Journal of the Kentucky-Tennessee American Studies Association
No. 3
1981
I
MI=/
Published by Middle T e n m e e Stute University
Kentucky-Tennessee
American S t u d i e s A s s o c i a t i o n
CONTENTS
THE STRANGE CASE OF MARY DOHERTY
H e n r y R. P r i c e
PATENT MEDICINE ADVERTISING I N AMERICA
R o b e r t L. H u n g e r l a n d
THE DEVELOPMEblT OF
PROFESSOR T O B I N 1 S PARTY L I N E :
A CASE STUDY
THE TELEPHONE I N RICHMOND, KENTUCKY:
R o b e r t N. G r i s e
THE RIGHTEOUS CRUSADE:
WORLD WAR I I N THE
THINKING OF TWO AMERICAN EVANGELISTS
J e r r y Hopkins
OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM I N TENNESSEE:
1925-1937
Lyman B u r b a n k
THEMATIC TRANSITION I N THE TENNESSEE SHORT STORY-1 8 6 4 TO TEE PRESENT
Linda Burton
IRONY AND THE NARRATIVE VOICE I N THE SHORT STORIES
OF PETER TAYLOR
Sara D u n n e
ROBERT PENN WARREN'S POETRY AND SOUTHERN LITERATURE:
DREAMS THROUGH THE GATE OF HORN
W i l l i a m R. Wolfe
B 1 9 8 1 by Middle Tennessee S t a t e University
EDITORS ' NOTES
The p a p e r s i n t h i s i s s u e o f B o r d e r S t a t e s
were presented a t t h e twenty-fifth annual
m e e t i n g o f t h e Kentucky/Tennessee American
S t u d i e s A s s o c i a t i o n a t F a l l Creek F a l l s S t a t e
P a r k , March 28-29, 1980.
The program a l s o
contained three presentations not reproduced i n t h i s i s s u e .
Nancy F o r d e r h a s e ,
E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y , r e p o r t e d on
"The P r o j e c t f o r A m e r i c a n S t u d i e s i n t h e
Secondary Schools."
S a r a h M . H o w e l l , Midd l e Tennessee S t a t e University, presented
h e r v i d e o t a p e "The I m p a c t o f t h e S c o p e s
T r i a l on t h e Vanderbilt Fugitives."
This
v i d e o t a p e i s a v a i l a b l e on l o a n from t h e
L e a r n i n g R e s o u r c e s C e n t e r , M.T.S.U,
Terry
L. B i r d w h i s t e l l , U n i v e r s i t y o f K e n t u c k y ,
p r e s e n t e d h i s p a p e r "WHAS R a d i o a n d t h e
D e v e l o p m e n t o f K e n t u c k y B r o a d c a s t i n g , 19221942."
This essay w i l l appear i n a forthcoming i s s u e o f t h e R e g i s t e r o f Kentucky
History.
The p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h i s i s s u e o f
B o r d e r S t a t e s was made p o s s i b l e by a
g r a n t from t h e P u b l i c S e r v i c e Committee
o f Middle Tennessee S t a t e University.
The e d i t o r s e x t e n d t h e i r t h a n k s t o t h i s
committee f o r t h e i r support.
The e d i t o r s a l s o w i s h t o t h a n k Mrs. R i t a F.
Lynch f o r h e r d i l i g e n c e a n d g e n e r o s i t y
i n t h e preparation o f t h e manuscript.
I t was p r i n t e d a t M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e
S t a t e University under t h e d i r e c t i o n
o f J a m e s B. B o o t h .
M i c h a e l Dunne
S a r a h Howell
Henry R. P r i c e
A t t o r n e y a t Law
The c l o s e o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y w a s a n e x c i t i n g t i m e
f o r u p p e r E a s t T e n n e s s e e . Many l a n d s p e c u l a t o r s , i n c l u d i n g a
s y n d i c a t e h e a d e d by R o b e r t M o r r i ~ ,c e~ l e b r a t e d f i n a n c i e r o f t h e
American R e v o l u t i o n , a c q u i r e d immense b o u n d a r i e s o f l a n d i n
upper E a s t Tennessee.
Offering t h i s wilderness land f o r s a l e
a t b a r g a i n p r i c e s c r e a t e d E a s t T e n n e s s e e ' s f i r s t l a n d boom.
T h e " b o o m e r s " were m a i n l y f r o m P e n n s y l v a n i a a n d V i r g i n i a .
H a w k i n s C o u n t y l a y d i r e c t l y i n t h e p a t h o f t h e g r e a t movem e n t o f i m m i g r a n t s o n t h e W i l d e r n e s s Road o u t o f P e n n s y l v a n i a ,
down t h r o u g h V i r g i n i a t o C a r t e r ' s V a l l e y i n T e n n e s s e e .
Many
d i d n o t s t o p , b u t pushed on t o Bean's S t a t i o n and t h e n t u r n e d
n o r t h w a r d t h r o u g h C u m b e r l a n d Cap i n t o K e n t u c k y .
Many came a n d
s t a y e d , h o w e v e r , p u t t i n g down r o o t s t h a t r e m a i n t o d a y .
Others
a c q u i r e d l a n d a n d s t a y e d f o r a w h i l e a n d t h e m moved o n w e s t w a r d .
Some p u l l e d u p a n d h e a d e d b a c k t o c i v i l i z a t i o n i n V i r g i n i a o r
Pennsylvania.
One M i c h a e l D o h e r t y j o i n e d t h i s s t e a d y s t r e a m o f h u m a n i t y
i n V i r g i n i a a n d came S o u t h , p u r c h a s i n g 2 0 0 a c r e s o f l a n d f r o m
J a m e s McWhorter o n P a t t e r s o n ' s M i l l C r e e k i n H a w k i n s C o u n t y i n
1788.3 H e a d d e d 200 more a c r e s u n d e r a g r a n t from N o r t h C a r o l i n a
i n 1 7 9 1 . ~ What c a u s e d D o h e r t y ' s move t o T e n n e s s e e i s n o t c l e a r .
P e r h a p s , l i k e s o many o t h e r s , h e f o u n d t h e l u r e o f g o o d l a n d
a t t w e n t y - f i v e p o u n d s V i r g i n i a c u r r e n c y p e r 100 a c r e s i n d u c e m e n t
enough. Michael Doherty c l e a r e d l a n d and b u i l t a l o g c a b i n f o r
h i m s e l f a n d h i s young wife. A f t e r a r r i v i n g i n Hawkins C o u n t y ,
t h i s u n i o n produced f o u r l i v i n g c h i l d r e n : Mary, t h e s u b j e c t o f
t h i s p a p e r , a b r o t h e r some t w o y e a r s y o u n g e r , a n d t w o o t h e r
c h i l d r e n , still younger.
A f t e r g i v i n g him f o u r l i v i n g c h i l d r e n i n e i g h t y e a r s , t h e
w i f e o f M i c h a e l D o h e r t y d i e d , l e a v i n g him i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s
w i t h 400 a c r e s o f l a n d t o c l e a r a n d t e n d a n d a n e i g h t y e a r o l d
g i r l , Mary, t o assume t h e d u t i e s o f k e e p i n g h o u s e a n d c a r i n g
f o r t h r e e younger c h i l d r e n , a n undertaking almost unthinka b l e today.
W h i l e l i t t l e i s known o f home l i f e i n t h e D o h e r t y
L i f e was r o u g h on t h e
household, i t c o u l d n o t have been easy.
f r o n t i e r a n d M i c h a e l D o h e r t y , t h o u g h a n i n d u s t r i o u s man, was
n e v e r t h e l e s s a hard and a u s t e r e f a t h e r .
T h e c h i l d r e n never
a t t e n d e d s c h o o l o r church and seldom mingled w i t h o t h e r c k ~ i l d r e n
i n t h e neighborhood.
D o h e r t y and h i s f a m i l y seemed t o k e e p
mainly t o themselves.
They were n o t u n f r i e n d l y , b u t t h e y
seldom v i s i t e d w i t h t h e i r neighbors.
Their social intercoxrse
w i t h o t h e r s e t t l e r s was u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o e x c h a n g i n g a few words
w i t h p a s s e r s b y who c a m e t h r o u g h t h e v a l l e y n e a r t h e D o h e r t y
cabin.
A f t e r t h e death o f h i s w i f e , Doherty had taken t o s t r o n g
d r i n k a n d i t w a s n o t uncommon f o r h i m t o b e s e e n i n t o x i c a t e d i n
public.
A t l e a s t o n o n e o c c a s i o n Mary, p r o b a b l y overcome w i t h t h e
f u t i l i t y o f h e r s i t u a t i o n , a t t e m p t e d t o t a k e t h e two y o u n g e s t
c h i l d r e n a n d r u n away.
Her f a t h e r thwarted t h i s a t t e m p t , and
Mary s e t t l e d b a c k i n t o h e r p r o s a i c r o l e s o f c o o k a n d h o u s e k e e p e r
f o r h e r f a t h e r , a n d f o s t e r mother f o r h e r younger b r o t h e r s and
sisters.
I n A p r i l 1806 M i c h a e l D o h e r t y d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m h i s home.
F o r t h e f i r s t f e w d a y s n o o n e w a s a l a r m e d b e c a u s e h e w a s known
t o t a k e o f f on a drunk t h a t would sometimes l a s t two o r t h r e e
I t w a s n o t uncommon f o r M a r y a n d t h e o t h e r c h i l d r e n
days.
t o be l e f t alone at t h e cabin to f a r e f o r themselves during
these absences.
On t h e f i f t h d a y a M r . B e a t y a n d a n o t h e r
neighbor, having missed s e e i n g Doherty i n t h e f i e l d s o r along
t h e v a l l e y r o a d , came by t h e D o h e r t y c a b i n t o i n q u i r e o f h i s
whereabouts.
M a r y , who w a s a b o u t a g e t w e l v e a t t h e t i m e , t o l d
Beaty t h a t s h e last saw h e r f a t h e r i n o n e o f t h e c l e a r e d f i e l d s
n e a r t h e c a b i n some f o u r d a y s e a r l i e r .
Beaty, being o f an
i n q u i s i t i v e o r p e r h a p s s u s p i c i o u s n a t u r e , and knowing t h a t
D o h e r t y a l w a y s w o r e h i s g r e a t c o a t when l e a v i n g home f o r a n
e x t e n d e d t i m e , a s k e d Mary i f h e r f a t h e r was o u t i n t h e f r e s h
April weather without a coat.
The g i r l r e p l i e d t h a t t h e c o a t
was i n t h e c a b i n .
When B e a t y a s k e d t o s e e i t , s h e b r o u g h t i t
o u t and s a i d :
"There, I s u p p o s e you are s a t i s f i e d . "
I n f a c t , B e a t y was n o t s a t i s f i e d a n d began t o l o o k a r o u n d
o u t s i d e t h e D o h e r t y c a b i n , w h i c h was t y p i c a l o f t h e p e r i o d - - n o t c h e d
l o g s r e s t i n g on f o u r c o r n e r s t o n e s , somewhat e l e v a t e d o f f t h e
ground.
B e a t y was c e r t a i n h e s a w s o m e t h i n g u n d e r t h e h o u s e ,
b u t t h e c r a w l s p a c e was s o n a r r o w t h a t n e i t h e r h e n o r t h e o t h e r
neighbor could scoot underneath.
B e a t y a n d h i s f r i e n d t h e n f o r c e d t h e i r way p a s t M a r y i n t o
the cabin.
They found blood o n t h e c h a i r s , t h e f l o o r , a n d on
t h e w a l l a t t h e head of t h e bed.
The two o f them removed a
puncheon from t h e f l o o r a n d t h e r e u n d e r n e a t h was t h e body o f
Michael Doherty.
T h e s i d e o f h i s h e a d was b l a c k , h i s s k u l l
was f r a c t u r e d , a n d h e a p p e a r e d t o h a v e b e e n d e a d s e v e r a l d a y s .
B e a t y a c c u r e d Mary o f h a v i n g k n o w l e d g e o f h e r f a t h e r ' s d e a t h ,
t o which s h e r e p l i e d , " B e a t y , you l i e . "
Neither she nor the
o t h e r c h i l d r e n s h o w e d a n y alarm w h a t e v e r o v e r t h e d i s c o v e r y o f
t h e body.
Beaty l e f t immediately on horseback f o r R o g e r s v i l l e to
summon t h e c o r o n e r a n d t h e s h e r i f f .
John S h e f l e t and o t h e r
n e i g h b o r s a g r e e d among t h e m s e l v e s t o s t a y t h e n i g h t w i t h t h e
body a n d t h e D o h e r t y c h i l d r e n .
News o f t h e e v e n t s p r e a d r a p i d l y t h r o u g h t h e c o u n t r y s i d e a n d
a g r e a t crowd g a t h e r e d a t t h e D o h e r t y c a b i n t o a w a i t t h e c o r o n e r
and t h e s h e r i f f .
Upon t h e i r a r r i v a l t h e n e x t d a y t h e i n q u e s t
began.
One n e i g h b o r h a d d i s c o v e r e d a b l o o d - s t a i n e d w h e e l b a r r o w
I t had been
i n t h e woodshed.
Another n e i g h b o r found a n axe.
w a s h e d b u t t h e r e w a s s t i l l some b l o o d i n t h e e y e o f i t . The
bed had a l s o been washed, b u t b l o o d s t a i n s were s t i l l t h e r e t o
be seen.
The f l o o r , t o o , had been r e c e n t l y s c o u r e d , b u t t h e
s t a i n of blood could still be plainly seen.
I n t h e m e a n t i m e , Mary h a d b e e n b o u n d w i t h two r o p e s .
Some
o l d women w e r e p u s h i n g h e r a b o u t , b e a t i n g h e r a n d g e n e r a l l y
reviling her.
F i n a l l y , John M i l l e r , a n o t h e r n e i g h b o r , i n t e r v e n e d , u n t i e d t h e g i r l , t o o k h e r t o a n e a r b y b r a n c h , and t o l d
h e r t o wash h e r s e l f .
A t t h e c l o s e o f t h e i n q u e s t Mary w a s a r r e s t e d a n d a g a i n
b o u n d a n d h a u l e d b y wagon some t w e n t y - f i v e m i l e s t o t h e Hawkins
County j a i l a t R o g e r s v i l l e t o a w a i t t r i a l .
Mary w a s j a i l e d o n
A p r i l 14 a n d C o u r t was n o t d u e i n H a w k i n s C o u n t y u n t i l S e p t e m b e r .
H e r j a i l a c c o m m o d a t i o n s w e r e f r u g a l b u t n o t uncommon f o r t h e
period--a s m a l l windowless c e l l w i t h rough puncheon f l o o r and a
p i l e o f s t r a w f o r a bed.
During h e r confinement between A p r i l
and September hundreds o r perhaps thousands o f c u r i o s i t y s e e k e r s
came by t h e j a i l t o g e t a l o o k a t t h e p r i s o n e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y
s i n c e r u m o r h a d i t t h a t s h e w a s u n d e r some k i n d o f h e x o r s p e l l .
S h e p a i d n o a t t e n t i o n t o them a n d s e e m e d u n d i s t u r b e d a t b e i n g
j a i l e d and charged w i t h murder.
Tennessee's judiciary a t the time consisted o f a Superior
C o u r t s e r v e d by t h r e e j u d g e s . 5
They r o d e a c i r c u i t from s e t t l e ment t o s e t t l e m e n t and e x e r c i s e d o r i g i n a l and f i n a l j u r i s d i c t i o n .
S e r v i n g a t t h a t t i m e w e r e D a v i d C a m p b e l l , Hugh Lawson W h i t e , a n d
J o h n O v e r t o n , a l l o f whom w e r e d e s t i n e d f o r i l l u s t r i o u s l e g a l ,
j u d i c i a l , and p o l i t i c a l c a r e e r s . 6
W h i t e a n d O v e r t o n w e r e t h e t w o j u d g e s who j o u r n e y e d t o
R o g e r s v i l l e f o r t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S e p t e m b e r 1806 t e r m .
They
o p e n e d C o u r t o n S a t u r d a y , S e p t e m b e r 6 , by e m p a n e l i n g a g r a n d
j u r y t o h e a r e v i d e n c e on a l l a l l e g e d c r i m e s i n t h e county s i n c e
l a s t term.
Because o f t h e s t r a n g e behavior o f t h e p r i s o n e r during h e r
c o n f i n e m e n t , t h e c a s e drew a l a r g e crowd.
T h o s e who c o u l d n o t
f i n d s t a n d i n g room i n t h e s m a l l c o u r t r o o m m i l l e d a r o u n d o u t s i d e
i n t h e c o u r t y a r d and on t h e h o t e l balcony a c r o s s t h e s t r e e t .
P e o p l e came f r o m a l l o v e r t h e c o u n t y , by h o r s e b a c k , by w a g o n ,
by buggy, a n d on f o o t .
A l t h o u g h many b r o u g h t p r o v i s i o n s t o
s u s t a i n them f o r w h a t p r o m i s e d t o b e a l o n g a n d e x c i t i n g t e r m ,
l o c a l 3 e r c h a n t s were d o i n g a l i v e l y b u s i n e s s i n g r o c e r i e s and
f r e s h produce.
P a r y D o h e r t y l s c a s e was t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t o n t h e d o c k e t
and h e n c e was t h e f i r s t t o b e p r e s e n t e d t o t h e g r a n d j u r y .
The a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l a t t e m p t e d t o u s e Mary's y o u n g e s t b r o t h e r , a
l a d o f t e n years, a s t h e f i r s t witness before t h e grand jury
t o d e t a i l t h e events surrounding h i s f a t h e r ' s death.
The
C o u r t , h o w e v e r , o n i t s own m o t i o n , e x a m i n e d t h e b o y w i t h r e s p e c t
t o h i s understanding the oath required of a l l witnesses.
When
i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e boy had no u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e
o b l i g a t i o n o f an oath, n o r o f any of t h e consequences of swearing
f a l s e l y , n o r even a n y i d e a o f a f u t u r e e x i s t e n c e , t h e Courf r u l e d
t h a t h e was n o t a c o m p e t e n t w i t n e s s a n d c o u l d n o t t e s t i f y .
Neither
would t h e C o u r t a l l o w him t o t e s t i f y b e f o r e t h e g r a n d j u r y w i t h o u t
being put under oath.
M r . B e a t y was t h e n c a l l e d , s w o r n , a n d s e n t b e f o r e t h e g r a n d
jury.
He r e l a t e d t h e d e t a i l s o f h i s v i s i t t o t h e D o h e r t y c a b i n
on t h e d a y M i c h a e l D o h e r t y ' s body was f o u n d , a n d t h e g r a n d j u r y
r e t u r n e d a n i n d i c t m e n t a g a i n s t Mary f o r t h e m u r d e r o f h e r f a t h e r .
The t w e l v e - y e a r - o l d p r i s o n e r was t h e n b r o u g h t f r o m t h e j a i l
t o t h e bar f o r arraignment, t h a t is, t o plead "guiltyw o r "not
guilty."
The crowd s t r a i n e d t o s e e a n d h e a r h e r r e s p o n s e .
But
s h e s t o o d i n t h e dock m o t i o n l e s s , w i t h e y e s n e a r l y c l o s e d , and
w i t h no a p p a r e n t c o g n i z a n c e o f what was b e i n g s a i d t o h e r o r
about her.
Even t h e h a b i t u a l c o u r t a t t e n d a n t s had n e v e r s e e n
anything l i k e t h i s before.
There were whispers t h a t t h e g i r l
was s u r e l y p o s s e s s e d .
B e c a u s e s h e was p o o r a n d w i t h o u t f a m i l y o r f r i e n d s t o a s s i s t
h e r , t h e C o u r t a p p o i n t e d two o f E a s t T e n n e s s e e ' s most d i s t i n guished lawyers a s her counsel:
Samuel Powel a n d R i c h a r d Grey.
T h e h o u r w a s now l a t e , t h e c r o w d was e d g y , a n d t h e p r i s o n e r h a d
stood a b s o l u t e l y mute and without food and d r i n k d u r i n g t h e day.
Thus C o u r t was a d j o u r n e d u n t i l t h e f o l l o w i n g Monday, a n d t h e
p r i s o n e r was remanded t o j a i l .
On Monday, Mary w a s a g a i n b r o u g h t t o t h e b a r a n d a g a i n s t o o d
mute.
Her c o u n t e n a n c e was d e a t h l y p a l e , h e r e y e s h a l f c l o s e d ,
a n d s h e t o o k no n o t i c e o f a n y t h i n g g o i n g on a b o u t h e r .
The C o u r t
d i r e c t e d t h a t a j u r y be empaneled immediately and sworn t o i n q u i r e whether t h e defendant s t o o d mute through m a l i c e o r through
some v i s i t a t i o n o f G o d . 8
Those s e a t e d f o r t h e j u r y were n o t i c e a b l y discomfited a t having been s e l e c t e d .
They w e r e a l s o u n e a s y
about t h e defendant's presence--standing t h e r e l i k e a s t a t u e .
Mr. B e a t y w a s c a l l e d t o t e s t i f y .
He stated that he lived
a b o u t a m i l e f r o m t h e D o h e r t y home.
H e h a d known t h e p r i s o n e r
a b o u t t h r e e y e a r s , a n d s h e a l w a y s a p p e a r e d t o h i m t o h a v e common
sense.
He h a d i n t i m e s p a s t h e a r d h e r t a l k a s o t h e r p e o p l e ,
He
h a d g o n e t o t h e j a i l t o s e e h e r a b o u t a week b e f o r e t h e t r i a l a n d
had spoken t o h e r a b o u t h e r b r o t h e r a n d t h e o t h e r c h i l d r e n .
Other
p e r s o n s a t t h e j a i l a l s o s p o k e t o h e r , b u t s h e made n o a n s w e r a n d
appeared t o be senseless.
Her e y e s appeared t o Beaty t o be n e a r l y
c l o s e d , and h e r manner d i d n o t change w h i l e h e o b s e r v e d and
talked to her.
M.
S h i p l y , a n o t h e r n e i g h b o r , was c a l l e d .
He s t a t e d t h a t h e
l i v e d i n t h e same neighborhood as t h e D o h e r t y s and t h a t t h e l a s t
t i m e h e s a w t h e p r i s o n e r b e f o r e c o u r t week w a s t h e d a y s h e was
a r r e s t e d a n d t a k e n f r o m home.
She t a l k e d t h a t day more t h a n h e
h a d e v e r h e a r d h e r , f o r s h e u s u a l l y d i d n o t t a l k much.
He h a d
He
p r e v i o u s l y b e l i e v e d t h a t s h e c o u l d t a l k as w e l l as o t h e r s .
was a t t h e j a i l l a s t week, h o w e v e r , a n d t r i e d t o t a l k t o h e r ,
b u t saw no s i g n o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g n o r a l t e r a t i o n i n h e r countenance,
Mr. P a t t e n , t h e j a i l e r , w a s t h e n c a l l e d t o t e s t i f y .
He h a d
a c t e d as jailer d u r i n g t h r e e o f t h e f o u r months o f h e r imprisonHe h e a r d h e r s p e a k t h r e e o r f o u r times s o o n a f t e r s h e c a m e
ment.
t o j a i l , but only i n monosyllables:
" y e s w a n d "no."
H e had n o t
h e a r d h e r s p e a k f o r e i g h t weeks.
When h e f i r s t h a d t h e c a r e o f
h e r , h e endeavored t o g e t h e r t o e a t f o r s e v e r a l days, but withHe l e f t f o o d i n h e r c e l l , f e a r i n g t h a t s h e w o u l d
out success.
perish.
When h e c a m e b a c k , t h e f o o d w a s g o n e .
He c o u l d n o t s a y
t h a t s h e ate i t , but supposed t h a t s h e did.
He b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e
g i r l had been i n s a n e e v e r s i n c e being i n jail.
She always l a y
on a bed o f s t r a w , and h e always found h e r o n h e r r i g h t s i d e ,
covered with a blanket, even i n t h e h o t t e s t weather.
She d i d
n o t seem a t a l l uneasy a b o u t b e i n g l o c k e d up i n j a i l .
He o f t e n
m a d e e f f o r t s t o g e t h e r t o s p e a k , a s h a d many o t h e r s i n h i s
He r e m e m b e r e d o n l y t w o o t h e r
presence, but a l l without e f f e c t .
i n s t a n c e s when h e h e a r d h e r m a k e a s o u n d .
During t h e e a r l y p a r t
o f h e r confinement s h e spoke t o a black g i r l belonging t o a M r .
McAllister.
B u t l a t e l y t h e g i r l w o u l d come by t h e j a i l a n d t r y
t o g e t h e r t o t a l k , b u t s h e would n o t .
On a n o t h e r o c c a s i o n a
Mr. F a n e w a s i n j a i l a n d a s k e d t h e p r i s o n e r i f s h e w o u l d g i v e
I'No."
J u s t t h i s morning h e r
him h e r b l a n k e t .
She replied:
b r o t h e r was a t t h e j a i l t o s p e a k t o h e r .
S h e made n o a n s w e r ,
a n d t h e b r o t h e r saw no a l t e r a t i o n i n h e r countenance.
