Theearlychildhoodcareandeducationworkforcefrom1990through2010:
Changingdynamicsandpersistentconcerns
DaphnaBassok,UniversityofVirginia,1
MariaFitzpatrick,CornellUniversity2
SusannaLoeb,StanfordUniversity3
AgustinaS.Paglayan,StanfordUniversity4
WearegratefultoDavidDeming,BruceFuller,DeborahStipek,andtwoanonymous
refereesforusefulcommentsonpreviousdraftsofthispaper.Thisresearchwassupported
byagrantfromtheInstituteofEducationSciences(R305A100574).Theviewsexpressed
herearethoseoftheauthorsanddonotnecessarilyreflecttheviewsoftheUniversityof
Virginia,CornellUniversity,StanfordUniversity,orIES.Anyremainingerrorsareourown.
1AssistantProfessor,CurrySchoolofEducation,UniversityofVirginia,405EmmetStreetSouth,
Charlottesville,VA22904(dbassok@virginia.edu)
2AssistantProfessor,DepartmentofPolicyAnalysisandManagement,CornellUniversity,103MarthaVan
RensselaerHall,Ithaca,NY14853(mdf98@cornell.edu)
3BarnettFamilyProfessor,StanfordUniversity,520GalvezMall,Stanford,CA94305(sloeb@stanford.edu)
4Doctoralstudent,StanfordUniversity,520GalvezMall,Stanford,CA94305(paglayan@stanford.edu)
ABSTRACT
Despiteheightenedpolicyinterestinearlychildhoodcareandeducation(ECCE),littleis
knownabouttheECCEworkforcetodayortheextenttowhichthisworkforcehaschanged
overaperiodofsubstantialinvestmentinthissector.Usingnationally‐representativedata,
thispaperfillsthisgapbydocumentingchangesbetween1990‐2010intheeducational
attainment,compensationandturnoveroftheECCEworkforce.Wefindthatthenational
ECCEworkforceremainsalow‐education,low‐compensation,andhigh‐turnover
workforce.Atthesametime,theaverageeducationalattainmentandcompensationof
ECCEworkersincreasedsubstantiallyoverthepasttwodecadesandturnoverdecreased
sharply.WedocumentamajorshiftinthecompositionoftheECCEworkforcetowards
center‐basedsettingsandawayfromhome‐basedsettings.Surprisinglyhowever,thisshift
towardsmoreregulatedsettingsisnottheprimarydriveroftheobservedchangesinthe
ECCEworkforce.WeshowthatimprovementsinthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforce
weredrivenprimarilybychangeswithinsectorsand,contrarytoourexpectations,we
showthatthehome‐basedworkforce,whichfacestheleaststringentregulations,
experiencedthemostimprovementovertheperiodexamined,thoughhome‐based
workersremainsubstantiallydifferentfromformalcareworkers.
INTRODUCTION
IntheUnitedStates,mostchildrenunderagefivereceiveregularcarebysomeoneother
thantheirparents(U.S.CensusBureau2010;Bassok2010).Earlychildhoodexperiences
playacentralroleinshapingsubsequentdevelopmentaltrajectories,andtheimpactof
theseearlyexperiencesdependslargelyonthequalityofcaregiversandteachers(Shonkoff
andPhillips2000;Peisner‐Feinbergetal.2001;Knudsen,Heckman,CameronandShonkoff
2006;HamreandPianta2006;NationalScientificCouncilontheDevelopingChild2004,
2007).
Growingrecognitionoftheimportanceofearlychildhoodcareandeducation
(ECCE)ingeneral,andofECCEprovidersinparticular,hasheightenedpolicyinterestin
strengtheningthequalityoftheECCEworkforce.In2011,thefederalgovernmentfunded
theRacetotheTopEarlyLearningChallenge,acompetitivegrantprogramtosupport
states’effortstoimproveearlychildhoodeducationprograms,andidentified“supportinga
greatearlychildhoodeducationworkforce”asoneoffivekeyareasofreform.Thelatest
reauthorizationofthefederalHeadStartprogramrequiresthatfiftypercentofHeadStart
teachersholdaBachelor’sdegree(BA)inchilddevelopmentorarelatedfieldby2013
(Barnettetal.2010).Further,25statesareoperatingordevelopingQualityRatingand
ImprovementSystems(QRIS)toassessandimprovethequalityofECCE,andmanyofthese
QRISprogramsofferfinancialincentivestoprovidersthatinvestintheiremployees’
educationandtraining(Toutetal.2010).
Despitetheinterestintheimprovementofthissector,weknowrelativelylittle
aboutthecurrentstateoftheECCEworkforce,andevenlessabouttheextenttowhichthis
workforcehaschangedovertime.ItiswelldocumentedthattheECCEworkforceis
1 characterizedbylowlevelsofeducation,wagesandstability(Brandon,2011;Howes,
PhillipsandWhitebook1992;Cost,QualityandOutcomesStudyTeam1995;NICHDEarly
ChildCareResearchNetwork2000;VandellandWolfe2000;CommitteeonEarly
ChildhoodCareandEducationWorkforce;InstituteofMedicineandNationalResearch
Council2012).Forinstance,theaverageannualincomeofpaidECCEworkersin2009
rangedfrom$11,500forthoseworkinginachild’shometo$18,000forpreschoolteachers
(U.S.GovernmentAccountabilityOffice2012).5However,whilestudieshavedocumented
theloweducation,wagesandstabilityofECCEworkersusingavarietyofdatasources,the
diverseanddispersednatureoftheindustrymakessystematicanalysisdifficult.Arecent
reportoftheNationalResearchCouncildescribeshowthelackofcomprehensivedata
trackingthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforceseriouslylimitspolicymakers’effortsto
facilitatechangeortrackimprovementsovertime(ADDCITATION).
