CASE STUDY STATUS REPORT
RHINE RIVER BASIN,
(Deliverable D27)
Bureao de Recherches Géologiques et Minières (BRGM), France
Institute for Environmental Studies (IVM), The Netherlands
May, 2007
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
(Deliverable D27)
Author
Date
Jean-Daniel RINAUDO and Stephanie AULONG (Brgm, France)
April 15, 2007
Contact information AquaMoney Partners
Colophone
This report is part of the EU funded project AquaMoney, Development and Testing of Practical Guidelines for the
Assessment of Environmental and Resource Costs and Benefits in the WFD, Contract no SSPI-022723.
General
Deliverable
D27
Deadline
April 15th (Month 12)
Complete reference
Status
Author(s)
Date
Approved / Released
JD Rinaudo, S Aulong
April 15, 2007
Reviewed by
M. Pulido
Comments
Date
Pending for Review
Second draft
First draft for Comments
Under Preparation
Confidentiality
Public
X
Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Service)
Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Advisory Board)
Confidential, only for members of the consortium
Accessibility
Workspace
Internet
X
Paper
Copyright © 2006
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
AquaMoney
Content
1. Introduction
2. Presentation of the Upper Rhine basin, France
2.1 Location and Water resources
2.2 Pressures and impacts
2.2.1 Organic pollution
2.2.1.1 Pressures
2.2.1.2 Impact on surface water resources
2.2.2 Nitrate diffuse pollution
2.2.2.1 Pressures
2.2.2.2 Impact on water resources
2.2.3 Toxic polluting substances
2.2.3.1 Pressure
2.2.3.2 Impact on water resources
2.2.4 Pressures and impact due to mining activities
2.3 Assessment of the risk of non compliance with the WFD
2.3.1 Methodology for assessing risk
2.3.2 Results of the risk assessment for surface waters
2.3.3 Results of the risk assessment for groundwater
2.4 The economic benefits of implementing the water framework directive
3. Objectives and methodologies for the case study
3.1 The groundwater issue
3.2 Proposed objectives
3.3 Methodology
3.3.1 Contingent valuation studies
3.3.2 Cost-benefit analysis
3.4 Test of the guidelines
4. Activities and tentative workplan
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
4
5
6
6
6
7
9
10
10
11
12
12
13
14
16
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
1.
Introduction
This report presents the results of the inception phase of the case study conducted in the Upper Rhine river basin district
(France) as part of AQUAMONEY workpackage 4. The main objective of WP4 is to test the guidelines developed for
assessing WFD resource and environmental costs and benefits of water services across ten representative European
river basins. The report briefly presents the river basin district characteristics, based on article 5 report (section 2). It
then describes the proposed objectives and methodology for this case study and it identifies the elements of the
Guidelines which will be tested in the case study (section 3). The last section provides a tentative work programme.
The French part of the Upper Rhine river basin, on which this report focuses, is mainly affected by chemical pollutions
and morphological pressures (in particular along the Rhine river itself which has been intensively modified for
navigation and hydropower generation). No water scarcity problems are reported in the basin, both for surface and
groundwater resources, meaning that the case study will only focus on environmental costs. Given that the Rhine Meuse
Water Agency has initiated a series of economic valuation studies to assess environmental benefits related to surface
water protection (from pollution and morphological pressures), and also because there is a clear demand from
stakeholders for assessing the economic value of groundwater protection, we have proposed that the Upper Rhine case
study would focus on groundwater protection issues. From a policy perspective, the case study will contribute to the
justification of possible derogations concerning groundwater bodies in the entire district. It will not only conduct a
primary valuation study but also address the issue of benefit transfers. The cost of achieving good groundwater quality
will also be estimated, using engineering approaches and a full cost-benefit analysis will be performed.
The Rhine, as the Danube and the Scheldt, was initially introduced in the project proposal because of its international
dimension. However, discussions between the French and the Dutch team have shown that environmental benefits
resulting from the implementation of the WFD would be very different in the Upper Rhine basin in France and in the
Western part of the Rhine delta in the Netherlands. It was therefore not considered feasible to study the same type of
environmental benefits in the two parts of this international basin. A similar statement was made in the Danude basin,
and to a lesser extent in the Scheld one. After discussion during the first year annual meeting at Berlin, the decision to
conduct independent case studies in the Upper Rhine and in the Rhine delta was approved by the WP leader and project
coordinator.
1
AquaMoney
BRGM
2.
2.1
Presentation of the Upper Rhine basin, France
Location and Water resources
The French case study focuses on the Rhin-Moselle-Sarre basin which includes two sub-districts of the upper Rhine: the
Rhine River itself and its direct tributaries located in the Alsace region (8,160 km); and the Moselle and Saar basins up
to the German border (15,360 km). The upper Rhine district is shared between France and Germany as the MoselleSarre basin extended over France, Germany, Luxembourg and Belgium. In this case study, we will be focusing on the
French part only.
The district is composed of two major river basins:
-
the eastern basin comprises the 214 kilometres of the Rhine from the Swiss border at Basel (South) to the German
border at Lauterbourg (North) and its direct tributaries which take their spring in the Vosges mountains (Moder,
Sauer, Lauter, Bruche, Zorn, Lauch, Doller) and in the Alsacian Jura mountains (Ill river). The total length of the
rivers of this basin is 3960 km.
-
The western basin comprises the Moselle and the Saar Rivers and their tributaries. The Moselle has a total length
of 313 kilometres between its spring in the Vosges Mountains and the border with Germany and Luxembourg. Its
main tributary is the Meurthe River. The Saar also has its spring in the Vosges Mountain and it flows to the
German border at Saarguemines. The total length of the rivers of the Moselle Saar basin is 6114 km.
The Agence de l Eau Rhin Meuse has identified a total number of 469 surface water bodies in the Rhine district: 406
natural river water bodies, classified according to their average discharge (3 classes), the natural region in which they
are located (6 regions) and the type of fish habitat (corresponding to the Freshwater fish directive); 45 of these river
water bodies have been classified as heavily modified water bodies; 64 artificial water bodies, including 28 canals and
33 artificial lakes; 2 natural lakes, both located in the Vosges Mountains.
Also, 15 large groundwater bodies have been designated, two of which are lying accross the Rhine and the Meuse
river basin districts. All types of aquifers are present in the case study area (hard rock, alluvial and karstic aquifers) and
they represent an essential resource for human need in both sub-districts (total abstraction of 750 millions cubic meters
per year approximately 60% of drinking water needs).
Figure 1 : Location of the case study area and major rivers (source: Agence de l Eau Rhin Meuse)
2
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
2.2
Pressures and impacts
The two sub-districts (Rhine and Moselle-Saar) include remote and mountainous areas, such as the Vosges hills where
water resources are not subject to significant pressures, as well as densely populated and past and present industrialised
areas, where groundwater resources and rivers are under significant pressures. Impacts on water resource depend on the
local hydrological or hydrogeological context. Rivers are provisioning alluvial aquifers so that pollution affects these
water bodies in addition to diffusion. Karst aquifers, also present in the region, are also very sensitive to surface
pollution.
2.2.1
Organic pollution
2.2.1.1
Pressures
Wastewater from urban areas generates a significant pressure on surface water bodies (3.7 million equivalent habitants
with 1.98 in the Rhine and 1.72 in the Moselle Saar). The pressure is mainly due to large municipalities (55% of the
total pollution in Moselle Saar and 74% in the Rhine) and to municipalities smaller than 2000 inhabitants (25% of the
total pollution in Moselle Saar and 10% in the Rhine). The pollution generated by households not connected to public
sewage networks contribute to 6% of the organic matter pollution in the Rhine sub-district and 21.9% in the MoselleSaar district.
Industry is another major source of organic pollution in both districts. The total industrial pollution load collected by
municipal wastewater treatment plants is equal to 1.1 million equivalent habitants (75% in the Rhine and 25% in
Moselle Saar). The food and beverage industry contributes to respectively 55% and 30% of this pollution load in the
Rhine and Moselle Saar districts. In addition, respectively 260 and 190 industrial sites directly discharge their effluents
in rivers, generating a total pollution load of 615,000 and 455,000 equivalent inhabitants in the Rhine and Moselle Saar
basins.
Animal production (mainly cattle breeding) also represents a significant source of pressure, as only one third of the
cattle breeding farms are complying with the standards (in terms of effluent management practices). This pressure is
much higher in the Moselle Saar basin (340,000 equivalent inhabitants) than in the Rhine basin (87,600 inh. eq) (AERM
2004).
2.2.1.2
Impact on surface water resources
Organic pollution (organic matters, phosphorous and nitrogen nitrate excepted) is considered as a significant source of
pressure for 55% of the total length of rivers (206 water bodies). Information is not sufficient to assess the level of
pressures for 143 water bodies (representing 18% of the total river length of the basin). Missing data concerns
essentially small rivers and artificial water bodies which are not systematically monitored.
2.2.2
Nitrate diffuse pollution
2.2.2.1
Pressures
In the two river sub-districts districts, the two major sources of pressure are agriculture (25,000 farms) and wastewater
from urban areas or industry (food industry in particular). Concerning agriculture, groundwater pollution is mainly
caused by the leaching by rainfalls in autumn of nitrates which remains in the soil at the end of the cropping season.
This risk of nitrate leaching is higher in the Rhine valley (Alsace region) than in the rest of the district (AERM 2004,
p.79). During the last decade, nitrate leaching has progressively been reduced after farmers changed their cropping
practices (Ramon, 2003). Agricultural nitrate pollution of surface water is mainly due to manure management practices
and direct leakage from manure tanks. The contribution of wastewater treatment plants has not been assessed by the
Water Agency although treatment plants older than 20 years are not very efficient in terms of pollution reduction.
2.2.2.2
Impact on water resources
Groundwater: The following table depicts the percentage of monitoring points where the measured nitrate
concentration have exceeded the threshold value of 40 mg/l (80% of the drinking water quality standard) in 2003. This
value is exceeded in significant percentage of the monitored points in 3 groundwater bodies. The Alsace valley aquifer
(water body No. 2001) is the most severely affected, with concentration exceeding 40 mg/l in 20% of the points
3
AquaMoney
BRGM
monitored by the Water Agency and approximately 20% of the area exceeding the same threshold value (source : Water
quality census of the Alsace Region). The two other water bodies affected by nitrate and pesticide are Sundgau versant
Rhin,Jura alsacien (water body 2002) and the waterbody 2006 (Calcaires du Muschelkalk).
25
% of point
20
15
10
5
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
08
20
10
20
16
20
17
20
22
20
26
20
27
20
28
0
water bodies identification
Figure 2 Percent of monitoring points with more than 40mg/L nitrates for 14 major aquifers numbered 2001 to 2028 (source : AERM)
Surface water: The impact of river pollution with nitrates has not been presented separately in article 5 report of the
Rhine district.
2.2.3
Toxic polluting substances
2.2.3.1
Pressure
Toxic polluting substances include all mineral or organic compounds, which have toxic effects (for humans, flora or
fauna), at low concentration. They include the 33 priority substances (see Annex X of the WFD)), among which the 10
dangerous priority substances. These substances can be classified in three categories: heavy and trace metals, pesticides
and other organic compounds.
Relatively little information is available on direct and indirect discharges of toxic substances in water. A survey
conducted by Rhin Meuse Water Agency (AERM, 2004) in 124 industrial sites and 7 wastewater treatment plants
shows that toxic substances have been found in 64 of 131 surveyed sites, with priority dangerous substances found in 15
sites.
Various pesticides are also found in surface and ground waters. Atrazine and its metabolites (desethylatrazine) are
found in respectively 37% and 15% of the samples. Diuron and isoproturon are also found in 15% of the sample.
Glyphosphate (and its metabolite AMPA) which presence has been monitored are also increasingly found (AERM,
2004 p 85). The level of information on pesticides varies from one area to the other: it is rather high in the Alsace
Region, where a dense network of monitoring point is operating since 1983.
The presence of heavy metals (Fe, Cr, Cu, Zn, Cd) in water is mainly due to industrial activities, mining activity,
pollution from roads and urban wastewaters. Agriculture also contributes to this pollution (Cu, Cd). Heavy metals can
be directly discharged in rivers (industrial effluents, wastewater treatment plants), washed away from soils (erosion) or
come from atmospheric pollution. The average total input of heavy metal is one and a half time higher in the Moselle
Saar basin than in the Rhine. The total discharge in kg/year has been estimated by the Water Agency as follows:
Moselle Saar
Rhine
Hg
87
62
Cd
556
287
Cu
15 274
10 070
Zn
79 064
44 517
Pb
6 847
Cr
5 365
3 334
Ni
8 929
5 625
Figure 3 Total heavy metal input in water (kg/year) in 2000 in Rhine district.
2.2.3.2
Impact on water resources
• Mineral toxic substances
Mineral toxic substances (mainly heavy metals) represent a source of significant pressure for 77 surface water bodies,
representing 28% of total surface water length. Only 9 water bodies (4% of total river length) have been characterised
4
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
as not affected by such a pressure. The information is not sufficient to assess the level of pressure for 383 other surface
water bodies, representing 68% of the total river length. This is due to the fact that the number of measurement points
where mineral toxic substances are monitored are not very developed and mainly located on large rivers where they
presence is known.
• Pesticides
This pressure has been estimated using water quality data and indirect indicators, based on land use. The result of the
analysis shows that this pressure is significant for 209 surface water bodies (representing 52% of total river length),
whereas 179 surface water bodies (33% of river length) could not be characterised because of a lack of information.
This pressure affects the entire district with exception from Vosges Mountains. Missing data s water bodies are situated
mainly between plains and hills.
Seven groundwater bodies are seriously affected by pesticides pollution, with drinking water standards exceeded in
more than 20% of the monitoring points. The situations is particularly serious in the Alsatian alluvial aquifer (major
water body of the district) where the presence of atrazine is detected in 59% of the monitoring points (regional water
quality census of 1997) whereas the drinking water standards are exceeded in 13% of points. More than half of the
points show a pesticides pollution in Meurthe and Moselles aquifers and the drinking water standards are exceeded in
37% (Meurthe) and 52% (Moselle) of the monitored points.