Her e y e s
w e r e u s u a l l y as t h e y are now, n e a r l y c l o s e d , a n d t h e j a i l e r
c o u l d n o t r e c a l l e v e r h a v i n g s e e n them b l i n k .
M r . Long, t h e f o r m e r j a i l e r , was c a l l e d .
He k e p t t h e j a i l
about t h i r t y days d u r i n g Mary's confinement.
D u r i n g t h a t time
h e h e a r d h e r s p e a k o n l y o n c e , a n d t h a t w a s t o Mr. M c A l l i s t e r ' s
girl.
He o n c e s a w h e r s m i l e w h e n t h e g i r l w a s d r e s s i n g h e r .
A t f i r s t t h e p r i s o n e r would n o t e a t a n y t h i n g w i t h o u t f o r c e .
Me
t h o u g h t s h e would p e r i s h w i t h hunger.
During h i s c a r e o f h e r , h e
never saw t h e least a l t e r a t i o n i n h e r looks; h e r eyes were
He t r i e d f r e q u e n t l y
a l w a y s c l o s e d a n d s h e w a s a l w a y s l y i n g down.
t o g e t h e r t o s p e a k by p e r s u a s i o n a n d t h r e a t s , b u t n e v e r c o u l d ,
During a l l t h i s testimony t h e defendant stood e r e c t i n t h e
dock f o r s e v e r a l hours.
Her c o u n t e n a n c e w a s g h a s t l y p a l e , w i t h o u t t h e least expression o r i n d i c a t i o n o f understanding.
T h e C o u r t t h e n c h a r g e d t h e j u r y t h a t i t was n o t o n l y
necessary f o r then t o consider whether t h e p r i s o n e r could speak
a t a l l , b u t w h e t h e r s h e h a d u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o know w h a t w a s m e a n t
by t h e i n d i c t a e n : .
Though s h e m i g h t s a y "yes" o r "no," s t i l l
s h e m i g h t n o t know w h a t t h i s c o u r t w a s a l l a b o u t .
T h e j u r y was
After a s h o r t r e t i r e m e n t t h e y r e t u r n e d w i t h a
v i s i b l y shaken.
v e r d i c t t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t s t o o d m u t e u n d e r a v i s i t a t i o n o f Goci.
After t h e c o u r t r o o m was q u i e t e d , t h e C o u r t o r d e r e d a p l e a o f
"not g u i l t y " entered f o r t h e prisoner.
I t w a s now l a t e i n t h e e v e n i n g .
Because i t appeared t h a t
t h e p r i s o n e r w o u l d n e i t h e r e a t n o r d r i n k when a n y p e r s o n was n e a r ,
t h e C o u r t o r d e r e d h e r remanded t o j a i l and b r o u g h t back t h e n e x t
An a d d i t i o n a l f o r t y - e i g h t
day f o r t r i a l on t h e i n d i c t m e n t .
p e r s o n s w e r e summoned t o p r o v i d e a p a n e l f r o m w h i c h t h e t r i a l
jury could be selected.
E a r l y T u e s d a y m o r n i n g Mary was a g a i n b r o u g h t t o t h e b a r a n d
placed i n t h e dock.
T h e r e was no change i n h e r a t t i t u d e o r
appearance.
The j u r y was q u e s t i o n e d , s e l e c t e d , a n d sworn.
The
i n d i c t m e n t was r e a d , a n d i t was n o t e d t h a t a p r e v i o u s j u r y h a d
determined t h a t t h e defendant stood mute under a v i s i t a t i o n o f
God a n d t h a t a p l e a o f "not g u i l t y " h a d b e e n e n t e r e d f o r h e r .
B e a t y , who b y now h a d b e c o m e a n e x p e r i e n c e d w i t n e s s , w a s
a g a i n c a l l e d and sworn.
T h o u g h h e d i d n o t know t h e a g e o f t h e
prisoner, h e supposed h e r t o be about t h i r t e e n .
The Doherty
f a m i l y c o n s i s t e d o f t h e p r i s o n e r , t h e l i t t l e b o y who h a d b e e n
o f f e r e d as a w i t n e s s , a n d two younger c h i l d r e n .
Doherty had
l o s t h i s wife.
T h e r e was n o t a n y t h i n g r e m a r k a b l e i n t h e c h a r a c t e r
o f t h e d e c e a s e d , n o r d i d B e a t y know a n y t h i n g o f t h e c o n d u c t o f
t h e deceased toward h i s family.9
H e had v i s i t e d i n t h e Doherty
home a n d a l w a y s t h o u g h t t h e p r i s o n e r p o s s e s s e d a s much u n d e r s t a n d i n g
a s common, b u t s h e n e v e r s e e m e d t o b e e m p l o y e d a s g i r l s h e r a g e
u s u a l l y are.
H e n e v e r saw h e r employed e x c e p t o n c e o r t w i c e , and
t h e n s h e was p r o v i d i n g some v i c t u a l s f o r t h e f a m i l y .
Never had
h e s e e n t h e p r i s o n e r o f f t h e homeplace except once.
He h a d
never seen t h e family i n a place o f worship, and h e believed t h a t
they never attended school.
The l a s t t i m e h e saw t h e d e c e a s e d was a few d a y s b e f o r e h i s
disappearance.
He w e n t t o t h e D o h e r t y c a b i n b e c a u s e h e h a d b e e n
t o l d t h a t Doherty had n o t been s e e n i n f o u r days and h e s u s p e c t e d
t h a t Doherty might be dead, being s u b j e c t t o i n t o x i c a t i o n a s h e
was.
Beaty then r e s t a t e d h i s f i n d i n g s a t t h e Doherty c a b i n and
pointed o u t t h a t a l l four of t h e Doherty c h i l d r e n were present
when t h e b o d y was f o u n d .
None o f t h e m a p p e a r e d t o b e a l a r m e d i n
t h e smallest d e g r e e .
J o h n Miller was n e x t sworn.
He h a d h e l p e d r e m o v e t h e b o d y
He t o o k M a r y
from u n d e r t h e c a b i n and had s e e n a l l t h e blood.
He f e l t
t o t h e c r e e k d u r i n g t h e i n q u e s t t o g e t h e r c l e a n e d up.
p i t y f o r h e r , and through persuasion had attempted t o g e t h e r to
c o n f e s s t h e c r i m e t o him.
A f t e r examining t h e circumstances
u n d e r w h i c h Miller's c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h Mary t o o k p l a c e , t h e
C o u r t would n o t p e r m i t f u r t h e r t e s t i m o n y a l o n g t h i s l i n e .
He
J o h n S h e f l e t was t h e n e x t a n d l a s t w i t n e s s c a l l e d .
r e c o u n t e d many o f t h e f a c t s s t a t e d by M i l l e r .
He s t a y e d t h e
Although
n i g h t a t t h e D o h e r t y c a b i n a f t e r t h e body was f o u n d .
Mary, i n h i s o p i n i o n , was o f a n o b s t i n a t e d i s p o s i t i o n , s h e d i d
n o t o f f e r t o escape t h a t n i g h t , though s h e could have done so.
S h e was n o t t i e d u p u n t i l e a r l y t h e n e x t m o r n i n g a t t h e i n q u e s t .
During t h i s parade o f w i t n e s s e s t h e p r i s o n e r s t o o d motionl e s s i n t h e dock.
Her e y e s were h a l f c l o s e d a n d s h e t o o k no
A t the close of the state's case,
n o t i c e o f t h e proceedings.
c o u n s e l f o r t h e d e f e n d a n t o f f e r e d no p r o o f o t h e r t h a n t h e physi2 twelve year old g i r l standing
c a l presence o f t h e prisoner:
l i k e a small s t a t u e before t h e jury.
The C o u r t
unable t o deal
returned a f t e r
verdict:
"not
gave i t s c h a r g e o f murder and t h e j u r y , seemingly
w i t h s u c h a n e a r a n d v i s u a l v i s i t a t i o n o f God,
a few h o u r s o f d e l i b e r a t i o n and announced i t s
guilty."
I n a d d i t i o n t o h i s o f f i c i a l r e p o r t o f t h i s c a s e , Judge
J o h n O v e r t o n penned a p e r s o n a l commentary c o n c e r n i n g t h e d e f e n d a n t
which h a s been p r e s e r v e d 1 0 and which i s h e r e o f f e r e d a s a f i t t i n g
conclusion:
During t h e t r i a l t h e p r i s o n e r d i d n o t disc o v e r a n y symptoms o f m i n d , o f a l a r m o r t h e l e a s t
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f w h a t was p a s s i n g .
Her e y e s were
n e a r l y c l o s e d , n o r was s h e o b s e r v e d t o wink.
The
s h e r i f f took h e r o u t o f t h e b a r , and i n doing
t h i s s h e appeared s o p e r f e c t l y i n s e n s i b l e a s t o
s t r i k e h e r head a g a i n s t i t .
S h e s t o o d f o r some t i m e m o t i o n l e s s i n t h e
c o u r t y a r d , where g r e a t numbers o f p e r s o n s
A t length it
examined h e r from c u r i o s i t y .
was u n d e r s t o o d t h a t some c h a r i t a b l e women
who l i v e d i n t h e n e i g h b o r h o o d l e d h e r away
from t h e crowd.
The n e x t d a y , j u s t b e f o r e t h e s i t t i n g o f t h e
C o u r t , two o f t h e j u d g e s w e r e w a l k i n g i n a b a l c o n y o p p o s i t e t h e c o u r t h o u s e , when o n e o f them
o b s e r v e d t h e r e was a g i r l s i t t i n g n e a r a n o l d
woman a t t h e s t e p s o f t h e c o u r t h o u s e , w h o i n
s h a p e a n d s i z e v e r y much r e s e m b l e d t h e g i r l
t r i e d t h e day b e f o r e .
A f t e r a f e w moments s h e t h r e w u p h e r h e a d ,
a n d i n s t a n t l y a p p e a r e d a c o n t e n a n c e w h i c h was
r e c o g n i z e d t o b e t h e same.
Her e y e s were o p e n ,
c l e a r , animated, and e m i t t e d s t r i k i n g s e n s a t i o n s
o f complaisancy.
I n s t a t u r e s h e was l o w , b u t o f
a r o b u s t , s q u a r e form.
Her cheek-bones h i g h ,
and h e r f a c e broad.
Instead o f h e r pale deathl i k e countenance e x h i b i t e d i n c o u r t , h e r complexion
A s the
was v i v i d a n d h e r c o u n t e n a n c e e x p r e s s i v e .
j u d g e s p a s s e d by h e r i n g o i n g i n t o c o u r t s h e t h r e w
up h e r head a n d s m i l e d .
These c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e mentioned f o r t h e purpose o f showing t h e i n c o n c e i v a b l e e f f o r t , and
e x e r t i o n o f w h i c h t h e human m i n d i s c a p a b l e , u n d e r
c e r t a i n circumstances.
How s h e became i m p r e s s e d
w i t h t h e d a n g e r i n which s h e was p l a c e d , r e m a i n s
t o be d i s c o v e r e d , f o r s o s h e must have been t o
h a v e f i t t e d h e r m i n d f o r t h e a o r e t h a n human
t a s k i t had t o perform.
A f t e r h a v i n g been a r r a i g n e d f o r g u r d e r i n g h e r
f a t h e r , i t would n o t be s t r a n g e i f e v e r y n e r v e
a u t how a n y b e i n g
were tremulously alarmed.
endued w i t h t h i n k i n g powers c o u l d s o a b s t r a c t
t h e mind, and withdraw i t s accustomed e m a n a t i o n s
from t h e c o u n t e n a n c e , upon s o a w f u l a n e m e r g e n c y ,
i s beyond o r d i n a r y c a l ~ u l a t i o r ~ .
She c e r t a i n l y p r a c t i s e d a d e c e p t i o n , and t h a t most
completely.
No p e r s o n w a s s e e n b u t s u p p o s e d s h e h a d
l i t e r a l l y l o s t h e r understanding, i f n o t h e r speech.
Several hundreds, i f not thousands, p a r t i c u l a r l y
examined h e r from t i m e t o t i m e , and none d i s c o v e r e d
t h e deception.
This part of her character, t o
s o m e , may a p p e a r t h e m o r e e x t r a o r d i n a r y , when i t
i s r e c o l l e c t e d t h a t s h e was young, w i t h o u t e d u c a t i o n ,
decorum, a s e n s e o f r e l i g i o n , o r t h e b e n e f i t o f
social intercourse.
But i t seems, t h a t t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s a l o n e
enabled h e r t o perform an e f f o r t o f dissimulation
t o o much f o r o r d i n a r y b e l i e f .
To h a v e m a i n t a i n e d
t h i s a b s t r a c t i o n o f mind, and t o have k e p t e v e r y
s e n s a t i o n o f t h e s o u l from a p p e a r i n g on t h e
c o u n t e n a n c e , upon s o t r y i n g a n o c c a s i o n , a n d f o r
s u c h a l e n g t h o f t i m e , seems t o r e q u i r e powers
b e y o n d t h o s e a t t a c h e d t o t h e human c h a r a c t e r .
H e r e d u c a t i o n was a d i s g r a c e t o t h o s e w h o s e
d u t y i t was t o a t t e n d t o i t . W i t h o u t s c h o o l i n g ,
p r e c e p t , example, morals, o r t h e l i g h t derived
f r o m s o c i a l i n t e r c o u r s e , we b e h o l d a n e x t r a ordinary character.
Though t h e f r a u d s h e
p r a c t i c e d r e q u i r e d d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f mind a n d
command o f c o u n t e n a n c e o f w h i c h t h e human c h a r a c t e r
b e f o r e w a s t h o u g h t i n c a p a b l e , t h e r e e x i s t s a much
g r e a t e r cause f o r r e g r e t than f o r admiration.
NOTES
l ~ h ef a c t u a l n a r r a t i v e o f t h e c r i m i n a l t r i a l r e l a t e d i n
t h i s p a p e r h a s b e e n a b s t r a c t e d f r o m t h e t e s t i m o n y- g- i v e n a n d t h e
j u d i c i a l r u l i n g s made i n t h e c a s e o f S t a t e v . Mary D o h e r t y ,
1 Tenn. 80-91(18061.,
2 ~ a m u a lC . W i l l i a m s , " D i m F i g u r e s i n O u r A p p e l l a t e J u d i c i a r y , "
T e n n e s s e e Law R e v i e w 1 7 ( A p r i l 1 9 4 2 ) : 2 9 6 .
3 ~ e e dBook 1 , p a g e 2 9 , R e g i s t e r ' s O f f i c e , H a w k i n s C o u n t y ,
Tennessee.
rant
Book 1 , p a g e 3 5 0 , R e g i s t e r ' s O f f i c e , H a w k i n s C o u n t y ,
Tennessee.
5 n ~ i s t o r yo f t h e S u p r e m e C o u r t a n d J u d i c i a l S y s t e m o f
T e n n e s s e e , " T e n n e s s e e D i g e s t , 1 ( S t , P a u l , Minn.:
West P u b l i s h i n g
Company, 1 9 5 0 ) , p. v i i ,
6 ~ b i d . , pp.
v i i and v i i i .
7 ~ n d e rt h e e a r l y Common Law a c q u i r e d b y T e n n e s s e e f r o m
N o r t h C a r o l i n a a n d from E n g l a n d , a p e r s o n g e n e r a l l y had t o bel i e v e i n God a n d / o r a f u t u r e s t a t e o f r e w a r d s a n d p u n i s h m e n t s
t o be a competent wFtness i n court.
Now, h o w e v e r , i f a p e r s o n
can understand t h e o b l i g a t i o n o f a n o a t h he is competent t o
testify.
C h i l d r e n u n d e r a g e f o u r t e e n a r e presumed t o b e i n c o m p e t e n t , b u t t h i s p r e s u m p t i o n may b e e a s i l y r e b u t t e d i f t h e
c h i l d is aware o f t h e p i t f a l l s o f l y i n g and t h e f a c t can b e
e l i c i t e d under c a r e f u l questioning.
F o r example:
"children
who d o n o t t e l l t h e t r u t h d o n o t g o t o J e s u s . "
( F r a n k s v.
S t a t e ; 1 8 7 T e n n . 1 7 4 ) ( 1 9 4 8 ) ; " t h e b a d man w i l l g e t me."
-ton
v . S t a t e ; 5 0 Tenn. 4 1 4 ) ( 1 8 7 1 ) ;, a n d f f w o u l d g o t o a
( V i n c e n t v. S t a t e ; 50 Tenn. 120) ( 1 8 7 1 )
bad world."
.,
$1t s h o u l d b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t i n s o m e o f t h e m o r e r e m o t e
p a r t s o f t h e country, including East Tennessee, t h e idea s t i l l
l i n g e r s t h a t s o m e o n e who i s d e f e c t i v e , d e f o r m e d , o r l a c k i n g f u l l
f a c u l t i e s i s s o m e t i m e s t h o u g h t o f a s h a v i n g b e e n " m a r k e d by God"
o r " v i s i t e d b y God."
his
t e s t i m o n y w a s u n d o u b t e d l y e l i c i t e d by d e f e n s e c o u n s e l
u n d e r c r o s s e x a m i n a t i o n i n a n e f f o r t t o show p e r h a p s t h a t D o h e r t y
w a s a c r u e l f a t h e r a n d t h a t M a r y ' s a l l e g e d a c t i o n s w e r e somehow
justified.
I t i s s t i l l common i n r u r a l m u r d e r c a s e s t o t r y
t h e deceased r a t h e r than t h e defendant.
That is t o say, perhaps
t h e deceased needed k i l l i n g .
I f so, t h i s implication helps
t h e defendant.
l o s t a t e v . Mary D o h e r t y , 1 T e n n . 8 8 - 9 1 ( 1 8 0 6 ) . S e e m a t e r i a l
e n t i t l e d " O r i g i n a l Note" i m m e d i a t e l y f o l l o w i n g t h e o f f i c i a l r e p o r t
of the case.
PATZNT MEDICINE ADVERTISING
I N AMERICA
R o b e r t L. H u n g a r l a n d
E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y
No h u m o r w a s i n t e n d e d when t h e L y o n M a n u f a c t u r i n g Company
o f Brooklyn p u b l i s h e d The S i l v e r S t a t e Almanac, 1902, f o r
Colorado, and a d v e r t i s e d t h e i r Mexican Mustang Liniment "For
Yan a n d B e a s t ! "
A s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h e company made some v e r y
s p e c i f i c claims f o r t h e i r product.
It "cures," they s a i d , "ringbone, s p a v i n , s c r a t c h e s and d i s e a s e d hoofs i n h o r s e s and mules."
a n d " f o o t r o t , s c r e w worm, h o l l o w h o r n , s o r e t e s t s , e t c . , i n
cattle."
F o r m a n , i t w a s a " s p e e d y c u r e " f o r "a r u n n i n g s o r e
o r u l c e r , " a n d i t o f f e r e d " a n e a s y way a n d a s u r e way t o t r e a t
a c a s e o f Sore Throat i n o r d e r t o k i l l d i s e a s e germs and i n s u r e
healthy throat action."
This required t h a t one put a teaspoonful
o f Mexican Mustang L i n i m e n t i n t o h a l f a g l a s s o f w a t e r and "with
t h i s g a r g l e t h e t h r o a t a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s , " f o l l o w e d by b a t h i n g
Itthe o u t s i d e o f t h e t h r o a t thoroughly w i t h t h e liniment."
Also f e a t u r e d ' i n t h i s almanac was Lyon's K a t h a i r o n .
That
f o r e r u n n e r o f t o d a y ' s d a n d r u f f shampoos g a v e t h e promise t h a t i t
" s t o p s t h e h a i r from f a l l i n g o u t because i t s t i m u l a t e s and
s t r e n g t h e n s t h e r o o t s , " and "completely e r a d i c a t e s dandruff,
cleanses t h e s c a l p and t h e r e f o r e s t o p s a l l itching."
When t h i s a l m a n a c w a s i s s u e d i n 1 9 0 2 , p a t e n t m e d i c i n e a d v e r t i s i n g had j u s t a b o u t reached i t s peak and would soon be
c u r b e d , a t l e a s t t o some d e g r e e , a s a r e s u l t o f t h e p a s s a g e o f
t h e F e d e r a l Food and Drug Act i n 1906.
The h i s t o r y o f t h i s form
o f a d v e r t i s i n g g o e s b a c k h u n d r e d s o f y e a r s , a n d much o f t h a t
h i s t o r y g i v e s a r a t h e r s o r d i d pictllre o f t h e i n d u s t r y and i t s
promotion p r a c t i c e s .
Some o f t h e e a r l i e s t e x a m p l e s o f a d v e r t i s i n g
r e p r e s e n t "curesr1 f o r a i l m e n t s , r e a l o r imagined.
I n t r u t h , many
o f t h e "diseases" t o be cured had t o be invented i n o r d e r t o provide a market f o r t h e products.
The t e r m " p a t e n t medicines" i s , i n i t s e l f , m i s l e a d i n g .
More
o f t e n t h a n n o t , t h e word " p a t e n t " i s used t o d e s c r i b e a n y m e d i c i n e
t h a t can be bought w i t h o u t a p r e s c r i p t i o n b u t , more p r o p e r l y , i t
should be used only f o r those drugs o r medical preparations t h a t
a r e p r o t e c t e d by a p a t e n t .
A m o r e a p p r o p r i a t e term t o d e s c r i b e
most o f t h e s e n o n - p r e s c r i p t i o n d r u g s i s " n o s t r u m , " as i t i s
d e f i n e d i n The Ameri.can H e r i t a g e D i c t i o n a r y o f t h e E n g l i s h
Language:
"A m e d i c i n e , t h e i n g r e d i e n t s o f w h i c h a r e k e p t s e c r e t ;
e s p e c i a l l y a quack remedy."
The word's L a t i n r o o t s i n d i c a t e
" o u r own".
I n t h i s p a p e r , "nostrum", ,'patent medicine", and
"proprietary drug" w i l l be used interchangeably.
Furthermore,
few o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o r s e l l e r s p a t e n t e d t h e i r p r o d u c t s .
For
o n e t h i n g , t h e y wanted t o p r e v e n t p o t e n t i a l c o m p e t i t o r s from
gaining access t o t h e i r secret ingredients.
More i m p o r t a n t ,
p e r h a p s , d i s c r e t i o n d i c t a t e d t h a t t h e c o n s u m e r n o t b e made a w a r e
o f some o f t h e i n g r e d i e n t s i n t h e b o t t l e .
Although t h e u s e o f a d v e r t i s i n g t o promote t h e s a l e o f t h e s e
n o s t r u m s b e g a n many c e n t u r i e s a g o , t h e s o - c a l l e d " p a t e n t m e d i c i n e "
a d v e r t i s i n g g o t i t s b i g b o o s t from t h e growth o f newspapers i n
England d u r i n g t h e 1 7 t h c e n t u r y .
The e a r l y n e w s - s h e e t s were
s u p p l a n t e d i n 1 6 2 2 by t h e "news-books" w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n p a m p h l e t
The
form and m i g h t r u n anywhere from " e i g h t t o f o r t y pages."1
f i r s t - k n o w n news-book a d v e r t i s e m e n t a p p e a r e d i n 1 6 2 6 , b u t a d v e r t i s i n g t h e n d i s a p p e a r e d from t h e p a g e s o f t h e news-books u n t i l
1647.
A f t e r t h a t d a t e , a d v e r t i s i n g became a r e g u l a r f e a t u r e o f
t h e news-books a n d l a t e r o f t h e n e w s p a p e r , when t h e book f o r m a t
was a b a n d o n e d i n 1 6 6 5 .
The a d v e r t i s i n g o f q u a c k s a n d n o s t r u m s
became a n d r e m a i n e d a s i g n i f i c a n t p a r t o f t h a t n e w s p a p e r a d v e r tising.
W i t h i n a few y e a r s a f t e r t h e a d s b e g a n t o a p p e a r i n t h e newsb o o k s o n a more o r l e s s r e g u l a r b a s i s , c r i t i c i s m s w e r e d i r e c t e d
a t t h e newspapers f o r c a r r y i n g t h e p a t e n t medicine advertisements.
I n t h e f i r s t i s s u e o f M e r c u r i u s M a s t i x , Samuel Sheppard w r o t e :
...
t h e y h a v e now f o u n d o u t a n o t h e r q u a i n t
device i n t h e i r trading.
There is never a
Mountebank who e i t h e r by p r o f e s s i n g C h y m i s t r y ,
o r a n y o t h e r A r t , d r a i n s money from t h e p e o p l e
o f t h e Nation, b u t t h e s e Arch-cheats have a
s h a r e i n t h e b o o t y ; and b e s i d e s f i l l i n g up
h i s p a p e r ( w h i c h h e knew n o t how t o d o o t h e r w i s e ) h e must have a f e e l i n g t o a u t h o r i s e
t h e C h a r l e t a n , f o r s o o t h , by p u t t i n g him i n
t h e News-book.
*
I n t r a c i n g t h e E n g l i s h o r i g i n s o f American j o u r n a l i s m ,
Willard Bleyer points out:
From t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a d v e r t i s i n g ,
quack d o c t o r s and t h e makers o f nostrums
r e c o g n i z e d t h e v a l u e o f t h e news-books a s
a medium o f p u b l i c i t y .
