THE WATER/ENERGY NEXUS
and its relevance
IN DESERT ENVIRONMENTS
Prof. Martin J. Pasqualetti
School of Geographical Sciences
Senior Sustainability Scientist, Global
Institute of Sustainability
Arizona State University
SULTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITY
Workshop on Water and Energy
23 March 2014
ARIZONA
6,500,000
295,254 sq km
90 -180 mm/yr
3545 km²
21-3851 m
OMAN
POPULATION
AREA
RAINFALL
IRRIGATED LAND
ELEVATION RANGE
3,200,000
309,500 sq km
20 -100 mm/yr
558 km²
0 – 3,004 m
Introduction
The Context of the Energy/Water
Nexus
Humanity’s Top 10 Problems for the
Next 50 Years
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Energy
Water
Food
Environment
Poverty
Terrorism and War
Disease
Education
Democracy
Population
Source: Nobel laureate, Richard Smalley
Areas of Water Scarcity
Developing all Forms of Oil Won’t Buy Much Time
OUTLINE
 PART ONE – Basic Energy/Water Relationships
 PART TWO – Energy/Water in the Arizona desert
 PART THREE – Energy/Water in the desert of Oman
 PART FOUR – Implications for the Future
Part One
BASIC ENERGY/WATER
RELATIONSHIPS
Water and Energy Are Tightly Linked
Electrical Generation Requires
Cooling Water
The global increase of demand for electricity will collide with
the increasing demand for water in a warming climate.
Water Withdrawals for Power Plant Cooling
Exceeds Any Other use
Water Demand for Energy
to Double by 2035
Indirect Water Use In US Households
Exceeds Direct Use

A U.S. household uses about 278,000
liters directly each month for residential
purposes for a 2.4 person household

An average household uses just under
1,000 kWh of electricity each month
based on the 2010 U.S. Census data (958
kWh).

Based on the mix of fuels and cooling
technologies, the average U.S. household
indirectly uses about 150,000 liters of
water per month through the associated
water footprint of electricity.

Therefore, we can say that we use five
times more water indirectly through
electrical production than through all of
our household sinks, toilets, dishwashers,
washing machines, faucets and hoses
combined.
Coal Mining Reduces River Quality
 Approximately 1,200
miles of headwater
streams were directly
impacted by mountaintop
removal between 1992
and 2002 in the study
area.
 An estimated 724 stream
miles were destroyed by
valley fills from 1985 to
2001.
River Polluted by Coal Mine Wastes
Rivers Destroyed Mountain-Top Removal
NRDC, Coal in A Changing Climate (p. 8). http://www.nrdc.org/globalwarming/coal/coalclimate.pdf
EOR by Hydraulic Fracturing Will
Require More Water
• Water first pumped down the
hole to enhance oil and
recovery typically totals 2
million gallons (7.5 million
liters) per well.
• Plus each of wells uses
more than 600 gallons
(2,300 liters) in maintenance
water. Without it, salt
buildup forms and restricts
the flow of oil.
• Over the life of the well (3040 years) “maintenance
water” needs could add up to
6.6 million to 8.8 million
gallons (25 to 33.3 million
liters)—or more than three to
four times the water required
for the initial fracturing.
Capturing Carbon = ~2X Water Use
By 2030, the addition of carbon-capture
technology would boost water
consumption in the U.S. electricity sector
by 80 percent, or about 7500 megaliters
per day, according to research at U.S.
Department of Energy.
Source: The Water Cost of Carbon Capture: Coal power's carbon savior could double its water woes. By Samuel K. Moore. Posted 28 May 2010
New research from the Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research has found that the
global rise in sea level is happening 60% faster than the projections by the U.N.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Greener Ideas, Dec. 1, 2012
Arizona This Way
Effect of Sea Level Rise on the Location
of Retired People
Part Two
ENERGY and WATER IN THE
ARIZONA DESERT
Arizona’s Rapid
Growth
The Colorado River Machine
The
Colorado
River
provides
water to
millions of
people in 7
states
Lake Powell, Arizona at Full Pool
Present Conditions at Lake Powell
Evaporation and Bank Storage at
Two Arizona Hydroelectric Dams
Lake Mead - 648,000 ac-ft/yr
Lake Powell - 553,000 ac-ft/yr
1 481 Mm3/yr lost east year
(Oman demand = 1 872 Mm3 )
Arizona Resident Avoid Reality
Arizona Power Plants
Legend
Arizona Power Plants
PRIMARY_FUEL
"
!¶
(!
