
risks during these operations were caused by corroded ammunition and unexploded
ordinance scattered all over the working areas. The in situ destruction was the only
solution to this issue.
Comment
Appropriate and effective SOPs have key importance in the complicated task of CW
destruction at sites like Khamissiyah. It is important that SOPs developed before
activities in the field commence are updated with any additional data based on the
experience gained by the inspectors once the destruction operations have begun. SOPs
for each type of chemical munition, process equipment, CW agent and precursor material
to be destroyed should be outlined in the inspection manual and should include technical,
safety and verification aspects. It should be written in clear language understandable by
both members of the inspection team and by national personnel involved in destruction
activities.
CDG Training
The CDG was comprised of appropriately qualified specialists designated by supporting
countries. The vast majority of inspectors had the necessary technical knowledge and
experience, but because of different techniques and standards employed by different
countries the inspectors often had different technical approaches to handling of chemical
agents and munitions. These differences were unified through comprehensive and
extensive training and exercises conducted by UNSCOM instructors prior the deployment
of inspectors to the working areas. However, it was not always possible to carry out such
training to the extent required due to time constrains.
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Comment
As much pre-deployment training time as possible is needed. Especially in multi-national
inspection teams there is a need for everyone to clearly understand universal standards
and basic requirements to be implemented during the destruction operations. Adequate
pre-deployment preparations and planning usually results in better-organized operations
in the field. Time in the field should be reserved for specific adaptation to the conditions
and circumstances of the operation.
Standard operational procedures and training modalities are required for inspection and
other equipment operated by inspectors. Also personal health and safety procedures, first
aid procedures, medical evacuation procedures, monitoring procedures, and knowledge
of English language are required. Advanced training courses devoted to the specific
topics such as sampling and analysis techniques, EOD related training, evaluation of
data received via cameras, etc. for selected roster personnel are highly advisable.
Safety and Security of CDG Operations
Safety procedures
The CDG developed and maintained strict safety standards during its destruction
operations. These standards were developed taking into account the situation in Iraq and
necessary safety precautionary measures were taken. Only because of these thorough and
carefully developed safety procedures, were accidents avoided during destruction
operations.
A regular programme of practical training exercises and briefings was crucial for the
continued safety of team members and a highly developed sense of safe behavior and
operation was fundamental to the overall safety approach. Development of each
inspector’s sense of responsibility for safe conduct of destruction operations was an ongoing educational task throughout the UNSCOM operation.
As the Iraqi authorities did not submit any official accident reports, the Commission
could not confirm the safety record for Iraqi workers. The CDG however noted the
discrepancy between the lower level of Iraqi safety standards and the strict UNSCOM
standards. Additionally, Iraqi practices led directly to a higher level of risk and could
cause incidents and accidents and therefore could not be adopted by UNSCOM.
Harmonization of these standards was a necessary step, which often caused operational
delays.
Comment
A common code of safety for UN staff and host country personnel during destruction
operations of toxic or hazardous materials is a must – only then, acceptable safety
standards can be established with regard to both operational and humanitarian aspects.
Such requirements should be agreed before destruction activities begin.
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Operational Security during destruction
The type of destruction activity, which occurred under UN supervision and the
circumstances surrounding this were unique to Iraq. However, obtained experience
suggested that the destruction group of UNSCOM needed to have a secure room on the
premises of the destruction site (MSE) for storage of sensitive materials and secure
communications means, specifically an encrypted phone and fax for the chief inspector.
Also, the integrity of the destruction area and materials needed to be continuously
supervised.
Comment
Secure operations rooms need to be organized and permanently occupied while the
destruction inspection team is operating in the field. The task must be assigned to the UN
staff rather than to the host country personnel. If necessary, the entire operational area
may need to be placed under an organization control of inspectors for the duration of the
operation. Such control would minimize the risk of the uncontrolled removal of
chemicals, munitions, and equipment during off-duty periods.
Medical support
The CDG operated under strict medical control throughout its mission. Medical standards
were carefully maintained and supported by high safety standards.
The CDG operated with its own medical sub-team consisting of a doctor and two other
medics. The medical sub-team provided support to CDG by attaching personnel to CW
destruction operations at Muthanna and other operational sites. CDG found that this
organizational structure and relationship met operational requirements.
CDG required also significant helicopter support throughout their mission for
transportation of inspectors and equipment to the working areas. This requirement was
not simply one of convenience, but also of medical necessity (recovery of personnel after
work under extreme conditions, if necessary, should be time effective). Ground transport
from Baghdad to the Muthanna site took up to four hours each day.
Comment
There should be no compromise for safety. In case of situations, when other inspection
activities are given higher priority and require intense medical support, destruction
operations should be suspended. It is considered that good coordination between
inspectors, headquarter planners and CDG/Medical teams may help avoiding such a
problem. In general, a permanent medic and ambulance, in addition to the medical
assistance provided by the host country, should support any CDG group or activity.
