Oct 2014
No.205
Did Science Cause the Industrial Revolution?
Cormac Ó Gráda
WORKING PAPER SERIES
Centre for Competitive Advantage in the Global Economy
Department of Economics
Did Science Cause the Industrial Revolution?
1
Cormac Ó Gráda
University College Dublin
and
CAGE, University of Warwick
Keywords: economic history, science, human capital
JEL classification: N13, O10, O30
1
Re vie w ofM a rg a re tC.Ja c ob ,The FirstKnowle d g e Ec onom y:H um a nCa pita la nd the Europe a n
Ec onom y,17
501850.Ca m b rid g e :Ca m b rid g e U nive rsityPre ss.The c om m e ntsofJohn
Ka ne fsky,M org a nKe lly,Lia m Ke nne d y,De ird re M c Closke y,Joe lM okyr,Pe terSola r,a nd Eric
Va nha ute a re g ra tefullya c knowle d g e d .The stand a rd d isc la im e ra pplie s.
Did Science Cause the Industrial Revolution?
‘W e a re nota nxiousa b outthe honourofa c quiring g old m e d a ls
norofm a king a ne c la tinphilosophic a lsoc ie tie s.’
M a tthe w BoultontoJa m e sW a tt,17
832
M a rg a re tJa c ob b e lie ve stha te c onom istsa nd e c onom ic historia nsha ve g ot
som e ke ye le m e ntsofthe British Ind ustria lRe volutionwrong .InThe FirstKnowle d g e
Ec onom y(FKE) she ple a d swith the m tofoc usm ore onJa m e sW a tt’sim prove d stea m
e ng ine a nd le ssonRic ha rd Arkwrig ht’swa terfra m e (the wa terpowe re d d e vic e tha t
re volutionize d c ottonspinning );m ore onthe c om ple xitie sofsc ie nc e b a se d
tec hnolog ic a lc ha ng e a nd le ssonitsd e term ina ntsa nd qua ntitative im pa c t.She wa nts
tolure the m a wa yfrom the irstub b ornb e lie ftha t‘skille d a rtisa ns,whose ld om
c ra c ke d a b ook,he ld the ke ytoBritish ind ustria lprowe ss’(p.85)3.And she b e ra tes
the m forthe irove re m pha sisonre la tive fa c torpric e sa nd re sourc e e nd owm e ntsa nd
forthe irfa ilure tog ive the c ulture ofa pplie d sc ie nc e itsd ue .
Ec onom ic m od e lsofthe Ind ustria lRe volutioninc re a sing lye m pha size the role
ofhum a nc a pital(e .g.Be c ke re ta l.2011;Ga lora nd M oa v2004;Ke llye ta l.2014).But
wha td id tha tc a pitalc onsistof? W a sitlitera c y,num e ra c y,a nd a ffe c tive tra itsle a rne d
a tsc hool? O rwa sitskillsa nd d isc ipline le a rne d onthe job ? O rd id itc onsistin
b e tternutritiona nd he a lth,with pe rha psa ssoc ia ted g a insinc og nitive a b ility? It
c ould we llha ve b e e na na m a lg a m ofthe se .ButJa c ob ’sfoc usism uc h na rrowe r,for
2
Cited inCookson1994:154.
3
Alluna ttrib uted pa g e re fe re nc e sa re toFKE.
1
she c onc e ntra tesonlyonsc ie nc e b a se d knowle d g e a c quire d b ye ntre pre ne ursa nd
m e c ha nic s.
FKEisa c om b a tive c ontrib utionb ya d isting uishe d historia nofsc ie nc e toa n
old d e b a te a b outthe role ofsc ie nc e b a se d tec hnolog ya tthe d a wnofm od e rn
e c onom ic g rowth.Tha td e b a te flourishe d inthe 1960sa nd 197
0sa nd c e ntre d a round
the a rg um e ntb yAlb e rtE.M ussona nd Eric Rob inson(1969:vii) tha tthe tec hnolog y
und e rpinning the Ind ustria lRe volutionre quire d som e thing m ore tha nthe ‘unle ttere d
e m piric ism ’oftra d itiona lhistoriog ra phy.W ork b yhistoria nsofsc ie nc e suc h a s
Ca rd we ll(197
2) a nd H a ll(197
4) a nd e c onom ic historia nssuc h a sM a thia s(197
2) a nd
H a rris(1998) c a lle d intoque stionM ussona nd Rob inson'se m pha sisonsc ie nc e inthe
d e ve lopm e ntofthe ne w ind ustria ltec hnolog ya nd re a ffirm e d the prim a c yofa rtisa na l
knowle d g e . Sub se que ntwork,notab lyb yCookson(1994),ha stend e d tore inforc e
thisposition.Asa re sult,forthe pe riod b e fore the m id nine tee nth c e nturythe history
ofsc ie nc e a nd the historyoftec hnolog yha ve b e c om e inc re a sing lyind e pe nd e ntof
e a c h othe r(W e ng e nroth 2000;c om pa re Be rg e ta l.2007
).
W ha tne w d oe sJa c ob b ring tothisold d e b a te? InFKEhe rfoc usisle ssonthe
d e ve lopm e ntofsc ie nc e from the sixtee nth c e nturyon— the soc a lle d ‘sc ie ntific
re volution’— tha nonthe c ulture tha tforg e d the link b e twe e nsc ie nc e a nd ind ustryin
the e ig htee nth a nd e a rlynine tee nth c e nturie s.H e rd e pic tionoftha tc ulture throug h
‘a se rie sofm ic roc osm s’(p.221) orc a se stud ie se nc a psula ting the va lue sa nd the
inform a tiona ltra nsm issionm e c ha nism stha tshe c ha m pionsisd one with skilla nd
c onvic tion.H e re m pha sisoninnova tive e ntre pre ne urs,e m b od im e ntsofwha tshe long
a g o(1981) d ub b e d the ‘m od e ra te Enlig htenm e nt’,isinline with re c e ntwork b yJoe l
M okyr(2002,2009),thoug h he take sa m uc h b roa d e rvie w ofthe Enlig htenm e nt'
s
2
e ffe c tsone c onom ic d e ve lopm e nt.Also,a nd a g a inunlike b oth M okyra nd
pa rtic ipa ntsinthe e a rlie rd e b a te,Ja c ob wa ntstoa rg ue tha tEng la nd '
spre c oc ious
ind ustria liza tionwa sc hie flythe re sultofitsb e ing m ore e nlig htene d initsa ttitud e to
sc ie nc e tha nc ountrie sonthe c ontine nt.Thisre a d ing ofsc ie ntific a nd ind ustria l
historyisinform e d b yJa c ob '
s(1981,1987
,1997
) owne xtensive re se a rc h onsc ie nc e
d uring the Enlig hte nm e nt.She d oe snotb ring tothe prob le m a nym a jororsystem a tic
c olle c tionofd a ta inthe se nse knowntoe c onom ists.Instea d she offe rsvivid
storytelling b a se d onwid e re a d ing a nd ric h qua litative a rc hiva lm a teria l.
Thisre vie w e ssa ypa ystrib ute toJa c ob ’sfe istyc a se forthe role ofsc ie nc e ,b ut
take sissue with he rc ha ra c teriza tionofthe hum a nc a pitaltha tm a d e the Ind ustria l
Re volutiona nd d e fe nd sthe role ofm ore m od e stform sofle a rning a nd ofa rtisa na l
g e nius.