They made t h e m o s t
e x t r a v a g a n t c l a i m s f o r t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i r
wares.
I n a n a g e when k n o w l e d g e o f m e d i c i n e
a n d s u r g e r y was c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i m i t e d , i t i s
n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t c h a r l a t a n i s m and q u a c k e r y
should have f l o u r i s h e d .
" G r e a t A b u s e s , , # i t was
n o t e d i n How's CATHOLICK INTELLIGENCE; OR
INFALLIBLE NEWS BOTH DOMESTICK A N D FORREIGN,
" h a v e b e e n p u t u p o n g o o d P e o p l e by t h e C h e a t s ,
and P r e t e n c e s o f Quacks and M o ~ n t e b a n k s . ~ l 3
C o f f e e and t e a were i n t r o d u c e d i n t o England a s p o s s e s s i n g
m e d i c i n a l q u a l i t i e s , a n d i t i s s a i d t h a t c o f f e e was a d v e r t i s e d
i n some f a s h i o n a s e a r l y a s t h e t e n t h ~ e n t u r y . ~
I n England,
t h e f i r s t printed advertisement f o r coffee appeared i n 1 6 5 2 . ~
The f i r s t E n g l i s h n e w s p a p e r a d v e r t i s i n g f o r c o f f e e came i n 1657
i n The P u b l i c k A d v i s e r and i t promised t h a t t h i s
...
d r i n k c a l l e d C o f f e e , which i s a very
w h o l e s o m a n d p h y s i c a l d r i n k , h a v i n g many
excellent vertues, closes the Orifice
o f t h e Stomack, f o r t i f i e s t h e h e a t w i t h i n ,
helpeth Digestion, quickeneth the S p i r i t s ,
n a k e t h t h e h e a r t l i g h t s o m , i s good a g a i n s t
e y e - s o r e s , C o u g h s , o r C o l d s , P h u m e s , Cons u m p t i o n s , Head-ach, D r o p s i e , G o u t , S c u r v y ,
K i n g s E v i l , a n d many o t h e r s i s t o b e s o l d
b o t h i n t h e morning and a t t h r e e o f t h e
clock i n the afternoon.6
A l t h o u g h b r a n d s h a d n o t become a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f a d v e r t i s i n g , some s e l l e r s f e l t c o m p e l l e d t o w a r n t h e i r c u s t o m e r s o f
t h e d a n g e r s o f buying from i m i t a t o r s .
For example, t h e following
a d a p p e a r e d i n M e r c u r i u s P o l i t i c u s i n 1660:
Most E x c e l l e n t and Approved D e n t i f r i c e s t o
s c o u r and c l e a n s e t h e T e e t h , making them w h i t e
was I v o r y , p r e s e r v e s from t h e Toothach; s o
t h a t , being constantly used, t h e p a r t i e s using
i t a r e never troubled with t h e Toothach; It
f a s t e n s t h e Teeth, sweetens t h e Breath, and
p r e s e r v e s t h e Gums a n d M o u t h f r o m C a n k e r s
and Imposthumes.
Made b y R o b e r t T u r n e r ,
Gentlemen:
and t h e r i g h t are onely t o be
h a d a t Thomas R o o k e s , S t a t i o n e r , a t t h e H o l y
Lamb a t t h e e a s t e n d o f S t . P a u l s C h u r c h ,
n e a r t h e School, i n s e a l e d papers, a t 12d,
t h e paper.
The r e a d e r i s d e s i r e d t o beware o f c o u n t e r f e i t s . '
I n C o l o n i a l America, a s t h e n u m b e r a n d i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
newspapers increased, t h e a d v e r t i s i n g they c a r r i e d experienced
similar gains.
N o t t h a t t h e n e w s p a p e r w a s t h e o n l y medium
available.
Broadsides, pamphlets, handbills, and t r a d e cards
were i n wide use. ' A l l o f t h e s e were g e t t i n g a t t e n t i o n from t h e
I t was, however, t h e newspapers,
patent medicine advertisers.
that received the lion's share o f the business.
On J u l y 1 0 , 1 7 7 6 , when i t w a s p u b l i s h i n g t h e t e x t o f t h e
D e c l a r a t i o n o f Independence on i t s f i r s t page, t h e Pennsylvania
G a z e t t e c a r r i e d t h e f o l l o w i n g a d v e r t i s e m e n t on t h e back page.
C o m i n g a t a t i m e when t h e r a b i e s s h o t w a s n o t a v a i l a b l e , i t
o f f e r e d what must have been f a l s e hope f o r t h e walkers and
If j o g g e r s n
o f t h e day:
The s u b s c r i b e r b e g s l e a v e t o i n f o r m t h e
public t h a t he can and h a s f o r several years
p a s t , i n f a l l i b l y c u r e d t h e BITE o f a MAD DOG,
a s numbers o f p e o p l e i n t h i s and t h e neighb o r i n g p r o v i n c e s c a n t e s t i f y ; my a n c e s t o r s ,
f o r u p w a r d s o f 150 y e a r s , d i d s u c c e s s f u l l y
p r a c t i c e t h e s a m e c u r e s i n O l d - E n g l a n d , when
the a b l e s t physicians there, a f t e r exerting
t h e i r utmost s k i l l , have f a i l e d t h e r e i n ;
t h o s e who a r e s o u n h a p p y as t o m e e t w i t h
s u c h f a t a l d i s a s t e r , may f i n d a n e a s y a n d
e f f e c t u a l c u r e by a p p l y i n g t o DANIEL G O O D M A N ,
maker, l i v i n g i n Arch s t r e e t between Second
and Third-streets, Philadelphia.
T h e p r a c t i c e o f m e d i c i n e w a s n o t f a r a d v a n c e d when t h e
c o l o n i e s w e r e e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e New W o r l d .
Even when t h e
c o l o n i a l p e r i o d e n d e d , t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s i c k a n d i n j u r e d was
s t i l l i n a r a t h e r c r u d e s t a t e , a s C u r t i s P. N e t t l e s ' p o i n t s
o u t i n The R o o t s o f American C i v i l i z a t i o n :
T h e f i r s t c o l o n i s t s commonly r e g a r d e d
d i s e a s e a s t h e work o f s u p e r n a t u r a l a g e n c i e s .
P l a g u e s a n d s e v e r e d i s t e m p e r s w e r e c a u s e d by
e v i l s p i r i t s ; common a i l m e n t s a n d d i s t u r b a n c e s
w e r e God's means o f p u n i s h i n g o r p u r i f y i n g t h e
soul.
Many p e o p l e t h e r e f o r e r e s o r t e d t o t h e
ministrations of the clergy a s an antidote t o
i l l n e s s and p a i n .
Home r e m e d i e s , t h e c h i e f
r e l i a n c e o f t h e household. were e f f i c a c i o u s
l a r g e l y because o f lessening t h e p a t i e n t ' s
fears, they aided natural processes of
recuperation.
John Winthrop, Jr., advised
t h i s c u r e f o r ague:
"Pare t h e p a t i e n t ' s n a i l s
when t h e f e v e r i s c o m i n g o n ; a n d p u t t h e p a r i n g s
and t i e
i n t o a l i t t l e bag o f f i n e l i n e n
t h a t about a l i v e e e l ' s neck, i n a t u b o f
water.
The e e l w i l l d i e a n d t h e p a t i e n t
r e c o v e r ."8
...;
It seems l i k e l y t h a t t h e n o s t r u m s worked i n p r e t t y nuch
t h e s a m e m a n n e r a s t h e home c u r e s " b y l e s s e n i n g t h e p a t i e n t ' s
f e a r s , " a l t h o u g h i n many c a s e s i t w a s s i m p l y a m a t t e r o f d e a d ening t h e pain with t h e alcohol o r drugs i n t h e medicine.
The e c o n o m i c g r o w t h t h a t f o l l o w e d t h e R e v o l u t i o n i n c l u d e d ,
A s t h e f r o n t i e r moved, t h e
o f c o u r s e , westward expansion.
p o p u l a t i o n t h i n n e d o u t a n d many p i o n e e r s l i v e d i n r e l a t i v e
isolation.
C e r t a i n l y , a s f a r a s m e d i c i n e was c o n c e r n e d , t h e y
were i s o l a t e d f r o n d o c t o r s and d r u g houses.
T h i s meant t h z t
home t r e a t m e n t w a s t h e r u l e .
N o s t r u m - s e l l e r s f o u n d a neil
market.
I n T e x a s , i n 1 8 3 8 , a b r o a d s i d e a d v e r t i s i n g Texan Y n i v c r s i l
Pills,
prepared a f t e r a c a r e f u l personal examination
o f t h e d i s e a s ~ si n c i d e n t t o t h i s c l i m a t e , a n d
w i t h a p::rticular
r e f e r e n c e t o t h e h e a l t h , co:?%or',
and h a p p i n e s s o f t h e Citiz:!ns o f t h i s Republic:
By J a m e s B . G i l m a n .
The want o f some g e n e r a l
Medicine w i t h i n t h e reach o f every one, and
p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e r e n o p h y s i c i a n c a n be c o n s u l t e d ,
h a s o f t e n b e e n t h e s u b j e c t o f much r e g r e t i n t h i s
community ( H o u s t o n ) .
Thomas W .
points out:
S t r e e t e r , i n h i s Bibliography o f Texas,
1795-1845,
M r . Gilman i n h i s write-up makes i t c l e a r
that-he r e g a r d s a s a " f o u l a s p e r s i o n L t h e s t a t e ment/ t h a t T e x a s is a n u n h e a l t h y c o u n t r y , " b u t
s a y s t h a t h i s p i l l s a r e prepared "with a p a r t i c u l a r a d a p t a t i o n t o t h e c l i m a t e of t h i s c o u n t r y . . .
of/ s c a t t e r e d
t o obviate. ..the serious evil
s e t t l e m e n t s . . . w i t h o u t a n y m e d i c a l a i d /_which/
h a s n o d o u b t s e n t many t o a n u n t i m e l y g r a v e . "
They a r e t o be t a k e n " i n a l l v i o l e n t a n d sudden
a t t a c k s o f any disease, such a s Bilious Fever,
C o n g e s t i v e F e v e r , Yellow F e v e r , C h o l e r a , Morbus,
k c . & c m n From t h e l u r i d t e x t i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t
t h e s e p i l l s were e x t r e m e l y p u r g a t i v e . 9
.../
T h e i n c r e a s i n g d e m a n d f n r t h e s e p r o p r i e t a r y d r u g s - - f o r comp l a i n t s p a r t l y r e a l and p a r t l y imagined ( w i t h a g r e a t d e a l o f
c o a c h i n g f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s ) l e d t h e firms i n v o l v e d t o s e e k
I t was o n l y n a t u r a l t h a t
o u t a l l l i k e l y s a l e s a g e n t and o u t l e t s .
t h e s e m e d i c i n e s s h o u l d f i n d t h e i r way i n t o t h e g e n e r a l s t o r e s
t h a t served t h e r u r a l customers.
I n d e s c r i b i n g t h e s o u t h e r n c o u n t r y s t o r e , T h o m a s D.
explains that:
Clark
P r o p r i e t a r y medicine makers found ready
c u s t o m e r s by t h e m i l l i o n s i n t h e postwar South.
Booming c r o s s r o a d s s t o r e s a n d v i l l a g e s became
profitable o u t l e t s f o r a vast stream o f tonics,
p i l l s , ointments, l i n i m e n t s , and dry-herb mixtures
which poured o u t o f " l a b o r i t o r i e s " i n t h e l a r g e r
distributing cities.
T h r e e y e a r s a f t e r t h e C i v i l War t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s
o f P l a n t a t i o n B i t t e r s b o a s t e d t h a t below t h e Potomac
they were s e l l i n g f i v e m i l l i o n d o l l a r s t worth o f
It was a p r o f i t a b l e
t h e i r product each year.
b u s i n e s s t o whet t h e S o u t h ' s i n d i f f e r e n t a p p e t i t e s
Alcohol-laden
and t o prod its s l u g g i s h colons.
b i t t e r s o f v a r i o u s t y p e s were regarded as f i n e
conditioners f o r t h e former Confederate system,
and country merchants lined t h e i r shelves with
them.
T h i s was commonplace m e r c h a n d i s e w h i c h
r e q u i r e d l i t t l e o r no s e l l i n g , and o n l y a s l i g h t
p o r t i o n o f p r o f i t s went f o r a d v e r t i s i n g . 1 0
A s s o o n a s t h e i t i n e r a n t p e d d l e r d i s c o v e r e d t h e g r e a t demand
f o r n o s t r u m s , h e m a d e t h e m a s t a p l e item i n h i s p a c k o r w a g o n ,
u s i n g e i t h e r t h e medicines i m o r t e d from England o r t h o s e which he
b o t t l e d u n d e r h i s own l a b e l . 1 8
Much o f t h e a d v e r t i s i n g f o r t h e s e
c u r e - a l l s was d e l i v e r e d v e r b a l l y a t t h e p o i n t - o f - s a l e , w i t h
p e d d l e r s a c t i n g a s t h e i r own a d v e r t i s i n g m e n , a l t h o u g h s o m e o f
t h e c u s t o m e r s may h a v e b e e n p r e p a r e d b y p r i n t a d v e r t i s i n g f o r s o m e
p a r t i c u l a r brand.
A l m a n a c s h a d l o n g b e e n a f a v o r e d m e d i u m f o r many k i n d s o f
a d v e r t i s i n g s i n c e t h e y seemed t o r e a c h a v e r y i m p o r t a n t segment
o f t h e p a t e n t medicine market, t h e farmer.
Many o f t h e s e v f a r m e r l s
f r i e n d s " were p u b l i s h e d and d i s t r i b u t e d by t h e manufacturers o f a
v a r i e t y o f p r o p r i e t a r y d r u g s , b u t t h e y were a l s o used by t h e
middlemen i n t h e t r a d e .
B a k e r , Graham a n d Company, A u s t i n , T e x a s ,
used t h i s approach.
T h e i r T e x a s A l m a n a c f o r 1876 c a r r i e d a d s f o r
some o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f t h e d r u g s d i s t r i b u t e d by t h e f i r m .
T h e r e :<as, a s u s u a l , a h e a v y e m p h a s i s o n t e s t i m o n i a l l e t t e r s .
X e r e , J e n k i n s l A n n i h i l a t o r , " T h e G r e a t Remedy f o r R h e u m a t i s m
a n d G o i t , " w a s o f f e r e d t o s u f f e r i n g t h o u s a n d s when t h e " k i n d h e a r t e d " Dr. J e n k i n s c o u l d n o l o n g e r t u r n a d e a f e a r t o t h e i r
pleas.
H i s t i t l e o f "doctor" meant l i t t l e d u r i n g t h i s e r a , a s
many o f t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o r s e l l e r s s i m p l y a s s u m e d t h e t i t l e
without e v e r having had any a s s o c i a t i o n a t a l l with a medical
school.
This particular advertisement gives a graphic portrayal
o f a n a l t r u i s t i c m a n u f a c t u r e r whose o n l y i n t e r e s t is i n g i v i n g
a i d t s t h e country's s u f f e r i n g masses:
JENKINS'
ANNIHILATOR.
T h e G r e a t Remedy f o r R h e u m a t i s m a n d G o u t
We a r e i n t r o d u c i n g t o o u r f r i e n d s n o n e w a n d
u n t r i e d r e m e d y , w h e n we o f f e r t h e m J e n k i n s 1 R h e u m a t i s m and Gout A n n i h i l a t o r .
It is t r u e t h a t
h e r e t o f o r e it has been confined t o a comparatively
l i m i t e d c i r c l e , which, a s c a s e a f t e r case c f long
s t a n d i n g and o b s t i n a t e r e s i s t a n c e yielded t o its
h e a l i n g powers, grew more extended.
F o r many
years t h i s simple and harmless preparation o f
p u r e l y v e g e t a b l e i n g r e d i e n t s h a s b e e n known i n
the Southwestern portion of Louisiana, a l l
through t h e Attakapas r e g i o n , where its e x t r a o r d i n a r y v i r t u e s have been f u l l y t e s t e d , and
h a v e b e e n c e r t i f i e d t o by t h e m o s t p r o m i n e n t a n d
Its fame h a v i n g reached t h i s
esteemed c i t i z e n s .
c i t y , many p e r s o n s h e r e who w e r e a f f l i c t e d , a n d
who h a d t r i e d o t h e r m e d i c i n e s i n v a i n , w e r e
induced t o g i v e t h e Annihilator a trial, and
t o t h e i r joy found a p e r f e c t and complete cure.
T h e i n c r e a s e d demand w h i c h n a t u r a l l y
followed induced t h e p r o p r i e t o r t o t a k e up h i s
r e s i d e n c e i n New O r l e a n s a n d i n c r e a s e h i s
f a c i l i t i e s f o r t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f t h e Annihilator.
We deem i t u n j u s t t o t h e t h o u s a n d s who
a r e s u f f e r i n g from t h e s e t e r r i b l e d i s e a s e s ,
Rheumatism and Gout, t h a t s o v a l u a b l e a n d r e l i a b l e a m e d i c i n e s h o u l d r e m a i n unknown, l i k e a
l i g h t hid under a bushel, and have t h e r e f o r e
determined t o place it before our extensive
c i r c l e o f customers, and e s p e c i a l l y t h e r e a d e r s
o f o u r H y g i e n i c Almanac.
We h a v e w i t n e s s e d i t s
e f f e c t s , we a r e p e r s o n a l l y a c q u a i n t e d w i t h a
n u m b e r o f t h o s e who h a v e b e e n r e l i e v e d a n d c u r e d
by i t s u s e , and c a n t h e r e f o r e , from p e r s o n a l
k n o w l e d g e , recommend i t a s a s u r e , s a f e a n d
speedy exterminator o f those scourges o f t h e
human f a m i l y , R h e u m a t i s m a n d G o u t .
Mr. C h a s . T. N a s h , t h e w e l l - k n o w n
w r i t e s u s as f o l l o w s , v i z :
auctioneer,
New O r l e a n s , J u n e 1 1 t h 1 8 7 4
Dr. Jenkins:
Dear S i r :
I take pleasure i n
certifying t o t h e efficacy o f your "Annihilator"
i n my c a s e , f o r t w e n t y y e a r s I h a d b e e n a g r e a t
s u f f e r e r from i n f l a m m a t o r y Rheumatism a n d S c i a t i c a .
I n November 1 8 7 0 , a f t e r h a v i n g v i s i t e d a f e w m o n t h s
b e f o r e , t h e Hot a n d W a r m S p r i n g s o f V i r g i n i a a n d
r e c e i v e d some b e n e f i t , I f e l t t h e symptoms o f
my o l d a t t a c k s c o m i n g o n .
Limping a l o n g t h e streets
I met a n o l d f r i e n d T h o m a s A s k e w , who e a r n e s t l y
advised me t o t r y Jenkins' "Annihilator," asserting
F i n d i n g him i n s u c h
t h a t i t had e n t i r e l y c u r e d him.
good h e a l t h I r e s o l v e d t o t r y t h e remedy--but w i t h
little f a i t h i n its efficacy.
On e x a m i n i n g m e
t h e Doctor found t h a t t h e s u p e r f i c i a l v e i n s o f
t h e e n t i r e l e f t s i d e o f my b o d y were b a r e l y d i s c e r n i b l e from want o f c i r c u l a t i o n .
I am g l a d t o
s a y t h a t a f t e r t a k i n g two b o t t l e s o f t h e "Annihil a t o r " a marked change h a s t a k e n place--pain c e a s e d
I
and a hea,lthy c i r c u l a t i o n o f blood following.
t h a n k God u p t o t h i s time I h a v e h a d n o s e r i o u s
a t t a c k s i n c e t h e f i r s t two b o t t l e s w e r e t a k e n .
I f a t i n t e r v a l s I e x p e r i e n c e a n y o f my o l d s y m p t o m s
I f i n d t h a t a f e w d o s e s e n t i r e l y r e l i e v e me.
During t h e s e f o u r y e a r s I have taken about twenty
I am s a t i s f i e d t h a t i f p e r s o n s u s i n g t h e
bottles.
remedy would g i v e i t a f a i r t r i a l a n d n o t i n d u l g e
i n o t h e r s t i m u l a n t s t h e y would e x p e r i e n c e t h e same
b e n e f i t t h a t I have d e r i v e d from i t .
Yours t r u l y ,
C h a s . T. N a s h ,
5 Carondelet S t r e e t
I n t h a t same a l m a n a c w e r e a d v e r t i s e m e n t s f o r :
vDucro's
Alimentary E l i x i r :
E x t r a c t e d f r o m Raw M e a t n ; a n d " C r e o l e Veget a b l e W O R M CONFECTIONS: A P l e a s a n t , S a f e a n d E f f e c t u a l Remedy
f o r Worms."
I t is i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t both t h e E l i x i r and
t h e Worm C o n f e c t i o n w e r e m a n u f a c t u r e d by W h e e l o c k , F i n l a y &
Company, New O r l e a n s , p u r v e y o r s , a l s o , o f " F l a v o r i n g E x t r a c t s
f o r I c e Creams, S y r u p s , J e l l i e s , P u d d i n g s , S a u c e , Cakes, e t c .
V a n i l l a , B o s e , Lemon, R a s p b e r r y , S t r a w b e r r y , P i n e a p p l e , C e l e r y ,
Almond, P e a c h . "
P o e t r y . o f a s o r t , was u s e d i n t h e s a m e b o o k l e t t o p r o m o t e
D r . W i l h o f t i s A n t i - P e r i o d i c , p r o m i s i n g t h a t "A S h o r t c o u r s e o f
t h e A n t i - P e r i o d i c w i l l g e n e r a l l y be s u f f i c i e n t t o remove a l l
Y a l a r i s l d i s e a s e s from t h e s y s t e m , " and c l a i m i n g f u r t h e r :
I t g i v e s new l i f e t o man; r e m o v e a l l i l l s
T h a t come f r o m f e v e r s u s h e r e d i n by c h i l l s ,
I n v i g o r a t e s by k i l l i n g f e l l d i s e a s e ,
To mind a n d body b r i n g s d e l i c i o u s e a s e .
Such c l a i m s o b v i o u s l y w e r e e x h o r b i t a n t , and t h e r e was no
Food a n d Drug A d m i n i s t r a t i o n o r F e d e r a l T r a d e Commission a r o u n d
I t was n o t e n o u g h
t o p u l l b a c k o n t h e r e i n s i n t h e s l i g h t e s t way.
The
t o c l a i a t h a t t h e m e d i c i n e s would " c u r e w j u s t one d i s e a s e .
l i s t o f i l l n e s s e s t h a t c o u l d b e c u r e d was u s u a l l y l o n g a n d c o v e r e d
a very o i d e v a r i e t y o f complaints.
T h e ~ a t u r d a ~ - ~ v e n Pi no sgt , a
P h i l a d e l p h i a n e w s p a p e r , o n November 1 3 , 1 8 5 2 , c a r r i e d s e v e r a l
such ads.
C o n s i d e r , f o r e x a m p l e , D r . H o o f l a n d i s C e l e b r a t e d German
aitters.
The l i s t o f i l l n e s s e s t h a t c o u l d b e " e f f ' e c t u a l l y c u r e d "
included:
LIVER COMPLAINT, J a u n d i c e , D y s p e p s i a , C h r o n i c ,
Kidneys,
o r Nervous D e b i l i t y , D i s e a s e o r t h e :
and a l l D i s e a s e s a r i s i n g from a D i s c o r d e d L i v e r
o r Stomach, such a s C o n s t i p a t i o n , Inward P i l e s ,
F u l l n e s s , o r Blood t o t h e Head, A c i d i t y o f t h e
Stomach, Nausea, H e a r t b u r n , D i s g u s t f o r Food,
F u l l n e s s , o r Weight i n t h e s t o n a c h , Sour E r u c t a t i o n s , Sinking, o r Flatulency a t t h e P i t o f t h e
S t o m a c h , Swimming o f t h e Head, 5 u r r i e d a n d
Difficult Breathing, Fluttering a t the Heart,
C h o k i n g o r S u f f o c a t i n g S e n s a t i o n s when i n a
l y i n g P o s t u r e , Dimness o f V i s i o n , Dots o r
Webs b e f o r e t h e S i g h t , F e v e r a n d D u l l P a i n
i n t h e Head, D e f i c i e n c y o f P e r s p i r a t i o n ,
Yellowness o f t h e S k i n and Eyes, P a i n i n
t h e S i d e , B a c k , C h e s t , L i m b s , LC., S u d d e n
f l u s h e s o f Heat, Burning i n t h e Flesh,
Constant Imaginings o f E v i l , and Great
Depression o f S p i r i t s
...
-,. -
recitation of the drug's far-r3aching capabilities,
n o t o n l y f o r p h y s i c a l b u t a l s o f o r r n e n t z l p r o b l e m s was f o l l o w e d
by a s e r i e s o f t e s t i m o n i a l s from " c u r e d " 2nd s a t i s f i e d u s e r s .
L . .2 , ~
T h e term " d y s p e p s i a " was p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t f r e q u e n t l ~u s e d ,
and a b u s e d , o f a l l t h e words a n d p h r a s e s found i n t h e p a t e n t
medicine advertising.