Overthepasttwentyyearsutilizationof“formal”ECCEservicessuchaspreschool
andHeadStarthasincreasedrapidly.Thisincreasehasledtoadeclineintheshareof
workersemployedinmore“informal”home‐basedsettings,suchasfamilychildcarehomes
(Bassok,FitzpatrickandLoeb2012).Giventhatthehome‐basedsectorfacesmuchless
stringentregulationsthantheformalsector,andisoftensingledoutforprovidingthe
lowest‐qualitycare–theshifttowardsformalcaremayhavetranslatedintooverall
improvementsintheECCEworkforceovertime.Unfortunately,attemptstodescribethe
evolutionoftheECCEworkforcehavebeenlimitedduetothepaucityofdatathatallows
5Educationandturnoverstatisticspresentasimilarpicture.Forinstance,turnoverinCaliforniachildcare
centersbetween1996and2000wasestimatedatabout75percent(Whitebooketal.2001)andanother
studysurveyingchildcarecentersinIowa,Kansas,NebraskaandMissouri,foundthat40percentof
caregiversintendedtoleavetheECCEindustrywithinlessthanfiveyears(Torquati,RaikesandHuddleston‐
Casas2007).
2 forreliablecomparisonsoftheworkforceovertime(Saluja,EarlyandClifford2002;
BrandonandMartinez‐Beck2006;Kagan,KauerzandTarrant2008).
ThefewstudiesthathaveexaminedtheevolutionoftheECCEworkforceovertime
actuallysuggestthatthequalificationsoftheworkforcehaveeitherchangedonlymodestly
orhavedeclined(Whitebooketal.2001;Saluja,EarlyandClifford2002;Herzenberg,Price
andBradley2005;BellmandWhitebook2006).However,thesestudiesdonotemploy
nationallyrepresentativedataand/orfocusonlyonasinglesectoroftheECCEindustry,
typicallychildcarecenters.Thelackofknowledgeaboutchangeswithinthehome‐based
workforcerepresentsaparticularlyrelevantgapintheliterature,giventhatthissector
accountsforaboutathirdofthenationalECCEworkforce(U.S.GovernmentAccountability
Office2012).
Inthispolicybriefwemakeuseofnationally‐representativedatathatencompass
workersinallthreeECCEsectors–centers,homesandschools–toaddressthreequestions:
(1)WhatarethecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforceasof2010?
(2)Howdidthecharacteristicsofthisworkforcechangebetween1990and2010?
(3)Towhatextentaretheoverallchangesdrivenbyachangeintherelativeimportanceof
eachsector(centers,homes,schools),andtowhatextentaretheyexplainedbychangesin
thecharacteristicsoftheworkforceswithineachsector?
WefocusonfouroutcomestogaugethewellbeingoftheECCEworkforceand
plausiblyproxyforECCEquality:(1)theeducationalattainmentofworkers;(2)their
compensation;(3)theextenttowhichworkersexittheindustryoverayear;and(4)the
occupationalprestigeofthosewhoentertheECCEworkforceeachyearfromother
occupations.Improvementsalongthesedimensionsarelikelytoreflectanincreasedability
3 toattractandretainqualifiedworkersintotheECCEindustry,andinturnmayimply
higherqualityexperiencesforyoungchildren.6
Wefindthatthe“low‐education,low‐compensation,high‐turnover”characterization
ofthenationalECCEworkforcecontinuestobevalid.Atthesametime,weshowthatthe
averageeducationalattainmentandcompensationoftheECCEworkforceincreased
between1990and2010,andthatturnoverfromtheECCEindustrydecreased
substantially.Ourresultsdifferfromearlierstudiesthathighlightnegativeorstagnant
trendsintheECCEworkforce.Thesedifferencesarelikelyexplainedbyourfocusona
morerecentperiodofanalysisandouruseofnationaldataincludingworkersfromall
threechildcaresectors.Wealsoshowthatchangesinthecharacteristicsofthenational
workforcearemostlyexplainedbychangesinthecharacteristicsofworkerswithineach
sectorandlesssobytheshifttowardcenter‐andschool‐basedsettings.Surprisingly,we
findthatchangesalongalldimensionsanalyzedweremostpronouncedamonghome‐
basedworkers.
DATA
WeanalyzedatafromtheMarchSupplementoftheCurrentPopulationSurvey(CPS),a
nationallyrepresentativehouseholdsurveythatisadministeredeverymonthbytheU.S.
6Whileideallywecouldalsoassesschangesovertimeindirectmeasuresofcaregiverquality,nationaldata
trackingsuchmeasuresovertimearenotavailable.Severalstudieshavesoughttodeterminewhetherthere
isacausalrelationshipbetweenourproxiesandthequalityofcarechildrenexperience.Theevidencehereis
mixed.Asdescribedabove,improvementsinteachers’educationalattainmentareoftenpursuedasastrategy
toimprovequality,andsomestudiessuggestthat,oversomerange,higherlevelsofeducationarerelatedto
betterclassroompractices(Blau2000).Ontheotherhand,Early(2007)raisesdoubtsabouttherelationship
betweenspecificdegreesandchildoutcomes.Higherwagesareassociatedwithbetterclassroompractices
andlowerturnoverfromECCEjobs(Blau2000;WhitebookandSakai2003).Whilewearenotawareof
studiesinvestigatingtheimpactofindustryturnoveronchildren’sdevelopment,thefewstudiesontherole
ofjobturnovershowthatchildrenwhospendmoretimewiththeircaregiver,andthosewhodonot
experienceachangeintheprimarycaregiveroverthecourseofayear,establishmorenurturing
relationshipswiththeircaregiverandexhibitbettercognitiveoutcomes(Elicker,Fortner‐WoodandNoppe
1999;TranandWinsler2011).
4 CensusandtheBureauofLaborStatistics.UsingtheCensus1990and2002Industryand
OccupationalCodes,weidentifyECCEworkersanddisaggregatethisbroadgroupinto
center‐,home‐,andschool‐basedworkers.Wepurposefullyimplementabroadand
inclusivedefinitionoftheindustry.Specifically,ourcenter‐basedcategoryincludesall
workerswho(1)arenotself‐employed;(2)workineitherthe“childdaycareservices”
industry,orhavechildcareoccupations(e.g.,“childcareworkers”,“pre‐kindergartenor
kindergartenteachers”,“earlychildhoodteacher’sassistants”);and(3)workinan
industryotherthan“elementaryandsecondaryschools”,“privatehouseholds”,“individual
andfamilyservices”,or“familychildcarehomes”.7Ourdefinitionofthehome‐basedECCE
workforceincludes(1)allself‐employedindividualswhoreportthattheyworkinthe
“childdaycareservices”industry;(2)allthoseemployedinthe“familychildcarehomes”
industry;(3)thosewhohavechildcareoccupations(e.g.,“childcareworkers”,“private
householdchildcareworkers”,“pre‐kindergartenorkindergartenteachers”,“early
childhoodteacher’sassistants”)andareemployedinthe“privatehouseholds”or
“individualandfamilyservices”industries;and(4)thosewhohavechildcareoccupations
andareself‐employedinotherindustriesexceptfor“elementaryandsecondaryschools”.8
Finally,wedefinetheschool‐basedECCEworkforceas“pre‐kindergartenandkindergarten
teachers”and“earlychildhoodteacherassistants”employedinthe“elementaryand
secondaryschools”industry.WeobservewhethereachrespondentwasanECCEworkerin
7Onaverageovertheperiod1990‐2010,82.8percentofindividualsidentifiedascenter‐basedECCEworkers
wereemployedinthe“childdaycareservices”industry;theremaining17.2percentwereinotherindustries.