1.Luna tic ksa nd M e c ha nic ks:
Europe onthe e ve ofind ustria liza tionsa w e c onom istFra nçoisQ ue sna y
wowing the c ourtinVe rsa ille swith hisphysioc ra tic ‘zig za g s’,Be nja m inFra nklin
hob nob b ing with the Birm ing ha m ind ustria listM a tthe w Boulton,a nd Ge org e
W a shing tone xc ha ng ing noteswith a g ronom istArthurYoung .InFKEJa c ob popula tes
he rEng la nd with sim ila rlyurb a ne ‘c osm opolita ns’(p.35),spind le m a ke rsve rse d in
the ore tic a la nd a pplie d m a the m a tic s(p.16),‘ub iquitouse ng ine e rs’le a rning from
‘N e wtonia ntextb ooks’(p.114),nob le m e nfa m ilia rwith ‘the m e c ha nic a lknowle d g e
ne c e ssa rytointerrog a te surve yorsa nd e ng ine e rs’(p.133;a lsopp.8,222,224),
tra ve lling le c ture rsa nd m a the m a tic stea c he rswho‘c rissc rosse d the c ountry’,a nd
3
stud yg roupsorg a nize d tob rush uponN e wtonia nm e c ha nic s(pp.5556).
Inthisla nd ofsc ie nc e b a se d innova tionM a tthe w Boulton’spa ra d ig m a tic
pa rtne rshipwith Ja m e sW a ttissore sona ntofthe m a rria g e b e twe e nm a nufa c turing
a nd sc ie nc e tha tBirm ing ha m ,whe re ‘the d a nd ya nd the Sc ot’(p.27
) m a d e the irstea m
e ng ine s,b e c om e s‘the e pic e nterofthe na sc e ntInd ustria lRe volution’(pp.12,21,49).
Thisisthe la nd ofthe Luna rSoc ie ty,whe re sc ie ntistsa nd b usine ssm e nb rushe d
should e rsa nd ta lke d sc ie nc e ,a nd ofthe Litera rya nd Philosophic a lSoc ie tyof
M a nc he ster(17
81),whic h joine d the intelle c tua lc uriositya nd ‘use fulknowle d g e ’
(M okyr2002) a tthe he a rtofJa c ob ’sstory(pp.1046).Thirtee nofthe Lita nd Phil’s
orig ina lm e m b e rshipoffiftywe re textile m a nufa c ture rs,a nd itshonora rym e m b e rs
inc lud e d W e d g wood a nd La voisie r.Ja m e sW a ttJuniorwould b e c om e itsse c re ta ryin
17
90 a tthe a g e oftwe ntyone a nd a tom ic sc ie ntistJohnDa ltonthe Soc ie ty’sle a d ing
lig ht.M a nufa c ture rsm ing le d with surg e ons,la wye rs,c le rg ym e n,a nd m e rc ha ntsa nd
d isc usse d topic sra ng ing from a c le rg ym a n’s‘Attem pttoShe w tha ta Ta ste forthe
Be a utie sofN a ture ha snoInflue nc e Fa voura b le toM ora ls’toDa lton’s‘Extra ord ina ry
Fa c tsRe la ting tothe VisionofColours’.4
Ye twhile suc h soc ie tie sle ntsc ie ntific knowle d g e re spe c tab ility,the irrole in
spre a d ing itwa slim ite d .The Luna rSoc ie tyha d nom ore tha na b outa d oze n
m e m b e rs,m e tra re ly,a nd som e ofitsm e e ting swe re poorlya ttend e d (Jone s2009:8694).And a lthoug h one ofthe re a sonsg ive nforthe found a tionofthe M a nc he sterPhil
a nd Litwa sthe pe rc e ptiontha t‘fe w ofourm e c ha nic sund e rstand the princ iple sof
4
The se pre se ntationsm a yb e found M e m oirsofthe Litera rya nd Philosophic a lSoc ie tyof
M a nc he ster(17
89) 1:22340;(17
98) 5(1):2845.
4
the irowna rtsa nd the d isc ove rie sm a d e inothe rc olla tera la nd kind re d m a nufa c ture s’
(c ited inCa rd we ll197
2:23),itsm e m b e rshipwa shig hlyse le c tive .Birm ing ha m ’s
‘Luna tic ks’e xc lud e d e ve nthe m ostg ifted ofBoultona nd W a tt’se m ploye e s.Suc h
soc ie tie sope ra ted m ore like priva te c lub stha nope nforum sforthe spre a d ofid e a s,
a nd we re m ore inte re ste d inthe sc ie ntific topic softhe d a ytha ninthe irlinkswith
ind ustry.Ind ustria listswhojoine d the m sa w the m a sa stairwa ytosoc ia lm ob ilitya nd
g e ntility(Ca rd we ll197
0;Cookson1994:1545;U g low 2002:353;Jone s2009:8294).5
Ag ronom istArthurYoung wa sa m e m b e rofthe Soc ie tyforthe Enc oura g e m e nt
ofthe Arts,M a nufa c ture sa nd Com m e rc e a nd wa se le c ted Fe llow ofthe Roya lSoc ie ty
in17
7
4,b utthose linkspostd a ted hisfa m oustoursofEng lish a g ric ultura ld istric ts.
H isrole wa sre c og nize d b ythe Enlig htenm e nt,b utnotinspire d b yit,b e c a use the
g ra d ua lim prove m e ntina g ric ultura lprod uc tivitytha the d oc um e nte d pre c e d e d the
Enlig htenm e nt,a nd the inform a tiontha the g a the re d onhise a rlytoursowe d little to
b ookle a rning orsc ie nc e .Ironic a lly,Boultona nd W a ttwe re quite pa ra noid a b out
protec ting the irown‘use fulknowle d g e ’,6 som uc h sotha tYoung wa s‘nowhe re m ore
5
Toa d d tothe irony,b e fore Boultona nd W a ttb e g a nstea m e ng ine prod uc tioninSohoin
17
95,the yre lie d he a vilyonoutsourc ing toothe rm a nufa c ture rsa nd c onsultante re c torswho
inturnwe re he a vilyd e pe nd e ntonskille d a rtisa nsunve rse d insc ie nc e a nd m a the m a tic s.
6
Ja c ob (p.12) notesthe pre va le nc e ofind ustria le spiona g e ,a g a instwhic h pa tentsoffe re d little
protec tion.Prob a b lym ore ‘use fulknowle d g e ’wa stra nsm itted throug h e spiona g e tha n
throug h le a rne d soc ie tie s.Lie ve nBa uwe ns(17
691822) a nd Sa m ue lSla ter(17
681835) spre a d
the ne w spinning tec hnolog ytoBe lg ium a nd Rhod e Isla nd ,re spe c tive ly,with id e a sor
m a c hine rysm ug g le d outofEng la nd inthe la te 17
90s.Sla terha d worke d inBe lpe rforJe d e d ia h
Strutt;soonN e w Eng la nd b la c ksm ithsa nd whe e lwrig htswe re d uplic a ting Sla ter’sd e sig ns
(c om pa re Je re m y197
3;Be nAtar1995;H a rris1997
;M okyr197
6:27
8).And while the le g e nd
tha tBe nja m inH untsm a n’sstee lm a king proc e sswa spira ted b ya She ffie ld riva lwhog a ine d
5
d isa ppointed tha ninBirm ing ha m ’whe re he ‘c ould notg a ina nyintellig e nc e e ve nof
the m ostc om m onna ture ’,inc lud ing d a ta onwa g e s(Young 17
7
1:III,27
9).
FKEa lsom a ke sm uc h ofthe m e c ha nic s’institutestha tsprouted upa llove r
Britaininthe 1820sa nd taug htworkm e nthe knowle d g e of‘sc ie ntific princ iple s’(pp.
99,104,1069,115).Prod uc tsofa c a m pa ig ntoe d uc a te a nd re form the working c la sse s,
the yre pre se nted a m a ssm ove m e ntinthe se nse tha t‘e ve ryla rg e towna nd m a nya
sm a llone ’ha d itsowninstitute (Inkster197
6).The b ig g e stofthe m ,offe ring c ourse s
inm e c ha nic s,d ra wing ,a nd the like ,a ttra c ted m e m b e rshipsofa thousa nd orm ore .