#
Coal
Nuclear
Natural Gas
!(
Water
Sun
'-
Geothermal
!(
Landfill Gas
Wood/Waste Solids
Fuel Oil
Example of Plant-Specific Data
Historic Water Use at APS Four Corners Power Plant
Fuel Source: Coal
All Values in Acre-Feet (except where noted)
PLANT
Year
Water Use By Source
Total Water Use
Ground Water Surface Water
Four Corners
Four Corners
Four Corners
Four Corners
Four Corners
Four Corners
Four Corners
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
28,480
28,900
29,035
28,453
27,004
27,702
27,754
Return Flow
Net MWH
Treated Effluent
Normalized
Water
Consumption
0
28,480
0
5,992
14,920,619
(Gallons/MWh)
491
0
28,900
0
6,714
15,299,665
473
22,186
0
29,035
0
9,002
13,674,415
477
20,033
0
28,453
0
5,860
15,678,909
470
22,594
0
27,004
0
4,469
14,987,217
490
22,535
0
0
27,702
27,754
0
0
2,872
4,411
17,288,318
17,739,436
468
429
24,831
23,342
22,488
27,990
Notes:
Normalized water consumption = (Water Use - Return flow)/Net MWH
Source of Water for the Four Corners Power Plant is surface water from the San Juan River. Water Rights owned by BHP.
Water is stored in nearby Morgan Lake which is also used for plant cooling. There are no cooling towers at the Four Corners Power Plant.
Blowdown water (Return Flow) from Morgan Lake is discharged to a tributary of the San Juan River system under NPDES permit.
15,873,659
467
22,667
Water Consumed by
Power Generation in Arizona
Meets the yearly water needs of ~125,000
people in Oman @ 500 m3 per person; i.e.
approx the same number as in Arizona
63 663 698 m3
Arizona Electrical Sources,
including imports
Electricity Exports
Net Virtual Water Consumption
-30,000 acre-feet (37 Mm3)
To Northwest power grid:
Export 5,930 AF
NV:
Export 3,042 AF
CO:
Export 900 AF
Import 4,277 AF
-3,042 AF
+3,377 AF
Kingman
CA:
Export 24,501 AF
Flagstaff
Prescott
NM:
Export 6,771 AF
Import 17,572 AF
+10,801 AF
Phoenix
Yuma
Casa Grande
Tucson
Arizona:
Export: 51,613 AF
Import: 21,800 AF
TX:
Export 10,469 AF
-10,469 AF
Virtual Water
Transfers from
the Entire
Colorado River
Watershed
330,000 Ac-Ft
(407 Mm3)
Source: Scott Kelley and Martin J. Pasqualetti. Virtual Water from a Vanishing River Journal – American Water
Works Association. 105:9. September. 2013.
Conclusions for Arizona
 Water shortages will curtail energy
development options
 Permits will be denied for conventional
energy power plants because there are
insufficient supplies of cooling water
 Alternative approaches will be required
 Low-water using renewable energy is an
obvious option
Part Three
ENERGY/WATER IN THE
DESERTS OF OMAN
Goals for Oman
 Self sufficiency in food production
 Diversification of the economy
 Enhanced tourism
ALL THESE ASPIRATIONS
REQUIRE
ENERGY AND WATER
WATER CONDITIONS IN OMAN
 Groundwater –
130,000
production wells
 Springs – 3017
 Aflaj - 4112
Source: Water Sector in the Sultanate of Oman, Said Al – Habsi and Nasser Al – Hosni, Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources
Water Conditions in Oman - 2
 Recent studies show that the
average water demands in
Oman is about 1872 Mm3
/year, which exceeds the
available water resources by
about 316 Mm3.