8
Our“home‐basedworkforce”includesallindividualswhotakecareofarelative,friend,orneighbor’schild,
whoreportthistobetheirjob.TheCPSreliesonself‐reportsandsomerelatives,friendsandneighborswho
assumechildcareresponsibilitiesmaynotreportthisasajobandwillthereforebeexcludedfromour
analysis.Totheextentthatthosewhofailtoreporttheiremploymentmaydifferinimportantwayfromthose
whodoidentifythisway,ourcharacterizationmaysufferfrombias.
5 theweekofreferenceandwhethertheirlongestjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasan
ECCEjob.
Theworkforcecharacteristicsthatweanalyzearemeasuredasfollows:
Educationalattainment:TheCPScollectsinformationabouteachhouseholdmember’s
highestlevelofeducationasoftheweekofreference.Inkeepingwithpriorstudies,we
describechangesintheshareofECCEworkerswithlessthanahighschooldegree,exactly
ahighschooldegree,atleastsomecollegeeducationbutnoBA,andatleastaBA.9 Compensation:Weobserveeachindividual’sannualearningsfromthelongestjobheldin
thepreviouscalendaryear.Wedescribethemeanannualearningsofthosewhosemainjob
inthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob.Wealsoestimatethehourlyearningsof
theseworkers,buthererestrictouranalysistothosewhowerefull‐yearworkersinthe
previouscalendaryear.10Weexpressbothearningsvariablesin2010dollars.
Individualsalsoreportwhetheranyemployerhelpedpayforapensionand/or
healthplaninthepreviouscalendaryear.Weusethisinformationtoconstructtheshareof
ECCEworkersthatreceivedthisnon‐salaryformofcompensation.Herewerestrictour
sampletoworkerswhosemainjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob,and,in
9Informationoneducationalattainmentisavailablefrom1992to2010.Mostotherworkforcecharacteristics
areavailablefor1990to2010.Theexceptionisinformationonearningsandbenefitsavailable
from1990to2009.
10WemakethisrestrictionbecausetheCPScollectsinformationabouthourlywagesonlyforasubsampleof
the March interviewees which excludes all self‐employed individuals, thus excluding a large proportion of
home‐basedworkers.Ratherthanexcludinghome‐basedworkersinouranalysis,weestimatedhourlywages
ofECCEworkersbasedontheirannualearningsandtheirreportedhoursworkedinatypicalweek.Because
the CPS does not specify the number of weeks worked in the past year, we limited analysis to full‐year
workersforwhomweassumed50weeksofwork(seetechnicalappendixformoredetails).Notethatour
estimatesthereforeapplyonlytothoseECCEworkerswhowereemployedonafull‐yearbasis(i.e.thosewho
worked 9 months or more). These represent 46 and 65 percent of those workers who in 1990 and 2010,
respectively,reportedthattheirmainjobinthepreviousyearhadbeenanECCEjob.Thesubsetoffull‐year
ECCE workers appears to be slightly more educated than the aggregate ECCE workforce, although the
differencesbetweenthetwogroupsarenotstatisticallysignificant.Still,ourestimationmayoverestimatethe
hourlyearningsoftheaggregateworkforce.
6 ordertobesurethebenefitswerereceivedfromanECCEemployer,includeonlythose
workerswhoreportedtheyhadonlyoneemployerinthepreviouscalendaryear.11
Year‐to‐yearindustryturnover:Tomeasurechildcareindustryturnoverrates,we
exploitthefactthattheCPSprovidesinformationaboutanindividual’sindustryand
occupationbothintheweekofreferenceandforthelongestjobheldintheprevious
calendaryear.Amongindividualswhosemainjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasan
ECCEjob,weestimatetheindustryturnoverrateastheshareofthosewhowerenolonger
intheECCEworkforceduringtheweekofreference.Ananalogousmethodisusedby
HarrisandAdams(2007)tomeasureturnoverfromelementaryandsecondaryteaching.
WecancalculateindustryturnoverwiththeCPSfrom1990to2010.Ourmeasureonly
captureswhetherindividualsremainedintheECCEworkforce;amongthosethatremain,
wecannotdistinguishwhetherindividualschangedjobs.Thus,year‐to‐yearindustry
turnoverisalowerboundestimateofthelevelofinstabilityexperiencedbychildren.
OccupationalprestigeofentrantsintotheECCEworkforce:Wecombinethe
informationonaworker’soccupationprovidedbytheCPSwiththewidelyused
methodologydevelopedbyCharlesNamandcolleagues(Nam2000;NamandBoyd2004),
tocreateavariablethatassignseachnewentranttotheECCEworkforceascorebasedon
theoccupationalprestigeoftheirpreviousjob.Aparticularoccupation’sprestigescoreis
constructedbycomparingthemedianearningsandeducationalattainmentofworkersin
thatoccupationvis‐à‐vistheearningsandeducationofworkersinallotheroccupations.An
11AmongallworkerswhosemainjobinthepreviouscalendaryearwasanECCEjob,theproportionwhohad
onlyoneemployerincreasedfrom75percentin1990to84percentin2010.Throughoutthewholeperiod,
these workers earn about 5% more than those whose main job in the previous calendar year was also an
ECCE job but who had more than one employer. Thus our analysis may overestimate the share of workers
withnon‐salarybenefitsintheaggregateECCEworkforce.