The institute swonsupportfrom the stra tum tha ta lsosupported the sa ving sb a nks
m ove m e nt— inc lud ing Da vid Ric a rd oa nd Ja m e sM ill.Butlike the sa ving sb a nks,the
m e c ha nic s’institutesultim a telyfa ile d tore tainthe intere stofthe pe ople the ywe re
suppose d tob e ne fit(Tyle c ote 1957
:25960;Fishlow 1961;Cookson1994:151).Soon
a ttend a nc e sb e g a ntofa lloff;a ttem ptswe re m a d e tolure pe ople b a c k with c la sse son
m e sm e rism ,phre nolog y,a nd litera ture (Ca rd we ll197
2:7
1).Ina nye ve nt,the institutes
c a m e m uc h toola te toha ve ha d a nim pa c tontha tc ruc ia lpe riod ofthe Ind ustria l
Re volutionc .17
851820,whe nthe e c onom ic a nd g e og ra phic la nd sc a pe ofBritainwa s
tra nsform e d .
2.The Id e ntikitEntre pre ne ur?
a c c e ssb yse e king a wa rm pla c e tosle e psound sa poc rypha l,H untsm a nwa sind e e d pre yto
c ontine ntalpira tes(H e y2004).
6
H ow re lia ntwe re the inve ntorsa nd e ntre pre ne ursofthe Ind ustria lRe volution
onthe ‘roc ke tsc ie nc e ’ofthe ird a y?W howa sthe m ore typic a l:potterJosia h
W e d g e wood ,whoc ould hold forth on‘Ac id s& Alc a lie s,Pre c ipita tion,Sa tura tion,& c ’,
orJe d e d ia h Strutt,whose e d uc a tionwa s‘na rrow a nd c ontra c ted ’;M a tthe w Boulton,
whowa s‘m ore a thom e inc ourtlysoc ie tytha nonthe workshopfloor’,orironfound e r
Isa a c W ilkinson,whoa ttend e d a sc hoolfora spira ntc hurc hm e n(U g low 202:56;Ja c ob
2014:25;Fittona nd W a d sworth 1958:3;Cha lone r1960:33)? Ja c ob d e votes
d isproportiona te a ttention— thre e c ha pte rsofFKE— toBoultona nd W a ttin
Birm ing ha m ,Ja m e sM c Conne la nd JohnKe nne d yinM a nc he ster,a nd JohnM a rsha llin
Le e d s.The firsttwowe re a ssoc ia ted with the im prove d stea m e ng ine ;the othe rswe re
textile prod uc e rswhoe m ploye d suc h e ng ine s.Ja c ob ’spe npic ture softhe m a re we ll
d one a nd c om pe lling .Allfive fita nid e ntikitinnova torwe d d e d tosc ie ntific a nd
tec hnolog ic a lc ulture a nd tostea m .Buthow typic a lwe re the y?
De sc rib ing wha twa s‘typic a l’isnote a sy7,b utAlle n(2009) a nd M e ise nza hla nd
M okyr(2012) ha ve prod uc e d d a tab a se sd ire c te d a tthisque stion.Ab outha lfofthe
e ig htyhig hprofile inve ntorsinAlle n’sd a tab a se ha d e nlig htenm e ntc onne c tions
(2009:2489),a lthoug h a fe w,suc h a sthe a g ronom istArthurYoung ,the textile b a ron
JohnKe nne d y,a nd the c loc k-a nd instrum e ntm a ke rH e nryH ind le y,m a d e the
c onne c tionla te inthe d a y.Butthose we re the W ho’sW ho: M e ise nza hla nd M okyr
foc usinstea d on7
59 m ore m od e st‘twe a ke rsa nd im ple m e nters’whom e re lyim prove d
one xisting inve ntions.Le sstha none fourth ofthose ha d a nysc hooling othe rtha na n
7
Com pa re H one ym a n1982;Crouze t1985;M a c Le od a nd N uvola ri2006;Ca ntre lla nd Cookson
2002.
7
a ppre ntic e ship,while onlyone inse ve nwa sa m e m b e rofa soc ie tysuc h a sthe
M a nc he sterLita nd Phil(M e ise nza hla nd M okyr2012;Ta b le s2a nd 6).
Inre a lity,m ostofthe fore m ostinve ntore ntre pre ne ursofthe Ind ustria l
Re volutionwe re ofra the rm od e st,a rtisa na lorig ins.The listinc lud e sArkwrig ht,
Strutt,ironm a sterJohnW ilkinson(inve ntorofthe pre c isionb oring m a c hine use d in
the c onstruc tionofste a m e ng ine s),H e nryM a ud sla y(m a c hine toolinve ntor),Ja m e s
H a rg re a ve s(inve ntorofthe spinning je nny),Cha rle sTe nna nt(whod isc ove re d
b le a c hing powd e r),a nd M a tthe w M urra y(m a c hinist,riva ltoBoultona nd W a tt).W a tt
d e sc rib e d H e nryCort,inve ntorofthe pud d ling proc e ss,a s‘a sim ple g ood na ture d
m a nb utnotve ryknowing ’(M c Le od 2007
:40),while Sa m ue lCrom pton‘posse sse d
onlysuc h toolsa she purc ha se d with hislittle e a rning sa c quire d b yla b oura tthe loom
orje nny’(Ke nne d y1831:31920)8.The historyofsm a llpoxinoc ula tion,a tec hnique
d e ve lope d inthe 17
50sb ya g roupofprovinc ia lsurg e ons/a pothe c a rie swithoutform a l
m e d ic a ltra ining ,isa nothe re xa m ple .9 The se a rtisa nsm ad eg ood we re the m ost
tale nted a nd a m b itiousprod uc tsofa system tha tc om b ine d b a sic sc hooling inlitera c y
a nd a rithm e tic with a ppre ntic e shipsb a se d m a inlyonle a rning b yd oing .Tha tsystem
yie ld e d worke rssova lua b le tha titwa sa c rim e forthe m toe m ig ra te b e fore the m id 1820s(Cookson1994:145;Be nsim on2011).
Ye te ve nfoc using onthe like softhose na m e d a b ove ig nore sthe inc re m e ntal,
8
JohnKe nne d y,‘A b rie fm e m oirofSa m ue lCrom pton’,M e m oirsa nd ofthe Litera rya nd
Philosophic a lSoc ie tyofM a nc he ster,se r.2,vol.5(1831) 5:31920
[http://b ooks.goog le .ie /b ooks?id =xAZ_ 56m G24C& pg =PA318& lpg #v=one pa g e & q& f=fa lse ].
9
Ind e e d ,m a nya c a d e m ic a llytra ine d physic ia nsoppose d the irm e thod s.Iowe thise xa m ple to
Pe terRa zze ll.
8
lowtec h,a nd a nonym ousna ture ofm uc h tec hnolog ic a lc ha ng e inthise ra .During
the e ig htee nth c e ntury,fore xa m ple ,wa tchm a king b e ne fitted from nom a jor
tec hnolog ic a lb re a kthroug hsa pa rtfrom the d e a d b e a te sc a pe m e nt(c .17
15) a nd the
inve ntionofc a ststee l(c .17
40).Ye tprod uc tivityg rowth wa sc ontinuousa nd
sig nific a nt— thoug h notquite a sfa sta sim plie d b yAd a m Sm ith (Sm ith 197
6:2601;
Ke llya nd Ó Grád a 2014).Shipd e sig ninBritainwa sm a inlya rtisa na linthispe riod .
The m a jorb re a kthroug h wa sc oppe rshe a thing ,a nid e a tha twa sne ve rpa tented a nd
whose inve ntorisunknown.Itsd e ve lopm e ntowe d m osttothe Roya lN a vy'
s
willing ne ssa nd a b ilitytofina nc e e xpe rim e nta lvoya g e s(Sola r2013).
Ca ptiva ted b yBoulton a nd W a tt’sstrug g le swith the irpa tents,Ja c ob a sse rts
tha t‘inBritain,innova tionsm e a ntpa tents’(pp.22,24,4042,159).Butthisisto
e m b ra c e a ve ryna rrow vie w oftec hnolog ic a lc ha ng e d uring the Ind ustria lRe volution.