 Water availability = 500
m3/capita (extreme stress)
Sources: Tourism and Water Resources in Oman Dr. Aisha Mufti Al-Sayyid Hassan Al-Qurashi, Seminar on:
“Water for Sustainable Tourism industry” 24-25 Sep 2013 Sultanate Of Oman, Nizwa; Water Sector in the
Sultanate of Oman, Said Al – Habsi and Nasser Al – Hosni, Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
Water Conditions in Oman - 3
 Water levels and Aflaj
flows are declining
 92% of water resources
are used in agriculture
 Saline intrusion in
coastal aquifers
 30% is lost to the sea or
desert
Source: Integrated Water Management Strategy in Oman, Dr. Saif
Al Shaqsi, Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
Resources
Water Use in Oman
Water Sector in the Sultanate of Oman, Said Al – Habsi and Nasser Al – Hosni, Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources
Main Water Challenges in Oman
 Balance demand and renewable water resources
 Protect water resources from both pollution and
depletion
 Secure safe potable water supply
 Increase in collection and reuse of treated
wastewater
 Secure industrial and commercial water demand
according to the available water resources
 Protect and save the achieved investments in the
water sector’s infrastructure
Integrated Water Management Strategy in Oman, Dr. Saif Al Shaqsi, Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources
OIL AND GAS in OMAN
 In 2012, Oman's
hydrocarbons sector
accounted for 86% of
government revenues,
according to the country's
Ministry of Finance.
 Further, revenues from oil
and natural gas accounted
for approximately 40% of
Oman's gross domestic
product in 2012, according
to IHS Global Insight.
Source: Norton Rose Fulbright
Hydrocarbons in Oman - 1
 Oman's total oil supply
reached 924,000 barrels
per day in 2012, and the
government hopes to
produce more than
940,000 barrels per day in
2013.
 Oman aims to capitalize
on its strategic location on
the Arabian Peninsula by
expanding its refining and
storage sectors
Reserve-to-Production Ratio is Low
Hydrocarbons in Oman - 2
 Long-term contracts
requires that 55% of gas
production is exported,
resulting in domestic
demand consistently
outstripping production.
 As a result, Oman is a
net importer of natural
gas at a rate of 200
million cubic feet per
day for the purposes of
electricity generation.
EOR in Oman
 After declining for several years in the
early 2000s, enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) techniques, such as steam
injection and miscible injection, have
been the key driver of Oman's
rebounding oil production since 2007
 EOR in the form of hydraulic fracturing
will require substantial water
What Comes Next?
 Despite Oman’s oil and gas resources, neither is
easily accessible, expensive to develop and shortlived
 Oman's fiscal breakeven price for oil in 2013 is
approximately $104 per barrel
 What will replace this source of energy when it
runs out?
Part Four
IMPLICATIONS FOR THE FUTURE
Life After Oil
Integrated Program to Meet Future
Water Requirements
Water Sector in the Sultanate of Oman, Said Al – Habsi and Nasser Al – Hosni, Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources
Non-Conventional Water Resources
 Desalination
 Storage dams and
recharge dams
 Wastewater
treatment
 Imported virtual
water
Source: Water Sector in the Sultanate of Oman,
Said Al – Habsi and Nasser Al – Hosni, Ministry
of Regional Municipalities and Water Resources
Al Ghubrah Power & Desalination Company
Moving Toward Efficiency
Source: IEA, World Energy Outlook, 2010, page 90.
The Move Toward Self-Sufficiency
Source: http://new.renhttp://new.ren21.net/REN21Activities/GlobalFuturesReport.aspx
Renewables Tend to Have Low Water Needs
1 gallon = 3.8 liters
Moving Away from Fossil Fuels
 In general, moving
away from fossil
fuels towards
renewable energy
sources will help
stretch limited
freshwater resources.
Renewable Energy in Oman
 Oman has a nascent renewable energy sector,
with several projects making progress in 2013.
 In its 2012 Annual Report, Oman's Rural
Areas Electricity Company detailed five
renewable electricity projects, of which three
are solar and two are wind.
 The combined capacity of the five projects is
over 6 megawatts, but none of the proposed
facilities are ready to begin operations.
Geothermal
Energy
Source: Al Lamki & Terken,
GeoArabia, Vol.I, no.4, 1996
Geothermal Energy
 While the abundant
geothermal resources in the
Sultanate are essentially lowenthalpy (temperature)
reservoirs, they can be used
for a range of applications that
currently depend on
conventional energy.