• Organic toxic substances
Organic toxic substances other than pesticide include chlorinated solvents, PAH, PCB, etc. Given that very little
information is available to characterise this pressure, the Rhin Meuse Water Agency has not assessed this pressure at the
river district level.
More detailed information however exists at the level of the Alsace valley aquifer, where the most frequently
encountered organic substances are Volatile Organo-Halogenous Compounds (VOHC). Their presence is detected in
nearly one third of the 422 monitored points (water quality census of 1997); tetrachloroethylene had been found in more
than 20.6% of the cases and exceed drinking water standards in more than 6% of the points. Aquifers in the Moselle
Sarre district are also affected by these compounds (water quality census of 2003).
Concerning industrial effluent discharges, a census of significant discharge points of dangerous priority substances
(DPS) has identified 15 emission sites, affecting 12 surface water bodies (of which 5 in the Rhine district).
2.2.4
Pressures and impact due to mining activities
Mining activities are also a significant source of pressure in the district. There are four major mining sites in the
regions, each one generating different type of pressures on water resources.
• The iron mining fields of Lorraine located between Metz, Verdun and Luxembourg cover an area of 1000
km drained by the Moselle River. They have been exploited for more than 100 years until the closure of the
mines in 1997. After mine closure, water invaded galleries and its mineral content have gradually raised
(sulphate, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, phenols). Mine water now overflows to rivers, generating a significant
pressure on some surface water bodies.
•
The coal mining fields of Loraine cover over 250 km2. Exploitation stopped in 2004 but mine water pumping
is going on. Mine flooding generates a problem similar to what is happening in the Iron mining fields. Mining
surface installation and waste dumps are also the origin of sulphates and chlorides contamination.
•
The potash mining fields of Alsace had been exploited widely for more than hundred years but are not
anymore in exploitation. Still important pollution is threatening groundwater with important salted (NaCl)
waste dumps which are the residues of these mines. Infiltration of chloride in the aquifer had lead to the
formation of two salted plumes of 80 km2 (with more than tens gram per litre in deep layers). The removal of
waste dumps and pumping of groundwater (fixing chlorides) should be completed by 2010.
•
The salt Moselle basin is the location of an important very good quality salt deposit and more than one
millions tons of refined salt and sodium bicarbonate are exploited every year. Natural and artificial (resulting
from salt industries) salinity highly contribute to the Rhine salinity through Moselle River. No solution for
reduction of salinity emission had been proposed until now.
5
AquaMoney
BRGM
2.3
Assessment of the risk of non compliance with the WFD
The following sections briefly describe the risk of non compliance assessed by the Rhine Meuse Water Agency.
2.3.1
Methodology for assessing risk
• Objective and scope:
The risk assessment methodology established by the Rhin Meuse Water Agency consists in extrapolating the evolution
of water quality in the future (2015), based on a characterisation of existing pressures in 2004 and on an assessment of
the economic trends likely to change the pressures (baseline scenario). The extrapolation itself consists in simulating the
impact on water resources of the anticipated changes in pressures. This simulation has been carried out using different
approaches and tools depending on the type of pressure and the type of water resource (groundwater or surface water).
• Information sources:
The baseline scenario is elaborated using three type of information. Firstly, statistical data are used to assess past trends
of economic activities using (or having an impact on) water resources (population, agriculture); future evolution of
these activities were then forecasted with different assumptions. Secondly, experts are consulted to identify future
events likely to modify or reverse the observed trends (for instance the common agricultural policy for agriculture).
Thirdly, planning and regional development documents are consulted to identify development projects which have been
(or are likely to be) approved (for instance wastewater treatment plans, development of industrial compounds, etc).
• Steps of the analysis:
The baseline scenario is described at the river basin district level. It is then used to assess precisely and quantitatively
the pressures in 2015 at the level of water bodies. In particular, the 2015 pollution loads are estimated for all major
wastewater treatment plants, industrial units and agriculture (cattle breeding units). Based on this, anticipated changes
of the chemical status of water resources are assessed, using expert judgement or a model.
• Uncertainty of the risk assessment:
The risk assessment is relatively robust when models have been used, which was only possible where a sufficient
amount of data was available. This is the case, for instance, for the assessment of the risk related to nitrate and pesticide
contamination of groundwater. A risk indicator is assessed taking into account the intensity of land use, the type of
agricultural activity and the vulnerability of the aquifer (type of soil covering the aquifer for instance). The GIS based
model assesses the risk (high / low) at the pixel level, a water body is considered as at risk if more than 20% of its area
is characterised by a high risk level. A mathematical simulation model (PEGASE) is also used to simulate the evolution
of organic pollution for surface water bodies (carbon, phosphorus, nitrogen); it computes the concentration of various
substances for each river stretch, taking as input river stretches characteristics, the minimum river flow (5 year return)
and point source pollution loads; the model simulates dilution and natural attenuation processes. In its current version,
the model only represents 8,000 of the 12,000 kilometres of rivers of the territory of the Water Agency.
Recognising this uncertainty, the Water Agency insists, in its conclusion, that this risk assessment has to be considered
as a preliminary analysis, aiming at identifying significant water management issues and identifying water bodies where
monitoring has to be strengthened and additional measures might have to be implemented.
2.3.2
Results of the risk assessment for surface waters
The first result of the prospective analysis is the simulated evolution of pressures for 2015. The analysis of Water
Agency shows that only organic pollution is expected to decrease, as a result of the progressive implementation of the
Urban Wastewater Directive. Other pollution sources are not expected to decrease significantly, as show by Figure 4
below. This statement applies for the Rhine and the Moselle-Sarre sub-districts.
6
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
Pressure
Missing data
Organic, phosphorous, nitrogen 2004
Organic, phosphorous, nitrogen 2015
Mineral micro -pollutants (Metals …) 2004
Mineral micro -pollutants (Metals …) 2015
Pesticides 2004
Pesticides 2015
Other Pollutants 2004
Other Pollutants 2015
Dangerous and priority substances 2004
Organic micropollutants 2015
Chlorides 2015
Nitrates 2015
% of total lenght
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Figure 4 : Polluants pressures on surface water bodies in 2004 and projected in 2015
More than half of total river length have been characterised with a significant pressure of pesticides for 2004 and still
for 2015. Pesticides is the main pollution that is responsible for ranging water bodies as risky to not reach good water
status by 2015. For other pollutants it is difficult to say because a lot of data is missing: but all other pollution types
analysed here are responsible for risk classification of water bodies as risky.
RISK
Doubt-missing data
Artificial WB
Heavily modified WB
No risk
Total RHINE District
Upper Rhine
Moselle-Sarre
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Figure 5 : risk assessment in percent of total river length of Rhine district
Nearly 60% of the total river length of the Rhine district had been characterised at risk. Without looking at any specific
pollution type, 48% in Upper Rhine district and 66% in Moselle-Sarre district of total water bodies length (38% in
Upper Rhine district and 50% in Moselle-Sarre district of water bodies in percent of number of water bodies, which is
209 water bodies on 470) have been characterised with a significant risk to not reach good status by 2015.
2.3.3
Results of the risk assessment for groundwater
Out of the 15 large scale groundwater bodies of the Rhine-Moselle-Sarre district, 10 have been characterised as at risk,
3 are considered as partly at risk (the area affected by a significant pressure in 2015 is rather limited) and 2 are not
considered at risk. The information is not sufficient to assess the level of risk for another one. The following figure
shows the number of water bodies (under the 15 present in our zone) that have been characterised with significant
pressures by 2015.
7
AquaMoney
BRGM
Figure 6: Location of groundwater bodies at risk of not meting good chemical status.
Figure 7 : Number of groundwater bodies per pressure type by 2015 Rhine district (source AERM). Notes: (1) sodium,
magnesium, iron, manganese, bore, ammonium; (2) volatile organic halogenated compounds
For most of the groundwater bodies at risk, the risk is due to more than one polluting substance: 2 water bodies are
affected by 4 sources of risk; 3 are affected by 3 sources; 3 by 2 sources and only one by one source. The major sources
of risk of non compliance are the following:
-
Pesticide is the most serious source of risk of non compliance for groundwater; it concerns all the groundwater
bodies at risk (10). Data is not sufficient to assess the level of risk for an 11th one which is classified in the doubt
category. And one additional groundwater body is partly at risk (local problem) due to pesticide contamination.
-
Nitrate is also a significant source of risk: it is estimated that, in 2015, the threshold value of 40 mg/l will be
exceeded in more than 20% of the area in 6 of the 15 water bodies.
8
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
-
2.4
Other sources of risk are linked to the presence of chlorinated solvents (5 water bodies, where the solvents have
been detected in 13% to 50% of the monitored points), chloride (3 water bodies) and various substances due to
mine flooding (sulphates, heavy metals, etc) in the iron mining fields.
The economic benefits of implementing the water framework directive
Implementation of the Water Framework Directive will generate a number of environmental goods and services,
including:
- Reduced treatment cost for drinking water producers
- Restoration of river continuity => fish migration , in particular salmons in the tributaries of the Rhine => positive
impact for recreational fishing
- Restoration of river water quality, reduction of eutrophication, with positive impact on all recreational activities
(bathing, canoeing, walking along rivers) and in urban areas, a positive impact on price of houses
- Reduction of sediment contamination (accumulation of heavy metals in sediments)
9
AquaMoney
BRGM
3.
Objectives and methodologies for the case study
3.1
The groundwater issue
As highlighted above, many groundwater bodies are significantly polluted by nitrate and pesticides and by organic
volatile compounds (chlorinated solvents in particular). Preliminary research conducted by Brgm and the Rhine Meuse
Water Agency (Herivaux, Rinaudo, Nicolai and Salleron, 2006) have shown that the cost of the measures needed to
restore good chemical quality will probably be disproportionate with the financial capacities of actors who have to
implement these measures. This is in particular the case of measures aiming at reducing agriculture diffuse pollution
with nitrates and pesticides. In line with the requirements of the WFD and the recommendations of the WATECO
guidance document, the cost of measures will have to be compared to the expected benefits of reaching the WFD
objectives.
Conducting a cost-benefit analysis of groundwater protection programmes remains a difficult task in practice. The
difficulty mainly related to the assessment of the benefits of groundwater protection. Policy makers and stakeholders
may be tempted to consider only one benefit, namely avoided treatment costs for drinking water supply (see Rinaudo et
alii 2005 for an example in the same region). Although policy makers recognise the existence of option value and nonuse values, they do feel very uneasy to quantify these values in monetary terms. This difficulty is mainly due to the lack
of reference values obtained through primary contingent valuation studies. There is therefore a risk that cost-benefit
analyses which will be performed under-estimate the benefits of groundwater protection, resulting in a large number of
derogations.
In France, only two groundwater valuations studies have been conducted. Both studies have assessed population
willingness to pay for the protection of the same aquifer, the Upper Rhine valley aquifer. The first study was carried out
in 1993 by the University of Strasbourg (Stenger and Willinger, 1998; Rozan, Stenger and Willinger, 1994). The
scenario considered consists in implementing a programme of action aiming at preserving drinking water quality in the
entire aquifer. The second study, which is presented in more details bellow, was carried out in 2006 by Brgm as part of
the 6th FP research project Bridge (Aulong and Rinaudo, 2006, see box 1). There is therefore a need to (i) produce new
primary groundwater valuation studies and (ii) develop and test a methodology to transfer these values between sites in
France. We here propose that the AQUAMONEY case study focuses on these two issues.
Box 1: Main finding of the groundwater valuation study carried out by Brgm as part of the Bridge project
One objective of the BRIDGE case study was to assess population willingness to pay for restoring two alternative levels
of groundwater quality. The business as usual scenario described in the questionnaire (reference situation) assumed that
the three major pollution sources (nitrates, pesticides and chlorine) are presently managed through various measures
programmes, the fourth one (chlorinated solvents) remaining without concrete actions. Then, in the absence of specific
groundwater protection and remediation action, chlorinated solvents pollution plumes would extend, leading to the
contamination of urban drinking water wells. An action scenario, consisting in restoring groundwater quality up to
current drinking water standards, was first considered and assessed by respondents. A second scenario consisting of
restoring natural quality (removal of all traces of solvents) was then assessed by respondents. Following a pre-test of the
questionnaire through 140 face to face interviews, the questionnaire was sent out by mail to 5000 households selected in
rural localities (2000), urban areas (2000) and in municipalities located outside the aquifer and using other water
resources (1000). The data collected were then used to model households decision to pay for the two scenarios (Logit
model where the explained variable is a binary variable taking the value one if the households accept to pay, zero
otherwise). The stated willingness to pay amount was then modelled using a linear regression (excluding protest
answers) and a Tobit model (including and excluding protest answers). Based on the results of the multivariate analysis,
an assessment of the total benefits of each groundwater protection scenario was carried out, based on assumptions
related to the population concerned by groundwater protection in the region.
A total of 668 usable questionnaires were returned out of the 5000 sent by mail. The response rate (13.4%) is
conforming to similar methods. The survey first allows understanding of the perception of groundwater pollution
10
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
problem by the population. Concerning the perception of groundwater pollution, 22% of the respondents never heard
about Upper Rhine pollution aquifer cases whereas 54% did. According to the respondents, the main causes of
groundwater pollution are agriculture and industry. When asked to identify within a list the polluting substances which
are present in the aquifer, respondents mainly quote nitrates (86%) and pesticides and herbicides (84%). They are fewer
to quote heavy metals (44%), chlorides (45%) and hydrocarbons (33%). Chlorinated solvents are quoted by 53%,
putting them in third position after nitrates and pesticides. After having read the description of the current situation in
terms of water quality in Alsace, 82% declare that they were not well (or not at all) informed about it before reading the
text. Most respondents (80%) consider the two proposed hypothetical scenarios as credible.
Sixty two percent of the respondents accept to contribute to the first scenario: the mean WTP declared is
42€/households. In the case of the second scenario, 54% of the respondents are willing to contribute. The corresponding
mean WTP is 76€/household. Unexpectedly and in both scenario cases, the average willingness to pay of respondents
living above with aquifer is not higher than WTP declared by respondents living outside the aquifer which was one of
the assumptions to be tested. These values can be compared with the 94€ found in a 1993 contingent valuation assessing
WTP for groundwater protection in the same region (Stenger and Willinger, 1998). A major finding is the relatively
high protest rate close to 53% for the first scenario (17% for the second). This attitude is mainly due to the fact that the
scenario is perceived as inconsistent with the polluter pays principle. Other respondents reject the scenario due to the
proposed payment vehicle and assert that they would be willing to pay but not through an increase of their water bill.
The results of the linear Logic model shows that the main significant variables are the realism of the described
scenarios, the number of children in the household, the income and the number of known polluting substances. The
frequency of tap water consumption does not appear as a significant variable as found by Stenger and Willinger. Two
models were tested to explain stated WTP amounts. Unexpectedly, the knowledge of the water bill has a negative
impact on the WTP amount. Significant variables are quite different from the Logit model: income, knowledge of water
bill, concern about groundwater pollution, practice of water activities (leisure), and use and non-use values of
groundwater advocated as motivations to pay. The predicted WTP range between 19 and 29€ per household for the first
scenario and between 54 and 79€ per household for the second scenario according to the regression model used and the
inclusion of protest answers or not.
Finally, the total benefits of the Upper Rhine Valley aquifer are estimated after a sample bias correction. The total
benefits of groundwater protection is estimated at 29 million € for the scenario 1 (drinking quality level) and 46.5
million € for scenario 2 (natural water quality level).
3.2
Proposed objectives
The four main objectives of the Upper Rhine case study (France) are:
- to conduct groundwater valuation studies for (2-3) selected groundwater bodies located within the Upper Rhine
river basin; the selected groundwater bodies will differ in terms of pollution type and intensity; geological
characteristics; socio-economic characteristics of the population and types of water uses (industrial, agriculture,
drinking water);
- to test the transferability of estimated WTP across case studies and estimate the errors associated to different type
of transfer methods;
- to develop and test different methods for aggregating the benefits related to groundwater protection (see Bateman et
alii, 2006 for a discussion of this issue);
- to assess the cost of the measures required for restoring good chemical status for the 3-4 selected aquifers and to
carry out a cost-effectiveness analysis;
- to discuss the results obtained (values and attached uncertainties) with the Rhine Meuse Water Agency and other
stakeholders involved in the implementation of the WFD and to analyse to what extent economic information is
actually considered to take decisions in terms of derogations.
11
AquaMoney
BRGM
3.3
Methodology
3.3.1
Contingent valuation studies
• Case study selection
A CV survey will be implemented in two regions (see map bellow), covering 4 to 5 different groundwater bodies at risk
of non compliance with the objectives of the WFD. These CV survey will complement the survey conducted in Alsace
(region of Strasbourg to Colmar on the map bellow) as part of the Bridge project. One survey will be conducted in the
industrial region including the cities of Nancy and Metz. Two main types of aquifers are present in this area (chalk
aquifer and alluvial aquifer connected to the Moselle River) and different types of pollutions are present. The second
survey will be conducted a more rural area, where agriculture is the main source of groundwater pollution. Located
close to the Vosges Mountain foothills, and including the city of Epinal, this area is locally affected by point source
pollution by the textile industry.
• International extension of the CV surveys
Contacts will also be established with administrations and stakeholders from Germany and Luxemburg (Land of Baden
Wurttemberg and Land of Rhein Pfalz Palatinat) to discuss the possibility of extending the CV survey in these two
countries. This would offer a unique possibility to assess the differences in WTP by populations from different
countries for the same transboundary aquifers. This extension will however only be possible if additional cost of survey
can be covered by German and Luxemburg stakeholders.
Figure 8: Areas proposed for conducting CV surveys.
• Scenarios to evaluate and questionnaire
Following a description of groundwater resources (characteristics, pressures and expected evolution of water quality in
absence of more intensive corrective measures), two policy scenarios will be evaluated in each of the 2 case studies.
Respondents will first be asked to state their willingness to pay for implementing a policy scenario which would allow
the restoration of good chemical water quality in the entire river basin. For the purpose of the study, good water quality
12
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
will be defined as water meeting drinking standards. Respondents will then be asked to assess the amount they would be
willing to pay for restoring groundwater quality in the specific area they live in. The order of presentation of the two
scenarios will be inverted in two sub-samples. The description of the second scenario will differ from one case study to
another, in order to account for the differences in types of pressures, activities generating these pressures and measures
to be implemented.
In each case study area, we will use a stratified sample. Respondents will be selected in municipalities where tap water
comes from groundwater and others from it comes from surface water (Metz and Nancy are supplied by surface water
for instance). Respondents will also be selected both in rural (1/3) and urban areas (2/3). They will also be selected in
areas where groundwater is at risk and in others where no major problems are encountered.
The analysis will then focus on the following issues:
1.
We will first investigate through multivariate analysis the factors determining WTP at the river basin district level.
We will in particular investigate the effect of variables related to the characteristics of the groundwater body
(geographical location, type of pollution, significance of the resources and intensity of groundwater use). This
analysis will be based on the full sample of respondents.
2.
In a second step, we will analyse how households decide to allocate the total amount they are willing to pay for
groundwater protection to specific areas. A multivariate analysis will be performed to identify the factors
explaining the ratio WTP(loc)/WTP(rb), where WTP(rb) is the total amount respondents are willing to pay for the
protection of all groundwater resources in the district, and WTP(loc) is the amount they are willing to pay for
protecting local resources. This analysis will be performed using the full sample of respondents.
3.
The third step will consist in modelling WTP(loc) for each of the case study area, using the 2 sub-samples. The
results obtained will be compared to the results of the CV survey conducted in the Upper Rhine valley as part of
Bridge.
4.
The benefit transfer method(s) proposed in the Guidelines will then be tested, using the results of the two local case
studies and the results of the Bridge project conducted in the Upper Rhine valley aquifer. The objective of this test
will be to assess the errors made by transferring the results of CV survey conducted in one of the three sites to the
two others.
5.
Based on these results, we will test several aggregation methods for assessing the total benefits of groundwater
protection in the entire river basin district. This total benefit will be estimated using the estimated WTP(rb) and the
results of the 3 individual valuation studies (states WTP(loc)). The aggregation will be based on the results of
regressions.
3.3.2
•
Cost-benefit analysis
Assessing the cost of groundwater protection against chlorinated solvents contamination
Based on the results of previous studies conducted with the Rhine Meuse Water Agency, we will design a technical
programme of measures to reduce groundwater contamination with chlorinated solvents. The total cost of this
programme will be estimated at the district level. Two types of measures will be considered:
-
Remediation measures: these measures will apply to large scale industrial sites (ancient sites or sites in activity) as
well as to small sites (car repair workshops for instance). They consist either in decontaminating groundwater
pollution plumes or contaminated soils located above the aquifer.
-
Preventive measures which can be implemented to reduce recurring or accidental soil and groundwater
contamination can be grouped into the five following categories
ƒ
Measures aiming at reducing accidental leakage by constructing watertight areas under storage tanks,
removing all underground pipes and tanks, securing all areas where solvents are transported or
manipulated, constructing pounds to recover solvents in case of accident, etc.
ƒ
Measures aiming at collecting all used solvents and other wastes containing solvents; this implies
constructing storage premises for used solvents (which are sometimes still discharged directly in sewage
13
AquaMoney
BRGM
system or in the environment) and organising their collection by companies specialised in treatment and
recycling of toxic wastes.
•
ƒ
Cleaner technologies reducing emission of VOC: this includes the use of technologies where VOC are
recycled (printing industry, painting related activities, mechanical industries, etc.
ƒ
Substitution of chlorinated solvents with other solvents and/or use of technologies which do not require
VOC. For instance, cleaning of equipments used for painting can be done with ultrasonic devices; metal
cleaning before coating can be done using bacteriological processes instead of solvents; etc.
ƒ
Wastewater treatment using activated coal filters of a stripping tower (where solvents evaporate) with an
activated coal filter to remove solvents from the vapours.
ƒ
Monitoring measures which consist in installing a piezometer downstream risk zones and conducting
surveillance chemical analyses to detect any pollution trace before it can generate a plume in
groundwater).
Assessing the cost of groundwater protection against nitrate and pesticide contamination
Similarly, we will design a programme of technical measures aiming at reducing agriculture diffuse pollution (nitrate
and pesticides). This programme will mainly consist in applying agro-environmental farming practices in areas
considered as vulnerable to nitrate and pesticide contamination risk. The geographic boundaries of the vulnerable areas
(which do not correspond to the Nitrate Directive vulnerable areas) will be defined by experts from the Water Agency
(work in progress). Also, the technical constraints imposed to farmers in these areas will be specified by the authorities
in charge of this issue in the River basin district. We will then assess the total cost of the programme of measures,
defined as the cost of forgone benefits for farmers subject to constraints on pesticide and nitrate use (plus transaction
costs of the subsidy system which will accompany the technical constraints for farmers).
•
Cost-benefit analysis
Total costs and benefits of groundwater protection will then be estimated, highlighting the existing uncertainties and
their impact on decision making (in terms of possible derogations). Cost-benefit analysis will then be carried out at the
level of individual groundwater bodies. The conclusions will provide the basis for possible justification of derogations.
These results will be discussed with various stakeholders in order to characterise their perception of the methods used
(CV in particular) and of existing uncertainties.
3.4
Test of the guidelines
The key elements of the guidelines which will be tested in this case study are the following:
-
Design of an economic valuation scenario: as stated in the draft guidelines (See Brouwer and Giorgiou, 2007: p 3334), a key challenge of economic valuation of water protection scenarios using stated preferences lies in the ability
to describe environmental changes in simple terms understandable by a lay public. This issue is of utmost
importance when evaluating benefits related to groundwater protection, groundwater being an invisible good which
the public may not know a lot about. The Upper Rhine case study will provide some input on this issue in order to
complement the proposed water quality ladder (which is adapted for surface water but is not relevant for
groundwater).
-
Scope test: in the CV survey which will be conducted, respondents will be asked to value groundwater protection
benefits at the district and the local levels. Another scope test may be implemented by varying the targeted water
quality in each scenario (natural quality versus drinking water quality, see Aulong, Rinaudo and Bouscasse 2006
for an illustration).
-
Spatial dimension underlying economic valuation: individual willingness to pay for protecting an aquifer is likely
to be a negatively correlated to the distance of the respondent’s living place to the nearest point of the aquifer. We
will test this distance decay function through introducing this distance variable (perceived and objective distance
variables) in the regressions of WT(loc). Specific questions could also be included in the questionnaire to better
understand how the public perceives space and boundaries of groundwater bodies. The test of the questionnaires
14
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
which will be conducted through face to face interviews should also help understanding this perception of space.
This will lead us to formulate recommendations for the Guidelines in terms of choice of appropriate scale when
valuing groundwater protection scenarios.
-
Benefit transfer methods (see guidelines p. 39-41) will be tested in the Upper Rhine case study. This issue, linked
to the up-scaling / downscaling issue, represents a key focus of this case study.
-
The issue of aggregation is also essential to the Upper Rhine case study. The case study should therefore provide
usefull feed back on the related sections of the Guidelines. The uncertainty attached to this step of the valuation
study will be highlighted in particular. Also, the impact of this uncertainty linked to aggregation on the results of
cost-benefit analysis will be highlighted.
-
Since we will use CV as a valuation technique, the entire section 7.1 dealing with the implementation of CV will be
tested. Recommendations from the Upper Rhine case study will focus on specific characteristics and problems of
CV survey applied to groundwater valuation scenarios.
15
AquaMoney
BRGM
4.
Activities and tentative workplan
A tentative work programme is presented bellow;
August 31rst: First methodological proposal for discussion on:
- the questionnaire (draft) and the sampling procedure;
- the specification of the tests to be carried out in the CV survey;
- the choice of an interview method (internet based, face to face, telephone or mail survey) and identification.
September 26th : Bologna meeting
- final proposal of questionnaire, sampling procedure and organisation of the survey;
- sub-contractors identified;
- test of the questionnaire carried out (face to face interviews in the streets of Metz and Nancy cities);
- methodology for assessing the cost of agricultural measures stabilised.
December 31rst :
- CV survey completed;
- Data cleaning and data entry intitiated.
February 27th:
- regressions finalised;
- aggregation method tested;
- cost of measures estimated.
April (second year annual meeting):
- CV survey and CBA results presented and discussed;
- case study report finalised;
- first comments and recommendations concerning the Guidelines (CV survey and estimation of the cost of
measures).
June
- Presentation of the case study results to stakeholders through a one day workshop at Metz;
- final report on guidelines: lessons learnt through the case studies, recommendations.
October
- Final report on guidelines: lessons learnt through the case studies, recommendations.
16
Case study status report Upper Rhine, France
References
Aulong S., Rinaudo JD and Bouscasse H. (2006) Assessing the costs and benefits of groundwater quality improvement
in the Upper Rhine valley quaternary aquifer (France). Deliverable D25. Rapport BRGM/RP-55061-FR. 87 p.
Available at www.wfd-bridge.net
Bateman Ian J., Brett H. Day, Stavros Georgiou, Iain Lake (2006) The aggregation of environmental benefit values:
Welfare measures, distance decay and total WTP. Ecological Economics 60: 450-460.
Herivaux C, Rinaudo J-D, Nicolai S and Salleron J-L (2006) Evaluer le cout de la mise en oeuvre de la Directive cadre
sur l eau: elements de methode et application au bassin hydrographique Rhin Meuse , La Houille Blanche, No 42006 : 81-87.
Rinaudo J-D., Arnal C., Blanchin R., Elsass P., Mailhac A., Loubier S. (2005) Assessing the cost of groundwater
pollution: the case of diffuse agricultural pollution in the Upper Rhine valley aquifer, Water Science and
technology, 52 (9) - pp. 153-162
Rozan, A., A. Stenger, et al. (1997). "Valeur de preservation de la qualite de l'eau souterraine: une comparaison entre
usagers et non-usagers." Cahiers d'economie et sociologie rurales 45: 62-92.