Itisa lsotoig nore a ne xtensive lite ra ture tha td e e m sBritain’spa tentsystem
c um b e rsom e a nd unre lia b le a nd e xpe nsive ,with the re sulttha tm ostinve ntors
shunne d it(Dutton1984;M c Le od 1988,2009;M c Le od a nd N uvola ri2011;M ose r2012).
Se ve ra lhig hprofile inve ntionswe re ne ve rpa te nted ;m ore im portantly,the
inc re m e ntalc ha ng e stha twe re oc c urring throug houtthe e c onom ywe re im possib le to
pa tent.Sig nific a ntly,m ostBritish g ood sa nd proc e sse sonshow a tthe Gre a t
Exhib itionof1851ha d b e e nd e ve lope d withouta pa tent.Pe rha psa syste m c lose rtothe
Am e ric a nm od e lwould ha ve spurre d m ore inve ntive a c tivity;a sm a tte rsstood ,Britain
a c hie ve d a nd m a intaine d tec hnolog ic a lle a d e rshipuntilm id c e nturywith little re sort
topa tents.
9
3.Te xtile s,Coa l,a nd Stea m :
‘W hoe ve rsa ysind ustria lre volutionsa ysc otton’(H ob sb a wm 1999:34).This
e nd uring c lic hére m a insa use fule xa g g e ra tion,sinc e e stim a te softhe te xtile se c tor’s
c ontrib utiontom e a sure d prod uc tivityg rowth b e twe e nthe 17
80sa nd the 1860sra ng e
from a qua rtertob e twe e na ha lfa nd thre e qua rterswhe na g ric ulture isa d d e d on
(M c Closke y1981:114;H a rle y1993;Cla rk 2014:Ta b le 2).Prod uc tivityg rowth intextile s
(c otton,woole ns,worste d s,line ns) m a ttere d b e c a use the se c tora c c ounted fora b out
ha lfofBritish ind ustria loutputthroug houtthe e ig htee nth c e ntury(Cra ftsa nd H a rle y
1995:7
29).Byc .1830 c ottong ood sa c c ounted forha lfofa llBritish e xports.
Ye tb e c a use Ja c ob d islike sthe old orthod oxy‘tha tthe ind ustria liza tionofc loth
prod uc tionre quire d notstea m ,b utje nnie sa nd wa terpowe r’,she isnotinte re sted in
textile se xc e ptinsofa ra sthe ywe re linke d toste a m e ng ine tec hnolog y(Ja c ob 2007
:
200).She isa wa re (p.90) ofpe ople like the ‘twoJourne ym e nCloc kM a ke rs,orothe rs
tha tund e rstand sTooth a nd Pinionwe ll’,the ‘Sm ith tha tc a nforg e a nd file ’,a nd the
‘twoW ood Turne rstha tha ve b e e na c c ustom e d toW he e lm a king ,Spole turning ,& c .’
soug htb yArkwrig hta nd Struttforthe irre volutiona rywa terpowe re d spinning m illin
Crom ford in17
7
1(Fittona nd W a d sworth 1958:65),b utinFKEne ithe rCrom ptonnor
Struttre pre se nt‘the firstg e ne ra tionofc ottonm a nufa c ture rs’(p.85).Fine c otton
spinne rsM c Conne la nd Ke nne d y,whoinstalle d a 16 h.p.stea m e ng ine in17
97
,a re
a lloc a ted tha trole . Butthe re wa snothing spe c ia la b outthe irstea m e ng ine .
Ka ne fsky’sd a tab a se ofe ig htee nth c e nturystea m e ng ine s(Ka ne fsky197
9a a nd
pe rsona lc om m unic a tionforthe a uthor) re c ord sa round twohund re d stea m e ng ine s,
inc lud ing ove rfiftyb yBoultona nd W a tt,a sha ving b e e ninstalle d inBritish c otton
10
m illsb e fore 17
97
;ove rha lfofthe se e ng ine swe re inLa nc a shire . N e a rlyone hund re d
a re knowntoha ve d rive ntextile m a c hine ryd ire c tly(a tle a stfortyre c irc ula ted wa ter
towa terwhe e lsa nd the use ofthe re m a ind e risnotknown),a nd ofthe se d ire c td rive
e ng ine sove rfortyha d a g a inb e e ninstalle d inLa nc a shire ,inc lud ing se ve ntee nb y
Boultona nd W a tt,starting ove ra d e c a d e e a rlie r.So,wha teve rthe irsc ie ntific
le a ning s,M c Conne la nd Ke nne d ywe re followe rsra the rtha nle a d e rsinthe iruse of
stea m powe r.
The wa terwhe e lm a yha ve la c ke d the stea m e ng ine ’sve rsa tilityb utm ost
Eng lish textile m a nufa c ture rswould c ontinue re lyonwa te rpowe rfora fe w m ore
d e c a d e s(vonTunze lm a nn197
8:183,224).N ord id wa terpowe rtec hnolog ystand still:
Ca rd we ll(1965) a nd Ka ne fsky(197
9) ha ve hig hlig hted a d va nc e sinwa te rpowe r
tec hnolog ywe llintointhe nine tee nth c e ntury.10 And Ja c ob issile ntonthe wid e ly
c ited find ing b yvonTunze lm a nn(197
8;c om pa re Cra fts2004) tha tb e fore the e a rly
nine tee nth c e nturythe c ontrib utionofstea m powe rtoe c onom ic g rowth wa sm inim a l.
Ja c ob ’sund ue foc usonM c Conne la nd Ke nne d yre fuse stoa c knowle d g e the stub b orn
fa c tstha t‘a llthe m a jortec hnic a lb re a kthroug hsinc ottonspinning ’pre d a ted stea m
powe ra nd tha tinthe e a rlyye a rsthe use ofste a m powe rwa sc onfine d toc a rd ing a nd
m ule spinning (va nTunze lm a nn197
8:1823).The se e xa m ple sa lsohig hlig htthe
tend e nc yofFKEtotre a tthe e ntire pe riod b e twe e nc .17
50 a nd c .1850 a stim e le ssa nd
hom og e nous.
Da ta onprofe ssiona lprize sa nd othe rre wa rd sto‘twe a ke rs’a c rossa ra ng e of
10
The m ostim portant(d e sc rib e d ind e tailb yKa ne fsky197
9:4862) inc lud e Fa irb a irn'
srim
d rive ,lig htera nd strong e rstee lwhe e lfra m e s,Je a nVic torPonc e le t'
sc urve d b uc ke tsa nd ,from
the 1840s,wa terturb ine s(the inve ntionofFre nc h e ng ine e rBe noî
tFourne yron).
11
se c tors,a sa m e a sure ofthe link b e twe e nsc ie nc e a nd c om m e rc e ,pointtoa stark
c ontra stb e twe e ntextile sa nd the re stofthe e c onom y(M e ise nza hla nd M okyr2012).
Be fore 1800,only16 pe rc e ntofthe 124 ‘twe a ke rs’intextile swona wa rd s,c om pa re d to
67pe rc e ntofthe re m a ind e r.Post1800,the pe rc e ntag e swe re 20 a nd 81,re spe c tive ly.
Pre 1800,only2of124 ‘twe a ke rs’intextile sb e c a m e m e m b e rsofthe Roya lSoc ie ty,
c om pa re d to31of7
3 instrum e ntm a ke rs(d e rive d from M e ise nza hla nd M okyr2012:
Ta b le 6).And the proportionswhose e d uc a tionwa sm inim a lorunknownwe re hig he r
tha nina nyothe rse c tor.