Although i t refers, simply enough, t o
d i s t u r b e d d i g e s t i o n , i t c o u l d mean j u s t a b o u t a n y t k i n g t h e a d v e r Another a d i n t h a t Saturday Evening
t i s e r s w a n t e d i t t o mean.
P o s t f r o m 1852 was f o r D r . J . S . H o u g h t o n ' s P e p s i n , a " G r e a t
Cure f o r Dyspepsia!"
It was, s a i d t h e ad:
-
THE TRUE DIGESTIVE FLUID O R GASTRIC JUICE
P r e p a r e d f r o m RENNET, o r t h e f o u r t h STOMACH OF THE
O X , a f t e r d i r e c t i o n o f B A R O N LIEBIG, t h e g r e a t
P h y s i o l o g i c a l C h e m i s t , by J . S . HOUGHTON, M.D.,
P h i l a d e l p h i a , P a . PEPSIN i s t h e c h i e f e l e m e n t ,
o r G r e a t D i g e s t i n g P r i n c i p l e o f t h e Gastric
J u i c e , - - t h e S o l v e n t o f t h e Food, t h e P u r i f y i n g ,
P r e s e r v i n g , and S t i m u l a t i n g Agent o f t h e Stomach
I t i s e x t r a c t e d from t h e
and i n t e s t i n e s .
D i g e s t i v e S t o m a c h o f t h e Ox, t h u s f o r m i n g a
TRUE DIGESTIVE FLUID, p r e c i s e l y l i k e t h e n a t u r a l
G a s t r i c J u i c e i n i t s Chemical powers, and furni s h i n g a COMPLETE AND PERFECT SUBSTITUTE FOR I T .
T h i s i s NATURE'S OWN REMEDY f o r a n u n h e a l t h y
Stomach.
No a r t o f man c a n e q u a l i t s c u r a t i v e
I t c o n t a i n s n o ALCOHOL, BITTERS, OR
powers.
NAUSEOUS DRUGS.
It i s extremely agreeable t o
t h e t a s t e a n d may b e t a k e n b y t h e m o s t f e e b l e
p a t i e n t s who c a n n o t e a t a w a t e r c r a c k e r w i t h o u t
acute distress.
B e w a r e o f DRUGGED IMITATIONS.
P e p s i n i s NOT A D R U G .
Half a teaspoonful of Pepsin infused i n water
w i l l d i g e s t o r d i s s o l v e F i v e Pounds o f Roast
Beef i n under f i v e hours o u t o f t h e stomach.
S o l d by a l l D r u g g i s t a n d D e a l e r s i n M e d i c i n e s
throughout t h e United S t a t e s .
P r i c e $1.
F. B r o w n , C o r . C h e s n u t a n d F i f t h S t s A g e n t f o r
Philadelphia
aug. 2 1
A s t h e boom b u i l t t o i t s p e a k d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h a l f o f t h e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e c o u n t r y became s o i n u n d a t e d w i t h t h e
n o s t r u m s and w i t h t h e i r a d v e r t i s i n g t h a t t h e b u d d i n g American
M e d i c a l A s s o c i a t i o n b e g a n t o p u b l i s h i t s own a d v e r t i s e m e n t s ,
w a r n i n g t h e p u b l i c o f t h e d a n g e r s i n u s i n g many o f t h e d r u g s .
The A s s o c i a t i o n was i n v o l v e d a l s o i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n i n t h e
e a r l y 1 9 0 0 s , o f a series o f m o n o g r a p h s , ~ o s t r u m sa n d Q u a c k e r y ,
w h i c h s o u n d e d t h e a l a r m o n some o f t h e ~ r e ~ a r a t i o nt hs a t w e r e n o t
c o v e r e d b y t h e r e c e n t l y e n a c t e d F o o d a n d D > U ~l a w .
T h e P u r e Food a n d D r u g A c t w a s f i n a l l y p a s s e d by C o n g r e s s
i n 1906 a f t e r y e a r s o f a g g r e s s i v e l o b b y i n g a g a i n s t i t by t h e
P r o p r i e t a r y Medicine Manufacturers and Dealers Association.
Reg11l a t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r y a n d i t s a d v e r t i s i n g w a s now a r e a l p o s s i bility.
W h i l e i t d i d n o t mean t h e e n d o f t h e i n d u s t r y , i t d i d
mean t h a t , a s t h e l a w was s t r e n g t h e n e d i n t h e y e a r s a h e a d , t h e
p r o m o t i o n o f t h e s e d r u g s w a s a t l o n g l a s t b r o u g h t u n d e r some
measure o f c o n t r o l .
J u s t as t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e l a w a n d i t s s u b s e q u e n t amendments
r e q u i r e d a m a j o r e f f o r t o n t h e p a r t o f many o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d
i n d i v i d u a l s , e n f o r c e m e n t h a s a l s o c a l l e d f o r many l o n g , h a r d f o u g h t b a t t l e s , i n v o l v i n g b o t h t h e Food a n d D r u g A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
a n d t h e F e d e r a l T r a d e Commission.
Gerald Carson h a s pointed o u t t h a t :
I t t o o k t h e F e d e r a l T r a d e Commission s i x t e e n
y e a r s , one hundred and forty-nine h e a r i n g s e s s i o n s ,
e l e v e n t h o u s a n d p a g e s o f t e s t i m o n y , more t h a n a
m i l l i o n d o l l a r s , and a t r i p t o t h e Supreme C o u r t
t o e l i m i n a t e t h e l i t t l e word l i v e r from t h e t r a d e
name a n d a d v e r t i s i n g o f C a r t e r ' s L i t t l e L i v e r
Pills.
B u t i t was l e g a l l y d e t e r m i n e d , a t l o n g
l a s t , t h a t t h e seventy-year-old preparation, a
l a x a t i v e , d i d n o t have any p e r c e p t i b l e e f f e c t
upon t h e l i v e r . 1 2
Then, i t t o o k t h e Commission o v e r a d o z e n y e a r s t o g e t G e r i t o l
a d v e r t i s i n g changed t o e l i m i n a t e t h e " t i r e d blood" theme.
Another
l o n z s t r u g g l e was i n v o l v e d i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l e f f o r t t o b r i n g
u n d e r c o n t r o l t h e monumental a n d m i s l e a d i n g p r o m o t i o n a l campaigns
f o r t h e phenomenally s u c c e s s f u l Hadacol.
P a t e n t medicine a d v e r t i s i n g is still with u s but it has
l o s t much o f i t s t h u n d e r , a s w e l l a s some o f i t s d e c e p t i o n .
O b v i o u s l y , r e g u l a t i o n h a s b e n e f i t t e d t h e c o n s u m e r , a n d i t wollld
b e u n t h i n k a b l e t o r e t u r n t o t h e ways o f o l d .
Even t o d a y , a d v e r t i s e r s a r e u s i n g many l e s s o n s l e a r n e d f r o m t h e o l d p a t e n t m e d i c i n e
a d v e r t i s i n g and t h e pitchmen.
NOTES
' i d i l l a r d C . B l e y e r , Main C u r r e n t s i n t h e H i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n
S e e a1
J o u r n a l i s m (Cambridge: The R i v e r s i d e P r e s s , 19271, p. 6.
J a m e s Harvey Y o u n g , T h e T o a d s t o o l M i l l i o n a i r e s :
A s o c i a l History
o f P a t e n t M e d i c i n e s i n America B e f o r e F e d e r a l R e g u l a t i o n ( P r i n c e t o n , N.J., ~ r i n c e t o n ' , U n i v e r s i t yP r e s s , 1 9 6 1 1 , a n d J a m e s H a r v e y
A S o c i a l H i s t o r y o f Health Quackery
Young, The M e d i c a l M e s s i a h s :
i n T - i e n z i e t h - C e n t u r y A m e r i c a ( P r i n c e t o n , N.J.:
Princeton Univers i t y P r e s s , 1967).
'?31eyer,
pp. 38-39.
" ~ l e y e r , pp.
39.
4 ~ i l l i a mH . IJkcrs, All A b o u t C o f f e e (New Y o r k :
C o f f e e T r a d e J o u r n a l Company, 1 9 3 5 ) ,, P . 4 6 9 .
The T e a &
7 " ~ d v e r t i s e m e n t s t t ,Q u a r t e r l y R e v i e w , 9 7 ( 1 8 5 5 ) , 1 9 5 - 1 9 6 .
A
8 ~ u r t i sP. N e t t e l s , The R o o t s o f A m e r i c a n C i v i l i z a t i o n :
H i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n C o l o n i a l L i f e , 2 n d e d . (New Y o r k :
AppletonC e n t u r y - C r o f t s , 19631,. p. 498.
9 ~ h o m a sW . S t r e e t e r , B i b l i o g r a p h y o f T e x a s , 1 7 9 5 - 1 8 4 5
bridge:
Harvard U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 5 ) , p. 205.
1 ° ~ h o m a sD . C l a r k , P i l l s , P e t t i c o a t s , a n d P l o w s :
C o u n t r y S t o r e (Norman: U n i v e r s i t y o f Oklahoma P r e s s ,
Co.,
rooks
Inc.,
McNamara, S t e p R i g h t Up ( G a r d e n C i t y :
1 9 7 6 1 , p. 6 .
1 2 ~ e r a l dC a r s e n , " S w e e t E x t r a c t o f Hokum
J u n e 1971, p. 110.
,"
(Cam-
The S o u t h e r n
1 9 4 4 1 , p . 189.
Doubleday &
American H e r i t a g e ,
PROFESSOR TOBIN'S PARTY LINE:
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
THE TELEPHONE I N RICHMOND, KENTUCKY:
A CASE STUDY
Robert N. G r i s e
E a s t e r n Kentucky U n i v e r s i t y
I t h a s b e e n f o r o n l y a b o u t a h u n d r e d y e a r s t h a t we h a v e h a d
w h a t A l e x a n d e r Graham B e l l r e f e r r e d t o a s " t h e e l e c t r i c s p e a k i n g
telephone.'l
B e f o r e t h e a d v e n t o f t h i s form o f i n s t a n t o r a l
c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h p e r s o n s a t a d i s t a n c e , l i f e was o f a v a s t l y
slower nature.
People waited f o r r e p l i e s with a patience t h a t is
q u i t e f o r e i g n t o u s t o d a y , when t h e t e l e p h o n e i s u b i q u i t o u s ,
a p p e a r i n g i n even t h e most remote p l a c e s s u c h a s t h e d e p t h s o f
Mammouth C a v e , a n d i n d e e d m a k i n g m o s t o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i m m e d i a t e l y
available f o r conversation.
Messages i n t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y u s u a l l y had t o be
w r i t t e n and d e l i v e r e d by m a i l , making a d e l a y o f d a y s o r even
weeks b e f o r e t h e n e x t s t e p i n t h e exchange c o u l d o c c u r .
I f one
were r e a l l y i n a h u r r y , he c o u l d go o u t back t o t h e s t a b l e , s a d d l e
up a h o r s e , and r i d e o f f t o d e l i v e r t h e message p e r s o n a l l y , d i s tance then being t h e determinant o f speed.
These p a t t e r n s o f slow
c o m m u n i c a t i o n w e r e g r e a t l y d i s r u p t e d by t h e t e l e p h o n e , f o r i t
brought t o t h e ordinary person t h e opportunity t o d e l i v e r a
message and g e t a n i n s t a n t r e p l y , complete w i t h a l l t h e recogniza b l e q u a l i t i e s o f t h e human v o i c e .
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e f i r s t
a p p e a r a n c e o f t h i s i n s t r u m e n t i n o n e K e n t u c k y town m i g h t s e r v e a s
a k i n d o f c a s e s t u d y t o d e m o n s t r a t e how e a r l y t e l e p h o n e c o m m u n i c a t i o n d e v e l o p e d i n t h e s t a g e o f e x p e r i m e n t a t i o n w i t h t h e new
scientific toy.
T h e t e l e p h o n e came t o R i c h m o n d , a s m a l l c o l l e g e t o w n i n
c e n t r a l K e n t u c k y , on t h e m o r n i n g o f A p r i l 2 9 , 1878, two y e a r s
a f t e r A l e x a n d e r Graham B e l l h a d r e c e i v e d h i s b a s i c p a t e n t . '
A young p r o f e s s o r o f f r a i l p h y s i q u e h u r r i e d from t h e C e n t r a l
U n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s t o T a y l o r ' s G r o c e r y & B a r d w a r e s t o r e o n Main
He w a s Thomas T o b i n , a t r a n s p l a n t e d
S t r e e t some s i x b l o c k s a w a y .
E n , g l i s h 3 a n 1 who p o s s e s s e d a n a c t i v e a n d i n q u i s i t i v e d i s p o s i t i o n .
A Q u e e n ' s E l e d a l i s t i n t h e B r i t i s h g o v e r n m e n t ' s S c h o o l o f Mines
a n d Art, h e h a d f o u n d h i m s e l f s t r a n d e d i n L o u i s v i l l e t h e p r e v i o u s
y e a r , when a t o u r o f B r i t i s h s c i e n t i f i c e q u i p m e n t b e c a m e f i n a n c i a l l y
insolvent.
C o l . B e n n e t t H . Young o f L o u i s v i l l e a n d N a s h v i l l e
R a i l r o a d f a m e ;qas a member o f t h e b o a r d o f c u r a t o r s o f C e n t r a l
U n i v e r s i t y and x a s a b l e t o s e c u r e f o r Tobin t h e c h a i r o f c h e m i s t r y
and p h y s i c s .
-4s h e w a l k e d , t h e p r o f e s s o r c a r r i e d a s m a l l t e l e p h o n e
i n s t r s ~ n e n t o, n e o f t w o h e h a d c o n s t r u c t e d i n h i s l a b o r a t o r y
a f t e r h a v i n g r s a d o f B e l l ' s i n v e n t i o n i n t h e S c i e n t i f i c American.
He m a d e h i s way t o t h e b a c k r o o m o f T a y l o r ' s s t o r e , w h e r e s e v e r a l f r i e n d s had g a t h e r e d t o observe a demonstration t h a t he
The previous
had m o d e s t l y a s s u r e d them "would be o f i n t e r e s t . " 3
f a l l , P r o f e s s o r Tobin and h i s nineteen s c i e n c e s t u d e n t s
had c o n s t r u c t e d a t e l e g r a p h l i n e between T a y l o r ' s s t o r e and
t h e laboratory a t Central University f o r t h e purpose o f s t ~ 5 g i n g
telegraphy.4
I t was t o t h i s l i n e t h a t h e a t t a c h e d h i s t e l z p h o n e
i n s t r u m e n t , h i s o t h e r h a v i n g a l r e a d y b e e n c o n n e c t e d t o t h e oLd
a t t h e l a b o r a t o r y , where h i s s t u d e n t s s t o o d ready t o c a r r y on
t h e e l e c t r i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n o f t h e human v o i c e o v e r a w i r e , t h e
f i r s t such happening i n Kentucky, o u t s i d e t h e c i t y o f Louisv i l l e , according t o newspaper r e p o r t s . 5
The f o l l o w i n g week, t h e K e n t u c k y R e g i s t e r , Richmond's
weekly newspaper, r e p o r t e d t h e e v e n t .
A f t e r e x p l a i n i n g how
P r o f e s s o r T o b i n h a d c o n s t r u c t e d t h e two t e l e p h o n e i n s t r u m e n t s
" f o r h i s own a m u s e m e n t , ' ' i t g a v e t h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t :
On F r i d a y l a s t h e i n v i t e d a f e w o f h i s
f r i e n d s t o w i t n e s s a n e x h i b i t i o n o f how o n e
person can converse i n an ordinary tone o f
voice with another person a t a distance of
A c o n v e r s a t i o n between Prof.
half a mile.
T o b i n a n d a y o u n g man a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y w a s
begun a n d c a r r i e d on f o r s e v e r a l m i n u t e s .
Other p a r t i e s were allowed t o p l a c e t h e i n s t r u m e n t t o t h e e a r , a n d t h e w o r d s were
d i s t i n c t l y h e a r d ; t h e v o i c e o f t h e p a r t y was
a l s o e a s i l y recognized.
A loud laugh i n t h e
room a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y was v e r y p l a i n l y
h e a r d by p a r t i e s i n t h e r o o m d o w n t o w n .
The s u c c e s s o f t h e p r o f e s s o r ' s e x p e r i ment a t t h e d i s t a n c e o f h a l f a m i l e was c o m p l e t e ;
b u t n o t s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h i s , h e was b e n t o n
On T u e s d a y a f t e r n o o n
a n o t h e r and l o n g e r test.
he adjusted one instrument t o the wire a t t h e
t e l e g r a p h o f f i c e a t t h e Richmond d e p o t , a n d
went w i t h t h e o t h e r t o S i l v e r Creek s t a t i o n ,
a d i s t a n c e o f 11 miles.
Here t h e o t h e r i n s t r u m e n t
was a t t a c h e d , a n d i n a f e w moments t h e o p e r a t o r i n
R i c h m o n d h e a r d v e r y d i s t i n c t l y , "How a r e y o u ,
McKinney?"
Q u i t e a number o f c i t i z e n s h a v e
t a l k e d o v e r t h e w i r e d u r i n g t h e week, and
Prof. Tobin is very j u s t l y t h e l i o n o f t h e
h o u r . €I
Having e x p e r i e n c e d t h e m a r v e l , and h a v i n g had t h e explanat i o n o f i t by t h e p r o f e s s o r , t h e e d i t o r s o u g h t t o e n l i g h t e n h i s
readers.
H e wrote:
The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e c u r i o u s i n s t r u m e n t s
and t h e general p r i n c i p l e underlying t h i s a p p l i c a t i o n o f m o d e r n s c i e n c e may b e o f i n t e r e s t t o
our readers.
I t i s n o t t h e sound which i s
conveyed a l o n g t h e w i r e , b u t , a s i n t h e
ordinary telegraph, electricity.
The
o p e r a t o r a t t h e end o f t h e l i n e d e s i r i n g
t o send a message f u r n i s h e s t h e e n t i r e
m o t i v e power by t a l k i n g i n t o a s m a l l
mouthpiece, which s e n d s p u l s a t i o n s o f
e l e c t r i c i t y t h r o u g h t h e w i r e , however l o n g
i t might be.
A t t h e o t h e r end t h e s e e l e c t r i c a l waves a r e c o n v e r t e d by a s i m i l a r i n s t r u m e n t
i n t o sound which s t r i k e s t h e e a r o f t h e l i s t e n e r .
The most w o n d e r f u l f a c t i s t h a t t h e
passage o f t h e sound e f f e c t over t h e wire is
practically instantaneous.
No s o o n e r w a s t h e
q u e s t i o n a s k e d t h a n t h e a n s w e r came, a p p a r e n t l y
i n t h e same b r e a t h - - s c a r c e l y a l l o w i n g t i m e f o r
t h e t a k i n g o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t away from t h e
The t e l e p h o n e
mouth and p l a c i n g i t t o t h e e a r .
i s now o n e o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d c u r i o s i t i e s o f
Richmond.7
A b r i e f e x a m i n a t i o n o f what B e l l i n v e n t e d and P r o f e s s o r
T o b i n c o p i e d may b e o f i n t e r e s t a t t h i s p o i n t .
Alexander
G r a h a m B e l l u s h e r e d i n t h e a g e o f t h e t e l e p h o n e i n J u n e , 1875,
when h e w a s t h e f i r s t t o d i s c o v e r t h a t v o c a l s o u n d s c o u l d b e
t r a n s m i t t e d e l e c t r i c a l l y by m e a n s o f u n d u l a t i n g c u r r e n t c a u s e d
by a v a r y i n g c o n t a c t o r v a r y i n g m a g n e t i c f i e l d .
Other inventors
s u c h a s E l i s h a G r a y a n d M o s e s F a r m e r h a d f o r many m o n t h s b e e n
w o r k i n g t o w a r d t h e same goal--an i n s t r u m e n t t h a t would t r a n s m i t
t h e human v o i c e .
However, t h e s e i n v e n t o r s w e r e a l l e l e c t r i c i a n s
who t e n d e d t o f o l l o w t h e l e a d o f P h i l l i p R e i s o f Germany who h a d
b e e n a b l e t o t r a n s m i t t o n e s ( b u t n o t t h e q u a l i t i e s o f human
v o i c e ) by u s i n g a v i b r a t i n g "make-and-break"
contact a s a
3 e l 1 , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , was a s p e e c h t e a c h e r
transmitter.
who knew l e s s a b o u t e l e c t r i c i t y a n d much m o r e a b o u t t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e human v o i c e , a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e b e t t e r a b l e t o c o m p r e h e n d
the principle of the undulating ~ u r r e n t . ~
W i t h o u t d e p r e c a t i n g B e l l ' s d i s c o v e r y t o be a n i c o n o c l a s t ,
I would l i k e t o p o i n t o u t t h a t B e l l ' s o n l y i n v e n t i o n w h i c h was
u s e f u l t o t h e t e l e p h o n e i n d u s t r y was t h e hand magneto t e l e p h o n e ,
I t was t h i s i n s t r u m e n t t h a t
l a t e r t o b e used a s a r e c e i v e r .
B e l l p l a c e d a permanent magnet a p p r o x i P r o f e s s o r Tobin copied.
m a t e l y f i v e i n c h e s l o n g i n a s m a l l wooden c a s e .
Around o n e e n d
o f t h e m a g n e t w a s wound a c o i l o f f i n e c o p p e r w i r e , t h e e n d s o f
which were c o n n e c t e d t o t h e t e l e p h o n e l i n e .
A t h i n sheet-metal
d i a p h r a g n a b o u t t h r e e i n c h e s i n d i a m e t e r was p o s i t i o n e d a f r a c t i o n
o f a n i n c h from t h e end o f t h e magnet t h a t h e l d t h e c o i l .
The
u n d u l a t i n g c u r r e n t from t h e l i n e flowed through t h e c o i l ,
c a u s i n g a n e l e c t r o m a g n e t i c e f f e c t which a l t e r n a t e l y s t r e n g t h e n e d
and weakened t h e p u l l o f t h e permanent magnet on t h e d i a p h r a g n ,
c a u s i n g t h o d i a p h r a g m t o v i b r a t e a t t h e same f r e q u e n c i e s a s t h e
sound waves u h i c h were p u t i n a t t h e t e l e p h o n e a t t h e o t h e r end
of the line.
E a r l y d i f f i c u l t i e s w i t h t h e wood c a s e s o o n n e c e s s i t a t e d a change t o a s h e l l o f molded h a r d r u b b e r . 9
T h i s hand magneto t e l e p h o n e ( n o t t o be confused w i t h t h e
l a t e r magneto t e l e p h o n e which used a magneto g e n e r a t o r f o r
r i n g i n g b e l l s ) could a c t u a l l y be used a s e i t h e r a r e c e i v e r o r
a transmitter.
Early subscribers placed the instrument t o t h e
e a r t o l i s t e n , a n d t h e n s w i t c h e d i t t o t h e m o u t h when i t came
A s o n e c a n i m a g i n e , much c o n f u s i o n d e v e l o p e d
time t o t a l k .
i n s w i t c h i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t b a c k a n d f o r t h , e s p e c i a l l y when
b o t h p a r t i e s w i s h e d t o t a l k a t t h e same t i m e .
Those s u b s c r i b e r s
who c o u l d a f f o r d i t s o o n f o u n d t h a t t w o i n s t r u m e n t s s o l v e d t h e
problem n i c e l y ; a s a m a t t e r o f f a c t , t h e y were i n t e r c h a n g e a b l e - e i t h e r would d o a s t r a n s m i t t e r o r r e c e i v e r . 1 0
To summon t h e
p e r s o n a t t h e o t h e r end o f t h e l i n e , t h e s u b s c r i b e r pecked on
t h e diaphragm w i t h a p e n c i l , c a u s i n g a s i m i l a r sound i n t h e
o t h e r fellowls telephone.
A t f i r s t , t h e American B e l l T e l e p h o n e Company u s u a l l y r e n t e d t h e s e i n s t r u m e n t s i n p a i r s , w i t h
l i t t l e t h o u g h t t o c o n n e c t i n g them w i t h o t h e r l i n e s . l l
A f t e r P r o f e s s o r T o b i n t s e x p e r i m e n t s , i n t e r e s t grew r a p i d l y i n
R i c h m o n d , and a d d i t i o n a l hand mameto i n s t r u m e n t s w e r e o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e
B e l l Company.
The l i n e t o T a y l o r ' s s t o r e was e x t e n d e d t o a
b ~ n k ,t h e r a i l r o a d d e p o t , t h e r e s i d e n c e o f t w o b a n k e r s , a n d
then back a c r o s s t h e f i e l d s t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y l a b o r a t o r y f o r
e x p e r i m e n t a l p u r p o s e s , making a l o o p o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y two m i l e s . 1 2
These s e v e r a l t e l e p h o n e s were a l l i n s e r i e s , w i t h c o n v e r s a t i o n
between p e r s o n s a t a n y two b e i n g h e a r d a t a l l t h e o t h e r i n s t r u ments, allowing t h e p r a c t i c e o f eavesdropping even a t t h i s e a r l y
stage.