Stenger, A. and M. Willinger (1998). "Preservation value for groundwater quality in a large aquifer: a contingentvaluation study of the Alsatian aquifer." Journal of Environmental Management 53: 177-193.
17
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
Subbasin Rhine-West, Netherlands
Author
Date
A. Gilbert, M. Schaafsma
April 15, 2007
Contact information AquaMoney Partners
Colophone
This report is part of the EU funded project AquaMoney, Development and Testing of Practical Guidelines for the
Assessment of Environmental and Resource Costs and Benefits in the WFD, Contract no SSPI-022723.
General
Deliverable
D27. Case study Report Rhine-West
Deadline
15-04-2007
Complete reference
Gilbert, A., M. Schaafsma (2007), Case study Report Rhine, Subcatchment Rhine-West, IVM, Amsterdam.
Status
Author(s)
Date
Comments
Date
Approved / Released
Reviewed by
Pending for Review
Second draft
First draft for Comments
A. Gilbert, M. Schaafsma 15-04-2007
Under Preparation
Confidentiality
Public
Restricted to other programme participants (including the Commission Service)
Restricted to a group specified by the consortium (including the Advisory Board)
Confidential, only for members of the consortium
X
Accessibility
Workspace
Internet
Paper
Copyright © 2006
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.
AquaMoney
Content
1. General case study characteristics
1.1 Location of the case study area
1.2 Geographical characteristics
1.2.1 Climate
1.2.2 Lithology & Geology
1.2.3 Land uses
1.3 Water system characteristics
1.3.1 Streams & rivers: characteristics, groundwater
1.3.1.1 Rijn-Delta stream and river characteristics
1.3.1.2 Groundwater interactions
1.3.2 Water bodies, types and reference conditions
1.3.2.1 Rijn-Delta water status
1.3.2.2 Rijn-West: General description of surface water bodies and typology
1.3.2.3 Current ecological and chemical state Rijn-West
1.4 Characterisation of water use
1.4.1 Water uses and services by socio-economic sectors
1.4.2 Origin of water use
1.4.3 Protected areas
1.4.4 Economic analysis; trends and future projections
1.4.4.1 Economic Description of Rijn-Delta
1.4.4.2 Autonomic development until 2015
2. Pressure, impact and risk analysis
2.1 Significant pressures impacting on water status
2.1.1 Point and diffuse source pressures
2.1.2 Abstraction and flow regulation pressures
2.1.3 Morphological pressures
2.1.4 Other human pressures
2.2 Water bodies at risk of not achieving a good status
2.2.1 Preliminary risk analysis surface waters Rijn-Delta
2.2.2 Chemical state in 2015
2.2.3 Ecological state in 2015
2.3 Diagnosis of water quality and ecological issues
2.4 General trends and future pressures
3. Policy issues
3.1 Water management framework and major issues
3.1.1 Institutional framework
3.1.2 Water rights issues
3.1.3 Droughts and water scarcity problems
3.1.4 Flood risk issues
3.1.5 Water quality issues
3.1.6 Resources overexploitation
3.1.7 Water use efficiency
3.2 Relevant water policy questions in the basin
3.2.1 Policy options and goal achievement
3.2.2 Relevant policy questions
3.3 Information sources and stakeholder involvement
4. ERC analysis and methodological issues
4.1 List of main water-related goods and services provided in the basin
4.2 List possible benefits and cost from that water services
1
1
1
1
3
3
5
5
5
5
6
6
6
7
8
8
8
9
9
9
11
12
12
12
13
13
13
14
14
14
15
16
18
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
21
22
23
23
23
4.3 Type of ERC analysis to performance
4.4 Proposed methods and tools for the valuation of ERC:
4.5 Methodological issues
4.6 Available studies/information on ERC and expected information
23
23
23
24
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
1.
General case study characteristics1
1.1
Location of the case study area
Geographical area Rijn-West
1.2 million ha.
North Sea plus North and South Holland coastlines
5 provinces: Noord-Holland, Zuid-Holland, Utrecht (West part), Noord-Brabant (small part) and Gelderland (River area)
5 regional directorates of Rijkswaterstaat
8 water boards (see figure 2)
Circa 200 municipalities
7.3 million people (46 % of the Dutch population)
Rijn-West is the most westerly sub-catchment of the Rhine delta and of the Rhine as a whole (see figure below). To the
south, it borders on the Maas, and to the east and north on other sub-catchments of the Rhine. The Wadden island Texel
is part of Rijn-West, even though the water surrounding it is part of Rijn-Noord. Rijn-West also includes a small part of
the German catchment. The total surface area of Rijn-West is around 1.2 million ha. The human population is estimated
at 7.3 million, which is approximately 46% of the Dutch population. Most are residents of the larger cities, notably
Amsterdam, Delft, Den Haag, Dordrecht, Haarlem, Leiden, Rotterdam and Utrecht. The drainage basins of the Meuse
and Rhine, west of Nijmegen, are interdependent, as is typical for waters in a delta. Exchange between the two rivers is
limited, although not yet quantified.
Rijn-West (see figures below) comprises the province of North Holland and parts of the provinces of South Holland,
Utrecht, and Gelderland. The island, Texel, belongs in this sub-catchment, but not the surrounding waters of the
Wadden Sea, which belongs in Rijn-Noord. Alm and the Biesbosch, both parts of the province North Brabant, belong in
Rijn-West. The North Sea Canal, the Holland coastline, the New Waterway, the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, the
Nederrijn-Lek and the Waal rivers all lie within Rijn-West.
1.2
Geographical characteristics
1.2.1
Climate2
Precipitation and evaporation
The Royal Dutch Meterological Service (KNMI) calculates long-term, average precipitation for 15 meteorological
regions in the Netherlands. Monthly and annual data for 1971-2000 are available, and have been used to estimate
average annual and monthly precipitation for the districts within Rijn-West. (See Figure 2.3. Gemiddelde maandelijkse
neerslag in Rijn-West). Average annual precipitation is approximately 820 mm. Average annual evaporation Nederland
is 563 mm. The monthly distribution in evaporation is given in Figure 2.4 (Gemiddelde verdamping). Values in this
figure are based on KNMI data from 5 stations, calculated using the method of van Makkink, and are long-term
averages for the period 1971-2000. These figures highlight that, on average in Rijn-West, there is a positive water
balance in spring and autumn. During summer is there a precipitation shortage. Freshwater from the main water systems
(canals, rivers and Ijsselmeer) is diverted into the regional water systems.
Temperature
An impression of temperature in Rijn-West is provided by data from a Rotterdam weather station (number 344).
Average monthly temperature for this weather station, based on long-term averages for the period 1971-2000, is shown
in Figure 2.5 (Gemiddelde temperatuur in Rijn-West).
Climate change
The climate in Europe is changing. Temperature is rising and precipitation, both quantity and intensity, is changing. The
Netherlands can expect wetter winters and drier summers in the future. Showers will bring more rainfall in a shorter
period of time than has historically been the case. Climate change is also expected to cause a rise in sea levels. In the
1
Mainly from Art. 5. Report
2 Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438
1
AquaMoney
context of Water Management in the 21st Century, three scenarios have been developed to provide insights into future
trends in temperature, precipitation and its intensity, and sea level rise.
3
Figure 1 Location of the Rhine delta, and other Dutch catchments of the Rhine
4
Figure 2 Subdivision of Rijn-West into 10 areas: groundwater, 8 Water Boards, and national waters
3 Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta. March 2005. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl)
4 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/uitvoering/stroomgebieddistrict/ rijn/west/geografisch-gebied/
2
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
1.2.2
Lithology & Geology5
Substrates in Rijn-West are mostly formed during the Pleistocene by river deposits from the Rhine and its eastern and
northern components, as well as by glacial and marine deposits. The permeable Pleistocene strata range in thickness
from around 50m near the German border, to 250m in the northwest. In southern areas, thick clay layers intersperse
these permeable strata. In the north, local, distinctive clay layers, from glacial and marine deposits, are found at depths
between 25 and 50m. In coastal areas north of IJmuiden and in the vicinity of Amsterdam, clay-filled troughs may be
encountered down to 100m.
Marine deposits lie under the permeable, Pleistocene strata that, from the flanks of the Utrecht hill ridge, lie under
younger (Holocene) marine clays and peat deposits. Along the coast, these deposits reach a thickness of 20m. Near the
large rivers are younger alluvial deposits (also Holocene) and a mixture of clay and sandy ridges. The overlying
Holocene strata are only partially permeable.
The largest part of the Rijn-West landscape is of recent (Holocene) origin. Most lies under sea level and must be
drained. The positive water balance of 200-250 mm/year is discharged via shallow drainage ditches into larger canals.
The development of polders with different water tables has led to an extremely complex system of (ground) water
flows. Between the water-rich upper layers (Holocene) and the Pleistocene underground is a strong vertical exchange of
water, which leads to complex exchange among fresh, salt and brackish groundwater that is not in equilibrium with
hydraulic boundary conditions.
An important aspect of surface water quality is that permeable, sub-surface strata are mostly filled with brackish water.
This brackish water derives from floods during the Holocene, as well as marine deposits. It is a source of such
substances as chloride, arsenic, sulphate and, locally from marine clays, phosphorus and nitrogen. The volumes of these
last two substances are comparable with those from agriculture6. Freshwater penetrate the regional groundwater from
the Utrecht hill ridge and from the dunes. Fresh groundwater seeps to the surface in a number of nearby, deep polders.
Superimposed on this is a regional water flow system from polder development. Freshwater penetrates from relatively
higher lying areas and lakes. Salinisation occurs where particularly low-lying land is reclamation, permitting seepage of
deeper groundwater flows that are salty. Seepage, either fresh or brackish depending on sub-surfaces, also occurs along
the high-lying rivers. Seepage of brackish water into polders between the North Sea Canal and the New Waterway is
estimated to lead to a chloride load of 150,000 tonnes Cl/year.
From west to east, Rijn-West grades from dunes, through low-lying areas to rivers and their flood plains to the east.
This low-lying landscape has its origins in marine deposits of sand along the coast forming beaches. At low tide, aeolian
transport of the sand created the older dunes. At high tide the sea would penetrate the more seaward dunes, and
deposited clays in the hinterland. Plants growing on these marine clays provided the basis for peat. This marine clay
landscape has largely been won back from the sea via reclamation. Pastures, with high groundwater levels to constrain
subsidence through mineralization of the peat soils, dominate these reclaimed areas. Peat extraction began in the 11th
and 12th centuries. The production functions of these areas have slowly changed. Initially they were used for agriculture,
but with subsidence, the emphasis came to lie on animal husbandry because the water level had to be kept higher. Later,
peat was extracted and a number of lakes formed. In the vicinity of the rivers, flowing water deposited mainly sand on
higher riverbanks. Sand deposition in the riverbed formed sandbanks Clay deposited in bowl-shaped layers between the
riverbanks. The sandbanks grew higher and comprised calcium-rich, light clays. They can be recognized on maps via
their land use, primarily farmland and orchards.
1.2.3
Land uses7
Rijn-West is for 60% under agriculture. The Randstad, comprising Amsterdam, Utrecht, Rotterdam and Den Haag, is
located in Rijn-West. This is the most densely populated urban area in the Netherlands. Land use differs per subcatchment, as briefly described below.
5
Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438
6 TNO en Alterra, 2002. De achtergrondbelasting van het oppervlaktewatersysteem met N, P en Cl en enkele ecohydrologische parameters in West-Nederland. TNOAlterra rapport. NITG nr. 02-166-A.
7
See: Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438
Figure 2.8 provides an overview of land use for Rijn-West. Map 2 in the annex to this report provides the same data in map format.
3
AquaMoney
Noorderkwartier (North Quarter)
Land use is predominantly agricultural. In fen meadows, the emphasis is on pastures; crops (notably bulbs, potatoes and
cabbage) are mainly found in the very north of North Holland and in West Friesland. Modern culturing of bulbs is
found on sandy soils behind the dunes. Urbanisation is occurring in the Zaanstreek and near Alkmaar. Industry tends to
be concentrated along the North Sea Canal and in the Zaanstreek. Road networks with large freeways surround
Amsterdam and connect north to south. Coastal areas have a greater nature value.
(Midden-Holland) Middle Holland
Soils in the northern part of Middle Holland are mainly under crops, with culturing of bulbs behind coastal dunes.
Infrastructure has a major role, with freeways and Schiphol airport. Large cities, such as Den Haag and Rotterdam, are
found in this area, as well as large industrial complexes such as Rijnmond. Nature dominates the coast, together with
recreation. There is a range of land uses in the peat polders: meadows on low-lying peat soils, urban centres and
industry, especially on the higher river banks, and crops and bulbs on marine clays in very low-lying reclaimed land.
Urbanisation in low-lying areas has been occurring recently. In the south of Middle Holland, intensive horticulture
using glasshouses dominates the landscape. Culturing of bulbs occurs in some areas. This low-lying area is water-rich,
with many lakes.
Zuid-Holland zuid (South Holland south)
This area includes a number of hydrologically isolated islands. Northern and western parts are decidedly urban.
Remaining areas are characterised by widespread rural landscapes criss-crossed by dykes, supporting fruit, vegetables
and crops dependent on drainage and intensive water management. Urbanisation occurs mainly on embankments
flanking the large rivers as well as higher-lying areas between the dykes. Lower-lying areas are also becoming
urbanised. South Holland south also has areas with concentrations of horticulture.
Amstelland
Land use in Amstelland is very diverse. Between the western flanks of the Utrecht hill ridge and the Kromme Rijn,
forests with natural values related to groundwater seepage blend into small-scale farming. South of the Kromme Rijn, as
well as along the Hollands IJssel and Leidse Rijn, land use is predominantly dairy and fruit. The western fen meadows
are largely dairy with local natural areas. The Vinkerveen and Loosdrecht Lakes cater for open water recreational. Two
of the largest Dutch cities, Amsterdam and Hilversum, are found in Amstelland. These cities, together with many
bordering communities, serve important residential and economic functions.