Stea m — a nd the re fore c oa l(pp.57
82)— a re a tthe he a rtofJa c ob ’sc a se for
sc ie nc e .Inthe long run,c e rtainly,c oa la nd Ja m e sW a tt— a nd Ric ha rd Tre vithic k,who
pione e re d the ra ilwa yloc om otive 11— we re m ore im portanttha nc ottona nd Ric ha rd
Arkwrig ht.The pa rtpla ye d b yc oa linfre e ing hum a nityfrom d e pe nd e nc e onve g e tal
e ne rg ysourc e swa sa sim portantinitsd a ya sthe role ofnonfossilfue lsinprotec ting
thisa nd future g e ne ra tionsa g a instg lob a lwa rm ing (W rig le y2010).H owe ve r,stea m ’s
role a tthe he ig htofthe Ind ustria lRe volution,b oth a sa sourc e ofe ne rg yre la tive to
wa terpowe ra nd inte rm sofitsc ontrib utiontoove ra lle c onom ic g rowth,wa sd istinc tly
se c ond a ry(Ta b le 1).
Ta b le 1.Sourc e sofEne rg y17
60187
0 (1,000 horse powe r)
Ye a r
Stea m
W a ter
W ind
Total
17
60
5
7
0
10
85
1800
35
120
15
17
0
11
M ytha nkstoJohnKa ne fskyforinsisting onthis.
12
1830
165
165
20
350
187
0
2060
230
10
2300
Sourc e :Cra fts2004:342,a fterKa ne fsky197
9a
Fora llthe irnove lty,the a ve ra g e horse powe rofBoultona nd W a ttrota tive
e ng ine swa sonly15h.p.c .1800 (vonTunze lm a nn197
8:2829],a nd 60 h.p.wa sstill
c onsid e re d la rg e inthe 1820s.M ore ove r,Ka ne fksy’sre vie w ofthe e vid e nc e c .187
0
sug g e ststha twhile stea m wa soffund a m e ntalim portanc e inm ining ,te xtile s,
tra nsport,a nd m e tallurg y,a c rossla rg e swa the sofind ustria lBrita in,the d iffusionof
stea m powe rwa sstillfa rfrom c om ple te.Ag ric ulture a nd the se rvic e se c torre m a ine d
la rg e lyuntouc he d .Eve ninc oa lm ining ,the e xpa nsionofoutputc onsisted ofhiring
m ore m e nwith pic ksa nd shove lstoe xtra c tthe c oa l(Ka ne fsky197
9b ;Sa m ue l197
7
;
Cra fts2004:3412).
Ja c ob d e votesa c ha ptertoLe e d s,a c itytra nsform e d b ywoole na nd line nm ills
a nd m a jore ng ine e ring firm sd uring the Ind ustria lRe volution.12 Le e d stextile
m a nufa c ture rsd id ta ke upstea m powe rquite ra pid ly,b utb ythe 1820sa nd 1830sthis
wa snolong e rg ood e vid e nc e ofre lia nc e onthe ‘sc ie ntific a llyinform e d ,fa c toryb a se d
e xpe rim e ntation’(p.110) tha tshe c ha m pions.Ironic a lly,Le e d sprovid e sthe b e st
witne sse sa g a instthe c e ntra lityof‘sc ie ntific knowle d g e ofa m e c ha nic a lsort,a nd
c he m istry’(p.114).Ja c ob ’sd e pic tionofLe e d sind ustria listM a tthe w M urra y(17
651828) a s‘m e c ha nic a llylitera te e ntre pre ne ur’(p.125) isnote a silysqua re d with the
a rtisa ng e niuswhoc ontinue d tom a ke ‘hisc a lc ula tionswith a c a rpe nterslid ing rule ’,
12
Le e d s’popula tiong re w from a b out30,000 in17
7
0 to222,189 in1841.
13
a nd ‘ha d nothing tod owith sc ie ntistsd uring hism ostprod uc tive a nd innova tive
ye a rs’(Cookson1994:150,1545;Cookson2004).Anothe rfa m ousLe e d se ng ine e ra nd
inve ntor,Pe terFa irb a irn,b e g a nwork ina c ollie rya tthe a g e ofe le ve n;he se tup
b usine ss‘ina sm a llroom inLa d yLa ne in1826,whe re a '
stalwa rtIrishm a n'powe re d
the la the ’(Cookson1994:219).
4.Artisa nH um a nCa pita l:
Tod a ythe ke yrole ofe d uc a tiona nd litera c yinprom oting e c onom ic g rowth is
a d m itted ona llsid e s,b ute c onom ic historia nsd isa g re e a b outthe role ofe d uc a tionin
the Ind ustria lRe volution.Itisoftennoted tha tb e c a use Brita in’sre c ord onlite ra c y
wa sm e d ioc re a nd tha tm a sslite ra c ywa snota pre re quisite fore a rlyind ustria liza tion.
Ja c ob ’sfoc usisnotonm a sslite ra c yb utonthe sortofsc ie ntific tra ining she d e e m s
ne c e ssa ryfora c a re e rinind ustryd uring the Ind ustria lRe volution:tha tre quire d ,
b e sid e slite ra c ya nd num e ra c y,a ne d uc a tioning e om e try,a lg e b ra ,a nd ‘b a sic
m e c ha nic sofa N e wtonia nsort’(p.157
).
O ne loc a lc a se stud ym a yb e instruc tive inthisre spe c t.Pre sc otin
southwe sternLa nc a shire ha d b e e ne pic e nterofEng la nd ’swa tchm a king ind ustrysinc e
the e a rlye ig htee nth c e ntury(Ba ile ya nd Ba rke r1969).ItsAng lic a npa rish re g iste rs
re ve a ltha tthe ove ra lllitera c yra te inPre sc ot,loc a ted withine ig htm ile sofLive rpool,
wa sve rylow,a nd showe d little sig nofa nyinc re a se b e fore the m id nine tee nth
c e ntury.Butthe re wa sc onsid e ra b le va ria tioninlitera c ya c rossoc c upa tions.Collie rs
we re ne a rlya llillitera te throug houtthe pe riod ,a swe re shoe m a ke rsa nd la b ore rs.
Fa rm e rswe re m uc h le sslike lytob e illitera te— a nd Thirsk (1985:57
14) ha shig hlig hted
14
the role ofprintinha ste ning the d iffusionofa g ric ultura ltec hnique s— b utthe ywe re
notre luc ta nttom a rryillitera te wom e n.W hite c olla rworke rs,inva ria b lylitera te
the m se lve s,m a rrie d lite ra te wom e n.Butwha tissure lysig nific a ntistha tPre sc ot’s
wa tchm a ke rsa nd a rtisa nsg e ne ra llywe re m uc h m ore like lytob e litera te tha nthe
a ve ra g e .O fthe 183 wa tch-a nd wa tchtoolm a ke rswhom a rrie d inPre sc otb e twe e n
17
7
3 a nd 1845m ore tha ntwothird s(131) sig ne d the m a rria g e re g ister.The irwive s
we re ne a rlya llillitera te ,whic h sug g e ststha twa tchm a ke rssa w litera c ya sa n
inve stm e nt,whe re a sforthe whitec olla re lite itwa sc onsum ption.In sum ,a rtisa ns
tend e d toinve stinlite ra c y,iffa c toryha nd sa nd m ine rsd id not.13
Ja c ob re pe a ted lysta testha thow ‘sc ie ntific knowle d g e ’wa sa c quire d — a nd
the re fore how wid e spre a d itwa s— re m a insa b la c k b ox(pp.8,133,223).Butshe fa ilsto
note tha te ve nsom e ofthe d isc ove rie sofb e tte re d uc a ted inve ntorssuc h a sGe org e
Stephe nsona nd Ric ha rd Rob e rtswe re b a se d ,noton‘sc ie ntific knowle d g e ’b uton
‘tinke ring ’(c om pa re M c Closke y2010:434).Eve nTe nna nt’sd isc ove ryofb le a c hing
powd e rin17
99 wa sthe prod uc toftria la nd e rrora nd ‘c ould ha ve b e e nm a d e b ya ny
ob se rva nta rtisa n’(Cole y2000:37
).And a lthoug h Ja c ob c onc e d e sthe ub iquityof
tra ine d a rtisa ns,she und e rra testhe irc e ntra lrole inthe Ind ustria lRe volution(pp.12,
157
;c om pa re Ta nn197
4).Appre ntic e shipinEng la nd wa sfa rre m ove d from the
c a ric a ture pa inted b yAd a m Sm ith inthe W e a lth ofN a tions.Re silie nta nd a d a ptab le ,it
wa sa fa rm ore e ffe c tive m e a nsoftra nsm itting ‘use fulknowle d g e ’tha nthe le a rne d
soc ie tie s,se c ond a rysc hools,orm e c ha nic s’institutesg ive nprid e ofpla c e b yJa c ob .So
ope nwa sa c c e sstoa ppre ntic e shipstha tin17
00 ove rone young a d ultm a le infourha d
13
Thispa tte rnisb roa d lyre plic a ted inthe ne ig hb oring pa rish ofW a rring ton.