During t h e next s e v e r a l months, four a d d i t i o n a l p r i v a t e
l i n e s were e r e c t e d t o c o n n e c t p a i r s o f t e l e p h o n e s l o c a t e d i n t h e
residences o f merchants and t h e i r p l a c e s o f business.
"It i s
o n l y a m a t t e r o f t i m e , " w r o t e t h e e d i t o r o f t h e R e g i s t e r , "when
w i r e s a b o u t t h e town w i l l form a n e t w o r k , and w i l l d o u b t l e s s
e x t e n d i n t o t h e c o u n t r y . l t 1 3 The U n i v e r s i t y c h a n c e l l o r had a
p r i v a t e l i n e i n s t a l l e d b e t w e e n h i s o f f i c e o n c a m p u s a n d h i s home
t h r e e b l o c k s away.
I n S e p t e m b e r , 1 8 7 9 , i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t h i s
t e l e p h o n e s had been f i t t e d up w i t h Watson-type b e l l s , w h i l e t h e
r e s t o f t h e f o l k s w e r e s t i l l p e c k i n g away a t t h e i r d i a p h r a g m s
t o c a l l one a n o t h e r . 1 4 Even i n t h o s e d a y s , i t s e e m s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s had t o have t h e i r s t a t u s symbols.
Upon h e a r i n g o f P r o f e s s o r T o b i n ' s p a r t y l i n e , a C o u r i e r J o u r n a l r e p o r t e r from L o u i s v i l l e v i s i t e d t h e p r o f e s s o r ' s l a b o r a "He h a s o p e r a t i n g b e t w e e n t h e U n i v e r s i t y
t o r y and reported:
a n d t h e t o w n , a l l o f h i s own m a k i n g , a t e l e g r a p h , a t e l e p h o n e ,
b e s i d e s many o t h e r m a r v e l o u s p i e c e s o f
and a microphone
I h e a r d t h e t i c k o f a watch a t t h e o t h e r end
modern mechanism.
He a s s u r e d me h e c o u l d h e a r a f l y
o f a two-mile c i r c u i t .
w a l k a t t w e n t m i l e s , a n d I w a s , a n d s t i l l am, f o o l e n o u g h t o
believe it."ls
...
..
T o b i n ' s p a r t y l i n e s e r v e d t o t r a n s m i t what was p r o b a b l y
t h e f i r s t t e l e p h o n e d f i r e a l a r m i n K e n t u c k y i n May, 1 8 7 9 , when
t h e r e was a f i r e i n a p r o f e s s o r ' s h o u s e o n campus.
"The t e l e p h o n e
s e n t t h e a l a r m downtown," r e p o r t e d t h e R e g i s t e r , and "a crowd
started f o r the scene
b u t i t was e x t i n g u i s h e d t o o s o o n f o r
fun o r damage."l6
The p a r t y l i n e no d o u b t s t a y e d busy w i t h t h e
exchange o f i n f o r m a t i o n and i m p r e s s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e emergency,
and t h e community l e a d e r s g o t t h e i r f i r s t i n s i g h t i n t o t h e
p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f t h e instrument f o r something o t h e r than a
s c i e n t i f i c toy.
...
Between t h e
I n A p r i l , 1880, Tobin r e s i g n e d h i s p o s i t i o n .
t i m e o f h i s r e s i g n a t i o n and t h e end o f t h e term, however, t h e
amazing l i t t l e p r o f e s s o r drew a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n s f o r a s m a l l
country church and supervised t h e i n s t a l l a t i o n o f a c u l v e r t
and t h e r e g r a d i n g o f a r o a d o v e r a c r e e k n e a r t h e campus.17
He
went back t o L o u i s v i l l e and d i e d o f t u b e r c u l o s i s t h r e e y e a r s
l a t e r a t t h e a g e o f 39.18
A f t e r T o b i n l e f t R i c h m o n d , i n t e r e s t i n e l e c t r i c a l communic a t i o n d e c l i n e d , and on February 14, 1881, t h e e d i t o r o f t h e
R e g i s t e r o b s e r v e d , "How s t r a n g e t h a t R i c h m o n d , t h e f i r s t p l a c e
i n Kentucky o u t s i d e o f L o u i s v i l l e t o have a t e l e p h o n e , and a t
o n e t i m e h a v i n g s e v e r a l l i n e s , s h o u l d now n o t h a v e a n i n s t r u m e n t
And s o e n d e d t h e f i r s t s t a g e o f e x c i t e m e n t o v e r t h e
i n use."
professor's scientific curiosity.
NOTES
' K e n t u c k y R e g i s t e r , 3 May 1 8 7 8 .
2 ~ T. . D o r r i s , " C e n t r a l U n i v e r s i t y , R i c h m o n d , Ky. , " R e i s t e r
9
3
e
o f t h e K e n t u c k y H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , 3 2 , No. 9 9 ( M a r c h 1
p. 12.
3 ~ e n t u c k y R e g i s t e r , 3 May 1 8 7 8 .
4 ~ a t a l o g u eo f C e n t r a l U n i v e r s i t y ,
1877-78,
pp.
18-19.
5 ~ e n t u c k yR e g i s t e r , 3 May 1 8 7 8 .
6 ~ e n t u c k yR e g i s t e r , 3 May,
1878.
7 ~ e n t u c k yR e g i s t e r , 3 May 1 8 7 8 .
'K.
B. M i l l e r , A m e r i c a n T e l e p h o n e P r a c t i c e (New Y o r k :
McGraw H i l l , 1 9 0 5 ) , p . 8.
9 ~ i l l e r ,p p . 3 4 - 3 9 .
"I U
n
F . L. R h o d e s , B e g i n n i n g s o f T e l e p h o n y (New Y o r k :
1 9 2 9 1 , pp. 176-77.
Harper,
" ~ o h n Brooks, Telephone:
H a r p e r , 19761, p. 60.
T h e F i r s t 1 0 0 Y e a r s (New Y o r k :
12Louisville Courier Journal,
10 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 8 .
1 3 ~ e n t u c k yR e g i s t e r , 2 4 May 1 8 7 8 .
1 4 ~ e n t u c k yR e g i s t e r ,
19 S e p t e m b e r 1879.
5 ~ o u i s v i l l eC o u r i e r J o u r n a l ,
16Kentucky R e g i s t e r ,
10 S e p t e m b e r 1 8 7 8 .
1 6 May 1 8 7 9 .
1 7 ~ e n t u c k yR e g i s t e r , 2 8 May, 2 5 J u n e , 1 8 8 0 .
1 8 ~ o r r i s ,p .
12.
THE RIGHTEOUS CRUSADE: WORLD W A R I
I N THE THINKING OF TWO AMERICAN EVANGELISTS
J e r r y Hopkins
U n i v e r s i t y o f Kentucky
Are p u b l i c f i g u r e s t i e d t o t h e " t y r a n n y o f t h e m a j o r i t y " ?
Can t h e y s p e a k p r o p h e t i c a l l y w i t h c r i t i c i s m a n d c o r r e c t i v e n e s s
r e g a r d i n g t h e i l l s a n d w r o n g s o f s o c i e t y ? O r m u s t t h e y become
m e r e l y t h e b a r o m e t e r o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n a n d s e n t i m e n t ? Are
p u b l i c f i g u r e s such a s e v a n g e l i s t s p a r r o t s o f t h e " s t a t u s quo,"
o r a r e t h e y s y m b o l s o f t h e p o p u l a r mind? A s t u d y o f some
a s p e c t s o f t h e debate over t h e involvement o f t h e United S t a t e s
i n W o r l d War I w i l l p r o v i d e t h e h i s t o r i a n w i t h s o m e a n s w e r s t o
these questions.
T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s p a p e r i s t o e x a m i n e t h e r e s p o n s e o f two
American e v a n g e l i s t s , W i l l i a m " B i l l y n Sunday and Mordecai Fowler
Ham, t o t h e i s s u e s g e n e r a t e d i n t h i s n a t i o n a l debate.
This
d i s c u s s i o n s h o u l d s u g g e s t some c o n c l u s i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r
They w e r e
m o t i v a t i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f t h e y changed opinions.
chosen f o r t h e s e reasons:
Sunday worked p r i m a r i l y i n t h e North,
N o r t h e a s t a n d E a s t , l w h e r e a s Ham w a s m o s t a c t i v e i n t h e M i d w e s t ,
S o u t h , a n d S o u t h w e s t ; 2 Sunday was v e r y p r o m i n e n t , whereas Ham
was o n l y o f n o m i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e ( p r o b a b l y o n l y r e g i o n a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t ) ; w h i l e S u n d a y ' s name r e a c h e d h i g h l e v e l s i n t h e
n a t i o n a l p r e s s d u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s , Ham's r e c e i v e d , i n t h e main,
l o c a l press coverage.
T h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e s e t w o men s h o u l d
s e r v e t o g i v e a balanced view of what e v a n g e l i c a l Americans
h e l d a b o u t t h e war.
T o A m e r i c a n s , W o r l d War I , i n t h e b e g i n n i n g , w a s a E u r o p e a n
matter.
The p e o p l e and l e a d e r s o f t h e United S t a t e s , f o r t h e
most p a r t , wanted n o t h i n g t o do w i t h i t .
I s o l a t i o n i s m was
running a t high t i d e .
However, t h e c o u n t e r v a i l i n g c u r r e n t s o f
German s u b m a r i n e w a r f a r e , a n d o t h e r h o s t i l e a c t i o n s , c o m b i n e d
w i t h t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n i s m o f some American l e a d e r s , b r o u g h t
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t i n 1917. Thus i t f i n a l l y
became a w o r l d c o n f l i c t .
When w a r f i r s t b r o k e o u t i n E u r o p e ,
h o w e v e r , many d i d n o t r e a l i z e i t s i m p o r t a n c e .
The a t t i t u d e
o f most p e o p l e was o n e o f h o r r o r , smugness and condemnation.
B i l l y S u n d a y ' s a t t i t u d e w a s ; "If E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s w e r e s o
f o o l i s h a s t o g e t i n t o a mess, i t o n l y p r o v e d how d e c a d e n t t h e y
were, and a p r o g r e s s i v e , modern, C h r i s t i a n democracy l i k e t h e
United S t a t e s might w e l l c o n g r a t u l a t e itself on being o u t s i d e
the conflict.3
S u n d a y was n o t e a g e r t o c o m m i t h i m s e l f when w a r b r o k e
o u t i n Europe.
To f o l l o w him i s t o f o l l o w t h e s t r u g g l e
of America's l e a d e r s h i p i n makjng a d e c i s i o n t o e n t e r
t h e war.
P r i o r t o American e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t i n A p r i l ,
1917, he seldom mentioned t h e c o n f l i c t .
When h e m e n t i o n e d t h e
w a r , " i t was t o e x p r e s s t h e o p i n i o n h e l d by t h e g r e a t mass o f
A m e r i c a n s t h a t E u r o p e s h o u l d be l e f t t o s t e w i n i t s own j u i c e . l t 4
I n h i s D e n v e r c r u s a d e i n 1914 r e p o r t e r s u r g e d him t o make
a statement.
H i s r e p l y was, " T h e r e V l l always be wars.
God i s
t h e God o f l o v e a n d t h e God o f w a r t o o . "
Then someone a s k e d him
i f t h e d e v i l was i n v o l v e d i n t h e w a r .
He s a i d , "Oh, y e s , I t h i n k
t h e d e v i l h a s s u p e r n a t u r a l powers and sometimes I b e l i e v e t h a t
t h e L o r d l e t s him g o on r i p p i n g t h i n g s up j u s t t o s e e how f a r
h e ' l l go."
On t h e w h o l e h e made f e w s t a t e m e n t s d u r i n g t h e
Denver c r u s a d e a b o u t t h e war.
When h e d i d s p e a k i t was a l m o s t
"A l o t o f f o o l s , " h e r e m a r k e d on o n e o c c a s i o n ,
a s a casual aside.
"over t h e r e a r e m u r d e r i n g e a c h o t h e r t o s a t i s f y t h e damnable
a m b i t i o n s o f a few m u t t s who s i t on t h r o n e s . "
A t a n o t h e r meeting
h e s a i d , "The war i n E u r o p e i s a s i d e s h o w compared t o t h e damnable e f f e c t s o f t h e saloons."5
A t t h i s p o i n t Sunday b e l i e v e d
t h e p r o h i b i t i o n c r u s a d e a t home t o b e more i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e
A t a m e e t i n g i n P a t e r s o n , New J e r s e y , i n A p r i l , 1 9 1 5 , h e
war.
r e v e a l e d a n u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o p r a y f o r t h e e n d o f t h e hostilities
i n E u r o p e , i n s i s t i n g t h a t God m i g h t b e u s i n g t h e war t o p u n i s h
a l l t h o s e i n v o l v e d i n i t . 6 The h a n d o f God was upon E u r o p e i n
judgment and w r a t h .
The news o f t h e s i n k i n g o f t h e L u s i t a n i a on May 7 , 1915 was
a s h o c k t o t h e American p u b l i c .
The g r e a t s h i p s a n k i n e i g h t e e n
m i n u t e s w i t h a l o s s o f 1 , 1 9 8 l i v e s , i n c l u d i n g 128 Americans.
When B i l l y S u n d a y h e a r d o f t h e s i n k i n g a n d d e a t h s h e c r i e d ,
"Damnable!
Damnable!
Absolutely hellish!"7
By May, 1 9 1 6 , S u n d a y was becoming more o u t s p o k e n a n d comm i t t e d t o a b e l l i g e r e n t s t a n c e t o w a r d Germany.
I n h i s Kansas
C i t y campaign h e s a t t o t h e r i g h t o f Theodore R o o s e v e l t a t
lunch.
He h a d come t o t h e m e e t i n g r e a d y t o s u p p o r t R o o s e v e l t ' s
campaign f o r t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l n o m i n a t i o n .
Sunday s a i d t o Roosev e l t , "I d o n ' t know w h a t t h e d e l e g a t e s t o t h e c o n v e n t i o n know
a b o u t i t , b u t I h a v e b e e n o u t among t h e p l a i n p e o p l e , a n d I
know t h e y a l l w a n t you.
I d o n ' t t h i n k i t , I know i t , a n d i f
you a r e n o m i n a t e d a t C h i c a g o you w i l l r e c e i v e t h e b i g g e s t v o t e
given a candidate i n t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e country."
Later during
t h e same d a y R o o s e v e l t r e c e i v e d S u n d a y a n d h i s w i f e i n o r d e r t o
e x p r e s s h i s t h a n k s t o them f o r t h e i r s u p p o r t .
When R o o s e v e l t
g r e e t e d them h e s a i d , !,By G e o r g e , I am g l a d t o s e e y o u , B i l l y . " 8
They b o t h s m i l e d a n d s h o o k h a n d s v i g o r o u s l y .
The f r i e n d l i n e s s e x p r e s s e d t o w a r d R o o s e v e l t a n d S u n d a y ' s
s u p p o r t o f him i n d i c a t e a g r e e m e n t w i t h R o o s e v e l t ' s t h o u g h t s
r e g a r d i n g t h e war i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 1 6 , e v e n t h o u g h W i l l i a m
McLoughlin d a t e s t h e b e g i n n i n g o f S u n d a y ' s commitment t o
i n t e r v e n t i o n a s l a t e a s t h e f a l l o f 1916. Even i n t h e f a l l
c r u s a d e i n B o s t o n , h o w e v e r , S u n d a y was s t i l l n o t w i l l i n g t o
"We a r e a m i x t u r e o f a l l r a c e s , "
commit h i m s e l f i n a s e r m o n .
h e s a i d , " h e n c e we a r e n o t a n a t i o n i n t h e s e n s e F r a n c e , E n g l a n d ,
a n d G e r m a n y a r e n a t i o n s t h o u g h we h a v e g o t t h e m s k i n n e d , t a k e
i t f r o m m e , a n d we c a n w h i p h e l l o u t o f t h e b u n c h .
I h o p e we
w o n ' t h a v e t o , b u t i f i t comes t o a showdown, l o o k o u t ! "
In
t h e c o n c l u d i n g remarks i n h i s c a l l f o r d e c i s i o n s on one n i g h t
h e s a i d , "You t a l k a b o u t a m o r a l e q u i v a l e n t f o r w a r ; y o u c a n
d e v e l o p more b a c k b o n e by f i g h t i n g d e v i l s i n y o u r n e i g h b o r h o o d
a n d c i t y t h a n you c o u l d i f you w e r e o n t h e f i r i n g l i n e s i n
E u r o p e . "9
I n D e c e m b e r , 1 9 1 6 h e made h i s s t r o n g e s t a n d c l e a r e s t s t a t e ment on t h e war.
B u t h e d i d n o t l e t i t b e known w h i c h s i d e h e
f a v o r e d , a l t h o u g h h i s s u p p o r t o f R o o s e v e l t p r o b a b l y h a d made i t
obvious t h a t h e favored t h e Allies.
I n t h e midst o f speaking
on t o t a l commitment t o J e s u s C h r i s t , h e s a i d , " T h e r e ' s no more
n e u t r a l i t y a b o u t i t t h a n i n war.
T h e r e ' s nobody i n t h e U n i t e d
States that's neutral.
A n e u t r a l is a nonentity.
He's a c i p h e r .
Nobody's n e u t r a l .
I know I ' m n o t . ' , f O
The B o s t o n s t a t e m e n t on n e u t r a l i t y was s u f f i c i e n t l y vague
t o permit misinterpretation f o r e i t h e r s i d e of the conflict.
But i n March, 1917 h e became v e r y s p e c i f i c , e x p r e s s i n g t h i s i n
a closing prayer:
J e s u s , you a r e s u r e l y t a k i n g a l o t o f b a c k t a l k
I w i s h , L o r d , you would t e l l
from t h e K a i s e r .
A m e r i c a t o h e l p w i p e G e r m a n y o f f t h e map.
Count
B i l l y S u n d a y i n u p t o h i s n e c k when w a r comes-I ' l l r a i s e enough o f a n army m y s e l f t o h e l p b e a t
the dust o f f the Devil's hordes.
Jesus w i l l be
o u r Commander-in-chief and h e h a s Hindenburg
beaten t o a frazzle.11
Near t h e same t i m e Sunday j o i n e d i n a " c o u n c i l o f war" w i t h s u c h
This particular
men a s T h e o d o r e R o o s e v e l t a n d J. P i e r p o n t M o r g a n .
m e e t i n g w a s i n p r e p a r a t i o n f o r "War S u n d a y 1 ' - - t h i s " w a r l i k e
s a b b a t h " was t o "sound t h e c a l l t o a r m s . "
War w a s u p o n t h e
n a t i o n and t h e c l e r y , w i t h B i l l y Sunday i n t h e l e a d , j o i n e d t h e
e f f o r t t o prepare. 15
War w a s d e c l a r e d i n A p r i l , 1 9 1 7 . On t h e n e x t d a y , S u n d a y
I am s u r p r i s e d t h a t we h a v e
s a i d , "Well, i t h a s come a t l a s t !
k e p t o u t o f t h e war t h i s l o n g . P r e s i d e n t Wilson h a s c e r t a i n l y
shown l o t s o f p a t i e n c e .
We w e r e j u s t f o r c e d t o f i g h t . l 3 On
May 3 0 , 1 9 1 7 , h e p r a y e d a g a i n a b o u t t h e w a r .
"0 Lord," he
I don't pray
p r a y e d , "damn a c o u n t r y l G e r m a n y / l i k e t h a t .
Prayer
f o r t h e m ; t h e s o o n e r we damn t h e m t h e b e t t e r o f f w e a r e .
c o u l d n ' t s t o p t h i s war.
Gosh! We've g o t t o u s e b u l l e t s now."14
A s t h e war e f f o r t g o t underway and t h e war propaganda began
t o whip up t h e e m o t i o n s o f t h e p o p u l a c e f o r b a t t l e , S u n d a y b e g a n
" A 1 1 t h i s talk," he
t o s p e a k w i t h g r e a t e r power a n d p r e c i s i o n .
s h o u t e d i n F e b r u a r y , 1 9 1 8 , " a b o u t n o t f i g h t i n g t h e German p e o p l e
i s a l o t o f bunk.
T h e y s a y we a r e f i g h t i n g f o r a n i d e a l .
Well,
i f we a r e , we w i l l h a v e t o k n o c k down t h e G e r n a n p e o p l e t o g e t
it over."15
I n some w a y s t h i s v i e w c o n t r a d i c t s t h a t o f P r e s i d e n t
W i l s o n , who d i s t i n g u i s h e d b e t w e e n t h e German p e o p l e a n d t h e German
m i l i t a r i s t s . 16
A s t h e war movement g a i n e d momentum a n d t h e e m o t i o n a l p i t c h
began t o r u n a g a i n s t Germany, B i l l y S u n d a y ' s r h e t o r i c r o s e i n
force.
H i s - d e l i n e a t i o n o f t h e s i t u a t i o n was v i t r i o l i c .
"I t e l l
y o u i t i s i K a i s e c / B i l l a g a i n s t Woodrow I W i l s o n / , Germany a g a i n s t
America, H e l l a g a i n s t H e a v e n .
Germany l o s t o u t when s h e t u r n e d
from C h r i s t t o Krupp a n d from t h e C r o s s o f C a l v a r y t o t h e I r o n
Cross.
E i t h e r you are l o y a l o r you a r e n o t , you a r e e i t h e r a
p a t r i o t o r a blackhearted traitor."
I t was w i t h t h e s a m e a t t i t u d e t h a t he spoke o f " t h a t weazen-eyed, low-lived, bull-neck,
low-down g a n g o f c u t - t h r o a t s o f t h e K a i s e r . 1 7
D u r i n g t h e s p r i n g o f 1 9 1 8 B i l l y a n d "Ma" S u n d a y p l a n n e d a
t r i p overseas.
P r e s i d e n t W i l s o n s p o k e t o them a b o u t t h e i r p r o posed t r i p .
Years l a t e r "Ma" S u n d a y r e c a l l e d t h e i n c i d e n t :
P r e s i d e n t Woodrow W i l s o n c a l l e d B i l l y a n d m e
t o t h e W h i t e H o u s e t o a s k Mr. S u n d a y n o t t o g o
overseas.
T h i s w a s d u r i n g t h e f i r s t W o r l d War.
We w e r e r e a d y t o g o . We h a d o u r v i s a s a n d l e t t e r s
f r o m Mr. U a n a m a k e r a n d o t h e r s t o i n t r o d u c e u s
over t h e r e , and a l l t h a t .
M r . Wilson s a i d , "Mr.
S u n d a y , I h e a r you are p l a n n i n g t o g o o v e r s e a s ,
Your p r e a c h i n g i s
b u t I d o n ' t want you t o g o .
h o l d i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n o f t h e w h o l e c o u n t r y as
you go from p l a c e t o p l a c e .
T h i s i s d o i n g more
t o h e l p t h a n a n y t h i n g else you c o u l d do.
Billy
p u t o u t h i s hand t o t h e p r e s i d e n t and s a i d .
" Y o u r w i s h i s l a w w i t h me.!, He s t a y e d .
Raised
over $1,000,000 f o r L i b e r t y and Victory loans.18
McLoughlin s t a t e s , however, t h a t Sunday a n d h i s w i f e w e r e a l w a y s
r e s e n t f u l t h a t Wilson a s k e d t h i s o f them. '9
I n t h e 1 9 1 8 W a s h i n g t o n , D.C., c r u s a d e , S u n d a y ' s t a b e r n a c l e
was c o n s t r u c t e d o n g o v e r n m e n t p r o p e r t y n e a r U n i o n S t a t i o n .
It
had a s e a t i n g c a p a c i t y o f 12,000. During t h e c o u r s e o f t h e
c a m p a i g n , many c e l e b r i t i e s a t t e n d e d , i n c l u d i n g g e n e r a l s a n d
European diplomats.
S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Navy, J o s e p h u s D a n i e l s ,
a n e n t h u s i a s t i c s u p p o r t e r o f S u n d a y , was o f t e n i n a t t e n d a n c e .
On o n e n i g h t S e n a t o r H a r d i n g o f O h i o , Champ C l a r k , S p e a k e r o f
t h e House, a n d J o e Cannon o f I l l i n o i s w e r e s e a t e d o n t h e p l a t form w i t h sunday.20
I t w a s d u r i n g t h i s c a m p a i g n t h a t Champ C l a r k i n v i t e d S u n d a y
t o g i v e t h e p r a y e r a t a s e s s i o n o f t h e House o f R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
On J a n u a r y 1 0 , 1 9 1 8 , S u n d a y p r a y e d a l o n g a n d e l o q u e n t p r a y e r
which sums u p h i s p o s i t i o n o n t h e war a p t l y . The U n i t e d S t a t e s
was v i e w e d a s G o d ' s c o u n t r y a n d t h e f l a g w a s e x a l t e d . He
prayed f o r v i c t o r y i n t h e war.
He a s k e d God t o l e t t h e f o r c e s
o f n a t u r e j o i n i n t h e b a t t l e a g a i n s t Germany.
Of G e r m a n y , h e
s a i d , "Thou k n o w e s t , 0 L o r d , t h a t n o n a t i o n s o i n f a m o u s , v i l e ,
greedy, sensuous, b l o o d t h i r s t y , e v e r d i s g r a c e d t h e pages o f
h i s t o r y ."21
The same a t t i t u d e o f b e l l i g e r e n c e , d e n u n c i a t i o n and abh o r e n c e c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h t h e end o f armed h o s t i l i t i e s i n 1919.