Rivierengebied (the rivers area)
About half of the rivers area is agricultural, such as pastures and orchards. While horticulture is only a small percentage
of total land use, it is very concentrated. The rivers themselves, as open water, take up much space. A number of large,
infrastructural developments, such as the Betuwe Line, various freeways, and the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal, dissect this
area. Its urban centre is Arnhem-Nijmegen to the east. Smaller urban areas are Tiel in the middle and the southern edge
of Alblasserward to the west.
Rijkswateren (National waters, rivers, canals and the coast)
Land outside the dykes near rivers is important for transport of water, ice and sediment. Weirs, dykes, embankments
and other barriers are crucial for protection against high waters. Inside the dykes, land use is diverse: various forms of
agriculture to residential to industrial uses. There are also important natural values, for example along river banks and
on river flood plains. Water management occurs in combination with nature development. Rivers and canals are very
important economically, as national and international shipping channels. Dredge spoil is stored in select depots.
Recreational and professional fishing takes place on and along the various branches of the Rhine. Various locations
allow river waters to be diverted into regional water systems, as well for drinking water and industrial purposes.
Industrial concentrations lie along the New Waterway and the North Sea Canal. Locally, nature-friendly riverbanks
have been established. Clay, sand and gravel extraction occurs in the flood plains of the large rivers. In the coastal zone,
there are two important shipping lanes Euro-Maas for entry to Rotterdam harbour and IJ for entry to IJmuiden and
Amsterdam. Dredge spoil disposal from these lanes occurs at sea or in depots. Gas production platforms are scattered
over the North Sea. On the bottom of the sea lie pipelines, telephone and electricity cables. The sea is further of
importance for nature, fisheries, sand extraction and recreation.
4
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
1.3
Water system characteristics
1.3.1
Streams & rivers: characteristics, groundwater
1.3.1.1
Rijn-Delta stream and river characteristics
In the Rijn-delta, 565 surface water bodies have been identified and grouped into rivers, lakes, coasts and connecting
waters. Each category is further divided into types. The Dutch part of the Rijndelta comprises 33 types and 5
combination types; the German part comprises 6 types. Reference states are described for each type, and represent their
undisturbed state. The ecological objectives for natural water bodies derived from these undisturbed states. Reference
conditions for artificial and heavily modified water bodies will be based on those for natural water bodies.
Water bodies of the Rijn-delta are divided into three groups:
• Line- (or ribbon-)shaped bodies include canals, rivers and other waterways (the German water managers
include on waterways with a basin area greater than 1000 ha);
• Flat-shaped bodies include all lakes and ponds (in Germany, only those greater than 50ha);
• Virtual bodies (only in the Netherlands), groups of small water bodies that do not fall into the above
categories.
More precise specification of virtual water bodies and their identification is still being worked on. Maps of the
distribution of line- and flat-shaped bodies over groups of types, and the distribution of virtual water bodies are
available.
Percentage water surface
Streams and rivers are found mainly in the higher parts of the Rijndelta. Lakes are mainly found in the lower parts.
Many ditches and other small waterways in these lower parts have been combined into virtual water bodies. The water
bodies comprising branches of the Rhine are, clearly, rivers. The coastal zone, including the Wadden Sea, is further
divided into three water bodies; the transition fresh and salt surface waters is divided into two water bodies. The figure
below shows that virtually all water bodies of the Rijndelta have been hydromorphologically changed.
ditches &
canals
fens, ponds &
small lakes
large lakes
streams
large rivers
coastal water
total
Hydromorphological state is no constraint on ecology
No data
Water surface suffering from significant hydromorpholical change
Figure 3 Percentage water surfaces that have been significantly changed hydromorphologically
1.3.1.2
Groundwater interactions
Groundwater dependence is indicated if the quality of aquatic and terrestrial ecosystem is influenced by groundwater
levels, or by the quantity and quality of groundwater. Specification of groundwater bodies with dependent ecosystems is
based on the following information:
• the location of areas identified in the context of the birds and habitats directives;
• the location of other areas with natural values;
• habitat types;
5
AquaMoney
•
•
data on groundwater levels, such as on 1:50.000 soil map (in areas with low groundwater levels vi, vii en viii:
it is assumed that there is no relation between the groundwater body and the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems)
data on seepage and infiltration.
This approach led to the conclusion that, with only a few exceptions (e.g. Birds Directives areas in the German part of
the Rijndelta), all large groundwater bodies are associated with dependent ecosystem. Of groundwater bodies that
provide water for human consumption 36 have dependent ecosystems.
1.3.2
Water bodies, types and reference conditions
1.3.2.1
Rijn-Delta water status
Seven water bodies in the lower part of the Rijndelta have been assigned the status natural. For Rijn-West, these
include Naardermeer, buffered and calcium-rich dune areas in North Holland, and dune lakes near Voorne. Of the rest,
three-quarters are artificial and a quarter highly modified. Strongly modified water bodies are preliminarily specified on
the basis of the effect of morphological changes. A detailed analysis will be undertaken after 2006. The coast of RijnWest and the great rivers are all highly modified as a result of measures against flooding. In the regional water system,
most regional waters are artificial; 16, mainly old river branches, have the status heavily modified. Most of the national
waters in Rijn-West, have the status heavily modified. Exceptions are a few canals deemed artificial (Amsterdam-Rhine
Canal, Merwede Canal and Doorslag, Caland Canal, Beer Canal and Maas-Waal Canal). This classification conforms to
national policy and approaches taken in other Rhine sub-catchments.
The German part of the higher part of the Rijndelta comprises 129 (127 in Nordrhein-Westfalen and 2 in
Niedersachsen) natural water bodies, streams and rivers. The split between artificial and strongly modified is
approximately 50-50.
Protected areas form a separate category. These are delineated according to specific directives (such as the Birds and
Habitats Directives) and must conform to specific objectives. Part of the protected areas is considered as a separate
water body. Chapter 5 of this report is a register of protected areas.
1.3.2.2
Rijn-West: General description of surface water bodies and typology8
Four different categories of water types are present in Rijn-West: lakes (M), rivers (R), connecting waters (O) and
coastal water (K). Within these categories 28 different water types are recognised, divided over 86 bounded water
bodies and 54 not yet bounded virtual water bodies. (See map-3-Iia and 3-IIb in annexes of this report). Table 3.1
provides the coding and description of water types in Rijn-West. Table 3.2 shows the number of waterbodies per water
type. Of these 140 surface water bodies, only 10 are currently considered of good chemical quality. Of these, 4 are
judged to be also of good ecological quality (see Table 1 in summary).
A number of water types are very dominant in Rijn-West, such as regional waters on sand and clay (V1) and regional
waters on peat (V2). Water bodies with a brackish character (V3 and M30) may be found on the western edge of this
sub-catchment. Another common water type is found in the dunes, and can be described as shallow, buffered, calciumfree ponds ((M11, M22, V4 and V5). Water bodies in urban areas, such as Rotterdam, Dordrecht en Utrecht, are
characterised by buffered canals (M3 and V1). National waters are primarily slowly flowing rivers and large, deep
canals (R7 and M7). The New Meuse and associated harbour streams are characterised as estuaries with a moderate
tidal range (O2). Coastal and territorial waters are euhaline (K3).
In 2004, the preliminary status of water bodies was determined. A choice could be made from: natural, artificial, or
strongly modified. These terms are briefly defined in article 2 of the WFD. The Horizontal Guidance on Waterbodies9
(gives clearer meanings to these terms. An artificial water body is one whose existence has been brought about by
humans, on a location where a water body was not previously present and was not created by redirecting an existing
8
Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004.
9 Horizontal Guidance Water Bodies Final Version 10.0. 14-01-03. Common Implementation Strategy for the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) Identification of
water bodies - Horizontal guidance document on the application of the term water body in the context of the Water Framework Directive. 15 January 2003
6
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
watercourse. Strongly modified bodies were defined as water bodies where good ecological status is not being achieved
because of impacts on the hydromorphological characteristics of surface water resulting from physical alterations.
These definitions make the distinction between artificial and strongly modified clear. The difference between heavily
modified and natural lies in the hydromorphological changes that have been brought about. If these are of an extent that
the achievement of a biological situation that corresponds with the natural situation (GET) is hindered, then the
waterbody is classified as heavily modified.
The majority (80%) of regional waters in Rijn-West have the preliminary status of artificial (see maps 20a en b).
Sixteen water bodies, mainly the old river branches, have the status of strongly modified. Only 4 waterbodies have the
status of natural. These are Naardermeer and three dune areas. National waters such as the great rivers, the North Sea
Canal and coastal waters are classified as strongly modified. The remaining national waters are artificial.
1.3.2.3
Current ecological and chemical state Rijn-West10
The current chemical state is judged according to two chemical and two ecological groups of substances. The chemical
groups are based on Priority Substances and substances from 76/464/EC directive (annex IX substances). The
ecological groups focus on Rhine relevant substances and other substances. Data are derived from water managers
(2001 else 1998/1999 of 2002/2003), augmented with data from the pesticides atlas (1999-2000). Annex 1 contains a
table which summarises a number of chemical substances.
The analysis of current chemical state of surface water bodies highlights problems with diuron, nickel,
benzo(f)fluroanthene and simazine in national and regional waters. In regional waters, endosulfan exceeds standards. In
national water, antracene and tribytyltin exceed standards. Nickel and benzo(a)pyrene are a problem for the North Sea,
although this could be related more to stricter standards for coast and transitional water bodies than for freshwaters.
Only DDT and the drins (pesticides based on chlorohydrocarbons) appear as problems among the substances from
Annex IX-substances (76/464/EG richtlijnen). DDT is exceeds standards in national and regional water bodies. The
drins meet standards. Tetrachlorohydrocarbon, trichloroethene and tetrachloroethene are not measured.
A large number of chemical substances pose a problem in Rijn-West, although sometimes only in parts. There are
regional differences for some substances (see map 4-I). Exceedance of standards occurs primarily in the west of RijnWest, and there are differences between regional and national waters. An importance conclusion is that, from the
compulsory chemical substances, only about 60% are currently measured. This lies with the water manager who,
perhaps because of the way measurement is undertaken, has decided that the substance forms no threat.
The ecological state is estimated by looking at concentrations of Rhine relevant substances, then using ecological
evaluation methods and/or expert knowledge. For regional water, the current ecological state is assessed on the basis of
available information evaluated using the STOWA-evaluation system11. The current biological situation is evaluated on
the basis of the second highest level of the STOWA evaluation. That level is, at the moment, the best available basis for
comparison for the ecological objectives of the WFD (Good Ecological State, GES, for natural waters and Good
Ecological Potential, GEP, for non-natural waters). For national waters, evaluation uses the ecological yardsticks of the
WFD (fish, invertebrate macrofauna, floating algae, other water plants). These yardsticks are still in development and
apply only to natural waters. For highly-modified and artificial waters, yardsticks were selected from the most similar,
natural type. Where necessary, the yardsticks (from December 2003) were adjusted. The yardstick for floating alga is,
for example, reduced to an assessment of chlorophyll12. The evaluation follows the rule one-out-all-out.
From the Rhine-relevant substances, phosphate, nitrogen and copper exceed standards in national and regional waters.
In regional waters, zinc, carbendazim, ammonium and oxygen are problems. PCB is measured on in national waters
where it exceeds standards. On the basis of available data, it is not possible to determine whether PAH and PCB are
problems in regional waters.
10 Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/
11
See: www.stowa.nl
12
For the Holland coastline, the evaluation follow the preliminary WFD yardstick for phytoplankton in associated with the internationally harmonised OSPAR-evaluation
method for eutrophication. The worst of the two is chosen.
7
AquaMoney
Tables 3.4 and 3.5 (see also map 4-IIa/b biology) summarise results of the ecological assessment per sub-catchment and
per water (clustered) body type respectively, and for both virtual and non-virtual water bodies. No single water body in
Rijn-West has a very good ecological water quality. Only 7% of the non-virtual and 4% of the virtual water bodies have
a good ecological quality (Amstelland, Midden-Holland en Zuid-Holland Zuid)13. Most waterbodies with a good
ecological quality are (brackish) lakes. More than 56% of non-virtual water bodies have a moderate quality, and 32%
are of insufficient quality. Of the virtual water bodies, 65% have a moderate quality and 31% are insufficient. All water
types are represented in the classes moderate and insufficient quality. 5% of non-virtual water bodies have a bad water
quality; these are mainly brackish lakes and rivers. No virtual water body was assessed as bad.
1.4
Characterisation of water use
1.4.1
Water uses and services by socio-economic sectors14
Industry is, by far, the heaviest water user. Households consume more than 50% of municipal water supply. This water
is used as drinking water, warm (tap) water and household water. The table below illustrates three categories of water
users and the extent, nature and distribution of their water use.
Table 1 Water use in 2001in the Dutch part of the Rijndelta catchment in million m3/year)
Water use
Water supply
Self abstracted
Self-abstracted surface
groundwater
water
Total
Consumers
516
-
-
516
Agriculture and
38
40
15
93
Industry
422
582
8 607
9 611
Total
976
622
8 622
10 220
fisheries
1.4.2
Origin of water use
Per year, some 8 billion m3 water is used15. The majority is extracted by water utilities from both surface and
groundwater, and destined for municipal water supply. Rijn-West is densely population and strong growth in population
size is expected. This means an increased pressure on wastewater treatment plants and an increase in impermeable
surfaces. The main abstractions from surface waters (>100 m3/day) are for drinking water, cooling water and water
level management (see table below). The main abstractions for industry (process or cooling water) are from national
waters in the vicinity of Rotterdam and the North Sea Canal (see map 11 in map annex). Water level management
covers a number of activities. In urban areas, such management involves letting water in, for example to keep wooden
foundations under water. Water level management is undertaken to maintain water quality, for example for drinking
water purposes. During dry periods, water may be redirected into areas to maintain levels, for example to constrain
subsidence and damage to dykes. Agriculture also abstracts surface waters to a limited extent, and involves volumes
less than that for water level management. Water abstractions for water level management are poorly represented in the
table, and it is not possible to indicate whether these abstractions have an effect on surface waters.