7 occupation’sscorecanrangefrom0to100,andreflectsthepercentageofindividualsinthe
laborforcewhoareinoccupationswithcombinedlevelsofeducationandearningsbelow
thatoccupation.Weusethesescorestoexaminetheaverageoccupationalstatusof
individualswhosemainjobinthecalendaryearbeforethesurveywasoutsidetheECCE
industry,butwhowereECCEworkersintheweekofreference.Increasesinthis
occupationalmeasureovertimeimplythatthosewhoareenteringtheECCEworkforceare
comingfrombettereducatedandbetterpaidoccupationsthanthosewhowereentering
theworkforceinpreviousyears.
Asresearchershavelongpointedout,existingdatasetsfailtofullyandaccurately
capturethecomplexityoftheECCEworkforceovertime(CommitteeonEarlyChildhood
CareandEducationWorkforce;InstituteofMedicineandNationalResearchCouncil2012;
Bellm&Whitebook,2006;PhillipsandWhitebook,1986).AlthoughtheCPSiswell‐suited
fornationallyrepresentativeanalysistrackingtrendsovertime,ithasanumberofkey
limitations:(1)itreliesonself‐reporteddataonemployment,andthereforelikelyexcludes
manyunpaidECCEworkersandsomepaidfamily,friendsandneighborswhotakecareof
childrenbutdonotreportchildcareastheiroccupation;(2)itdoesnotenableusto
distinguishbetweenpreschoolandkindergartenteachers,ormoregenerally,todistinguish
ECCEworkersbytheageofthechildrentheyserve;and(3)itdoesnotcollectdetaileddata
thatarerelevanttocharacterizeECCEworkers,suchasthelevelofECCE‐specifictraining,
theresponsibilitiestheyhave,orthequalityoftheirinteractionwithchildren.Wereturn
totheselimitationsindiscussingthegeneralizabilityofourresults.
METHODS
8 Toaddressourfirstandsecondresearchquestions,wepresentthevariablesofinterestin
2010,anddiscusstheirchangeovertheperiod1990‐2010.Weassesswhethertrendsin
theECCEworkforcedifferfrombroadertrendsintheeconomybycomparingchangesin
thatworkforcetochangesamongtwocomparisongroups:allfemaleworkersandlow‐
wageworkers.12Toaddressthethirdresearchquestion,twosetsofsimulationsallowusto
disentangletheextenttowhichtheoverallchangesintheECCEworkforceareexplainedby
anincreaseintherelativesizeofthemoreregulatedECCEsectorsorbychangesinthe
workforcewithineachsector.13GiventherelativelysmallsamplesizeoftheCPSineach
year,forallanalysesweusethree‐yearmovingaveragestoincreasetheprecisionofour
estimates.
RESULTS
TheECCEworkforceasof2010
Wefindthatthe“low‐education,low‐compensation,high‐turnover”labelcontinuestobea
validcharacterizationofthe2.2millionECCEworkersrepresentedinoursample.As
showninTable1Table1,in2010,nearly40percentoftheECCEworkforcehadatmosta
Formatted: Font: Not Bold, Check spelling and grammar
12
FemaleworkersarearelevantcomparisongroupasfemalescomprisethevastmajorityofECCEworkers.
Basedonourcalculations,over95percentofECCEworkersovertheperiodofanalysiswerewomen.The
low‐wageworkercomparisonincludesworkersfromthemainindustriesfromwhichECCEworkerscome
whentheyenterthechildcareindustry,aswellastowhichECCEworkersmigratewhentheyleavetheECCE
workforce.Weconsiderthefollowingindustries:beautysalons,foodservices,entertainmentandrecreation
services,grocerystores,departmentstores,andnon‐teachingjobsinelementaryandsecondaryschools(e.g.,
busdrivers,cooks,janitors,teacheraides,secretariesandadministrativeassistants).Together,overthefull
periodofthestudy,theseindustriesrepresentaboutathirdofmigrationfromanotherindustryintochild
care,andfromchildcaretoanotherindustry. 13
First,weestimatewhattheoverallchangeintheECCEworkforce’scharacteristicswouldhavebeenhadthe
distributionoftheworkforceacrossthethreesectors(center,homesandschools)changedasitdid,but
assumingthatthecharacteristicsofworkerswithineachsectorremainedthesameasin1990.Then,to
estimatethepartoftheoverallchangethatisdrivenbychangesinthecharacteristicsofworkerswithineach
sector,weestimatewhattheoverallchangeintheworkforce’scharacteristicswouldhavebeenhadthe
characteristicsoftheworkerswithineachofthesectorschangedastheydid,butassumingthedistributionof
theworkforceacrossthesectorsremainedthesameasin1990.Theequationsusedforthesesimulationsare
providedintheTechnicalAppendix. 9 highschooldegreeandathirdoftheworkforcehadsomecollegebutnoBachelor’sdegree.
In2009,theaverageECCEworkerearnedanannualincomeof$16,215andanhourlywage
of$11.7,andonly28percentofECCEworkersreceivedapensionand/orhealthbenefits
fromtheiremployer.14Worryingly,aboutafourthofthoseworkerswhohadbeen
employedintheECCEindustryin2009werenolongerthatindustryby2010.Further,our
analysisoftheoccupationalprestigeofentrantssuggeststhatECCEwasarelatively
unattractiveindustrytoenterin2010,attractingindividualsfromoccupationsthaton
averagehadlowerlevelsofeducationandearningsthanthreefifthsofthecountry’slabor
force.
ThedisaggregatedresultsshowninTable2highlightstarkdifferencesacross
sectors.In2010,about56percentofECCEworkerswereemployedincenter‐based
settings;26percent,inhome‐basedsettings;and18percent,inschools.Consistentwith
evidencefrompriorstudies,wefindthattheschool‐basedworkforceexhibitsthehighest
levelsofformaleducation,compensation,andstability,whilethehome‐basedworkforce
exhibitsthelowest.Thecenter‐basedworkforcefallsinthemiddle,butismoresimilarto
thehome‐basedthantotheschool‐basedworkforce.Forinstance,17.1percentofschool‐
basedworkershaveatmostahigh‐schooldegree.Thisproportionascendsto39.8percent
and50.7percentamongcenter‐andhome‐basedworkers,respectively.Similarly,while
school‐basedworkersearnanaverageannualincomeof$27,014,centerworkersearnon
averagejustoverhalfthisamount($14,567)andtheannualearningsofhome‐based
workersareevenlower($12,415).Finally,while13.6percentofthosewhowereschool‐
14
Recall also that these figures likely overestimate the true compensation of the full ECCE workforce, due to our sampling restrictions (e.g. hourly wages are calculated based on full‐year workers, benefits are calculated based on workers with only one job in the past year). 10 basedECCEworkersin2009hadlefttheECCEindustryby2010,theindustryturnoverrate
amongcenter‐andhome‐basedworkersin2010was24.4and28.5percent,respectively.
ChangesinthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforcein1990‐2010
Theverylowlevelsofformaleducation,compensationandstabilityamongtheECCE
workforcewarrantconcern.However,asTable1indicates,wealsofindmeaningfulsignsof
improvement.Infact,amongtheECCEworkforceasawholeweshowthatallofthe
characteristicsanalyzed–education,compensation,turnoverandprestigeofentrants–
exhibitedsignificantandsubstantialchangesinthedirectionhypothesizedtoimprove
ECCEquality.15
AsshowninFigure1Figure1,theshareofECCEworkerswithatleastsomecollege
educationrosefrom47to62percentbetween1992and2010.Meanannualearnings
increasedby51percent,from$10,746to$16,215between1990and2009.Whilepartof
thisincreasewasdrivenbyanincreaseinthenumberofhoursworkedbyECCEworkers,16
themeanhourlyearningsofECCEworkersalsoincreasedsubstantiallyoverthatperiod
(by33percent,from$8.8to$11.7perhour),andsodidtheshareofECCEworkerswith
employer‐paidpensionand/orhealthbenefits(from19to28percent).Annualturnover
fromtheECCEindustrydecreasedsubstantiallyovertheperiodofanalysis(from32.9
percentin1990to23.6percentin2010).Finally,individualswhomovedintochildcare
fromotheroccupationsin2010camefromsomewhatmoreprestigiousoccupationsthan
thosewhomovedintochildcarein1990.TheaverageoccupationalprestigescoreofECCE
15Thechangesineducationalattainment,compensationandindustryturnoverthatwediscussthroughout
arestatisticallysignificantlydifferentfromzeroatthe5percentlevel.Changesintheoccupationalprestige
scoreofECCEentrantsaresignificantlydifferentfromzeroatthe15percentlevel.Notethattheanalysisof
averageoccupationalprestigescoresappliesonlytoindividualswhoenteredtheECCEworkforceinagiven
year.Thisisaverysmallsample,soweevaluatesignificanceatthe5,10and15percentlevels.
16Themeanhoursworkedperweekincreasedfrom29.9to31.8between1990and2010.
11 Formatted: Font: Not Bold
entrantsincreasedby4.7percentilepointsoverthisperiod,from37.6to42.3,perhaps
indicatinganimprovementintheECCEindustry’sabilitytoattractmorequalifiedworkers.
ThechangesobservedamongtheECCEworkforcedonotsimplyreflecttrendsinthe
femalelaborforceand/orinlow‐wageindustries.Comparedtofemaleworkers,theECCE
workforceexhibitedalargerincreaseincompensationandasteeperdeclineinindustry
turnover;andcomparedtolow‐wageworkers,allvariablesexhibitedalarger
improvementamongECCEworkers.Further,thechangesobservedreflectastabletrend
withintheindustryandarenottheproductoftheeconomiccrisisthatbeganin2008.17
Sector‐specificchanges?
InTable2weshowthattheoverallimprovementsseeninthisworkforcearedrivenby
improvementsamonghome‐basedworkers,andtoalesserextentcenter‐basedworkers.
Inthehome‐basedsector,theaverageeducationalattainment,compensationandindustry
turnoverofworkersimprovedsignificantlyandsubstantiallyovertheperiodofanalysis.
Withrespecttoeducationalattainment,therewasasignificantincreaseintheshareof
workerswithatleastsomecollege(by21.4percentagepoints(p.p.)),andasignificant
decreaseintheshareofworkerswithlessthanahighschooldegree(by17.8p.p.).The
averageannualandhourlyearningsofhome‐basedworkersincreasedby92and50
percent,respectively,andtheshareofhome‐basedworkerswithpensionorhealthbenefits
roseaswell(by4.5p.p.).Finally,industryturnoverdeclinedamonghome‐basedworkers
(by8.4p.p.,from36.9percentin1990to28.5in2010).
17OneplausiblehypothesisisthattheobservedimprovementsinECCEworkers’qualificationsandstability
aretheproductoftheeconomiccrisis.However,insupplementaryanalysisavailableuponrequest,we
exploredwhethertherewerechangesintrendsfollowingtheeconomiccrisisthatbeganin2008.Wefindno
evidencetosupportthisclaimand,ifanything,ourresultssuggestthattheimprovementinECCEworkers’
characteristicswasstalledorreversedduringthecrisisperiod.
12 Changeswithinthecenter‐basedsectoralsosuggestimprovementsovertime,but
thesechangesareofasmallermagnitude.Forinstance,between1990and2009,the
averageannualearningsamongcenter‐basedECCEworkersincreasedby35percentand
averagehourlyearningsroseby18percent.Industryturnoverratedroppedsignificantly,
from34percentin1990to24.4percentin2010.Othercharacteristicsappeartochangein
adirectionconsistentwithimprovement,althoughthechangesarenotstatistically
significant.Differencesremainbetweenthesectorswithrespecttoallthecharacteristics
analyzed,butthepronouncedchangeswithinthehome‐basedsectorimplyanarrowingof
thegapwithrespecttotheothertwosectors.
Expansionofformalcareasanexplanationforgains?
AsshowninthefourthpanelofFigure1,between1990and2010therewasasignificant
changeintherelativeimportantoftheECCEsectorsinaccountingforthesizeofthe
aggregateworkforce.Therelativeimportanceofhome‐basedworkersdeclinedsharply(by
21.8p.p.),compensatedmostlybyanincreaseintherelativeimportanceofcenter‐based
workers(by17.5p.p.).Althoughtherelativeimportanceofschool‐basedworkers
increasedonlyslightly(by4.3p.p.),thenumberofworkersinthissectorincreasedby45
percentoverthistimeperiod,atrendconsistentwithboththeexpansionofstatepre‐
kindergartenprogramsandtheshifttowardsfull‐daykindergartens.Thenumberof
center‐basedworkersalsoincreaseddramatically(by61percent),whilethenumberof
home‐basedworkersdecreased(by39percent).ThisredistributionofECCEworkersfrom
childcarehomestocentersandschoolsisconsistentwiththerecentdeclineintheshareof
childrenunderagefivewhosemainchildcarearrangementisinahomesetting(U.S.