15
c om ple ted one (M okyr2009:118).Thiswa sa prod uc tivitya ug m e nting ,m a rke td rive n,a nd se lfre g ula te d institution,inwhic h m a stersa nd se rva ntsc oope ra ted ina
we llre c og nize d wa y(H um phrie s2003;M innsa nd W a llis2012;va nd e rBe e k 2014).
Le ssd ista nc e d from the tra d itiona ltextb ook stere otype ,the Fre nc h a ppre ntic e ship
system wa sm uc h m ore re stric tive tha nthe Eng lish (Ka pla n1993;Crowston2005).
5.Fre nc h a nd Dutc h Re ta rd a tion:
Ja c ob a ttrib utesBritain’sle a d ove rFra nc e toa ne lite tha twa s‘a tle a sta
g e ne ra tiona he a d ’inte rm sof‘sc ie ntific knowle d g e a nd e d uc a tionofa m e c ha nic a l
sort’(p.132,138).Britain'
sothe rc ontine ntalriva ls,the Dutch,we re hig hlylitera te b ut
fa ile d toc onc e ntra te on‘tec hnolog ic a lle a rning ’(p.2058).Butthe re isa na lterna tive
e xpla na tionofhe re vid e nc e :the priva te supplyofsuc h tra ining wa susua llya m ple
whe re the re wa sa d e m a nd forit.And soitisha rd lysurprising tha tthe U nive rsityof
Durha m ,sitting inthe m id stofBrita in'
sla rg e stc oa lfie ld s,would offe rc ourse sin
m ining e ng ine e ring inthe 1830swhile the re wa slittle e nthusia sm form e c ha nic sin
institutionsofhig he rle a rning in‘H a rd e rwijk,De ve nter,a nd Ge ld e rla nd ’(pp.7
4,193,
207
).
Ec onom ic historia nsha ve long d e b a ted whyFra nc e a nd the N e the rla nd sfa ile d
toind ustria lize whe nBritaind id (e .g.Kind le b e rg e r1964;O ’Brie na nd Ke yd a r197
8;
M okyr2000;Crouze t2003).ForJa c ob the m a inre a sonforFre nc h e c onom ic
re tard a tionistha t‘sc ie ntific e d uc a tionoc c urre d infitsa nd sta rts’(p.188),while the
c ontra sting fortune sofind ustria lizing Be lg ium a nd the la g g a rd N e the rla nd sstem m e d
from the irre spe c tive sta nc e on‘e d uc a tionwith a nind ustria lfoc us’.M a a stric htisthe
16
Dutch e xc e ptiontha tprove sthe rule :the onlyre a sonJa c ob g ive sforitsre la tive
suc c e ssisitsre la tive stre ng th insc ie nc e b a se d e d uc a tion(pp.207
11).She m ig htha ve
a lsonoted the a d d itiona le ffe c tofthe e ve ntsof17
891815inb oth the N e the rla nd sa nd
Fra nc e ,whic h c le a rlyd ive rted re sourc e sa nd ing e nuityfrom prod uc tive toothe re nd s.
ButFre nc h pre c oc ityinthissphe re sug g e ststha tsc ie nc e wa snotthe ke y,
b e c a use Fra nc e ha d b e e ng e ne ra ting sc ie nc e b a se d knowle d g e inspa d e slong b e fore
the Ind ustria lRe volution.Itwa sstilla he a d ofBritainina pplie d sc ie nc e c .1800,a nd
the Fre nc h Re volutiona rg ua b lya c c e ntua ted itsle a d fora tim e (Ca rd we ll197
2:22,2627
;M a thia s197
2;H ob sb a wm 1962:2930).14 N orwe re Eng lish sc ie ntistsa nd
m a the m a tic ia nstha ta d e pta tspre a d ing the irg ospe l:Ca rd we lld e sc rib e sEng lish
m a the m a tic stextb ooksofthe e a rlyInd ustria lRe volutione ra a s'
b e long ing toa n
e a rlie rc e ntury'a nd ‘fa rre m ove d from pra c tic e ’;m ore ove rthe ywe re inc om pre he nsib le
tom e c ha nic sa nd e xpe nsive a swe ll(Ca rd we ll197
2:124;Cookson1994:146).
W ha tFra nc e la c ke d wa snota ne nlig htene d e lite,b utthe m e c ha nic sa nd
a rtisa ne ntre pre ne urssople ntifulinBrita in.O nthe e ve ofthe Ind ustria lRe volution
British worke rswe re ta lle r,he a lthie r,sa vvie r,a nd m ore prod uc tive tha nthe irFre nc h
c ounterpa rts.W a g e sinBritainwe re hig he rtha ne lse whe re notb e c a use la b orwa s
c ostlie r,b utb e c a use British worke rswe re m ore prod uc tive (Ke llye ta l.2014).Fre nc h
re tard a tiond e pe nd e d le ssonwha tJa c ob c a llsthe ‘e xpa nsionofhum a nknowle d g e ’(p.
15) tha nonthe re la tive lypoorqua lityofitsla b orforc e .
14
Did e rota nd d ’Ale m b e rt’sEnc yc lopéd ie (17
517
2),whic h hig hlig hted suc h knowle d g e ,ha d
sold 25,000 c opie sb y17
89,ha lfofthe m inFra nc e (Da rnton197
9:37
).And whe re a sN e wton
wrote the Princ ipia inLa tin,Voltaire a nd Em ilie d uCha tele tpopula rize d itsfind ing sthroug h
the irElém e ntsd e la philosophie d e N e wtonin17
38 a nd Cha tele t’sfullFre nc h tra nsla tionofthe
Princ ipia followe d in17
56.
17
6.Tim ing
N ob od yd oub tsthe c e ntra lityoftec hnolog ic a lc ha ng e tothe Ind ustria l
Re volution,b utthe tim ing ofitsim pa c tisstilld e b a ted .M a c roe c onom ic d a ta im ply
tha tra pid ,se lfsusta ining e c onom ic prog re ssd id notb e g ininthe 17
60s(p.1);
m ore ove r,e c onom ic g rowth d uring the following c e nturywa sve ryslow b yla ter
stand a rd s,c e rtainlynom ore tha n1.5pe rc e ntpe ra nnum .M ore intere sting ly,the
la testa ttem ptsa te stim a ting British outputa nd prod uc tivityinthe m ore d istantpa st
re ve a la nupwa rd tre nd inGDP tha tb e g a nlong b e fore the a g e sofc ottona nd stea m
a nd ,ind e e d ,b e fore the Enlig htenm e ntc ould ha ve ha d a nyim pa c t(Broa d b e rrye ta l.
2014;N uvola ria nd Ric c i2013).