 These include heating,
cooling, crop production, and
even desalination of brackish
water
Al Rustaq hot spring, Oman
Source: Geothermal Energy: an Option for Oman? The overlooked potential of lowtemperature geothermal resources. RG Thermal Energy Solutions.
Solar and Wind Projects in Oman
The projects are
to be in
different
governorates of
the country
with a solar
plant to be in
Musandam and
three in Al
Wusta, while
two wind farms
are to be
located in
Dhofar.
Annual Report 2012, Rural Areas Electricity Company
Wind Power in Oman
Oman benefits from a long coastline and
exposure to the strong summer and
winter monsoon winds. It has an
average wind speed slightly over 5 m/s
and an estimated 2,463 hours of full
load per year, making wind power an
economically viable form of renewable
energy.
Recent studies undertaken show that
several identified locations would
produce 2.3TWh a year of electricity.
This corresponds to 12 per cent of
Oman’s 2010 electricity production.
Source: Norton Rose Fulbright
Wind Power Issues
Care should be
exercised to
avoid
environmental
damage and
public
opposition
Reference:
Martin J. Pasqualetti. 2012. The Misdirected Opposition to Wind Power. In Learning from Wind Power:
Governance, Societal and Policy Perspectives on Sustainable Energy. Joseph Szarka, Richard Cowell, Geraint Ellis,
Peter Strachan and Charles Warren, eds. Palgrave, pp. 133-152.
Public Resistance is
Mostly About
Aesthetics and
Personal Space
Solar Power is Abundant, Clean,
Low-Water and Limitless
Solar Replacing at Coal
Solar Replacing Nuclear
Solar Replacing Oil
New Solar Installations
1. Aqua Caliente – 250MW (PV)
2. Solar Power Project 280 MW
(parabolic trough - wet)
3. Ivanpah – 400 MW (power tower – dry)
Dry-Cooling is Becoming Mandatory
Higher
costs, lower
efficiency,
but more
than 90%
reduction in
consumed
water
Solar Desalination is a Clean Necessity
Water/Energy Recommendations for
Oman
 Continue and improve conventional water




conservation measures
Strengthen energy efficiency throughout the
economy (and save water at the same time)
Diversify the energy sector by accelerating recent
trends toward renewable energy development
Increase the use of dry (air) cooling technologies
Develop renewable energy for desalination
Abundant Opportunities for
Collaboration
In many ways, the energy/water nexus creates the same
problems and suggests the same solutions in the deserts
of Oman as it does in the desert s of Arizona. Perhaps we
can work together for the common goal of a more
sustainable future in both places.
THE WATER/ENERGY NEXUS
and its relevance
IN DESERT ENVIRONMENTS
Prof. Martin J. Pasqualetti
School of Geographical Sciences
Senior Sustainability Scientist, Global
Institute of Sustainability
Arizona State University
THANK YOU
SULTAN QABOOS UNIVERSITY
Workshop on Water and Energy
23 March 2014
Selected References
 Scott Kelley and Martin J. Pasqualetti. Virtual Water from a Vanishing




River Journal – American Water Works Association. 105:9. September.
2013.
Martin J. Pasqualetti. The Water Bargain of Solar and Wind Energy. In
The Water-Energy Nexus in the Western United States, edited by
Douglas S. Kenney and Robert Wilkinson. Northampton, MA: Edward
Elgar Publishing Inc. Chapter 16, pp. 226-242. 2012.
Christopher Scott and Martin J. Pasqualetti. Energy and Water
Resources Scarcity: Critical Infrastructure for Growth and Economic
Development in Arizona and Sonora. Natural Resources Journal, 50 (3):
645-682. 2011.
Christopher A. Scott, Suzanne A. Pierce, Martin J. Pasqualetti, Alice
L. Jones, Burrell E. Montz, Joseph H. Hoover. Policy and institutional
dimensions of the water–energy nexus. Energy Policy. 39(10): 66226630. 2011.
Ben Ruddell and Martin J. Pasqualetti. Arizona’s Energy/Water Nexus.
In Arizona’s Energy Future. Clark Miller and Sharlissa Moore, eds.
Phoenix: Arizona Town Hall. Pp. 79-90. 2011.