CensusBureau2010).
13 Asdiscussedabove,home‐basedworkershavefarlowerlevelsofeducationand
compensationandhigherlevelsofindustryturnoverthandocenter‐orschool‐based
workers.Thedeclineintherelativeimportanceofhome‐basedworkersisoneplausible
explanationfortheobservedincreaseintheeducationalattainment,compensationand
stabilityofthenationalECCEworkforce.However,changesinthesecharacteristicswithin
sectorsarealsorelevant–and,infact,morerelevantthanthechangesinthedistribution
theworkforceacrosssectors.
WedecomposeaggregatechangesintheECCEworkforceintothepartexplainedby
theexpansionoftheformalsectorandthepartexplainedbychangesinthecharacteristics
ofworkerswithinthesectors.WepresenttheestimationsinPanelAofTable3.Whileboth
factorscontributetotheoverallchange,formostvariables(educationalattainment,annual
andhourlywages,andindustryturnover),changeswithinthesectorsexplainmostofthe
aggregateimprovement,withchangesintherelativeimportanceofthesectorsexplaining
onlyasmallportionoftheoverallimprovement.Forexample,increasesinearningswithin
sectorsexplain78percentoftheoverallincreaseinannualearnings,whilethe
redistributionofworkersacrosssectorsexplainsonly22percent.Similarly,within‐sector
changesexplain86percentofthedeclineinindustryturnover.
Further,asreportedinPanelBofTable3,changeswithinthehome‐based
workforceexplainmostofthechangeineducationalattainmentandearningsthatis
attributabletowithin‐sectorchanges.Indeed,improvementswithinthehome‐basedsector
driveovertwothirdsoftheincreasesintheECCEworkforce’seducationalattainment.
DISCUSSION
14 ThispolicybriefhighlightsthecurrentstateoftheECCEworkforceandexploreswhether
thisworkforcehasexperiencedmeaningfulchangesoveraperiodcharacterizedby
heightenedinterestandinvestmentinearlychildhoodprograms.Echoingearlierwork,we
findthatthislaborforcecontinuestobecharacterizedbyverylowlevelsofeducation,
compensationandstability.However,wealsoshowthatboththeeducationalattainment
andthecompensationoftheECCEworkforceincreasedmeaningfullybetween1990and
2010andthatturnoverfromtheECCEindustrydecreasedsubstantially.Takentogether
thefindingsaremixed,highlightingbothimprovementsovertimeandthepersistenceof
troublingissues.Forexample,ourdatashowthatin1992ECCEworkerswithaBAearned
47percentlessthanelementaryschoolteacherswiththesameeducationallevel.Despite
thesignificantincreasesinbotheducationalattainmentandearningsamongECCEworkers
thatwedocumentinthispaper,in2009ECCEworkersstillearned38percentlessthan
elementaryschoolteachers.Givenourincreasedunderstandingoftheimportanceofearly
childhoodinterventionsandofhigh‐qualityECCEproviders,thesepatternsareconcerning.
However,thepositivetrendswedocumentsuggestthatsubstantialchangesinthis
workforceareinfacttakingplace.
Itisworthnotingthatthepositivetrendswedocumentdiffersignificantlyfrom
thosereportedinpriorstudies,whichdocumentadeclineormodestchangeinthe
educationalattainmentandcompensationoftheECCEworkforce.Oneexplanationisthat
priorstudieshavegenerallyfocusedonthecenter‐basedworkforceandhavenot
accountedfortheevolutionofthehome‐basedworkforce,wherewefindmeaningful
improvements(Whitebooketal.2001;Saluja,EarlyandClifford2002;Herzenberg,Price
andBradley2005;BellmandWhitebook2006).
15 Asecondexplanationisthatourstudymakesuseofmorecurrentdatathanearlier
work.Forinstance,anearlierstudythatreliesonthesamedatausedherebuttracksthe
center‐basedworkforceonlythrough2003reportsadeclineintheproportionofthat
workforcethatholdsaBA(Herzenberg,PriceandBradley2005).Wereplicatethatfinding
here,butshowthatbetween2004and2010thistrendisreversed.Overallwedonot
observesignificantchanges(eitherincreasesordecreases)intheeducationalattainmentof
thecenter‐basedworkforceovertheperiod1990‐2010,butdocumentsignificant
improvementsinthecompensationandstabilityofthisworkforce.
WealsodocumentadramaticreconfigurationoftheECCEworkforce,suchthatthe
majorityofworkersnowworkinformalratherthanhome‐basedsettings.Surprisingly,
however,weshowthattheshiftawayfromhome‐basedcareandtowardscenter‐based
settingsisnottheprimaryexplanationfortheimprovementsobservedintheindustryat
large.Infact,mostoftheimprovementsintheECCEworkforceareexplainedbywithin‐
sectorimprovementsinthecharacteristicsofworkers.Further,whilethecenter‐based
workforceexhibitedsignificantincreasesinearningsandaremarkabledeclineinindustry
turnover,improvementswithinthehome‐basedworkforceweretheprimarydriverofthe
increaseintheeducationalattainmentandearningsoftheaggregateECCEworkforce.
Thesefindings–thattheoverallimprovementoftheECCEworkforcewasprimarily
drivenbyimprovementswithinthehome‐basedworkforce–aresurprisinginlightofthe
policyemphasisonexpandingandimprovingformalizedECCEsettingssuchaspreschools
andpre‐kindergartenprogramsoverinformalsettings.Improvementswithinthehome‐
basedworkforcemaybetheresultofrecenteffortstoincreasethequalificationsand
stabilityoftheseworkers.Forinstance,recentinitiativesrewardparticipationin
16 professionaldevelopmentandtheacquisitionoffurthereducation;supplementthewages
ofhome‐basedworkerstoensuretheymeetalocally‐determinedminimumlivingwage,
andfacilitatetheprovisionofemployer‐sponsoredhealthplansbypoolingtogether
workersfromdifferentchildcarecentersandhomes(Kagan,KauerzandTarrant2008).
Still,furtherstudyisneededtounderstandwhathasdriventheobservedimprovementin
theeducation,compensationandstabilityofhome‐basedworkers,tounderstandhowto
continuethispositiveandunexpectedtrend.