Fig ure 1d e sc rib e sthe m ove m e ntsinGDP a nd GDP pe rhe a d (b oth m e a sure d in
log s) in20ye a rb loc ksb e twe e n13901409 a nd 185069 im plie d b yBroa d b e rrye ta l.15
O ve rthispe riod ,GDP g re w a b outtentim e sa sfa sta sGDP pe rhe a d .N ote tha tfrom
the e a rlyse ve ntee nth c e nturyon,GDP pe rhe a d wa shig he rine a c h pe riod tha ninthe
pre viouspe riod :g rowth ha d som e how b e c om e b uiltin.N ote toothe ra the rintrig uing
im plic a tiontha tthe g rowth ra te ofGDP pe rhe a d fe lld uring the e ig htee nth c e ntury
b e fore a c c e le ra ting a g a ine a rlyinthe nine tee nth.
15
The se num b e rsa re the b e sta va ila b le b utnotd e finitive :se e Ke llya nd Ó Grád a 2013.
18
Fig ure 1.Ec onom ic Growth Be fore a nd During the Ind ustria lRe volution
O the rind ic a torspointtoprog re ssinthispre Ind ustria lRe volutione ra .O ne is
the re m a rka b le inc re a se inlite ra c y;b e twe e n1600 a nd 17
50 Eng la nd m ove d from b e ing
e sse ntia llya pre litera te soc ie tytoone whe re m ore tha nha lfofa lla d ultsc ould sig na
m a rria g e re g ister.And a lthoug h litera c y(thusd e fine d ) d id notinc re a se m uc h for
som e d e c a d e sthe re a fte r,the num b e rofb ookspub lishe d a nd the c irc ula tionof
ne wspa pe rsd id .O the rind ic a torsa re the inc re a sing urb a niza tiona nd ope nne ssofthe
e c onom y,a nd the integ ra tionofitsre g iona lm a rke ts.W ith inc re a sing
c om m e rc ia liza tionc a m e inc re a se sinthe va rie tyofg ood sc onsum e d ,a nd those
inc re a se swe re notc onfine d tothe ric h.Ad ultlife e xpe c tanc yb e g a ntorise too,tha tof
the e lite d uring the se ve ntee nth c e ntury,tha tofthe popula tiona tla rg e d uring the
e ig htee nth (Ed wa rd s2008;Joha nsson2010;Ra zze ll2014).Insum ,the slow ta ke offof
the British e c onom ya nted a ted the Enlig htenm e nta nd the stea m e ng ine b ya c e ntury
orm ore .
N one ofthisrule souta ‘firstknowle d g e e c onom y’.Butifone istofe a ture in
the m a c roe c onom ic la nd sc a pe d e sc rib e d inFig ure 1,itsb irth m ustha ve b e e na
19
g ra d ua l,long d ra wnoutproc e ss.Thisisprob le m a tic forinterpre ta tionstha t
e m pha size the re volutiona ryrole ofa fe w inve ntionssuc h a sW a tt’sa nd Arkwrig ht’s,
b utm ore c ong e nia ltoa slowb urning b ute ve ntua llya lle m b ra c ing d iffusionofid e a s
a nd tec hnolog ie stha tisa c tua llym ore inline with the old e ra rg um e ntsforthe
im portanc e ofsc ie nc e b a se d c ha ng e .A proc e sswith rootsinthe pre ind ustria le ra in
se c torsothe rtha nc ottona nd c oa la nd inform sofknowle d g e d istinc tfrom ‘a pplie d
sc ie nc e ’se e m sm ostlike ly.
Inhe rc la im sforthe c e ntra lityofsc ie nc e a nd knowle d g e ,forthe im portanc e of
m e c ha nic s’institutes,a nd forthe pivotalrole ofc oa la nd stee l,Ja c ob ’sc hronolog yof
tim ing ofe c onom ic c ha ng e inBrita inle tshe rd own.H e rc la im sforsc ie nc e a nd stea m
a re pe rfe c tlypla usib le forthe soc a lle d Se c ond Ind ustria lRe volutionofthe la ter
nine tee nth c e ntury,b utthe yc a rryfa rle ssc onvic tionforthe pe riod b e fore 1830 or
1840.
7
.Stre tc hing the Evid e nc e
FKE’sc a se fora pplie d sc ie nc e iswe a ke ne d b ya prope nsitytospre a d e vid e nc e
toothinore lse ,oc c a siona lly,tom isre a d it.Thusitm a ke sm uc h ofe pisod e sinvolving
m e m b e rsofthe H ouse ofLord sinterrog a ting c a na lb uild e rsine ng ine e ring la ng ua g e
in17
69.The se e pisod e s,whic h Ja c ob ha sa lre a d yd isc usse d re pe a ted lye lse whe re
(1987
:2402;1997
:2035),a re re c yc le d se ve ntim e she re (pp.8,13,23,56,133,222,224).
N oristhe e vid e nc e a sc le a rc uta sc la im e d .W hile som e nob le swith a fina nc ia l
intere stinthe propose d c a na lsa ske d ve rytec hnic a lque stions— onwhic h pre sum a b ly
the ywe re c lose lyb rie fe d — m ostfound itha rd toc onc e ntra te a nd we re re luc tantto
20
a ttend the he a ring s(Sc hofie ld 1982:27
07
1).M ore telling isthe low qua lityofsom e of
the e xpe rtwitne sse sb roug htintoc ritic ize a c a na lproje c td e sig ne d b yEng la nd ’s
fore m oste ng ine e r,a nd the e a syrid e g ive nto‘e ng ine e rsg e ne ra lly’b yla wye rsfor
whom e ng ine e ring m e c ha nic swa sa fore ig nla ng ua g e (Sc hofie ld 1982:265,268).
Anothe re xa m ple isJa c ob ’suse ofa le tte rfrom one ‘M r.Cla rk’,unc ove re d ina
Be lg ia na rc hive .Thisa g a inisinvoke d re pe a te d lyinFKE(a tle a stnine m e ntions) to
und e rpinb roa d e rpointsa b outsc ie nc e ’srole inind ustry.Cla rk’sle tte rfrom hisb a se
inM ons,d a ted 6 M e ssid orYe a rXII(25June 1804,not1812a sc la im e d ),d e sc rib e sa n
a ttem pta tra ising c a pita ltoprod uc e a nim prove d m ule spind le und e rthe tra d e na m e
of‘Cla rk’sM a the m a tic a lSpind le s,form uslin& c .’Attha tpointCla rk wa s
m a nufa c turing spind le sa nd c a rd ing c ylind e rs;hisloc a lpa rtne rsha d inve sted a
m od e stse ve ntyg uine a sin‘stee l,g rind ing stone s,b e llows,a nd othe rtools’.
N othing furthe risre ve a le d inFKEa b outCla rk b e yond wha tisinthe le tter—
note ve nhisg ive nna m e .Buta little sle uthing re ve a lstha the wa sfa rfrom b e ing the
‘lone ’m e c ha nic (p.133) tha tJa c ob im a g ine shim tob e .Ind e e d Da vid Cla rk’sc a re e r
spa nne d Eng la nd (whe re he ha d g one b a nkrupttwic e ),Ire la nd (whe re he m a na g e d a
ne w spinning m illinM a la hid e outsid e Dub lininthe e a rly17
80s)16,Pa ris(c .18004),
a nd Be lg ium (whe re in1804 he b e g a nthe b usine ssm e ntione d a b ove inH yon,ne xtto
the c itywa llsofM ons,a nd whe re he d isa ppe a rsfrom vie w inthe la te 1810s).Cla rk,a
se ria le ntre pre ne ur,wa sinvolve d inva riouspa rtne rshipsinthe M onsa re a a nd wa sin
16
M inutesofthe e vid e nc e ta ke nb e fore a c om m ittee ofthe H ouse ofCom m ons,… towhom the
b illforre pe a ling the d utie sontob a c c oa nd snuff… ;wa sc om m itted .Lond on,17
89,pp.20810;
Aspin2010.
21
c lose c onta c twith othe re xpa tria te Eng lishm e nonthe m a ke .17 Give nhislong
e xpe rie nc e ,he m ustha ve b e e na c om pe tentm e c ha nic b utthe re a re nog round s
wha teve rforinfe rring from his‘m a the m a tic a lspind le s’tha the wa sfa m ilia rwith
‘m a the m a tic s… a nd the a pplie d sc ie nc e ofm e c ha nic s’(p.16).