Table 2 Abstractions from surface water in Rijn-West per sub-catchment (m3/day). ne = not estimated
Sub-catchment
Drinking water
Cooling water
Water level
TOTAL
management
Noorderkwartier
Midden-Holland
13
ne
297 600
ne
297 600
Since the yardstick for natural waters is modified for national waters, this could be described as worst case. From 2005 onwards, system-specific yardsticks will be
developed for highly modified and artificial waters. These will take account of, for example, irreversible hydromorphological measures. As a result, future assessments
could be more favourable.
14
http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta
15 Karakterisering Rijn-West. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Section 5
8
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
Zuid-Holland Zuid
ne
Amstelland
94 000
Rivierengebied
88 000
ne
94.000
12 100 320
12 188 320
Rijkswateren
252 895
13 189 888
4 716 030
18 158 813
Total
346 895
13 575 488
16 816 350
30 738 733
1.4.3
Protected areas16
The WFD requires a register of protected areas. Protected areas fall under the following categories.
• Water bodies for abstraction for human consumption. Surface water that is destined for drinking water purposes
(75/440/EEG) is provisionally delineated on the basis of where abstraction occurs.
• Protected areas for shellfish culture and fish catch. Areas with economically important plants and animals are
protected. Both directives will become obsolete 13 years after implementation of the WFD.
• Swimming and recreational water. There are 405 swimming locations in the Rijndelta.
• Nutrient sensitive areas. Nutrient sensitive areas that, on the basis of the Nitrates Directive (91/676/EEG), are
identified as threatened, or on the basis of the Urban Wastewater Directive (91/271/EEG) as sensitive, are included
in the Register. However the Rijndelta is exempt because both Netherlands and Germany have undertaken their own
measures to identify threatened and sensitive areas.
• Protected areas for species and habitats. Within Rijndelta, 62 Birds and 135 Habitats Directive areas have been
identified, where conservation or improvement in water states is an important aspect of protection.
The term 'Ecologische Hoofd Structuur' (EHS) or Dutch Ecological Network was introduced in the Natuurbeleidsplan
(NBP) or Nature Policy Plan from the Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality in 199017. The EHS is a
network of areas where nature (plants and animals) has priority. The network helps to prevent the extinction of plants
and animals as a result of isolation and the loss of environmental quality. The EHS can be seen as the backbone of
Dutch nature. It comprises:
• existing nature areas, reserves, areas designated for nature development and robust corridors between them;
• agricultural area with potential for agrarian nature management;
• large waters, such as the coast zone, the IJsselmeer and the Wadden Sea.
1.4.4
Economic analysis; trends and future projections18
1.4.4.1
Economic Description of Rijn-Delta
The catchment Rijn-West is home to some 7.3 million people, approximately 46% of the Dutch population. In
population terms, Rijn-West is the largest Dutch catchment. Rijn-West incorporates four large cities, viz. Amsterdam,
Rotterdam, Den Haag and Utrecht. Rijn-West is heavily urbanised.
Table 3 Demographic characteristics and land use in in Rijn-West. Source: PRIMOS (2002), CBS (2000), LEI (1998)
Inhabitants (no.)
7.294.080
Urban area (ha)
117.029
Agriculture (ha)
383.000
Population in the Rijndelta is expected to grow by 6.4%, in absolute terms an increase from 12.2 million (2001) to 13
million (2015). No estimates have been made regarding associated land use. The figure shows that the growth in various
economic sectors varies from +50% for general industry and environmental consultancy, to -30% for fisheries.
16 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta
17 http://www9.minlnv.nl/
http://www9.minlnv.nl/pls/portal30/docs/FOLDER/MINLNV/LNV/STAF/STAF_DV/DOSSIERS/MLV_NPVN/NATUURONTWIKKELING/KAARTEHS.JPG
18 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta, Section 5
9
AquaMoney
The main economic sectors are: agriculture, fisheries, mining, industry, and services. See Table 4. Unfortunately,
recreation and tourism are not included in the current descriptions of the economic status of the Rijn-West. Recreation
and tourism contribute heavily to the economy of waterrich areas and will benefit greatly from better water quality; on
the other hand, they contribute to water pollution in those areas.
Rijn-West, of the seven sub-catchments, has the largest share in national production. Its total production is approx. 49%
of the national total. Value added and employment are of similar proportions. Centres of economic activity lie in the
following regions: Utrecht (12%), Greater Amsterdam (22%), The Hague (10%) and Greater Rijnmond (21%). Its high
degree of urbanisation and the presence of large cities mean that services are strongly developed. A number of sectors
place pressure on water.
Table 4 Production, value added and employment in the main economic sectors of Rijn-West
Production
Value added
Employment
(million euro)
(million euro)
(000 units)
Agriculture
5 549
2 889
76.7
Fisheries
234
-
-
Mining
1 249
926
2.9
Industry
116 891
34 688
524.7
Services
244 485
145 014
2 219
Total Rijn-West
368 388
183 517
2 823.2
Agriculture
The total surface area of agriculture in Rijn-West is about 383,000 ha, of which 236,000 are pastures (60%).
Agricultural productivity in Rijn-West is valued at 5.549 million euro, derived primarily (50%) from greenhouse
horticulture. Grazing of livestock comprises only (20%). The other agricultural sectors are poorly represented in
comparison with the national average.
Fisheries
Coastal fisheries in Rijn-West are relatively small. Marine fisheries are not considered because they take place beyond
the 12-mile zone. The productivity of fisheries in Rijn-West, 6.7 million euro in 2002, derives largely from the
aquaculture of fish and shellfish.
Mining
Mining is a minor activity in Rijn-West. The main mining industry is sand and gravel extraction, which has a significant
influence on the state of the water. In the provinces of Gelderland, Utrecht, Noord-Holland en Zuid-Holland, sand is
extracted from the Great Rivers and the North Sea.
Industry
Approximately 40% of the national industry, in terms of production and employment, is located in Rijn-West. Industry
also accounts for at least 30% of production within Rijn-West. Approximately 50% of industrial activity has a
significant impact on water states.
Services
While this sector comprises a large proportion (66% of production, 78% of employment) of the economy in Rijn-West,
component activities, notably the environmental services sector (milieudienstverlening) and shipping, have a limited
impact on water states. The main centre of the environmental services sector lies, logically, in the large cities. The
COROP19 COROP-regions of Greater Amsterdam (27%), Utrecht (13%), The Hague (12%) and Greater Rijnmond
(16%) cater for more the two-thirds of productivity from services.
19
Coordinatie Commissie Regionaal Onderzoeksprogramma, a commission that divided the Netherlands into regions in 1971. There is a total of 40 COROP regions.
Each is a conglomeration of local government municipalities.
10
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
1.4.4.2
Autonomic development until 2015
The population is expected to grow by 6.3% between 2002 and 2015. This is high relative to other Dutch subcatchments. The associated pressure on land use has not been estimated. Crops, horticulture, glasshouses and
combination agriculture are expected to grow. The productivity from other agricultural sectors is expected to decline. In
2015, horticulture in glasshouses is still expected to be the most important agricultural sector. Growth in Dutch fisheries
was negative 1990-2002 (-3.48%). This trend is expected to continue by 2.25% per year. These figures are based on
current total fisheries (including marine fisheries). Expected trends in mining, and particularly for sand and gravel
extraction, are available at provincial, but not yet at sub-catchment level. For all industry and services in Rijn-West, a
growth in production is expected 2002-2015. The largest growth is expected for the metal industry.
11
AquaMoney
2.
Pressure, impact and risk analysis
2.1
Significant pressures impacting on water status
2.1.1
Point and diffuse source pressures20
Sources of emission are divided into point and non-point sources. In Germany, stormwater discharge from urban areas
is treated as a point source; in the Netherlands it is a non-point source. In the Rijndelta there are 309 point sources from
WWTPs larger than 2000 pollution equivalents and 225 significant industrial emissions. Important sources of non-point
sources are drainage from agricultural land and natural soils, emission from land and water-based traffic, atmospheric
deposition and untreated emissions of sewage. In the German part, erosion and runoff are included.
The dominant source of nitrogen and phosphorus is drainage and run off from agricultural land; this is followed for
nitrogen by WWTPs and atmospheric deposition. Copper also derives from drainage and runoff from agricultural land,
and also from traffic. The effluent of WWTPs contains copper because many water pipes are still made of copper. Other
diffuse sources of copper include coating of ships. The ban on use of copper-base anti-fouling agents will probably end
the contribution from recreational boats by 2015. The same does not hold for commercial shipping.
Drainage and runoff from agricultural land is also a major source of zinc and nickel, with WWTPs and drainage from
natural soil next in importance. PAHs, including benzo(k)fluorantheen, derive from atmospheric deposition directly on
surface waters, release from creosote-impregnated wood, underwater exhausts of recreational boats, and storm water
drainage. PCBs are no longer released, and so the small load of PCBs comes via atmospheric deposition outside the
Rijndelta. There are still quantities of PCBs present in Dutch water systems, for example in dredge spoil. Significant
quantities of nickel (113 ton), copper (143 ton), zinc (940 ton) en PCBs (83 kg) were disposed via dredge spoil in the
North Sea. These amounts are not included in totals, as they involve transport of contaminants and not their emissions.
The figure below compares sources of contaminants in the Rijndelta, and shows that the bulk is imported via rivers.
Imported pollution affects water quality in the coastal zone and in the Wadden Sea. The reason for the strong external
influences is that the remaining catchment of the Rhine is far greater than its delta. Concentrations of zinc, nickel and
PCBs in upstream Rhine water conform to standards. However, the large size of the catchment and the large volumes of
water means that the total load of these substances is high.
total N
within Rijndelta
total P
import via rivers
copper
nickel
zinc P
benzo(k)fluoranthene
PCBs
Figure 4 Comparison of sources of pollution: emission within Rijndelta, and import via rivers
20
12
http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
2.1.2
Abstraction and flow regulation pressures21
Water abstraction for consumption, industry and other purposes takes place in 22 of the Dutch water bodies in the
Rijndelta. Regulation of water flows by dams, weirs, locks, dykes and drainage from inundation zones affects 228 water
bodies.
2.1.3
Morphological pressures22
The water system in the Rijndelta has been subject to substantial morphological change to guarantee and improve
habitability, security, and navigability. More recently, changes have been oriented towards nature development. Most
water bodies have suffered significant hydromorphological change. The figure below shows the percentage of water
surfaces that have been affected by different sources of modifications. The main sources of modification have been:
canalisation, straightening, water level management, sand extraction, weirs and dams, and drainage.
Figure 5 Hydromorphological pressures on water bodies in the Rijndelta
2.1.4
Other human pressures23
Expert assessment is the basis for specification of other sources of human pressures. These are listed in the following
table.
Table 5 Inventory of other sources of pressure
Higher part of Rijndelta
Lower part of Rijndelta
commercial and recreational shipping
seepage in polders, increase in salt, arsenic and nutrients
recreation on river banks
water sediments
commercial and recreational fishing
commercial and recreational shipping
water sediments
recreation on river banks
cooling water outlet from power stations and industry
commercial and recreational fishing
cooling water inlet
cooling water outlet from power stations and industry
drainage
cooling water inlet
21 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta
22 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta
23 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta
13
AquaMoney
salt intrusion (via Eems and mining areas)
2.2
mineralization of peat
Water bodies at risk of not achieving a good status24
The aim of the risk analysis is to estimate which water bodies face the danger of not fulfilling the requirement of a good
chemical or ecological status in 2015. If a waterbody fails on one criterion, it is deemed to fail on all. Steps in this
analysis are:
1. describe the current situation (chemistry, ecology, hydromorphology) to establish current risks;
2. Describe autonomic developments as a result of implementing current policy;
3. Estimate states in 2015
4. Estimate the required state in 2015
5. Specify the risk as different between expected and achieved states.
2.2.1
Preliminary risk analysis surface waters Rijn-Delta
The risk that the state of water bodies does not meet objectives is based on a number of criteria. A good chemical state
(GCS) is assessed via priority and 76/464/EG-substances (see section 3.1 and associated figure). The assessment varies
per substance and per region. The overall chemical state of the Rijndelta is, in WFD terms, at risk. In 2015, no water
body is expected to meet standards without the implementation of additional measures. Exceptions are water-isolated
peat areas and select dune water bodies. A good ecological state (GES) is assessed on the basis of chemical substances
and biological criteria. A biological evaluation of heavily modified and artificial water bodies is not yet possible, and so
only the GCS and assessment based on other substances is applied. The map below summarises the results of the risk
analysis based on four substances for GCS and six for GES. The reasons for the poor assessment lie primarily with
nutrients, although heavy metals (copper), PAHs and PCBs are also expected to cause problems. Note that data were
limited for some water bodies. The result for Rijn-West are summarised in table 7.
Of the 140 surface water bodies in Rijn-West, only 10 are currently considered of good chemical quality. Of these, 4 are
judged to be also of good ecological quality (see Table 1 in summary). Almost all rivers are assessed as at risk or
possibly at risk in 2015 (see figure 11). Autonomic development is expected to neutralise positive effects of current
policy and implemented measures25.
2.2.2
Chemical state in 2015
Nearly all virtual and non-virtual surface waterbodies are assessed as being at risk (maps 21-IIa/b). Currently more
water bodies have a good chemical state. See also (table 5.2).
26
Table 6 Summary of the result for Rijn-West :
Priority substances:
benzo(k)-fluoranthene
51-75% of water bodies expected to exceed standards
chloorvenfinvos
no water bodies expected to exceed standards
endosulfan
no information
nickel
1-25% of water bodies expected to exceed standards
Other substances:
copper
51-75% of water bodies expected to exceed standards
zinc
1-25% of water bodies expected to exceed standards
dichloorvos
no information
PCBs
1-25% of water bodies expected to exceed standards
N
51-75% of water bodies expected to exceed standards
P
76-100% of water bodies expected to exceed standards
24 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/ - Karakterisering Werkgebied Rijndelta
25 http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438 - Section 5
26
14
Karakterisering deelstroomgebied Rijn-West. Eindrapport. 1 december 2004. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/download-document.php?id=438
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
In table 5.1, a risk analysis for 12 substances is elaborated in terms of emission prognoses (from the quick-scan
materials balance, 2004). Current problem substances remain so in 2015, despite abatement. Substances that currently
are not a problem do not become a problem in 2015. The 12 substances include nickel, benzo(a)pyreen, benzo(k)fluoranthene and fluoranthene.