By t h i s t i m e S u n d a y was o n t h e d e c l i n e i n p o p u l a r i t y a n d i n f l u ence.
T h e New Y o r k m e e t i n g m a r k e d t h e a p e x o f h i s f a m e a n d
i n f l u e n c e as a n a t i o n a l f i g u r e .
From t h a t t i m e u n t i l h i s d e a t h
i n 1 9 3 5 , h i s power d e c l i n e d as a p u b l i c f i g u r e .
I n o n e o f h i s l a s t s e r m o n s i n t h e 1 9 3 0 s h e g a v e some i n d i I n 1934
c a t i o n o f h i s v i e w s o n t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f W o r l d War I .
h e r e v i s e d h i s sermon o n t h e s e c o n d c o m i n g e n t i t l i n g i t "The
Coming D i c t a t o r . "
I t w a s a p e s s i m i s t i c a n d " e n d o f time" s e r m o n .
I n i t h e presumed t h a t t h e w o r l d would end i n 1935.
But, t h e r e
was a s i g n i f i c a n t n o t e o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l p e r c e p t i v e n e s s i n t h i s
message.
He p o i n t e d t o i m p e n d i n g w a r , i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n s u l t s .
He b l a m e d t h e r i s e o f H i t l e r o n t h e V e r s a i l l e s T r e a t y a n d t h e
w o r l d armament r a c e on t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r s o f m u n i t i o n s . 2 2
B i l l y S u n d a y e v e n t u a l l y t h o u g h t o f t h e f i r s t W o r l d War a s
Yet, a s h i s e a r l y e x p r e s s i o n s o f r e l u c t a n c e
t o f i g h t i n d i c a t e , h e s a w v i o l e n c e a s a l a s t r e s o r t , b u t by n o
means a n a l t e r n a t i v e t o be s h u n n e d .
a righteous crusade.
M o r d e c a i F o w l e r Ham was a c o n t e m p o r a r y o f ~ u n d a y . ~ 3When
Sunday was r i s i n g t o h i s p i n n a c l e o f f a m e , Ham was j u s t g e t t i n g
started.
H a m w a s , as i n d i c a t e d e a r l i e r , a r e g i o n a l e v a n g e l i s t
c o n c e n t r a t i n g h i s work m o s t l y i n t h e S o u t h a n d S o u t h w e s t .
He
was b o r n a n d l i v e d most o f h i s l i f e i n Kentucky, w i t h t h e
e x c e p t i o n o f a t h r e e - y e a r p a s t o r a t e i n Oklahoma C i t y .
When W o r l d War I s t r u c k E u r o p e , H a m , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l i s t e v a n g e l i s t s , saw i t a s a s u p p o r t f o r t h e i r d o c t r i n e
o f man's v i o l e n t and i n n a t e s i n f u l n e s s .
He exploited t h i s
Ham posed t h e q u e s t i o n i n h i s P a r i s ,
situation to the fullest.
Kentucky, c r u s a d e o f 1914:
" W i l l t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s be drawn
i n t o t h e E u r o p e a n War?"
He t h e n u s e d t h e B i b l e t o a r g u e t h a t
t h e war f u l f i l l e d p r o p h e c y .
He q u o t e d v a r i o u s v e r s e s t o r o v e
t h a t i t w o u l d b e c o m e a w o r l d war b e f o r e i t w a s f i n i s h e d . 2 e
P r e a c h i n g i n ~ a n v i l l e ,K e n t u c k y , i n t h e n e x t y e a r , h e s p o k e
on t h e war a g a i n .
He s a i d t h a t war was t h e r e s u l t o f s i n :
"In
e v e r y c a s e w h e r e w a r i s now b e i n g w a g e d t h e p e o p l e a t o n e t i m e
o r a n o t h e r disregarded r e l i g i o n and threw t h e Bible t o t h e winds."
D e n o u n c i n g t h e E n g l i s h a n d German u n i v e r s i t i e s f o r " t r y i n g t o
s u p p l a n t t h e B i b l e w i t h o t h e r b o o k s , " Ham a s s e r t e d t h a t t h e war
was t h e j u d g m e n t o f God u p o n t h e f i g h t i n g n a t i o n s .
"Europe is
i n war t o d a y , " h e e m p h a s i z e d , " b e c a u s e s h e h a s p a s s e d h e r d a y
of evangelization.
k e r c h u r c h e s are c o r r u p t .
She sought t o
b r i n g a b o u t p e a c e , n o t by p r o m o t i n g t h e kingdom o f t h e P r i n c e
o f P e a c e , b u t by i n c r e a s i n g h e r a r m a m e n t s a n d by C a r n e g i e l s
t e n - m i l l i o n - d o l l a r p e a c e p a l a c e a t t h e H a g u e , b y t h e i r own
d e v i c e s a n d now t h e y a r e f i g h t i n g d e s p e r a t e l y a l l a r o u n d t h e
[ ] a g u e . "35
F i v e months l a t e r i n t h e San A n t o n i o , T e x a s , c r u s a d e , Ham
c h a r g e d t h a t t h e d e v a s t a t i o n o f B e l g i u m was a r e s u l t o f t h e d e a t h
a n d s o r r o w m e t e d o u t t o t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e B e l g i a n Congo.
He
d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s would pay i n blood f o r e v e r y s h i p ment o f arms a n d ammunition s e n t t o t h e w a r r i n g n a t i o n s .
This
was b e f o r e a crowd o f a b o u t 8 , 0 0 0 p e o p l e .
I n a message on June 2 ,
1916 h e m e n t i o n e d Belgium a g a i n , making t h e p o i n t t h a t h e l l i s a
necessary r e s u l t o f her barbarous c r u e l t i e s t o t h e natives i n
t h e v a l l e y o f t h e Congo.
He c o n d e m n e d t h e B e l g i a n K i n g , L e o p o l d ,
f o r h i s c r u e l e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e Congolese, preaching t h a t
Leopoldls greed caused t h e i r enslavement and maltreatment, leadi n g t o God's judgment o f Belgium i n war.
The n e x t d a y , J u n e 3 ,
1 9 1 6 , Ham r e t u r n e d t o t h e p r o b l e m o f t h e w a r .
He s a i d t h a t w a r
between n a t i o n s and i n d i v i d u a l s i s c a u s e d by l u s t - - l u s t f o r
power, g a i n , t e r r i t o r y , honor, opinion.26
The c a u s e o f t h e
w a r , t h e r e f o r e , was s i n .
T o e n t e r s u c h a war w o u l d b e a s i n .
While p l e a d i n g f o r American n o n - i n t e r v e n t i o n , h e r e c o g n i z e d t h a t
t h e o n l y r e a s o n a b l e c o u r s e t h e n a t i o n c o u l d p u r s u e was t h a t o f
national preparedness.
I n t h e San Antonio m e e t i n g on J u n e 7 ,
1916, t h e army band v i s i t e d and p e r f o r m e d i n a s e r v i c e l a n d H a m
spoke on preparedness.
He c o n c e d e d t h a t t h e B i b l e h a s n o t h i n g
t o say about the subject o f national preparedness:
"God n e v e r
g a v e t h e c h u r c h o n e w o r d o f i n s t r u c t i o n s how t o r u l e a n a t i o n .
H e h a d a s w e l l g i v e n a b o o k o n e t h i c s t o a h o g a s t h e New T e s t a ment t o a G o d l e s s n a t i 0 n . " ~ 7
While h e a r g u e d f o r p r e p a r e d n e s s , H a m was n o t c l e a r a b o u t
what s h o u l d b e t h e C h r i s t i a n ' s r e s p o n s e i n r e a l i t y .
T h i s becomes
e v i d e n t , f o r e x a m p l e , i n t h e same m e e t i n g i n S a n A n t o n i o when h e
a s k e d a n a u d i e n c e , "What i s t h e C h r i s t i a n ' s d u t y t o w a r d w a r ? "
H e s a i d , r e p l y i n g t o h i s own q u e s t i o n , " I t i s a l l summed u p i n
C h r i s t ' s o r d e r t o P e t e r , 'Put up t h y sword.'
And 'He t h a t t a k e t h
u p t h e s w o r d s h a l l p e r i s h by t h e word.'^ I n a n o t h e r s e r v i c e
He s a i d t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e o f
h e came b a c k t o t h e s a m e i s s u e .
"Christ taught
C h r i s t i a n s t o w a r d war c h a n g e d a f t e r C o n s t a n t i n e :
t h a t l i k e h i m , we s h o u l d s h e d o u r b l o o d f o r t h e s a l v a t i o n o f t h e
o t h e r f e l l o w ; w h i l e war r e q u i r e d t h a t we s h e d t h e o t h e r f e l l o w ' s
b l o o d f o r o u r own s a l v a t i o n .
T i l l t h e time o f C o n s t a n t i n e s u c h
a t h i n g a s a C h r i s t i a n g o i n g t o w a r was n o t h e a r d o f . "
In this
s t a t e m e n t Ham c a m e c l o s e t o b e i n g a p a c i f i s t .
I n t h e same
message he honored W i l l i a m Jennings Bryan:
"Bryan g o t t o where
h e saw t h a t h e c o u l d n o t s e r v e h i s God a n d h i s c o u n t r y , s o h e
q u i t t h e s e r v i c e of h i s country."28
Ham t h u s leaned toward
B r y a n , w h e r e a s S u n d a y was more o r i e n t e d t o t h e p e r s o n a l i t y a n d
p o s i t i o n o f Theodore Roosevelt.
With what proved t o be a f a l l a c i o u s p r e d i c t i o n , Ham
d e c l a r e d on J u l y 1 0 t h i n t h e T e x a s m e e t i n g , , , R u s s i a a n d Germany
a r e b o t h g o i n g t o b e d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e t r e a t y t h a t w i l l end
t h i s war and w i l l f e d e r a t e a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r s and w i l l march
t h e i r a r m i e s i n t o P a l e s t i n e , a t t a c k t h e r e s t o r e d Jews t h e r e ,
i n a n e f f o r t t o win C o n s t a n t i n o p l e ,
He t h e n d e c l a r e d t h a t
on e a r t h . " 2 9
The war had c e a s e d t o be t h e war t o
a c c o r d i n g t o Ham t h e w a r t o e n d a l l
t h e most s t r a t e g i c p o i n t
t h e end o f t i m e was n e a r .
e n d a l l w a r s a n d had become
time.30
T h e e n d d i d n o t come t o t h e w o r l d .
The war e f f o r t f i n a l l y
ground t o a h a l t i n t h e Armistice.
T h e r e w a s n o t a new a l l i a n c e
o r an effort t o take Palestine.
What Ham s a i d d i d n o t t r a n s pire.
B u t t h i s d i d n o t d e t e r h i m f r o m c o n t i n u i n g t o comment
on t h e war through t h e Twenties.
A s l a t e a s 1 9 2 8 h e s a i d , "The
l a s t war was b r o u g h t o n b e c a u s e o f a t h i r s t f o r w o r l d dominion
on t h e p a r t o f t h e K a i s e r and t h e Vatican."31
Ham, a s d i d S u n d a y , s a w t h e w a r a s G o d ' s c r u s a d e a g a i n s t
sin.
I t was a s i g n o f t h e e n d , b u t t h e e n d d i d n o t come.
War
was a r i g h t e o u s judgment upon a n u n r i g h t e o u s p e o p l e .
T h e r e was
no exception.
None o f t h e n a t i o n s o n t h e e a r t h e s c a p e d g u i l t .
G o d ' s w r a t h , Ham a r g u e d , w a s e q u a l l y p o u r e d o u t u p o n t h e m .
Nobody r e a l l y won t h e w a r . 3 2
S u n d a y a n d Ham r e p r e s e n t e d t h e w a v e o f p o p u l a r o p i n i o n
among e v a n g e l i c a l s r e g a r d i n g t h e w a r .
During t h e war t h e
c h u r c h e s w e r e v i r t u a l l y unanimous i n s u p p o r t i n g t h e war o n c e
i t w a s e v i d e n t t h a t we c o u l d n o t a v o i d i n v o l v e m e n t .
Churches
m o b i l i z e d t o d o c h a p l a i n c y w o r k among t h e t r a i n i n g s o l d i e r s ,
conducted p a r t i e s and s p e c i a l s e r v i c e s f o r t h e t r o o p s , and
g e n e r a l l y d e n o u n c e d t h e Germans f o r t h e i r war e f f o r t .
Most
churches d i d n o t have o r g a n i z a t i o n s working f o r t h e war e f f o r t ,
b u t t h e i r p a s t o r s k e p t them i n f o r m e d .
M i n i s t e r s s o l i c i t e d subs c r i p t i o n s t o l o a n s , preached on t h e r i g h t e o u s n e s s o f t h e A l l i e d
c a u s e , and j u s t i f i e d American e n t r a n c e i n t o t h e c o n f l i c t .
Most
i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e United S t a t e s were r e l u c t a n t t o g e t involved,
with t h e notable exceptions o f t h e ethnic groups with deep
r o o t s s t i l l i n t h e i r h o m e l a n d s , a n d men s u c h a s T h e o d o r e R o o s e v e l t who h a d a s t r a n g e a f f i n i t y f o r w a r .
Sunday was s i l e n t
u n t i l t h e t i d e o f p u b l i c o p i n i o n s h i f t e d , and t h e n he committed
himself t o t h a t direction.
B u t e v e n t h i s d i d n o t s a v e him from
d e c l i n e and a l e s s e n i n g o f i n f l u e n c e .
Ham w a s n o t s i l e n t .
He
s p o k e , b u t w h a t h e s a i d was n o t p r o - E n g l i s h o r pro-German.
He
condemned b o t h s i d e s f o r t h e i r s i n s a n d e v i l s , i n c l u d i n g t h e
U n i t e d s t a t e s .33
I n t h e b e g i n n i n g f o r b o t h S u n d a y a n d Ham t h e w a r w a s a
j u d g m e n t o f God u p o n t h e E u r o p e a n n a t i o n s .
Germany h a d sowed
t h e s e e d s o f h i g h e r c r i t i c i s m ; F r a n c e had sowed t h e s e e d s o f
i m m o r a l i t y ; England had embraced t h e f a l s e s c i e n c e s o f Darwin
As
and Huxley.
They b o t h saw God's hand i n t h e r u i n o f E u r o p e .
i t b e c a m e m o r e e v i d e n t t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s was n o t g o i n g t o
e v a d e i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h e w a r , t h e two e v a n g e l i s t s m o d i f i e d t h e i r
opinions.
Sunday became i n c r e a s i n g l y anti-German a n d p r o - Z n g l i s h .
Ham d i d n o t s o much c h a n g e h i s c o n d e m n a t i o n o f a n y E u r o p e a n n a t i o n
a s a d d t o h i s l i s t t h e name o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
Americs bad
d e p a r t e d f r o m h e r d e v o t i o n t o God a n d w a s t h e r e f o r e c h a r a c t f r i z e d
by m o r a l l a x i t y w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e judgment. o f w a r . 3 4
S u c h a n o p i n i o n a s t h a t v o i c e d b y H a m w a s f a v o r e d b y many
evangelical Southerners.
The r e a c t i o n o f people i n Dickenson
C o u n t y , V i r g i n i a , t o t h e w a r i s r e p o r t e d i n t h i s way:
T h e p e o p l e o f D i c k e n s o n knew t h a t a l o n e t h e y
were powerless t o a v e r t t h e c a t a s t r o p h e t h a t
was coming i n t o t h e i r l i v e s .
Suffering,
d e s t r u c t i o n and death could n o t be avoided.
God w a s p u n i s h i n g t h e w o r l d f o r i t s s i n s .
America could n o t e s c a p e h e r s h a r e o f t h i s
punishment, a n d h e r p e o p l e would have t o
pay a l o n g with t h e r e s t o f t h e world.35
T h i s a t t i t u d e , c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e F u n d a m e n t a l i s t movement,
stood o u t i n sharp c o n t r a s t t o t h e S o c i a l Gospel, popular before
t h e war, which h e l d t h a t e v i l could be e l i m i n a t e d through reform
legislation.
Modern t r e n d s i n t h e o l o g y w e r e i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r
i n t e r e s t i n man " n o t G o d ; o n s o c i a l t h e o r y , n o t t h e g o s p e 1 . 1 1 3 6
T h i s was t h e e r a o f p r o g r e s s i v i s m n o t o n l y i n t h e o l o g y , b u t a l s o
i n l e g i s l a t i o n , p o l i t i c s , and s o c i a l thought.
Fundamentalism, on t h e o t h e r hand, h e l d a t o t a l l y p e s s i m i s t i c v i e w o f man.
Ham a n d S u n d a y w e r e b o t h p r o m i n e n t i n t h i s
m o v e m e n t , a l o n g w i t h men s u c h a s W . B. R i l e y , J . F r a n k N o r r i s
a n d Bob J o n e s , S r . 3 7
T h e s e F u n d a m e n t a l i s t s s a w man a s a d e praved c r e a t u r e , f a l l e n from a former s t a t e o f g l o r i f i c a t i o n
i n " t h e Garden o f Eden."
He o n c e l i v e d i n p a r a d i s e , b u t now
h e w a s s u b j e c t t o h i s own s q u a l o r a n d f i l t h .
He w a s a s i n n e r .
He w a s i n h e r e n t l y e v i l .
T h i s formed t h e b a s i s f o r t h e evangeli s t i c preaching o f t h i s period.
Of c o u r s e , m a n ' s s i n a n d h i s
n e e d o f God h a d b e e n d o m i n a n t t h e m e s i n v a r y i n g w a y s i n e v a n gelical thrusts o f previous generations.
Probably t h e most
important p o i n t is t h a t t h e war r e i n f o r c e d t h e Fundamentalists'
c o n c e p t o f t h e t o t a l w i c k e d n e s s o f man.
I n t h e t h i n k i n g o f Ham,
Sunday, and t h e o t h e r F u n d a m e n t a l i s t s t h e war confirmed t h i s
i d e a and d i s p r o v e d t h e S o c i a l Gospel a d v o c a t e s ' i d e a o f man's
p e r f e c t a b i l i t y and progress.
Ham a n d Sunday a r e r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h e e v a n g e l i c a l p o p u l a c e ' s
opinion.
To h e a r t h e m i s t o h e a r t h e v a s t m a j o r i t y o f P r o t e s t a n t
evangelicals o f t h e i r time speak.
T h e i r l i v e s and income both
d e p e n d e d u p o n n o t o f f e n d i n g t h e p e o p l e who s u p p o r t e d t h e m .
In
t h i s s e n s e , Ham and.Sunday, r a t h e r t h a n s h a p e r s o f e v a n g e l i c a l
p u b l i c o p i n i o n , w e r e s h a p e d by e v a n g e l i c a l o p i n i o n a n d o p e r a t e d
w i t h i n t h e dynamics o f t h e i r p a r t i c u l a r group i n conformity
with popularly held sentiments.
By e x a m i n i n g t h e p u b l i c
statements o f these representative
e v a n g e l i s t s , we c a n , t h u s ,
study the thinking of t h e i r congregations.
Ham and Sunday
could n o t have continued t o reach l a r g e audiences i f congregat i o n s had repudiated t h e i r s h i f t i n g views, f i r s t on n e u t r a l i t y
and then on American involvement i n t h e war.
And y e t , t h e s e
evangelists did continue t o succeed.
They a r e , t h e r e f o r e ,
especially accurate barometers of t h e s o c i a l thought i n certain
e n c l a v e s of American e v a n g e l i c a l i s m d u r i n g t h e y e a r s surrounding
W o r l d War I.
NOTES
' s e e W i l l i a m G . McLoughlin, J r , , Modern R e v i v a l i s m :
Charles
G r a n d i s o n F i n n e y t o B i l l y G r a h a m (New Y o r k , 1 9 5 9 ) , Ch. 8 , f o r a n
a n a l y s i s o f h i s meetings.
F o r a more s p e c i f i c s t u d y c o n s u l t
W i l l i a m G. M c L o u g h l i n , J r . , B i l l S u n d a y Was H i s Real Name
( C h i c a g o , 1 9 5 5 ) . F o r a c c o u n t s o: t h e many o t h e r e v a n g e l i s t s
w o r k i n g i n t h e s e y e a r s , s e e a l s o B e r n a r d A . W e i s b e r g e r , They
Gathered a t t h e River:
The S t o r y o f t h e G r e a t R e v i v a l i s t s a n d
T h e i r I m p a c t Upon R e l i g i o n i n A m e r i c a ( C h i c a g o , 1 9 5 8 ) , c h . 8 ;
W i l l i a m Warren S w e e t , R e v i v a l i s m i n America:
Its O r i g i n ,
G r o w t h , a n d I n f l u e n c e (New Y o r k , 1 9 4 4 ) , p . 1 7 0 ; G r o v e r C. C l o u d ,
E v a n g e l i z e d A m e r i c a ( ~ e wY o r k , 1 9 2 8 ) , p p . 2 7 9 - 3 6 7 .
2 ~ d w a r dE. H a m , F i f t y Years o n t h e B a t t l e F r o n t ~ i t hC h r i s t :
A B i o g r a p h y o f M o r d e c a i F. Ham ( L o u i s v i l l e , 1 9 5 0 ) , pp. 284-294.
3 ~ c ~ o u g h l i nB, i l l y S u n d a y , p . 2 5 5 ; D a v i d T . M o r g a n i n " T h e
Revivalist a s Patriot:
B i l l y S u n d a y a n d W o r l d War I , " J o u r n a l
o f P r e s b y t e r i a n H i s t o r y 51 (Summer, 1 9 7 3 ) : 199-215.
4 ~ c ~ o u g h l i nB, i l l y S u n d a y , p . 2 5 5 .
5 ~ c ~ o u g h l i nB, i l l y S u n d a y , p .
256.
6 ~ e wY o r k T i m e s , 2 9 A p r i l 1 9 1 5 .
York,
7 ~ h o m a sA . B a i l e y , Woodrow W i l s o n a n d t h e L o s t P e a c e , ( N e w
1 9 4 4 ) , p . 4 ; Morgan, " R e v i v a l i s t a s P a t r i o t , " p . 202.
H i s Tabernacles and
8 ~ h e o d o r eT . F r a n k e n b e r g , B i l l y S u n d a y :
Sawdust T r a i l s (Columbus, Ohio, 19171, p. 202.
9 ~ c ~ o u g h l i nB, i l l y S u n d a ~ , p p .
a s P a t r i o t , " p. 2 0 2 .
1 0 ~ c ~ o u g h l i nB, i l l y S u n d a y , p .
"w.
19291, P.
256-57;
Morgan,
"Revivalist
257.
L. C l a r k , B i l l y S u n d a y U n m a s k e d ( M i l a n , I l l i n o i s ,
41.
1 2 ~ a m e sR . Mock a n d C e d r i c L a r s o n , W o r d s T h a t Won t h e War:
The S t o r y o f t h e C o m m i t t e e on P u b l i c I n f o r m a t i o n , 1917-1919
I ~ r i n c e t o n ,1917) pp. 820-821.
" ~ c ~ o u g h l i n ,B i l l y S u n d a x , p .
257.
4 ~ o s e ~C ho l l i n s . " R e v i v a l s P a s t a n d P r e s e n t :
Relections
o n Some o f ' t h e i r ~ s ~ c h o l o ~ i caspect^,^?
a l
H a r p e r ' s Magazine,
135 ( N o v e m b e r , 1 9 1 7 ) , 8 6 2 .
36
1 5 ~ e wYork T i m e s ,
19 F e b r u a r y . 1 9 1 8 .
1 6 ~ r t h u rS. L i n k , W i l s o n ' s Campaigns f o r P r o g r e s s i v i s m a n d
P e a c e , 1916-1917 ( P r i n c e t o n , 1 9 6 5 1 , pp. 420-26; B a i l e y , Lost
P e a c e , p p . 1 0 , 15-16.
' ' ~ c ~ o u ~ h l iBni l, l y
Sunday.
P. 2 5 6 .
The L i f e a n d Times o f
18Lee Thomas, The B i l l y S u n d a y S t o r y :
( G r a n d R a p i d s , 1 9 6 1 ) , p . 180.
William Ashley Sunday, D.D.
g ~ c ~ o u g h l i nB,i l l y S u n d a x , p . 2 5 9 .
2 0 ~ h o m a s , B i l l y S u n d a y S t o r y , p.
186.
2 1 ~ h o m a s ,B i l l y S u n d a y S t o r y , p p . 113-1 1 4 ; G e o r g e S y l v e s t e r
V i e r e c k , S p r e a d i n g Germs o f H a t e (New Y o r k , 1 9 3 0 1 , p p . 195-196.
2 2 ~ c ~ o u g h l i nB, i l l y S u n d a y , p p . 289-290.
2 3 ~ d w a r d E. Ham's 50 Y e a r s on t h e B a t t l e F r o n t w i t h C h r i s t
i s t h e o n l y b i o g r a p h y o f M o r d e c a i F. Ham a v a i l a b l e .