Studylimitations
WhilethecurrentstudyprovidesnewevidenceaboutthecurrentstatusoftheECCE
workforceanditschangingnatureoverthepasttwodecades,theCPSwasnotdesignedto
studytheECCEindustryandseveralofitslimitationsareworthhighlighting:
First,theCPS,whilecommonlyusedinanalysesofworkers,reliesonself‐reported
data.TotheextentthatcertainsegmentsoftheECCEworkforcearelesslikelytoreport
theiremployment,ourestimateswillnotaccuratelygeneralizetotheECCEworkforceinits
entirety.Further,ifthesenon‐reportershavelowerearningsandeducationalattainment
thandootherworkers,ourfindingswilloverestimateconditionsinthisindustry,a
troublingpointgiventhealreadylowlevelswedocument.Whileweareunabletoassess
theextentofnon‐reportinginoursample,itislikelyweexcludesomeportionofthe
informalsectorincludingunpaidworkers,paidworkerswhodonotreporttaxes,orpaid
family,friendsandneighborswhodespiteassumingchildcareresponsibilitiesdonot
reportitasajob.Theseinformalsettingsrepresentameaningfulportionofthemarket,and
morenuanceddataarenecessarytobetterunderstandthecompositionofthisgroup.
17 Second,theCPSdoesnotprovidedirectmeasuresofcarequalityandthuscannotbe
usedtoassesswhetherandhowmoreproximalmeasuresofcarequalityhavechanged.
WhileouroutcomesprovideaclearpictureoftheeconomicstatusoftheECCEworkforce,
animportantissueinitsownright,ultimatelypolicymakerswishtoimproveearly
childhoodexperiencesforchildrenandtherelationshipbetweeneachofthesemeasures
andcarequalityisnotaswellunderstoodaswewouldlike.Itisdifficulttoknow,for
example,towhatextentchangesinearningsovertimeamounttobettercareforyoung
children.Wehaveinterpretedourfindingsasindicativeofimprovementsinthequalityof
theECCEworkforce,butacompetinghypothesisisthattheincreaseinECCEworkers’
compensationandthereductionofturnoverreflectanincreaseinthedemandforECCE
services,withoutacorrespondingimprovementintheactualqualityoftheseworkers.
Additionalworkinvestigatingthelinkbetweenstructuralmeasuressuchastheones
availableinadministrativedatasetswouldhelphere.
Third,ourstatisticalinferencesarelimitedbyoursmallsamplesize.EachMarch,
theCPSsurveysaround670center‐basedworkers,530home‐basedworkersand230
school‐basedECCEworkers.Usingthree‐yearmovingaverages,wewereabletodescribe
theevolutionofthecenter‐andhome‐basedworkforceswithreasonableprecision.
However,oursamplesizewastoosmalltomakereliableinferencesabouttheevolutionof
theschool‐basedworkforce.
Finally,theCPScannotbeusedtodistinguishbetweenECCEworkerswhowork
withinfantsandtoddlers,andthosewhoworkwithpreschoolers.Similarlyweareunable
todistinguishbetweenpre‐kindergartenandkindergartenemployees.Datathatallowsfor
18 thesetypesofdelineationswouldbetterallowustounpacktrendsandbegintounderstand
themechanismsdrivingthesepatterns.
Conclusion
Whileourfindingsechootherrecentworkonthelowlevelsofearningsandeducation
withintheECCEworkforce,ourfindingsalsoshedanoptimisticlightonthepossibilityof
positiveimprovements.Weshowthatthequalifications,compensationandstabilityofthe
ECCEworkforcecanimprove,andinfacthaveimprovedmeaningfullyoverthepasttwo
decades.ThedeclineinturnoverfromtheECCEindustryhasbeenparticularlymarked.
Whilesomedegreeofturnovermaybedesirableinordertoreplaceineffectiveworkers,
theannualECCEindustryturnoverratein1990was32.9percent,roughlythreetimes
higherthantheindustryturnoverrateof11percentobservedamongelementaryand
secondaryeducationteachers.By2010,however,thegapbetweenthetwohadnarrowed
significantly,owingtothereductioninturnoveramongECCEworkers.Toourknowledge,
oursisthefirststudytolookattheevolutionofturnoverforanationallyrepresentative
sampleoftheECCEworkforce.Whileweareunabletoobservejobturnover,whichisa
moreproximalmeasureoftheinstabilitychildrenexperience,industryturnoverisan
importantmeasureinitsownright,showingthatindividualsarestayingwithinthe
industrylongerthantheydidinthepastwhichmaytranslatetopositiveoutcomesfor
childrenandmayindicatethatearlychildhoodjobsaremoreattractivethantheyonce
were.
TheimprovementswehaveidentifiedforECCEworkershavetakenplacewithin
boththecenter‐andhome‐basedsectors,whichtogetheraccountforovereightypercentof
theworkforce.Improvementswithinhome‐basedchildcarehavebeenparticularly
19 remarkable.Totheextentthatthecharacteristicsweanalyzedare,infact,proxiesofECCE
quality,ourfindingsimplyanarrowinginthequalitygapbetweenhome‐basedandother
moreformalizedtypesofchildcare.Thisfindingisimportantbecauseasrecentlyas2005,
thehome‐basedsector,historicallysingledoutasthelowest‐qualitysectorwithinchild
care,servedaroundfortypercentofchildrenunderfiveyearswhosemotherswere
employed(U.S.CensusBureau2010),andthereissomeevidencethatitisthepreferred
typeofarrangementamongHispanicfamilies(Fuller,HollowayandLiang1996;Liang,
FullerandSinger2000;Fuller2008).Putdifferently,workersinchildcarehomesremain
substantiallylessqualifiedthanworkersintheformalchildcaresector,butthetrendswe
observesuggestthatclosingthequalitygapbetweenthesectorsispossible.