It is expected that leakage of nickel will not change significantly before 2015. Loads will be constant during this time.
Removal of Ni in WWTPs has been stables, at about 45%, for some time. It is assumed that emissions will not change.
The pesticide diuron has been forbidden since 2000. At regional level, this substance will not form a problem in 2015.
However it may be imported via national waters, and so may cause a problem. Endosulfan is similarly forbidden.
Release from aquatic sediments can be expected to decline, but the speed of degradation is dependent on such processes
as dredging and sedimentation. Endosulfan is still used elsewhere in Europe, and so can deposit in the Netherlands, or
enter via transboundary rivers, and so cause a problem for the chemical status of waterbodies. An important future
development is that PAH-containing coatings will cease to be used in the Netherlands and Germany, and should lead to
a decline of 90% (IN LOADS???) Creosote-coated wood will no longer be used. Assuming a longevity of 25 years for
such wood, emissions of these substances should decline by around 75%. We have also assumed a reduction by 50% of
PAH emissions from underwater exhausts of recreational vehicles. Estimates for atmospheric deposition are not
available.
2.2.3
Ecological state in 2015
No water body in Rijn-west has a very good ecological state. Less than 10% are of good ecological state (Amstelland,
Midden-Holland en Zuid-Holland Zuid). Around 50% van of non-virtual water bodies fall into the moderate category.
Of the virtual water bodies, more than 60% may be considered moderate and around 30% have not been categorised. Of
the non-virtual water bodies, 5% are of poor quality (see maps 21-Ia/b and Table 5.2).
Management and organisation of the watersystem is a major cause of the poor ecological score. The following factors
are considered to be of importance:
• water table management;
• presence of dykes, barriers and pumps;
• hardening of river banks;
• maintenance (mowing, duckweed, too much or too little dredging).
Quality elements are related to: saprobity27; trophy; toxicity; chemistry; and salination.
Saprobity is a clear ecological problem. Improvements, rather than further degradation, are expected in coming years
as a result of: no more disposal of sewage sludges; optimalisation of sewerage reticulation, and dredging. Trophy is
also a clear problem. A slow decline in nutrient loads from agriculture is expected as a result of implemented
agricultural policy. Lags will ensure that effects will only become slowly visible. Eutrophication from peat
mineralization and groundwater deepage will decline. A decline to the required extent over the next 15 years is not
realistic. Toxicity is a problem in areas with horticulture, bulb and tree cultivation through the use of pesticides. These
sectors will move to more degradable and environmentally friendly substances over the next 15 years. It is uncertain
whether problems with toxicity will decline to the extent that this will no longer be a problem. Use of less toxic
substances often leads to the use of larger quantities, with no net advantage for the environment. This problem is also
27
The saprobity system is based on the observation that in the course of the self-purification process a body of water shows distinct zones of decreasing pollution (or
improved water quality); these zones are termed polysaprobic (gross pollution), alpha-mesosaprobic, beta-mesosaprobic, and oligosaprobic; the latter may be divided into
alpha- and beta- oligosaprobic. Each zone is characterized by a particular content of oxygen, organic matter, products of septic decay, and products of mineralization.
Biologically, each zone affords optimal conditions for certain species and communities of organisms, the so-called "indicator" organisms (for full details see Kolkwitz
(1950) and Liebmann (1962). The particular saprobity zones may be characterized as follows:
- polysaprobic zone - heavy pollution with sewage or other organic materials, mass development of bacteria that are involved in decomposition processes, a high rate of
oxygen consumption, and a high production of ammonia and hydrogen sulfide
- alpha-mesosaprobic zone - vigorous oxidation processes, increased dissolved oxygen though oxygen consumption is still high, no hydrogen sulfide production, oxidation
of ammonia starts
- beta-mesosaprobic zone - much dissolved oxygen, low oxygen consumption, mineralization of organic materials, and large amounts of the end-products of
mineralization, e.g., nitrates
- oligosaprobic zone - all mineralization processes have been completed, the dissolved oxygen content is high and oxygen consumption nearly zero; the beta-oligosaprobic
level is characterized by rather moderate variety of species and low bioactivity, while the alpha-oligosaprobic level is characterized by a comparatively large variety of
species and high bioactivity (ref. ID; 1219)
(http://www.nies.go.jp/chiiki1/protoz/glossary/protozoa.htm)
15
AquaMoney
not well understood. Table 5.1 presents emission prognoses for the 12 substances with ecological relevance. These are
grouped into: nutrient, heavy metals, PCB, and pesticides.
Figure 6 Risk analysis of surface waters for 10 indicators, chemical substances
The effects of climate change on sea levels and river discharges, combined with subsidence, are expected to result in an
increase in salt-water seepage and salinisation of ground- and surface waters. Substances of concern include chloride,
arsenic, sulphate, barium and phosphate28.
2.3
Diagnosis of water quality and ecological issues
The main water quality and associated environmental problems for Rijn-West are as follows. The main constraint to
achieving a good ecological state is the physical regulation of water bodies. This includes: construction and design
(such as coatings on river banks), maintenance and river regulation via structures (e.g. dykes, dams, weirs, pumps).
Eutrophication (nitrogen and phosphorus) is the big issue for regional waters, where drainage of agricultural land leads
to nutrient levels far exceeding standards. Eutrophication is probably aggravated locally by effluents from WWTPs that
do not use technologies to extract nutrients, by urban storm waters, and by proximity to traffic routes via atmospheric
deposition of nitrogen. Equilibrium shifts in freshwater bodies, as a result of nutrient loading, have been reported. Water
28
16
RBO Rijn-West 8 september 2006. Zomernota Rijn-West 2006, Betere waterkwaliteit, een schone taak. http://www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl/
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
bodies characterised by clear water, macrophytes and predator fish (pike and pike perch, popular with recreational
fishermen) have been replaced by turbid water systems dominated by algae and freshwater bream (Brasem brasem),
which is not a popular recreational fish.
Standards in regional waters are exceeded for many hazardous substances (heavy metals, pesticides, PAHs and PCBs),
but usually to a lesser degree than for N and P. Measures for control of these substances are in place or are being
implemented. Much of the problem lies with their persistent nature and past emissions.
For national waters, hazardous chemicals are the bigger issues. The load of hazardous chemicals from areas upstream
of the Netherlands accounts for some 70% of total load. Dredging of sediments, necessary to ensure navigability, leads
to issues of dredge spoil disposal. Much is stored in depots, some is disposed of in the North Sea. Eutrophication is less
of an issue in national waters, although coastal waters can suffer from algal blooms. However problems with
eutrophication are more likely in the quieter, less well-flushed waters of the Wadden Sea than along the North and
South Holland coasts.
Climate change and droughts
Climate change introduces a range of environmental and water quality issues. In the first instance, climate change is
expected to create problems of water quantity: too much with flooding risks, or too little with drought risks. However,
drought has a potentially large impact on water quality, due to reduced flushing and increased seepage or intrusion of
brackish water - salinisation. Both quantity and quality elements play a role in the expected economic impacts of
drought (see section below). For natural areas, water may be redirected to maintain water levels. While this may solve
ecosystems quantity problems, it may generate problems associated with water quality.
Climate change combined with subsidence - a product of land drainage, exposure of peat soils to the atmosphere and
their subsequent mineralization are expected to exacerbate the flooding threat. Subsidence places pressure on water
managers to lower soil water levels further, leading to a positive feedback and also further distorting hydraulic
gradients.
Droughts will have some impacts on main economic sectors: agriculture, shipping, and energy production29. Loss of
income to agriculture is usually caused by a shortage of soil water, both in the unsaturated zone and groundwater, as a
result of a shortage of rain. A shortage of rain is defined as the difference between precipitation and evaporation. There
is a negative water balance in the summer half of every year. In general, such shortages are hardly a problem because
enterprises have taken measures to prepare for them.
Earlier studies have shown that the surface water system, in general, is well aligned towards satisfying water demands
from agriculture. Even in extremely dry years, water shortages rarely occur in the surface water system. However
damage does occur to agriculture in dry years because crops do not have sufficient water. This occurs because irrigation
equipment is inadequate, or there is a ban on irrigation to prevent further lowering of groundwater levels (perhaps to
prevent negative effects on nature). The irrigation capacity, particularly in West Netherlands, can be insufficiently used
because of salinisation. Salinisation occurs with insufficient flushing of surface waters receiving brackish groundwater
seepage, or through redirection of saline river water to manage water levels in peat areas. The main source of damage to
agriculture is from a shortfall of precipitation, coupled with a shortage of water of good quality for irrigation.
Shipping can suffer from too little water, with shipping lanes too shallow as a result of low discharges in the great rivers
following long-lasting drought in the catchments of the Meuse and Rhine. Ships must be loaded less deeply. Given that
the demand for shipping does not respond to water depths, ships must travel more. Higher transportation and social
costs are incurred from congestion, with longer waits at locks and denser traffic.
For energy production, most power stations in the Netherlands are dependent on cooling water from surface water
systems (map is available). The location of power stations in the Netherlands is given in the figure below. Long-lasting
drought and warm conditions, with limited supply of water of relatively high temperatures, can generate a shortage of
29
http://www.droogtestudie.nl/documenten/Watertekortopgavedef1.pdf
RIZA, HKV, Arcadis, KIWA, Korbee en Hovelynck. Rudolf Versteeg, Durk Klopstra, Timo Kroon. Sept 2005. Droogtestudie Nederland. Watertekortopgave. Eindrapport.
RIZA-rapport 2005.015; ISBN 9036957133
17
AquaMoney
cooling water. Discharge of cooling water back into surface water systems is subject to standards. These standards
reflect possible damage to aquatic organisms.
2.4
General trends and future pressures
Current water policy is aimed towards improved water quality. The table below summarises estimated effects of current
policy on substance abatement from select sources. Whether current policy is sufficient to reduce future pressures and
to achieve targets is uncertain. The greatest uncertainty lies with the effects of changes in population pressures,
production and emission measures, and the eventual state of water.
Table 7 Overview of prognoses for reduced pressures on surface waters in 2015, as per current policy
Policy
Effect of abatement
nutrients
heavy metals
organic micropollution
Urban wastewater
<5% P, ±25% N
<5%
<5%; >50%
Manure
<5% P, ±5% N
<5%
nr
Industry
<5% P, ±5% N
<5%
Crop protection
nr
nr
substance specific
The assessment of the state of water bodies in 2015, and in particular whether they conform to the objectives of the
WFD, requires insight into trends in pressures. This, in turn, has led to prognoses on population growth, urbanisation,
and economic development of sectors that are the source of these pressures. See figure 13 below.
population
crops
horticulture - glasshouses
horticulture - open
livestock (not intensive)
intensive livestock
combination farms
fisheries
mining
food and pleasure industry
chemicals industry
metal industry
other industry
energy and water utilities
environmental services
air and water transport
Figure 7 Expected trends in economic factors 2001-2015
The general conclusion regarding the effects of current policy and autonomic development:
It is expected that the positive effects on water quality of current policy and development will be negated by a growth in
loads to surface waters.
18
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
3.
Policy issues
3.1
Water management framework and major issues
3.1.1
Institutional framework
The responsible authority at the national level is the Ministry of Transport and Water, in coordination with VROM and
LNV. Responsibilities for regional waters are transferred to provincial councils (who are also fully responsible for
(lower) groundwater management) (Zuid-Holland, Noord-Holland, Utrecht, Gelderland) and waterschappen (HHS
Hollands Noorderkwartier, Rijnland, Delfland, Schieland en Krimpenerwaard, Amstel, Gooi en Vecht, De Stichtse
Rijnlanden, Waterschap Hollands Delta, De Stichtse Rijnlanden). Implementation of quality and quantity measures is
the task of Rijkwaterstaats regional offices (Directie Z-H, Utrecht, Oost-Nederlands, Noordzee, Noord-holland). Local
government (gemeenten) are responsible for catching rainwater, household wastewater and urban drainage. Also see
figure 2.
The involved provincial institutions cannot manage the policies on the allowance of (many of) the priority substances
that come from diffuse sources, and cannot address the sources, whereas measures aimed at sources are more effective.
Other water quality related policies and directives are listed in paragraph 1.4.3:
• Water for abstraction for human consumption: There are 27 points of water extraction for human use in Rijn-West.
• Swimming and recreational water: 222 point designated as official swimming water spots.
• Nutrient sensitive areas:
• Urban waste water:
• Protected areas for species and habitats
3.1.2
Water rights issues
International coordination is necessary for achieving chemical goals, since a large part of chemical pollution comes
from upstream countries (see 2.1.1 and 2.4). The foreign loading limits the possibilities for national river water quality
improvements, especially in the rijkswateren. Without coordination, ecological improvements are achievable in rivers,
but probably very difficult to achieve in canals.
The issue of foreign loadings relates to the discussion of user pays vs polluter-pays. One of the main policy issues is
therefore the international coordination, within the International Commission for the Protection of the Rhine30. In
addition, all Rhine bordering countries are united in the Co-ordinating Committee Rhine. This body deals with coordinating the implementation of the European Water Framework Directive.
3.1.3
Droughts and water scarcity problems
Although occasionally in summer, shortage of water causes problems for industry, drought problems are mainly related
to groundwater issues (to overcome subsidence). Water quantity management focuses mainly on water provision for
nature and agriculture, and drinking water (see paragraph 2.4).
3.1.4
Flood risk issues
Flood risk is expected to increase due to climate change and subsidence, especially along the main rivers Nederrijn and
Waal. This might ask for additional hydromorphological measures (dikes, dunes). Most water bodies are already
designated as artificial or heavily modified in these areas.
3.1.5
Water quality issues
See section 2.4. Eutrophication (P and N) due to agriculture is the major problem for water quality in regional waters.
For rijkswateren, chemical pollution (copper, PAH, pesticides) is the main problem, mostly due to foreign sources.
Current plans (investments in WWTP, urban drainage, emission reduction, etc) will not be sufficient to achieve good
quality.