Additional medics could be added as needed. A flexible medical support organization is
required for field destruction activities.
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Precursor Destruction Operations
Precursors were destroyed under CDG supervision in the following ways: controlled
hydrolysis/neutralization, open air burning, incineration and entombment into
underground or semi-underground structures followed by sealing with concrete. The most
complicated precursor destruction operations included such chemicals as PCl3, POCl3,
SOCl2, and HF. They also constituted the most bulky part of chemicals destroyed by the
CDG.
On several occasions Iraq requested the Commission to spare some precursors for the
utilization them in commercial activities. UNSCOM accepted some of those requests, for
example some quantities of dual-use chemicals isopropanol and diisopropylamine
(DIPA) procured for CW programme were initially released to the Modern Paint Industry
facility. However, a few years later those chemicals were also destroyed by Iraq under
UNSCOM supervision.
Comment
Strict requirements and methods for accounting for those chemicals during destruction
operations need to be in place.
Material Balance and Destruction Certificates
A precise inventory of items and materials destroyed under CDG supervision proved to
be of key importance in the accounting for the material balance within the disarmament
process. There was no obligation for a total inventory resulting from the UN SC
resolutions. The resolutions stated that “all” chemical weapons and stocks of agents and
related subsystems and components were to be declared to the Commission and
destroyed. Thus destruction per se was the key task for UNSCOM inspectors and for
CDG members after its formation and not the recording of the inventory or the
methodology for destruction. The material balance issue became increasingly important
only after it had become clear that Iraq’s declarations and subsequently quantities of
weapons and materials being subject to production, unilateral destruction and
procurement were not correct. In practice, Iraq did not always request destruction
certificates from UNSCOM immediately after the destruction activity took place but
sometimes requested them “post factum”. As a result, such certificates might have
contained less precise data.
Situation Reports (Sitreps) sent by the CDG to NYHQ proved to be the most valuable
and reliable source of information regarding the destruction work. The format and
structure of these Sitreps was not immediately obvious – it was a process from which
some lessons could be learned. Such reports should be structured to ensure clarity and
completeness.
Comment
Any destruction operations must have adequate measurement equipment. When precise
measurement and quantification is not possible, any Destruction Certificate should
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reflect this uncertainty. A computer database would greatly simplify the record keeping
process but should be supported with hardcopy certificates verified and signed by both
inspectors and host government. Failure to keep accurate, defendable, destruction
records risks political interventions and disagreements.
Situation reports should not only contain the report of the day’s activities but also,
requests, recommendations and destruction certificates. Including all such data in the
Sitreps would reduce the number of reference documents and lower the risk of
unintentional errors.
Sitreps should be sent according to requirements. Periodical crosschecking in the form of
a summary report exchanged between the field team, HQ and, to some extent with the
host country is advisable. This summary report should contain experiences and
recommendations as well as data on total actions to date.
Equipment and Logistics
The matter of financing of UNSCOM’s operations became a question of great concern.
Funding for the personnel, equipment and logistics was not assured until Iraq accepted
Security Council adopted resolution 986 (1995) in mid-1996.
Equipment
Equipment needed for the destruction process ordered early in the operation, did not
arrive in the country in a timely way. In addition, Iraq was not able to provide all the
items required. As a result, the CDG often lacked appropriate equipment or had to make
ad hoc arrangements with respect to certain items, for example, emission detectors and
analytical equipment.
Comment
Some steps considered as necessary in light of the CDG experience are:
a. Determine and define equipment needs prior to the initiation of the operation.
b. Do not rely entirely on the technical or material support of the host country, and
prepare back-up plans.
c. Enact formal agreements between the host and implementing agency covering as many
operational aspects as possible as far in advance as possible.
The UNSCOM logistical system was not always effective for the purposes of the CDG.
Since its inception, the CDG often had to wait for equipment because the mission’s
operational concept was not clearly defined but developed during the course of
operations. Logistical support remained a problem for CDG throughout the mission. It
was caused partly by the fact that UNSCOM and CDG relied on countries’ voluntary
contributions rather than on a planned systematic procurement based on its own allocated
resources.
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Comment
The over-all logistic concept should be well defined and based on the special
requirements and aims of the mission.
Getting material assistance from supporting governments can prove very time
consuming. Therefore, the requirements of the task must be carefully determined and
communicated to supporting governments well in advance of operational implementation.
UNSCOM experts suggested that any future destruction operations, similar to the one
carried out in Iraq, should first determine which nations are willing and able to contribute
material support to the operation. Then, the types of equipment needed for the task along
with their advantages and disadvantages must be identified. A list of "minimum basic
equipment" for the operation needs to be created and this should be followed by a
selection of the best type of equipment in each area. Selected equipment, particularly the
basic equipment, should be provided in significant quantities, or even over stocked, at the
beginning of the operation. A logistic reserve of six months is highly recommended.