24~errH
y o p k i n s , " M o r d e c a i F. Ham: P r o h i b i t i o n a n d S e n s a t i o n a l
E v a n g e l i s m i n K e n t u c k y , 1914-1915w ( M . A . t h e s i s , E a s t e r n K e n t u c k y
Lexington Herald,
U n i v e r s i t y , 1 9 6 9 ) , p p . v , 5 - 6 , 1 7 , 77-79.
31 O c t o b e r 1 9 1 4 .
2 5 ~ o p k i n s , M o r d e c a i F . Ham, p.
20 December 1 9 1 5 .
64 ; D a n v i l l e K e n t u c k y A d v o c a t e ,
2 6 ~ a nA n t o n i o E x p r e s s , 8 May 1 9 1 6 ; 2 , 3 J u n e 1 9 1 6 .
2 7 ~ a nA n t o n i o E x p r e s s , 7 J u n e 19 1 6 ; 7 J u l y 1918.
2 8 ~ a nA n t o n i o E x p r e s s , 7 J u l y 1 9 1 6 ; 7 Gune 1917.
2 9 ~ a nA n t o n i o E x p r e s s , 10 J u l y 1916.
3 0 ~ h eE c h o e s (Oklahoma C i t v , Oklahoma) , 22 March 19 18.
3 1 ~ h eE c h o e s , 3 J u l y 1928.
3 2 ~ a nA n t o n i o E x p r e s s , 7 J u l y 1 9 1 6 ; 8 May 1 9 1 6 .
3 3 ~ i l l i a mW a r r e n S w e e t , T h e S t o r y o f R e l i g i o n i n America (New
Y o r k , 1 9 5 0 ) , pp. 401-405, o u t l i n e s g e n e r a l l y how American c l e r g y men a n d c h u r c h e s r e a c t e d t o t h e w a r a n d t h e c o u n t r y ' s i n v o l v e m e n t
i n i t . One o f t h e m o s t t h o r o u g h s t u d i e s o f c l e r g y i n v o l v e m e n t
i n World War I i s Roy H . Abrams, P r e a c h e r s P r e s e n t A r m s ( N e w
Y o r k , 1 9 3 3 ) . A r t h u r K . D a v i s , e d . , V i r g i n i a C o m m u n i t i e s i n War
Time ( P u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e V i r g i n i a H i s t o r y C o m m i s s i o n , S o u r c e Val.
V I , 1 9 2 6 1 , p p . 10-11, 1 8 8 , 2 5 6 , 2 7 4 , 367-369, 430.
-
3 4 ~ a s h v i l l e Banner-, 5 December 1921.
3 5 ~ a v i s ,Virginia Communities, p. 188.
3 6 ~ a m e s Ward Smith and A. Leland Jamison, Religion in American
Life (Princeton, 19611, I:297-98; Martin Marty, The New Shape o z
American Religion (New York, 19591, p. 162.
3 7 ~ .Allyn Russell, Voices o f American Fundamentalism:
Biographical Studies (Philadelphia, 1976).
Seven
OBSTACLES TO EDUCATIONAL REFORM
I N TENNESSEE:
1925-1937
Lyman B u r b a n k
Vanderbilt University
Any s e r i o u s s t u d y o f A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y , f r o m 1 8 6 5 t o t h e
Second World War, m u s t h a v e , a s o n e o f t h e m a j o r t h e n e s , t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e c h a n g e s i n l i f e b r o u g h t by t h e s h i f t f r o m a n
This essay
a g r a r i a n s o c i e t y t o a predominantly urban s o c i e t y .
a t t e m p t s , i n a s m a l l way, t o s u g g e s t some o f t h e p r o b l e m s i n
Tennessee connected with t h e s e changes.
I n a sense, it is a
s o m e w h a t d i s c o u r a g i n g e s s a y , b e c a u s e i t s u g g e s t s t h a t t h o s e who
w e r e a w a r e o f t h e new p r o b l e m s o f u r b a n i z a t i o n w e r e , i n f a c t ,
u n a b l e t o overcome t h e p o l i t i c a l power o f l o c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t .
L i k e m o s t o t h e r r u r a l s t a t e s , T e n n e s s e e h a d a t t h a t time
many s c h o o l s w i t h l o w e n r o l l m e n t .
Before t h e widespread use
o f t h e s c h o o l b u s , no e f f e c t i v e means o f s c h o o l c o n s o l i d a t i o n
had been found.
I n a n y c a s e , t h e number o f p a v e d h i g h w a y s i n
t h e s t a t e was l i m i t e d .
T h e r e was g r e a t e x c i t e m e n t when t h e
M e m p h i s - t o - B r i s t o l h i g h w a y a s s o c i a t i o n was f i r s t f o r m e d , i n 1 9 1 9 ,
w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f b u i l d i n g a paved highway a l l a c r o s s t h e
state.
However, l o c a l i s m was s o s t r o n g t h a t i t was n o t u n t i l
t h e 1930s t h a t t h e t h r e e r e g i o n a l Teachers Associatioris--East,
M i d d l e a n d West--were f i n a l l y b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r i n t h e form o f
t h e Tennessee Education Association.
Furthermore, t h e evidence
shows c l e a r l y t h a t t h e s e l o c a l i s m s had b u i l t a r o u n d them l a r g e
numbers o f e d u c a t i o n a l v e s t e d i n t e r e s t s which d e v e l o p e d a v e r y
h i g h r e s i s t a n c e t o a n y a t t e m p t s by t h e S t a t e t o c o n s o l i d a t e s c h o o l s
A s i n m o s t o t h e r l a r g e A m e r i c a n s t a t e s , t h e T e n n e s s e e movement t o ward t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f s c h o o l s was c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e
p r o g r e s s o f b u i l d i n g p a v e d r o a d s , a n d by t h e time e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n s t r u c k t h e s t a t e , r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e p r o g r e s s h a d b e e n made.
I t h a s b e e n a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e h i s t o r y o f A m e r i c a n educ a t i o n , t h a t , i n n e a r l y e v e r y s t a t e , t h e r e h a v e been enormous
v a r i a t i o n s from one s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o a n o t h e r i n t h e a b i l i t y t o
s u p p o r t p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n from funds d e r i v e d from l o c a l p r o p e r t y
taxes.
T e n n e s s e e was n o e x c e p t i o n .
However, i n t h e t w e n t i e s , t h e
S t a t e was i n h a r m o n y w i t h t h e t i m e s i n i t s e f f o r t t o " e q u a l i z e "
e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y , through t h e use o f s t a t e funds t o supplem e n t t h e m e a g e r s u m s a v a i l a b l e i n some c o u n t i e s .
I n f a c t , much
w a s made i n e d u c a t i o n a l c i r c l e s o f t h e " E q u a l i z a t i o n F u n d u e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e l e g i s l a t u r e i n 1 9 2 5 .
This law, passed i n t h e closing
m i n u t e s o f t h e s e s s i o n a f t e r t h r e e months o f d e b a t e , was h a i l e d
by t h e N a s h v i l l e T e n n e s s e a n a s o n e o f t h e s t a t e ' s g r e a t a c h i e v e ments.
E a c h c o u n t y l e v y i n g a minimum e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t a x o f
f i f t y c e n t s o n o n e h u n d r e d d o l l a r s o f a s s e s s a b l e p r o p e r t y w a s now
t o be g r a n t e d enough f u n d s by t h e s t a t e t o e n a b l e i t t o o p e r a t e
t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s f o r e i g h t months d u r i n g t h e y e a r .
Added
t o t h a t was a p r o v i s i o n r e q u i r i n g a l l c o u n t i e s , r e c e i v i n g S t a t e
e q u a l i z a t i o n f u n d s , t o h a v e t h e same t e a c h e r s a l a r
a new s c h e d u l e b a s e d u p o n t r a i n i n g a n d e x p e r i e n c e .
7
To h e l p f i n a n c e t h e s e r e f o r m s , t h e l e g i s l a t u r e p a s s e d a l a w
t a x i n g t h e s a l e s o f manufactured tobacco.
From t h e r e c e i p t s o f
t h i s t a x , $ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 w a s t o b e u s e d f o r t h e new e d u c a t i o n a l c h a n g e s .
I n 1 9 2 7 t h i s sum was r a i s e d t o $ 8 0 0 , 0 0 0 .
The immediate r e s u l t s o f
t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e l a w o f 1925 were r a t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t .
I n 1927
t h e Commissioner r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n f o r t y s i x o f t h e s t a t e ' s c o u n t i e s had b e e n a b l e t o l e n g t h e n t h e s c h o o l
year.
He f u r t h e r r e p o r t e d t h a t o n l y t h r e e c o u n t i e s , l a c k i n g
s u f f i c i e n t l o c a l f u n d s f o r a n e i g h t month t e r m , had f a i l e d t o
apply f o r s t a t e funds.
On t h e f o r t y - s i x c o u n t i e s r e f e r r e d t o
a b o v e , t h e number o f s c h o o l d a y s a d d e d v a r i e d f r o m t h i r t e e n i n
Cocke a n d S c o t t c o u n t i e s t o s i x t y - t w o i n O v e r t ~ n . ~
D e s p i t e some i m m e d i a t e b e n e f i t s f r o m p a s s a g e o f t h e 1 9 2 5 l a w ,
there is another s i d e t o t h e coin.
The l e g i s l a t u r e s o o n b e g a n
l o a d i n g t h e E q u a l i z a t i o n Fund w i t h p r i v a t e a c t s , " t h u s m a k i n g t h e
Act o f 1925 u n f a i r and u n j u s t t o t h e l a r g e r c o u n t i e s , " a c c o r d i n g t o
t h e Annual R e p o r t o f t h e S t a t e Department o f E d u c a t i o n , l 9 3 2 .
The
C o m m i s s i o n e r o f E d u c a t i o n f i n a l l y s u g g e s t e d t h e wisdom o f d o i n g
away w i t h a n E q u a l i z a t i o n F u n d , a n d p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e S t a t e a s s u m e
payment o f a l l e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s a l a r i e s f o r a n eight-month y e a r .
He w i s h e d t o make i t a m i s d e m e a n o r f o r a n y C c u n t y B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n t o u s e s u c h p r o p o s e d f u n d s f o r a n y p u r p o s e o t h e r t h a n payment
of teacher salaries.3
Between 1925 and 1933, a t o t a l o f 758 s e p a r a t e p r o v i s i o n s
a f f e c t i n g e d u c a t i o n w e r e p a s s e d by t h e L e g i s l a t u r e , a n d a g r e a t
It would,
many o f t h e m n u l l i f i e d t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e 1 9 2 5 l a w .
o f c o u r s e , be i m p o s s i b l e i n a s h o r t s p a c e t o list and e x p l a i n a l l
t h e s e s e p a r a t e p r o v i s i o n s , b u t among t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t w e r e t h e
following:
1.
T h e l a w w a s amended i n s u c h m a n n e r t h a t n o
c o u n t y was t o r e c e i v e f r o m t h e S t a t e l e s s
t h a n i t r e c e i v e d i n t h e y e a r 1924-25.
The
Annual R e p o r t o f t h e Department o f ~ d u c x o n
f o r 1930 p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i f t h e d a i l y
a t t e n d a n c e i n any county dropped t o z e r o ,
t!;at c o u n t y w o u l d s t i l l r e c e i v e t h e s a m e a m o u n t
f r o m t h e S t a t e t h a t i t h a d r e c e i v e d i n 1924-25.
2.
A p r i v a t e a c t o f 1927, a p p l y i n g t o P i c k e t t
County, r e a d a s follows:
An A c t t o c r e a t e a C o u n t y B o a r d o f
Public School D i r e c t o r s i n a l l counties
o f t h i s S t a t e having a population o f
n o t more t h a n 5520 n o r l e s s t h a n 5200
according t o t h e f e d e r a l census o f
...
1920.
and t o a b o l i s h t h e County
Board o f E d u c a t i o n i n a l l c o u n t i e s
a f f e c t e d by t h i s ~ c t . 4
3.
The L e g i s l a t u r e e s t a b l i s h e d t h e "Chestnut Glade
S p e c i a l S c h o o l D i s t r i c t " i n Weakley C o u n t y .
H e r e t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l was o p e r a t e d a n d
a d m i n i s t e r e d q u i t e i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e County
System.
The County T r u s t e e c o l l e c t e d t h e
s c h o o l f u n d s o f t h e S p e c i a l D i s t r i c t and p a i d
them t o t h e T r e a s u r e r o f t h e S p e c i a l D i s t r i c t Board
o f Education.
4.
In the
Benton
by t h e
funds i
5.
By 1 9 3 4 t h e r e w e r e t h i r t y - e i g h t C o u n t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
e l e c t e d by p o p u l a r v o t e , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e law
o f 1925 h a d p r o v i d e d t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s b e s e l e c t e d
by t h e Q u a r t e r l y C o u n t y C o u r t .
c a s e o f t h e "Big S p e c i a l School D i s t r i c t , " i n
County, " t h e l o c a l s c h o o l funds a r e i n c l u d e d
County S u p e r i n t e n d e n t i n t h e county s c h o o l
n h i s r e p o r t ."5
It i s no wonder t h a t t h e Commissioner o f E d u c a t i o n r e p o r t e d ,
as e a r l y a s 1 9 2 8 , t h a t t h e t w o g r e a t e s t o b s t a c l e s t o e d u c a t i o n a l
p r o g r e s s i n Tennessee were p r i v a t e l e g i s l a t i v e a c t s and f a i l u r e
t o o b s e r v e t h e s c h o o l l a w s 6 T h i s theme was r e p e a t e d o v e r a n d over
i n t h e d e c a d e f o l l o w i n g p a s s a g e o f t h e 1925 law.
The T e n n e s s e e
E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n , c h o o s i n g a n o t h e r way o f s a y i n g t h e same
t h i n g , r e p o r t e d t h a t i t was i m p o s s i b l e t o e s t a b l i s h a s t a t e s c h o o l
s y s t e m "when t h e t y p e o f o r g a n i z a t i o n o r t y p e o f c o n t r o l i s
b e i n g c h a n g e d a t f r e q u e n t i n t e r v a l s . "7 I n T e n n e s s e e , r e p o r t e d
t h e Commissioner i n 1928, t h e r e was a d u a l s y s t e m o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g
and f i n a n c i n g p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n .
He a r g u e d t h a t a s i n g l e S t a t e
s y s t e m w o u l d b e "more e c o n o m i c a l t o t h e t a x p a y e r s t h a n a s t a t e county system."
T h i s f a c t , h e s a i d , had been c l e a r l y demonstrated
by t h e S t a t e s y s t e m o f h i g h w a y c o n s t r ~ c t i o n . ~
I t i s i n d e e d w o r t h w h i l e t o e x a m i n e i n some d e t a i l t h e v e r y
s t r a i g h t - f o r w a r d , and sometimes c a u s t i c , r e m a r k s i n t h e 1926
Annual R e p o r t o f t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n .
According
t o t h e r e p o r t , t h o s e who h a d s t u d i e d t h e h i s t o r y o f . p u b l i c
e d u c a t i o n d u r i n g t h e l a s t c e n t u r y found few a n d b r i e f p e r i o d s
o f progress.
The a u t h o r s o f t h e r e p o r t i n d i c a t e d t h a t p r o g r e s s
should be continuous.
One o f t h e i r r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s was t h a t t h e
c o u n t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f S c h o o l s n o l o n g e r b e e l e c t e d , b u t chosen
by t h e C o u n t y B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n , w h i c h w o u l d f i x h i s s a l a r y .
I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t s u c h a c h a n g e w o u l d i n t r o d u c e g r e a t e r
stability.
T h e a u t h o r s o f t h e r e p o r t n o t e d t h a t t h e r e w a s no
l e g a l m e a n s by w h i c h t h e S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n c o u l d
i n s p e c t county records.
I t w a s recommended t h a t t h e D e p a r t m e n t
b e g i v e n t h i s a u t h o r i t y , a n d a l s o t h e power t o r e c o v e r m i s u s e d
public funds.
T h e A n n u a l R e p o r t a l s o recommended a m e a s u r e which
h a s n e v e r come t o p a s s .
I n c o u n t i e s w i t h s m a l l t o w n s , i t seemed
unnecessary t o have both a county and a c i t y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
Even t h o u g h t h e r e p o r t u r g e d l e g i s l a t i o n t o make a l l s c h o o l
s y s t e m s i n t h e S t a t e c o t e r m i n o u s w i t h t h e c o u n t y l i n e s and
c o u n t y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , t h i s p r o p o s a l met tremendous r e s i s t a n c e .
Added t o t h e p r o b l e m c a u s e d by c o u n t l e s s p r i v a t e l e g i s l a t i v e a c t s , by f a i l u r e t o o b e y t h e g e n e r a l s c h o o l l a w s , a n d by
d u a l s y s t e m s on t h e l o c a l l e v e l , were t h e e f f e c t s o f economic
depression.
F o u r d a y s a f t e r t h e r e - e l e c t i o n o f Governor Henry Horton i n
1 9 3 0 , t h e Bank o f T e n n e s s e e , i n N a s h v i l l e , was i n t h e h a n d s o f a
receiver.
I n r a p i d s u c c e s s i o n came t h e c l o s i n g o f t h e H o l s t o n
U n i o n N a t i o n a l Bank i n K n o x v i l l e , a n d o f C a l d w e l l a n d Company
i n Nashville.
I n t h e m a i n , t h f u n d s o f t h e S t a t e had been deAlthough d r a m a t i c , t h e s e f i n a n c i a l
posited i n these institutions.5
e v e n t s d i d n o t , i n t h e l o n g r u n , h a v e a s g r e a t a n e f f e c t on t h e
economy o f T e n n e s s e e a s d i d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l d e p r e s s i o n .
T h e F e d e r a l Farm B o a r d h a d u n d e r t a k e n a c a m p a i g n i n 1 9 3 0 t o
reduce t h e cotton acreage.
The p r i c e o f c o t t o n , which had s t o o d
a t a b o v e 1 8 c e n t s p e r pound i n S e p t e m b e r , 1 9 2 9 , h a d g r a d u a l l y
d r i f t e d downward.
D e s p i t e t h e b e s t e f f o r t s o f t h e Farm B o a r d ,
t h e p r i c e r e a c h e d 1 2 c e n t s by m i d - 1 9 3 0 ; i t s t o o d a t 8 . 5 c e n t s i n
The
m i d - 1 9 3 1 , a n d i t r e a c h e d a l o w o f 4.6 c e n t s i n mid-1932.10
c o n d i t i o n o f t h e t o b a c c o m a r k e t "was e v e n m o r e c h a o t i c t h a n t h a t
o f c o t t o n . " l l T o b a c c o p r i c e s i n 1931 w e r e a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25% o f
w h a t t h e y h a d b e e n i n 1919.
The e d u c a t i o n a l r e s u l t s w e r e d e v a s t a t i n g .
The T e n n e s s e e popul a t i o n , e s s e n t i a l l y r u r a l i n n a t u r e , had c h o s e n t o f i n a n c e i t s
s c h o o l s l a r g e l y from r u r a l p r o p e r t y t a x e s , and t h e s t a t e ' s
e q u a l i z a t i o n fund had been based o n a t o b a c c o t a x .
County t a x
d e l i n q u e n c y , w h i c h h a d b e e n 13% i n 1 9 3 0 , a d v a n c e d t o 24% i n 1 9 3 1 .
F o r t h e c i t i e s t h e s e same f i g u r e s w e r e 13% a n d 27% r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Urban unemployment grew a s i n d u s t r i a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s d e c r e a s e d
f r o m a p e a k o f 2 8 8 2 i n 1 9 2 9 , t o 1561 i n 1 9 3 3 .
The h i g h r a t e o f t a x d e l i n q u e n c y r e s u l t e d i n major i m p o r t a n c e
being attached, especially i n the rural counties, t o s t a t e allocaA s i g n i f i c a n t problem r e s u l t e d from t h i s , because t h e law
tions.
s t i p u l a t e d t h a t t h e s t a t e should pay its l o c a l a l l o c a t i o n s o n l y
t w i c e a year--in J a n u a r y and J u l y .
Many s c h o o l s y s t e m s t h e r e f o r e
r e s o r t e d t o t h e payment o f t e a c h e r s a l a r i e s i n t h e form o f
warrants.
I n any g i v e n y e a r t h e l o c a l e d u c a t i o n a l budget had t o be
f i n i s h e d by J u l y f i r s t . H o w e v e r , t h e l o c a l t a x e s , o n w h i c h t h a t
b u d g e t was t o b e b a s e d , w e r e n o t c o l l e c t e d u n t i l e i g h t m o n t h s
l a t e r a n d d u r i n g t h e i n t e r v a l t h e o n l y money a v a i l a b l e f o r
o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s came f r o m s t a t e p a y m e n t s .
Since neither
t h e Q u a r t e r l y C o u r t n o r t h e S t a t e Board o f E d u c a t i o n had a u t h o r i t y
t o b o r r o w money t o t a k e c a r e o f s c h o o l w a r r a n t s , many t e a c h e r s
were f o r c e d i n t o a c h o i c e o f d i s c o u n t i n g t h e i r w a r r a n t s a t banks
o r o f h o l d i n g them u n t i l t h e c o u n t y ' s s c h o o l f u n d s were c o l l e c t e d .
The t o t a l amount o f c o u n t y p r o p e r t y t a x l e v i e d i n T e n n e s s e e
i n 1 9 3 2 was c l o s e t o $ 2 3 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 , b u t b y J u n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g
y e a r more t h a n f i f t y p e r c e n t o f t h i s was d e l i n q u e n t .
Thus a
s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o r t h e money a n t i c i p a t e d b y t h e s c h o o l s w a s
The Commissioner o f E d u c a t i o n
a c t u a l l y u n a v a i l a b l e t o them.12
e x p r e s s e d p l e a s u r e i n 1 9 3 4 o v e r t h e s t a t e ' s new p l a n t o p a y
t h e s c h o o l s each y e a r i n e i g h t e q u a l monthly payments.
This
would, h e s a i d , e n a b l e t h e s c h o o l s " t o meet t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s
p r o m p t l y . ,113
The f i n a n c i a l l y p r e c a r i o u s p o s i t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s l e d t o a
demand f r o m s o m e e d u c a t o r s t h a t t h e r e b e a b r o a d e n i n g o f t h e b a s e
o f t a x a t i o n , s o t h a t a l l would h a v e a s h a r e i n payment.
T h e r e was
a l s o a demand f o r a g r e a t e r s p r e a d o f t a x e s t o c o v e r m o r e commodities. l4
By t h e t i m e H i l l M c A l i s t e r w a s e l e c t e d g o v e r n o r o f T e n n e s s e e
o n November 4 , 1 9 3 2 , e c o n o m i c d e p r e s s i o n h a d t a k e n i t s t o l l .
The
a v e r a g e t e r m o f c o u n t y e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s i n 1931-32 h a d b e e n 153
d a y s , a n d some c o u n t i e s h a d c l o s e d t h e i r s c h o o l s a f t e r f i f t y d a y s
I n t h e y a a r s 1929-32, s a l a r i e s o f c o u n t y e l e m e n t a r y t e a c h e r s had
d r o p p e d from $618.43 t o $561.56--a
decrease of nearly ten per
cent.15
M c A l i s t e r w a s a n e c o n o m y g o v e r n o r , who t o l d t h e L e g i s l a t u r e
t h e r e w o u l d b e n o m o r e money f o r r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n o r s c h o o l
building " u n t i l w e put o u r house i n order."l6
He a d d e d t h a t h i s
new C o m m i s s i o n e r o f E d u c a t i o n w o u l d b e a man w i t h i n t e r e s t s " p r i marily educational rather than political."
When W a l t e r D.
C o c k i n g became C o m m i s s i o n e r , h e was P r o f e s s o r o f S c h o o l Administrat i o n a t George Peabody C o l l e g e .
When t h e G e n e r a l A p p r o p r i a t i o n B i l l w a s f i n a l l y p a s s e d i n t h e
s p r i n g of 1934, t h e funds f o r h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n had been reduced
by t w o - t h i r d s .
Elementary s c h o o l s s u f f e r e d from a r e d u c t i o n i n
s t a t e a p p r o p r i a t i o n s o f n e a r l y 20%, a n d h i g h s c h o o l s l o s t 28%.17
Another b i l l - - a "depression courtesy" t o t h e teaching
p r o f e s s i o n , a s some c a l l e d i t - - s t a t e d t h a t a n y t e a c h i n g c e r t i f i c a t e i n t h e S t a t e , v a l i d f o r 1 9 3 4 - 3 5 , w o u l d b e v a l i d f o r 19353 6 and 1936-37 e v e n t h o u g h t h e h o l d e r m i g h t n o t c o m p l e t e a n y
a d d i t i o n a l work o r comply w i t h a n y a d d i t i o n a l r e q u i r e m e n t s .
"For more t h a n f o u r y e a r s , " w r o t e t h e E d i t o r o f The T e n n e s s e e
T e a c h e r , t h e T e n n e s s e e Edu t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n h a s c o n d e m n e d
vigorously t h i s practice.
I n f a c t , t h e r e was no d o u b t t h a t
o n e o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e b i l l was t o p r o t e c t t h e j o b s o f t h o s e
who a l r e a d y h e l d t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n s .