Se ve ra lothe rre a d ing softhe litera ture a re que stiona b le .Ja c ob re fe rsto
Lond onporterswhowe re profic ie ntina lg e b ra (p.154),a nd toc loc km a ke rsb e ing ke y
pla ye rsinm a c hine m a king (pp.15,90).ButGillia nCookson,whose a uthorita tive
re se a rc h onthe W e stRid ing m a c hine m a king ind ustryJa c ob m e ntionsb utothe rwise
ig nore s,isa tpa instod e e m pha size the role ofc loc km a ke rs(1994:51ff),a nd Cookson’s
ove ra lla sse ssm e nt,tha t‘most significant technological progress was achieved in a
workshop rather than in a laboratory, by machine-makers who apparently had little or
noe xposure tosc ie ntific b ooksora nye d uc a tioninsc ie nc e ’flie sd ire c tlyinthe fa c e of
FKE.Fina lly,fe w e c onom ic historia nswilltake se riouslyJa c ob ’sa sse rtiontha t‘b y
17
The ‘Ke nnion’m e ntione d inthe le tterpre sum a b lyre fe rstoW illia m Ke nyona nd Sons,
proprie torsofa c a b le m a nufa c turing pla ntinArm e ntière s,northe rnFra nc e ).Fa rra ra nd
M a the r(a ppa re ntlyCla rk’sb rothe rinla w),a lsom e ntione d ,a re listed inCha ssa g ne (1991).
Ja c ob ’sprone ne sstostre tch he re vid e nc e toofa rprod uc e sa ‘howle r’:she m isre a d sCla rk’s
proposa ltoe m ployprisonla b ora sa sourc e ofe ne rg yforhisd e term ina tiontopa yworke rs
(‘offe nd e rs’) a slittle a spossib le (p.16):
Id onotwe llund e rstand the word ofM a isond e forc e (i.e.prison:CÓ G) b utifit
im ploys(=im plie s) this— tom a ke the iroffe nd e rstowork,a nd tha tthe re willb e
ve rylittle topa yin[?],Ithe nc ould m a ke a sim ple m a c hine ,sotha t12 or18 m e n
m a yg oslowlyround ,a nd the yb e ing re lie ve d e a c h hour,sob ythism e a nsthe
stone swillb e turne d — b utthe irpric e ofwa g e sm ustd e term ine tha t,a ssoona s
Iknow it.
Tha tisa fa rc ryfrom ‘m a the m a tic a lspind le s’.
22
Europe a nsta nd a rd sm ostEng lish ha nd worke rsa nd the irfa m ilie slive d a tb e sta ta
sub siste nc e le ve lpre c ise lyinthe pe riod whe nind ustria liza tionb e g a nine a rne st’(p.65,
e m pha sisa d d e d ).O nthe c ontra ry,m ostwillb e c onvinc e d b yAlle n’sd e m onstra tion
tha tonthe e ve ofthe Ind ustria lRe volutionunskille d m a le worke rsinBritaine a rne d
thre e tofourtim e sa ‘b a re b one ssub siste nc e ’wa g e .18
8.Conc lusion:
H um a nc a pitalind e e d m a ttere d ,a sM a rg a re tJa c ob c la im s.The b ig inc re a se in
the qua lityofEng lish litera c ya nd num e ra c yd uring the c e nturyorsole a d ing uptothe
Ind ustria lRe volution— re fle c ted notjustinb ook pub lishing a nd ne wspa pe r
c irc ula tion,b utininc re a se d fa m ilia ritywith ‘c ounting ,c la ssifying ,c a ta log uing ’
(M okyr2009:43)— wa sa nim portanting re d ie ntofthe Ba c onia nprog ra m tha tshe
c ha m pions.Butb e twe e nthe 17
60sa nd the 1830s— the pe riod ofthe Ind ustria l
Re volution— tha thum a nc a pitalre sid e d m a inlyinthe skills,d e xterity,a nd oc c a siona l
g e niusofBritain’sc ra ftsm e na nd a rtisa nsm ad eg ood ,notinsophistic a ted ‘m e c ha nic s
inthe N e wtonia ntra d ition’(pp.221,222).19 Ita c c ounted forthe re la tive lyhig h wa g e s
ofsuc h worke rs,a nd itre sted m a inlyonthe irm e c ha nic a ling e nuitya nd onwha tthe y
le a rne d b yd oing .Inthe m e a ntim e ,Eng la nd ’se nd owm e ntofsc ie nc e b a se d
knowle d g e wa sg rowing ,b utonlyd uring the soc a lle d ‘se c ond ’Ind ustria lRe volution,
whe nstea m a nd c oa loc c upie d c e nterstag e ,would the sortofhum a nc a pital
18
Alle n 2001
,2009:3342.And Ke llya nd Ó Grád a (2013) ha ve a rg ue d tha tthe nutritiona l
va lue ofthe ird ie twa sc om m e nsura te.
19
M c Closke y(2010:35565;2014:439) ha sre pe a ted lya rtic ula ted thispoint.
23
c ha m pione d b yJa c ob c om e intoitsown.The ‘supre m e se lfc onfid e nc e ’(p.106) tha t
Ja c ob a ttrib utestoM a nc he sterm a nufa c ture rsre fe rstothe 1850s,notthe 17
80s.
A ke yfe a ture ofthe Enlig htenm e ntwa sitsfa ith inprog re ss.Ironic a lly,its
optim ism wa snotsha re d b ya m a jorityofe c onom istsd uring the Ind ustria l
Re volution.The d ism a lsc ie ntistse m pha size d instea d the lim ited prospe c tsfor
tec hnolog ic a lc ha ng e ,pa rtic ula rlyina g ric ulture ,a nd the powe rofthe ‘princ iple of
popula tion’toke e pd ownwa g e s.The utopia noptim ism ofW illia m God wina nd the
M a rquisd e Cond orc e tfa m ouslyfue lle d M a lthus’sEssa yonPopula tion.And ,ind e e d ,
a snoted e a rlie r,g rowth ra tesd uring the Ind ustria lRe volutionwe re m od e st.
Ye tM okyrha spe rsua sive lye m pha size d a nothe rim portanta spe c tofthe
Enlig htenm e nttha tc la ssic a le c onom ic se m b ra c e d ,b utonwhic h Ja c ob sa yslittle :its
role a sa forc e a g a instre ntse e king a nd m onopoly.W he nM okyr(2010) c la im stha t
‘e nlig htenm e ntid e a s… c re a ted the prospe ritytha twe e njoytod a y’he isre fe rring not
justtothe spre a d of‘use fulknowle d g e ’,b uta lsotoa politic a lphilosophytha tstood
forfre e d om ofe xpre ssiona nd a ne nd tom e rc a ntilistre stric tionsontra d e .Butwhile
the like sofAd a m Sm ith a nd Da vid H um e fa vore d c om pe titiona nd fre e tra d e ,
M a tthe w Boultonlob b ie d a g a instthe fre e e xportofb uc kle c ha pe sa nd b ra ssinthe
17
60sa nd the e m ig ra tionofskille d workm e ninthe 17
80s.And while in17
86 Josia h
W e d g e wood wa sa voc ife rousoppone ntofPitt’s‘Com m e rc ia lPropositions’,whic h
would ha ve g a ine d Irish m a nufa c ture rsfre e ra c c e sstothe British m a rke t(U g low 2002:
62,3912),whe nitc a m e totra d e with Fra nc e ,Ja c ob ’she roBoultonwa sa llinfa vorof
b a rtering ‘ourb uttons… forpipe sofc ha m pa g ne ’(Roll1930:139).Boulton’sa nd
W e d g e wood ’sc om m e rcia linte re stsa lwa ystrum pe d b roa d e rEnlig htenm e nt
princ iple s.
24
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