UNMOVIC logistic supply with inspection equipment was based on UN procurement
procedures. Supporting countries provided some small amounts of inspection equipment,
for example, decontamination equipment, because sometimes the UN procurement
process was time consuming.
Comment
Any verification and disarmament mission must be supplied with necessary equipment
and materials before deployment. It takes time to build the necessary stockpiles of such
equipment and the costs associated with this are a necessary part of the operation. If
there are time constraints on a destruction mission all alternatives that do not
compromise safety or efficiency of the operations should be evaluated.
Transport of Hazardous Goods
UNSCOM transported samples collected in Iraq by both commercial and military aircraft,
the latter of which were supplied by member states. Samples were shipped according to
International Aircraft Transportation Authority (IATA) regulations. For some special
materials national clearances were also required. These national requirements were often
time consuming, necessitate special packing materials, and required that chemicals and
samples were described in great detail.
UNMOVIC trained many of its HQ staff in this regard. IATA certified most team leaders.
Comment
Commercial means of transportation should be used when applicable. Teams should plan
well ahead for the transport of non-routine materials and make alternative plans. IATA
regulations are also fully appropriate for military aircraft. Transportation of samples of
hazardous or toxic materials using military aircraft offered by contributing countries is
an option especially when if there are strict time constraints. Chief inspectors and if
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possible the logistics officer responsible for the transport of all goods, including
hazardous goods should be trained on IATA regulations.
Remarks on Selection and Qualification of Personnel
The selection of personnel for a field destruction operation should be based on a criteria
catalogue of skills and abilities. This catalog should be developed before the operation
commences. UNSCOM relied on the personnel supplied by contributing countries. Over
100 experts from some 25 countries served with the CDG during the period of its work in
Iraq. Iraq also had experienced personnel in the CW area.
The two key concepts developed by CDG for staffing the field operation are overlap and
contract time. CDG found that an overlap of four weeks for HQ personnel was important
for maintaining continuity of procedure and knowledge of technical status of operations.
For non-HQ personnel, including decontamination/reconnaissance and medics, two-week
overlap was sufficient.
The second important factor is service time. The minimum contract time for key
personnel including chief inspectors should be six months. For other team members three
months was found to be a good minimum time. CDG aimed at a six month average and
even an extension to nine months whenever possible. Contract durations of less time do
not allow for the personnel in question to operate at an effective pace. Some CDG
members were being replaced just when they were becoming most effective. The
maximum service time is a function of the task and operational conditions.
Comment
Once the task is identified the headquarters (HQ) group for destruction operations
should be designated and they should conduct or participate in, the initial exploratory
mission to the operating area. The HQ element could then define the expert requirements
for the mission taking into account the specific living conditions in country as they can
have a significant impact of operational performance. In staffing the team, planners
should take note of character profiles, field conditions, supply and economic conditions.
These points need to be specified and adjusted based on the condition in the host country.
UNSCOM experience in Iraq showed that experts with practical leadership experience
were well qualified to supervise destruction operations. Areas like EOD and analytical
activities required highly specialized personnel.
Environmental Aspects
General Remarks
Muthanna State Establishment, the main destruction site for Iraq’s chemical weapons was
used for years as the location for their production facilities. Since environmental
protection was not a high priority for Iraq, much of the area was contaminated for many
years prior to the CDG supervised destruction operation. In addition, the 1991
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bombardment of the site damaged many production units and storage containers and
filled munitions were scattered all over the site. As a consequence, significant quantities
of agents and other chemicals leaked to the ground. The situation was presented by
UNSCOM to UNEP. Destruction methods applied during the whole process were optimal
from environmental safety point of view.
When the destruction operations were completed, UNSCOM conducted a survey to
establish whether locations and structures used for destruction purposes were free from
contamination by chemical warfare agents and other toxic chemicals. Analyses of 335
samples, collected from 22 locations within MSE associated with destruction activities,
were negative (less than 1ppm level). In the Hand-Over Protocol, UNSCOM warned of
the future risk and hazards associated with this location because of the areas with sealed
structures (lagoons and bunkers). The responsibility for other locations at the MSE as a
whole, including other sources and types of contaminations was the responsibility of Iraq.
Comment
In order to assure the highest possible level of environmental protection, the destruction
group must be provided with basic environmental control reference documents and
guidance including a data collection framework concerning pollution and emission
limits. This framework should be developed by the advisory panel and based on
international standards. It may be necessary to adopt international standards in the
operating region.
The task of environmental monitoring should be assigned to an analytical specialized
team.
Equipment for the monitoring of emissions must be in place. This equipment must be
present for test runs and the trial phases of the destruction process. Monitoring of air,
water and soil samples need to be a permanent aspect of any destruction operation. The
protocols for documenting the on-going environmental impact of a destruction operation
are politically important and need to be worked out well in advance.
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