20 Figure1.EvolutionofselectedcharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforce,andoftherelativeimportanceofeachECCEsector,over
time(1990‐2010)
Share of ECCE workers with at least some college education, by sector, 1990‐2009
(as a % of ECCE workers in each sector)
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year ECCE workers, by sector, 1990‐2009
(at 2010 dollars)
20
100
90
80
15
70
60
All ECCE workers
50
School‐based worker
40
Center‐based workers
All ECCE workers
10
School‐based worker
Center‐based worker
Home‐based workers
30
Home‐based worker
5
20
10
ECCE industry turnover rate by sector, 1990‐2010
(% of workers who left the industry from one year to the next)
40
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
0
1992
0
Distribution of the ECCE workforce across sectors, 1990‐2010
(as a % of all ECCE workers)
60
50
30
40
All ECCE workers
20
School‐based worker
School‐based worker
30
Center‐based worker
Center‐based worker
Home‐based worker
Home‐based worker
20
10
10
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
2010
2009
2008
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
0
1990
0
21 Table1.EvolutionoftheECCEworkforce,andcomparisontofemaleandlow‐wageworkers
(1990‐2010)
1992
2010
2010 vs . 1992
Distribution of the workforce by educational attainment
ECCE workers
Les s tha n hi gh s chool
21.4
Hi gh s chool degree
31.5
Some col l ege or As s oci a te's degree
26.1
At l ea s t a Ba chel or's degree
20.9
11.5
26.9
33.3
28.4
‐9.9
‐4.6
7.2
7.5
*
*
*
*
Female workers
Les s tha n hi gh s chool
Hi gh s chool degree
Some col l ege or As s oci a te's degree
At l ea s t a Ba chel or's degree
11.5
36.0
29.2
23.2
8.1
26.4
31.9
33.6
‐3.4
‐9.6
2.7
10.4
*
*
*
*
Low‐wage workers
Les s tha n hi gh s chool
Hi gh s chool degree
Some col l ege or As s oci a te's degree
At l ea s t a Ba chel or's degree
20.5
38.9
26.7
13.9
17.0
33.5
31.1
18.4
‐3.5
‐5.4
4.4
4.5
*
*
*
*
1990
2009
2009 vs . 1990
Mean annual earnings of all workers (at 2010 dollars)
ECCE workers
10,746
Female workers
24,427
Low‐wage workers
18,266
16,215
30,629
21,298
51% *
25% *
17% *
11.7
19.0
14.2
33% *
17% *
6% *
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year workers (at 2010 dollars)
ECCE workers
8.8
Female workers
16.3
Low‐wage workers
13.4
Share of workers with pension and/or health benefits paid at least partly by the employ
ECCE workers
19.0
28.0
9.0 *
Female workers
56.4
57.9
1.5 *
Low‐wage workers
42.5
42.2
‐0.3
Industry turnover rate
ECCE workers
Female workers
Low‐wage workers
1990
2010
32.9
24.7
26.5
23.6
17.9
19.1
2010 vs . 1990
Average occupational prestige in the year before entering the workforce
ECCE workforce enterers
37.6
42.3
Low‐wage workforce enterers
41.8
42.0
‐9.3 *
‐6.8 *
‐7.4 *
4.7
0.2
* denotes change with respect to 1990 or 1992 is statistically significantly different from zero at the 5% level. Changes in the share of workers by educational attainment, the share with pension and/or health benefits, and the industry turnover rate are measured in percentage points; changes in annual and hourly earnings, as a percent change; and changes in the average occupational prestige score of those entering the ECCE workforce, in percentiles.
Source: Authors based on the March Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
22 Table2.EvolutionoftheECCEworkforcebysector(1990‐2010)
Center‐based workers
1992
2010
Distribution of the workforce by educational attainment
Les s tha n hi gh s chool
12.3
Hi gh s chool degree
32.7
Some col l ege or As s oci a te's degree
33.3
At l ea s t a Ba chel or's degree
21.6
1990
9.8
30.0
36.6
23.7
Home‐based workers
1992
2010
37.6
34.5
21.8
6.1
School‐based workers
1992
2010
19.8 *
30.9
34.3 *
15.0 *
5.3
20.6
17.5
56.6
5.1
12.0 *
21.7
61.2
2009
1990
2009
1990
2009
10,809
14,567 *
6,480
12,415 *
24,191
27,014
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year workers (at 2010 dollars)
9.2
10.9 *
5.6
8.9 *
17.5
18.2
Share of workers with pension and/or health benefits paid at least partly by the employer
20.4
24.5
3.1
7.6 *
64.3
68.8
1990
2010
1990
2010
1990
2010
Industry turnover rate
34.0
24.4 *
36.9
28.5 *
15.9
13.6
Average occupational prestige in the year before entering the ECCE workforce
41.3
44.6
32.3
33.4
51.4
54.1
Mean annual earnings of all workers (at 2010 dollars)
* denotes change with respect to 1990 or 1992 is statistically significantly different from zero at the 5% level. Source: Authors based on the March Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
23 Table3.DecompositionoftheoverallchangesinthecharacteristicsoftheECCEworkforce(1990‐2010)
Panel A
Change attributable to changes in the characteristics of workers within the sectors Panel B
Change attributable to changes in the distribution of workers across sectors
Sector contributions to the part of the change attributable to changes in the characteristics of workers within the sectors Center‐based workers
‐8.8
‐4.0
7.4
5.4
(65%)
(84%)
(84%)
(58%)
‐4.7
‐0.8
1.4
3.9
(35%)
(16%)
(16%)
(42%)
12%
28%
19%
16%
2009 vs . 1990
Mean annual earnings of all workers (at 2010 dollars)
42%
Mean hourly earnings of full‐year workers (at 2010 dollars)
Share of workers with pension and/or health benefits paid at least partly by the employer
School‐based workers
2010 vs . 1992
2010 vs . 1992
Distribution of the workforce by educational attainment
Les s tha n high s chool
Hi gh s chool degree
Some col lege or As s ocia te's degree
At l ea s t a Ba chel or's degree
Home‐based workers
88%
39%
73%
71%
0%
32%
8%
13%
2009 vs . 1990
(78%)
12%
(22%)
37%
25%
(72%)
10%
(28%)
35%
60%
4%
4.3
(48%)
4.7
(52%)
41%
45%
14%
2010 vs . 1990
55%
8%
2010 vs . 1990
Industry turnover rate
‐8.1
(86%)
‐1.3
(14%)
53%
44%
4%
Average occupational prestige in the year before entering the ECCE workforce
2.1
(49%)
2.1
(51%)
58%
28%
14%
Changes in the share of workers by educational attainment, the share with pension and/or health benefits, and the industry turnover rate are measured in percentage points; changes in annual and hourly earnings, as a percent change; and changes in the average occupational prestige score of those entering the ECCE workforce, in percentiles. Source: Authors based on the March Supplement of the Current Population Survey.
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