30
www.iksr.org
19
AquaMoney
3.1.6
Resources overexploitation
See section 2.3.3. The effects of climate change on sea levels and river discharges, combined with subsidence, are
expected to result in an increase in salt-water seepage and salinisation of ground- and surface waters. However, water
overexploitation is not considered to be a major policy issue for the Rijn-West area.
3.1.7
Water use efficiency
Rivers should be available for water transport, without damaging nature and environment. Economic development of
the region stimulated by the Government, and current agricultural pollution (Nitrate) policy implementation (in which
NL asks for derogation) run counter the purposes of the WFD.
Summarizing, the main problems for achieving good quality have different backgrounds:
• Institutional. The involved provincial/regional institutions cannot manage the policies on the allowance of (many of)
the priority substances that come from diffuse sources, and cannot address these sources, whereas measures aimed at
sources are more effective.
• Economic. Economic development of the region stimulated by the Government, and current agricultural pollution
(Nitrate) policy implementation (in which NL asks for derogation) run counter the purposes of the WFD.
• International. International coordination is necessary for realistic chemical goals, since a large part of chemical
pollution comes from upstream countries. This limits the possibilities for national river water quality improvements,
especially in the rijkswateren. Without coordination ecological improvements are possible in rivers, but very
difficult in canals.
For the regional waters, eutrophication is the main problem. For the national waters, chemical pollution is the main
problem for achieving good status.
3.2
Relevant water policy questions in the basin
3.2.1
Policy options and goal achievement
Policy options are packages of measures that are assessed for their ability to achieve objectives and their cost. By
comparing different policy options, insights can be gained into the feasibility and costs of achieving improved water
quality. Such an analysis is needed for specification of MEP/GEP.
Two different policy options are compared on their cost effectiveness and efficiency. The two tested policy options
are31:
• Policy Option 1: Autonomic implementation: measures based on current policy and associated financial budgets
until 2009. Other names for this option include the Basic Option and Option I Autonomic development and limited
(national waters, groundwater)
• Policy Option II: Strong: all socially feasible and cost-effect measures necessary for a good state. Also termed
Option II Cost-effective, Strong (national waters and groundwater)
Possible measures for surface water fall within the following categories:
• Source-directed measures: all measures that reduce the use and subsequently the emission of specific substances;
• End-of-pipe measures: all measures that ensure that substances are not emitted, or that less are emitted, into water;
• Water system measures: all measure in the water system itself, including the management of water levels and
maintenance; and
• Spatial planning measures: planning to realise measures (e.g. change of land use or function, claims).
31 Information about the third option, with a maximal effort, is not provided. Results were too uncertain for inclusion.
20
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
The most cost-effective of these are indicated in the table below:
Table 8 Regional, cost-effective measure (excluding generic measures)
Most cost-effective source measure
Use of a sleepdoek when spraying pesticides
Removal of creosote-coated structures along river banks
Tighter controls on permits
Most cost-effective end of pipe measures
Separation of clean and dirty water streams
Modifications to WWTPs (not generic; locally can be very effective)
Separation of fresh and salt systems / clean and dirty systems
Purification of rainwater from existing, separated systems
Ban on untreated emissions in outside areas
Decoupling of rainwater via laminated filters
Most cost-effective water system measures
Construction of spawning and wintering areas
Coupling, deepening, enlarging and creating more robust systems
Water plants accepted by urban areas
Relocation of inlets to a place with cleaner or another type of water (e.g. brackish)
Fish stocking
Construction of fish ladder at weirs
Modification of management via mowing
Morphological measures conforming to profile
Retention of water in capillary by, for example, enlarging the length of supply and isolation of ditches, and removing drainage
Improving migration by divers, fish ladders and removing barriers
The ecological effect and, where possible, the chemical effect were estimated (see chapter 4) as were the direct costs
(see chapter 5) of each option32. The two options may be compared in figure 14 below. Clearly, autonomic development
is insufficient to achieve good ecological quality throughout Rijn-West. The more stringent option achieves better
quality, particularly along the rivers, but still falls considerably short of the WFD objectives.
3.2.2
Relevant policy questions
Relevant policy questions related to the implementation of the WFD within Rijn-West and the measurement of
environmental benefits, are related to the effectiveness and efficiency of policy options. Information on socio-economic
benefits is hardly available, especially when it comes to recreational values and non-use values.
Possible issues to address within the AquaMoney case studies are therefore:
• The recreational value of water quality improvements (e.g. swimming water quality, permit control, fish ladders,
water plants and natural river banks);
• The socio-economic value of land use changes (e.g. agricultural changes);
• The socio-economic value, especially non-use values, related to improvement of ecosystems (e.g. conservation of
species).
32
Not all social costs and benefits were captured. This needs improvement. The Workgroup Trade-off Framework is developing a scorecard to represent such costs and
benefits. This may be available for use for further analysis in the second round (2006 t/m 2007).
21
AquaMoney
Figure 8 Ecological effects of Policy Options 1 & 2
3.3
Information sources and stakeholder involvement
Information on Rijn-West is mostly from www.kaderrichtlijnwater.nl. In this report, information is missing on
ecological indicators, but a framework to analyse the ecological status is currently being developed in the KRWVerkenner. Reports of STOWA have become available in February 2007, and will be used for further development of
the case study.
Monitoring data and GIS information is available from the Provincial Councils and Waterschappen - the regional
institutions responsible for water management (quantity, quality, allocation). Other sources of information are the
Central Bureau of Statistics, KNMI (Royal Dutch Meteoroligical Institute), and Alterra.
The identified stakeholders are: Households (drinking water, recreation), industry (cooling, process water), agriculture
(irrigation), shipping (transport). Fisheries and mining play a minor role.
22
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
4.
ERC analysis and methodological issues
4.1
List of main water-related goods and services provided in the basin
Following the table of the AquaMoney guidelines, all goods and services as mentioned under outcomes are provided in
the basin, except real wilderness values and saline intrusion. Most important goods and services provided by the aquatic
ecosystem include drinking water, transportation, recreation, irrigation water, cooling water and water used for other
industrial processes such as food processing, chemical products (NL) and paper industry (FR). Other services include
nutrient storage and uptake, carbon sequestration, biodiversity and habitat, flood protection/water storage.
4.2
List possible benefits and cost from that water services
See 4.1. The case studies will focus on recreation values and nature - non-use values. The stakeholders that the case
studies thereby mostly address are households, who might attach value to water quality maintenance/improvement.
In the case studies, which address specific sites, a shortlist will be developed of the main environmental benefits derived
from reaching good ecological status by 2015 at each study site.
4.3
Type of ERC analysis to performance
Environmental costs are the costs of not reaching good ecological status by 2015. The main objective of the economic
valuation study is therefore: the estimation of environmental and resource benefits of reaching good ecological status
for inclusion in cost-benefit analysis of the identified WFD programme of measures to underpin possible derogation
according to Article 4 and classification of Heavily Modified Water Bodies.
4.4
Proposed methods and tools for the valuation of ERC:
Inductive methods will be used for valuing water goods/services
• Stated preferences methods (CV, choice experiments)
• Benefits transfer.
Stated preference methods (choice experiment and/or contingent valuation) will be used to assess use and non-use
values associated with reaching a good ecological status in 2015.
The main tools for analysis are:
• Surveys (for the stated preference methods)
• Statistical techniques (regression analysis)
• GIS based value mapping
4.5
Methodological issues
The main methodological issues are:
1. The influence of spatial characteristics of the water bodies (proximity, connections, shape, size, number, surrounding
zones, relative distance), the spatial distribution of the population and their characteristics (income, education,
spatial perception), and the spatial interaction between the two (relative distance towards water bodies, in-situ/exsitu use, substitutability) on WTP for water quality improvements. In the analysis the spatial physical characteristics
of the different water bodies will be explored. These characteristics influence the scale of the functions that the water
bodies can deliver. They will also influence the way people are using the environment, and the way they perceive it
(catchment as a whole, sub-catchment, individual water body). Specific attention is going to be paid to the influence
of spatial characteristics on use versus non-use values.
2. Aggregation:
• different levels (scale) of value exercise: water body, subcatchment, catchment (upscaling economic values from
individual water body to basin level)
• background, natural characteristics of the water system
• taking into account social system (population distribution)
3. Benefits transfer across sub-basins, taking into account spatial (e.g. upstream-downstream) interrelationships and
possible substitution effects (e.g. recreation)
23
AquaMoney
Ecosystem functions
Social system
Goods and services of
human value
Water quality changes
Spatial characteristics
Figure 9 Spatial characteristics influencing economic valuation
Furthermore, attention will be paid to methodological issues such as:
• Linking economic values to pressure and/or biological impact indicators
• Describing WFD outcomes in terms of understandable lay-mens terms
• Possibility of creating a GIS based value map
To address these issues, the case studies consist of different layers addressing different (geographical) scales of
economic value analysis:
• Rijn-West sub-catchment as a whole
• Upstream-downstream connections through specific sites (Gelderse Poort, the main river Waal/Nederrijn, and the
Biesbosch)
• A system of spatially connected lakes and virtual water bodies (Vechtstreek)
• Individual lakes and water bodies (Naardermeer)
For these sites, information on the environmental benefits will be listed, and combined with the relevant information on
population and physical water body characteristics, including the water quality and the spatial attributes. The goods and
services provided by each site depend on the scale of the site. The Rijn-West subcatchment has an economic market that
lies beyond its hydrological borders. This holds especially for the National Parks the Naardermeer and the Biesbosch,
which are among the most famous nature areas in Holland, but also for the Biesbosch and the Gelderse Poort as they lie
right on the border of the Rijn-West area. Therefore, stakeholders located outside the geological area will also be
addressed and their values assessed.
The different scales of assessment will furthermore be used in the analysis to test for part-whole and sensitivity-to-scope
tests. Non-use values are estimated by sampling for (future) non-users, and by assessing values for areas with restricted
access (Naardermeer). One of the questions here is use and non-use values are equally sensitive to spatial attributes,
such as distance. Another focus point regarding spatial scale is the effect of available substitutes on WTP.
4.6
Available studies/information on ERC and expected information
Besides the before mentioned references and information sources, more information will be available through:
• The Vechtstreek area is described in Van den Bergh et al (2004): Spatial Ecological-Economic Analysis for Wetland
Management; Modelling and Scenario Evaluation of Land Use
• Most of the missing information will be related to ecological quality criteria, for which the KRW-verkenner is
currently under development.
• Studies on ERCB in the Netherlands:
o Brouwer, R., Groot, D. de Groot, E. Ruijgrok, H. Verbruggen (2003), De Kosten en Baten van Natuur
en Milieu, Arena Opinieblad van de Vereniging van Milieukundigen, nr.3, pg. 37-40.
o Brouwer, R. (2004), Wat is schoon water de Nederlander waard?, H2O, nr. 12, pg. 4-5
24
Case Study Report Rhine (Deliverable D27)
Brouwer, R., T.H.L. Claassen, H. Coops, R.J.H.M. van der Veen (2004), De economische waarde van
natuurlijk peilbeheer voor het bereiken van ecologische doelstellingen in de Kaderrichtlijn Water,
H2O, nr. 37, pg. 25-26.
• Two more studies on water valuation in the Scheldt are coming out soon, data are available at IVM.
o
25
AquaMoney
Annex 1
Table 9 Summary of preliminary assessment of 12 selected substances (* = problem substance for Rijn-West)
Top 12
Category
Comment
Rhine-relevant
A problem substance that almost nowhere conforms to standards.
substance
Exceedance of standards is limited in national waters
substances
Phosphate*
Exceedance occurs mostly in regional waters: polder drainage, ditches, and brackish lakes.
Nitrogen*
Rhine-relevant
A problem substance that almost nowhere conforms to standards
substance
In the great rivers, standards are met.
Exceedance occurs in all water types.
Zinc*
Rhine-relevant
A problem in approx. half of Rijn-West.
substance
Standards are met in the Noorderkwartier (North Quarter) and in national waters.
Exceedance of standards occurs in all water types.
Copper*
Rhine-relevant
A problem substance that exceeds standards in three-quarters of Rijn-West.
substance
Standards are met in the Noorderkwartier (North Quarter) and coastal waters.
Exceedance of standards occurs in all water types, except brackish lakes and salt waters.
Nickel*
Priority
A problem substance in only a limited part of Rijn-West.
substance
Exceedance of standards occurs in Zuid-Holland Zuid and Midden-Holland. Standards in the North Sea (stricter) are
exceeded substantially.
Exceedance of standards occurs in all water types, except brackish water
PCB*
Rhine-relevant
A problem substance in national waters.
substance
Not measured in regional waters, or the detection levels lies above the standard, because it is measure in solution. This
substance should be measured as a suspended solid.
Exceedance of standards occurs mainly in the rivers (main system), and to a lesser extent in canals and coastal waters.
Fluor-anthene
Priority
A problem substance in one-third of national waters.
substance
It is measured to only a limited extent in regional waters,. Where it is measured it is measured in solution and conforms
to standards. This substance should be measured as a suspended substance.
Exceedance of standards occurs mainly in the upper river areas and in the North Sea Canal.
Benzo(k)-
Priority
A problem substance wherever it is measured, except in the Rivierengebied.
fluoranthene *
substance
Exceedance of standards occurs mainly in canals, rivers and brackish lakes.
Benzo(a)-pyrene
Priority
Not really a problem substance, except in the North Sea where there are stricter standards.
substance
If this substance is measured, it is in solution and conforms to standards.
Other chemical
Not routinely monitored, but measurements indicate that it is a problem substance, particularly in the Rivierengebied,
substance
Amstelland and Midden-Holland. It is not measured in national waters.
Carbenda-zim*
Exceedance of standards occurs around the North Sea Canal and in Midden-Holland.
Exceedance of standards occurs primarily in regional waters: polder drainage and ditches.
MCPA
Pirimicarb
26
Rhine-relevant
Both from routine monitoring and select measurement, this substance does not exceed standards.
substance
Measured only in a quarter of the area.
Other chemical
Only limited monitoring. Measurements indicate that standards are not exceeded, expect in Midden-Holland. Select,
substance
project measurement suggest that here standards are not exceeded.