I n 1933 Governor McAlister a p p o i n t e d a group o f l a y c i t i z e n s
and e d u c a t o r s t o s t u d y t h e e d u c a t i o n a l needs o f t h e s t a t e and
t o make a r e p o r t o n w h i c h h e m i g h t b a s e a p l a n f o r t h e f u t u r e .
When s u b m i t t e d i n f i n a l f o r m , l a t e i n 1 9 3 4 , t h e C o m m i s s i o n ' s
r e p o r t was, i n f a c t , t h e most c o m p l e t e p i c t u r e o f t h e s t a t e ' s
e d u c a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e e v e r t o have been p u b l i c l y p r e s e n t e d .
I t was n o t e n t i r e l y a c c i d e n t a l t h a t t h e T e n n e s s e e S t a t e
T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n was o r g a n i z e d i n 1 9 3 4 , i n t i m e t o j o i n i n
t h e g u b e r n a t o r i a l c a m p a i g n t o s e c u r e a d o p t i o n o f many o f t h e
Commission's recommendations.
The f i r s t i s s u e o f The T e n n e s s e e
T e a c h e r was i n t h e s p r i n g o f t h a t y e a r .
B e f o r e 1934, t h e e a s t e r n
a n d w e s t e r n p a r t s o f t h e S t a t e h a d m a i n t a i n e d " s t r o n g b u t unc o o r d i n a t e d e d u c a t i o n a l organization^,^^ w h i l e t h e M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e
T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n h a d " a l l o w e d i t s e l f t o b e s w a l l o w e d u p by
t h e s t a t e ~ r g a n i z a t i o n . ~ ' l g T h e new A s s o c i a t i o n h a d a w e s t e r n ,
a middleland an eastern division.
The P u b l i c School O f f i c e r s
A s s o c i a t i o n , p r e v i o u s l y a n i n d e p e n d e n t g r o u p , became a d e p a r t m e n t
o f t h e new A s s o c i a t i o n .
T h i s new o r g a n i z a t i o n was o f t r e m e n d o u s
h e l p i n d e v e l o p i n g a campaign t o s e c u r e p u b l i c a p p r o v a l o f t h e
E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n ' s recommended p r o g r a m .
On November 1 1 , 1 9 3 4 , The N a s h v i l l e B a n n e r p r i n t e d a n a r t i c l e
which d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o p o s a l s o f t h e E d u c a t i o n a l Commission, s o o n
t o b e made t o t h e G e n e r a l A s s e m b l y .
The Banner mentioned "a
Although 2 5
t r e b l i n g of S t a t e appropriations f o r education."
B a n n e r , a n d o t h e r p a p e r s , may h a v e b e e n a c c u r a t e i n t h e i r r e p o r t i n g ,
t h e y were m i s l e a d i n g .
The i n c r e a s e d s t a t e e x p e n d i t u r e s , recommended
b y t h e E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n , w e r e t o b e a c c o m p a n i e d by a s i g n i ficant decrease i n local property taxes.
Proper journalistic
r e p o r t i n g o f t h i s p r o p o s a l was l a c k i n g .
What t h e C o m m i s s i o n h a d
s a i d was:
1.
T h a t " f u l l s t a t e s u p p o r t 1 , was t h e m o s t e q u i t a b l e
a n d p r a c t i c a l way o f f i n a n c i n g t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s .
2.
T h a t " f o r t h e p r e s e n t " t h e s t a t e c o u l d h o p e t o do
no more t h a n " i n c r e a s e i t s f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t t o
the local units."
The Commission a d d e d t h a t a
s m a l l i n c r e a s e i n s t a t e s u p p o r t would n o t " h e l p
the situation materially."
3.
T h a t i m m e d i a t e a p p r o p r i a t i o n s b e made t o a n e x t e n t
t h a t would e n a b l e t h e S t a t e t o f i n a n c e " a p p r o x i m a t e l y
70 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o s t o f t h e e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l
p r o g r a m a n d 27 p e r c e n t o f t h e c o s t o f t h e h i g h
s c h o o l program."
The Commission a d d e d t h a t t h e
n e a r e r t h e S t a t e approached f u l l support f o r
e l e m e n t a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t i o n , " t h e more
n e a r l y w i l l i t be a b l e t o e q u a l i z e e d u c a t i o n a l
o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n t h e e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y
schools of the State."20
I n J a n u a r y , 1935, Governor McAlister p r e s e n t e d t o t h e l e g i s l a t u r e h i s s a l e s t a x plan, designed t o r a i s e $11,500,000.
Immedi a t e l y vested i n t e r e s t groups fought t h e plan and defeated it.
On t h e l a s t d a y o f t h e S p e c i a l S e s s i o n , t h e g o v e r n o r s i g n e d a
b i l l g i v i n g a l l t h e d i v i s i o n s o f t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m t h e same
revenue a s d u r i n g t h e p r e v i o u s biennium.
Because of i n a d e q u a t e
f i n a n c i n g , n o t o n e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f t h e E d u c a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n was
w r i t t e n i n t o law i n 1935.d'
I n J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 6 , t h e R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Assembly o f t h o Tennessee
E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n a d o p t e d a l e g i s l a t i v e p r o g r a m w h i c h , among
o t h e r t h i n g s , s o u g h t a minimum s a l a r y f o r a l l t e a c h e r s o f 3 6 0 . 0 0
p e r m o n t h , a minimum e i g h t - m o n t h t e r m f o r a l l e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s ,
and a nine-month term f o r h i g h s c h o o l s and a n a c t u a r i l y sound
state-wide retirement system.22
After having t r a n s l a t e d its
p r o g r a m i n t o l e g i s l a t i v e t e r m s , t h e A s s o c i a t i o n came up x i t h a
p r i c e t a g of an i n c r e a s e of $10,638,540 i n t h e S t a t e ' s ?>k.lic
School a p p r o p r i a t i o n .23
B e l i e v i n g t h a t i t s f i g u r e s were t o o h i g h f o r l e g i s l s t i v e
a p p r o v a l , t h e A s s o c i a t i o n s c a l e d t h e m down t o $ 4 , 3 9 5 , 0 G 3 i n t h e
b i l l s a c t u a l l y o f f e r e d f o r l e g i s l a t i v e enactment.
By t h e t i m e
t h e s e p r o p o s e d l a w s r e a c h e d t h e l e g i s l a t u r e , M r . W. A . 3 a s s ,
former S e c r e t a r y o f t h e Tennessee E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , had
been a p p o i n t e d Commissioner.
Smooth p a s s a g e o f t h e 1937 Sducat i o n l a w s was i n l a r g e n e a s u r e t h e r e s u l t o f h i s s u c c o s s ' . ~ l
l e g i s l a t i v e endeavors.
The S t a t e ' s a p p r o p r i a t i o n s f o r e e u c a t i o n
w e r e a l m o s t d o u b l e d , a n d a g o o d s t a r t h a d b e e n made o n t t e 1936
l e g i s l a t i v e program o f t h e Tennessee E d u c a t i o n A s s o c i a t i ~ n .
D i s c u s s i o n o f e d u c a t i o n i n T e n n e s s e e d u r i n g t h e Depression
y e a r s , w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e f e d e r a l r o l e , would b e i n c o m p l e t e .
A s e a r l y a s 1 9 3 3 - 3 4 many c o u n t i e s h a d b e n e f i t e d f r o m trio f u n d s
o f t h e C i v i l Works A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d m o r e t h a n 1 5 0 0 u n e ~ ~ p l o y e d
t e a c h e r s w e r e u s e d t o o r g a n i z e a d u l t e d u c a t i o n c l a s s e s , I n which
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 , 2 5 0 T e n c e s s e a n s w e r e t a u g h t t o r e a d an: ; : r i t e . 2 4
I n December, 1 9 3 3 , i t was announced t h a t t h e T e n n e s s e e 7 a l l e y
A u t h o r i t y had g r a n t e d $ 7 5 , 0 0 0 t o t h e E d u c a t i o n a l Commission f o r
helping t o gather datz.
F u n d s f o r 1 4 5 w o r k e r s f o r t n i s ?reject
w e r e l a t e r made a v a i l a ' s l e by t h e CWA.25 A c t u a l l y , i n 1 3 3 4 , t h e
F e d e r a l G o v e r n m e n t h e l p o e t o f i n a n c e a p r o g r a m w h i c h r t s ~ l t e di n
t h e employment o f 108 :eachers f o r t h i r t y - n i n e n u r s e r y s c h s o l s
t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e , a n d t h e employment o f a n a d d i t i o r z l 1700
u n e m p l o y e d t e a c h e r s 2 5 a w e e k l y s a l a r y o f $ 1 4 . 0 0 , i n :?.e A d u l t
E d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m .2&
A word n e e d s t o b e s a i d a b o u t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l e x p s r d i t u r e s
o f t h e Tennessee Valley Authority.
L a r g e sums w e r e no: s p e n t by
t h e TVA o n e d u c a t i o n 2 n t i l 1 9 3 5 - 3 6 , h o w e v e r , a n d i t r,;s:
n o t be
Eo>:ever,
assumed t h a t t h e s e f u z e s were a l l s p e n t i n Tennessee.
Gordon R . C l a p p , D i r e c t o r o f P e r s o n n e l a t N o r r i s , T e n z e s s e e ,
t e s t i f i e d b e f o r e a J o i n t C o n g r e s s i o n a l Committee i n v e s t i g a t i n g
t h e TVA i n 1 9 3 8 t h a t t h e A u t h o r i t y h a d m a i n t a i n e d a s c h s o l w i t h
a n e l e m e n t a r y e n r o l l z o n t o f 136, and a s e c o n d a r y enro1lr:er.t o f
164 a t t h e P i c k w i c k Tax c o n s t r u c t i o n camp.
The c o s t 9: t n i s
o p e r a t i o n ,..:as g i v e r . ss $ 2 1 , 9 5 6 f o r t h e f i s c a l y e a r e c i l - g i n
J u n e , 1 9 3 8 , and. t h e : o s t s o f s i m i l a r s c h o o l s a t t h e ! l o r r i s Dam
c o n s t r u c t i o n cayp x z n t g i v e n a s $46,577.27
Mr. Clap: z l d e d t h a t
t h e TVA s p e n t $ 1 9 3 , 2 3 ' 5 u r i n g t h e y e a r 1 9 3 7 - 3 8 f o r t r z l r i n g o f
c r a f t and p r o f e s s i s r z l smployees and f o r " g e n e r a l a d u l t educat i o n a l r o c r s a t i o n 2x5 l i b r a r y s e r v i c e s . " 2 8
P a s s a g e o f t h e l a w s o f 1937, and t h e g e n e r a l nation-wide
improvement i n economic c o n d i t i o n s , were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a d e g r e e
o f optimism i n educational c i r c l e s .
However, t h e l a w s o f 1937
c a r r i e d w i t h them no f u n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e , and t h e p r o g r e s s
w h i c h h a d b e e n made i n t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f e l e m e n t a r y e d u c a t i o n
was n o t m a t c h e d a t t h e h i g h s c h o o l l e v e l .
The m a j o r p r o b l e m s
i d e n t i f i e d i n t h e R e p o r t o f t h e E d u c a t i o n a l Commission remained
unresolved.
T h i s p a p e r , p r e s e n t e d a t a n academic c o n f e r e n c e i n 1980,
drew s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s from t h e a u d i e n c e .
Most o f t h e m c o n c e r n e d
p o s s i b i e p a r a l l e l s between t h e 1930s and t h e 1980s.
In this
r e g a r d , we m u s t b e a w a r e t h a t t h e f i n a n c i a l b a s i s o f T e n n e s s e e
e d u c a t i o n i n 1 9 8 0 i s q u i t e u n l i k e t h a t o f t h e 1 9 3 0 s i n two
respects.
The f e d e r a l r o l e , b o t h j u d i c i a l and l e g i s l a t i v e , i s
o f i n f i n i t e l y g r e a t e r i m p o r t a n c e i n 1980 t h a n i n 1930.
The
S t a t e r o l e i s a l s o more s i g n i f i c a n t t h a n i n 1930.
Nevertheless,
one question remains deeply d i s t u r b i n g .
Do t h e new m e t h o d s o f
a d m i n i s t e r i n g e d u c a t i o n r e a l l y mean t h a t l o c a l s e l f - i n t e r e s t
i s o n t h e d e c l i n e ? Have we, i n f a c t , made much p r o g r e s s i n t h e
m a n n e r i n w h i c h we m a n a g e t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a f f a i r s o f t h e S t a t e ?
T h e r e a r e q u i t e o b v i o u s l y some a r e a s i n w h i c h i m p r o v e m e n t h a s
b e e n e n o r m o u s , b u t t h e r e r e m a i n t o o many p r o b l e m s i n t h e 1 9 8 0 s
which a r e d i s t u r b i n g l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f t h e 1930s.
NOTES
' s t a t e o f T e n n e s s e e , Annual R e p o r t o f t h e Department o f
Education iNashville:
Baird-Ward, 1 9 2 5 ) , p . 19. H e n c e f o r t h
r e f e r r e d t o a s The Annual R e p o r t .
C ~ h A
e nnual R e p o r t ,
-
3The A n n u a l R e p o r t ,
1 9 2 7 , p.
19.
1932, p.
30.
4 ~ e p o r to f t h e T e n n e s s e e E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n ( N a s h v i l l e :
H e n c e f o r t h The T e n n e s s e e
A m b r o s e , 1 9 3 3 ) , P a r t I , p. 2 9 2 .
E d u c a t i o n a l Commission.
5 ~ h eT e n n e s s e e E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n , P a r t I , p .
6 ~ h eA n n u a l R e p o r t ,
77.
1928, p , 22.
7 ~ h eT e n n e s s e e E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n , P a r t I , p.
8 ~ h eA n n u a l R e p o r t , 1 9 2 8 , p.
74.
18.
' s t a n l e v J . F o l m s b e e . R o b e r t E. C o r l e w a n d E n o c h L. M i t c h e l l .
H i s t o r y i n ~ k n n e s s e e( ~ e w ' y o r k : L e w i s H i s t o r i c a l P u b l i s h i n g C o . , '
1 9 6 0 1 , 11, 3 0 1 .
1 ° ~ u r r a yR . B e n e d i c t , F a r m P o l i c i e s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s ,
1 7 9 0 - 1 9 5 0 (New Y o r k :
T w e n t i e t h C e n t u r y Fund, 19531, p. 263.
l l ~ h e o d o r eS a l o u t o s , F a r m e r M o v e m e n t s i n t h e S o u t h , 1 8 6 5 - 1 9 3 3
( B e r k e l e y : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1 9 6 0 ) , p. 275.
12The T e n n e s s e e E d u c a t i o n a l Commission, P a r t I , p. 292.
State
l a w a l s o r e q u i r e d e v e r y r e s i d e n t b e t w e e n 21 a n d 50 t o p a y a p o l l
t a x o f $1.00 u n l e s s h e w e r e d e a f , dumb, b l i n d , o r o t h e r w i s e i n c a p a citated.
Each c o u n t y c o u l d a d d o n e e x t r a d o l l a r , a n d a l l p o l l
t a x e s were earmarked f o r l o c a l elementary education.
I n 1932
and 1933 c o l l e c t i o n s amounted t o a b o u t o n e q u a r t e r o f what o u g h t
t o have been t a k e n i n .
The c n c o l l e c t e d t a x e s were a t o t a l l o s s
t o the schools.
13The Annual R e p o r t ,
1934, p.
14.
1 4 ~ h e l t o nP h e l p s , " T h e F i n a n c i a l S u p p o r t o f P u b l i c E d u c a t i o n . "
The T e n n e s s e e T e a c h e r , F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 4 , p. 27.
1 5 ~ n d r e wD. H o l t , T h e S t r u g g l e f o r a S t a t e S y s t e m o f P u b l i c
S c h o o l s i n T e n n e s s e e , 1 9 0 3 - 1 9 3 6 (New Y o r k :
Teachers College,
Columbia U n i v e r s i t y , 19381, p. 390.
May,
18w. A . B a s s , l1Why d i d t h e y d o i t ? " T h e T e n n e s s e e T e a c h e r , ,
1935, p. 16.
U n i t e d F r o n t , " The T e n n e s s e e T e a c h e r , F e b r u a r y , 1934.
P r i o r t o 1934, t h e o n l y p u b l i c a t i o n which reached t h e s t a t e ' s
t e a c h e r s , w i t h a n y d e g r e e o f r e g u l a r i t y , had been t h e T e n n e s s e e
E d u c a t i o n a l B u l l e t i n , a p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e S t a t e Department o f
Education.
See Holt, =Struggle,
p. 415.
2 0 ~ h eT e n n e s s e e E d u c a t i o n a l C o m m i s s i o n , P a r t 11, p p .
2 1 ~ o l t ,T h e S t r u g g l e , p .
100-105.
442.
2 2 ~ h eT e n n e s s e e T e a c h e r , F e b r u a r y ,
1 9 3 6 , pp.
8-9.
P a g e 1 9 , o f > e Annual
2 3 ~ h eA n n u a l R e p o r t , J u n e , 1 9 3 8 , p . 2 4 .
R e p o r t f o r 1 9 3 0 , s a y s , I T P e n s i o n s i n many c a s e s l e a d t o e x t r a v a g a n c e when p r o s p e c t i v e p e n s i o n e r s c o u l d h a v e a p a r t o f t h e i r
e a r n i n g s f o r t h e a g e when t h e i r s a v i n g s m i g h t b e n e e d e d .
In
l i e u o f pension and r e t i r e m e n t funds, t h i s Department b e l i e v e s
i n p a y i n g f a i r s a l a r i e s a s we g o , l e a v i n g n o o b l i g a t i o n o n
future generations."
A S t a t e T e a c h e r R e t i r e m e n t P l a n was
r e c o m m e n d e d by t h e T e h n e s s e e E d u c a t i o n C o m m i s s i o n .
S e e P a r t 11,
p. 117.
2 4 ~ h eA n n u a l R e p o r t , 1 9 3 4 , p . 1 5 . When h e a d d r e s s e d t h e
T e n n e s s e e T e a c h e r s A s s o c i a t i o n , on March 3 1 , 1934, Commissioner
Cocking announced a f e d e r a l a l l o c a t i o n o f $700,000 t o Tennessee.
~ h r o u ~t hhe n e w s p a p e r s , h e a n n o u n c e d a n a d d i t i o n a l $ 5 0 0 , 0 0 0 o n
A p r i l 3 , and s a i d t h i s i n s u r e d a n eight-month t e r m f o r e v e r y
e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l , and n i n e months f o r e v e r y h i g h s c h o o l , w i t h
teachers paid i n cash.
S e e The T e n n e s s e e T e a c h e r , A p r i l , 1934.
2 5 ~ o l t ,T h e S t r u g g l e , p .
2 6 ~ h eA n n u a l R e p o r t ,
404.
1935, p.
19.
2 7 ~ e v e n t yF i f t h C o n g r e s s , T h i r d S e s s i o n .
Hearings before t h e
J o i n t C o m m i t t e e o n t h e I n v e s t i g a t i o r ~o f t h e T e n n e s s e e V a l l e y
A u t h o r i t y ( U n i t e d S t a t e s Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , 19391, p.
3 177.
The C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t i o n Corps a l s o c a r r i e d
2 8 ~ b i d . , p. 3185.
o n s o m ~ u c a t i o n a lw o r k i n T e n n e s s e e .
E n r o l l m e n t i n CCC camps i n
t h e S t a t e r e a c h e d n e a r l y 7 , 0 0 0 by J u n e o f 1935.
The E d u c a t i o n a l
w o r k c a r r i e d o n by t h e C C C w a s , h o w e v e r , f u n d a m e n t a l l y p r a c t i c a l
I n 1 9 3 7 - 3 8 , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 3 % o f t h e men o f t h e C C C
i n nature.
were i l l i t e r a t e .
A p p r o x i m a t e l y 38% h a d n o t g r a d u a t e d f r o m
e l e m e n t a r v s c h o o l . a n d a p ~ r o x i m a t e l v48% h a d n o t a c h i e v e d a
Ske c i v i l i a n Conservation Corps Activihigh schobl education.
ties, J u l y 1 , 1 9 3 7 - J u n e 3 0 , 1 9 3 8 ( U n i t e d S t a t e s C i v i l i a n C o n s e r v a t i o n C o r p s , n.d.1, p. 26.
THEMATIC TRANSITION I N THE TENNESSEE SHORT STORY-1 8 6 4 TO THE PRESENT
Linda Burton
University of Tennessee, Knoxville
A l t h o u g h t h e s h o r t s t o r y h a s e s p e c i a l l y f l o u r i s h e d i n Tennessee, h i s t o r i c a l l y t h e r e has been l i t t l e change i n l i t e r a r y
technique.
We c a n , h o w e v e r , see d e f i n i t e t h e m a t i c c h a n g e s i n t h e
perception o f values.
These changes i n t h e perception o f values
can be divided i n t o t h r e e chronological periods, t h e f i r s t period
s t a r t i n g i n 1 8 5 4 w i t h t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n Harris's
f i r s t S u t L o v i n g o o d s t o r y a n d c u l m i n a t i n g a r o u n d t h e e n d o f World
T h e s e c o n d p e r i o d e n c o m p a s s e s t h e time f r o m t h e e n d o f
War I.
W o r l d War I t o t h e e n d o f W o r l d War 11. T h e t h i r d p e r i o d o f
d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y is from around t h e l a t e 1940's
t o the present.
By e x a m i n i n g s e l e c t e d s h o r t s t o r i e s b y m a j o r
T e n n e s s e e w r i t e r s , t h a t i s , G e o r g e W a s h i n g t o n Harris, Mary
N o a i l l e s M u r f r e e , Andrew L y t l e , P e t e r T a y l o r , M a d i s o n J o n e s , a n d
James A g e e , we c a n s e e s i g n i f i c a n t t h e m a t i c c h a n g e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y
changes i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f v a l u e s from t h e i n c e p t i o n o f t h e short
s t o r y i n Tennessee t o t h e present.
During t h e f i r s t period o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y i n Tennessee,
1 8 5 4 t o t h e e n d o f W o r l d War I , we h a v e w h a t h a s c o m m o n l y b e e n
d e s i g n a t e d i n l i t e r a r y h i s t o r y as t h e l o c a l c o l o r movement.
This
Of t h e s t y l e
m o v e m e n t i n c l u d e s t h e w o r k o f Harris a n d Y u r f r e e .
o f s u c h w r i t e r s F o r k n e r a n d Samway o b s e r v e , " I n a s e n s e , t h e s e
a u t h o r s were r e a l i s t i c a s t h e y a t t e m p t e d t o l o o k a t t h e i r m i l i e u ,
u s e d i a l e c t a n d s h y away f r o m t e c h n i q u e s u s e d by t h e r o m a n t i c
novelists."!
M o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , i n a t h e m a t i c s e n s e many o f t h e
p r o t a g o n i s t s i n Harris's a n d M u r f r e e ' s s t o r i e s s h a r e t h e same
perception o f values; t h a t i s , t h e i r p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e thoroughly
c e r t a i n o f t h e i r own v a l u e s , a n d r a r e l y d o t h e y s u f f e r a n y s o r t
o f value crisis.
F o r i n s t a n c e , H a r r i s ' s S u t L o v i n g o o d , who i s
o f t e n compared t o S h a k e s p e a r e ' s F a l s t a f f , i s a s e l f - a s s u r e d prot a g o n i s t , o n e who a c t s c o n f i d e n t l y i n a w o r l d f i l l e d w i t h h y p o c r i s y a n d who d o u b t s l i t t l e h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h i s c h a o t i c w o r l d .
A s W i l l i a m F a u l k n e r , who a d m i r e d S u t g r e a t l y , s a y s , S u t " h a d no
i l l u s i o n s a b o u t h i m s e l f , d i d t h e b e s t h e c o u l d ; a t c e r t a i n times
h e was a co!qard a n d k n e w i t a n d w a s n ' t a s h a m e d ; h e n e v e r b l a m e s
h i s m i s f o r t u n e s o n a n y o n e a n d n e v e r c u r s e d God f o r t h e m . " *
C e r t a i n l y , f o r example, i n "Parson John B u l l e n ' s Lizards,"
S u t n e v e r o n c e seriously d o u b t s h i s v a l u e s , h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f
r i g h t and wrong.
And a l t h o u g h P a r s o n 3 u l l e n f i n d s S u t a n d a
g i r l , S a l l , i n t h e huckleberry t h i c k e t , S u t never once repeats
h i s deed b u t s e t s o u t t o u n c l o t h e t h e s e l f - r i g h t e o u s , hypocritical
Parson.
E s p e c i a l l y a p p a l l i n g t o S u t i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Parson
tells the g i r l ' s parents about her meeting with Sut.
A s Sut
states:
S h e begged him, a t r i m b l i n , a n ' a - c r y i n g n o t t u
t e l l on h e r .
He e t h e r c o o k i n , h e p r o m i s e d h e r h e ' d
keep dark--an'
t h e n w e n t s t r a i t a n ' t o l e h e r man.
W a r n t t h a t r a l e l o w d o w n , w o l f mean? T h e d u r n d
infunel, h i p e r k r i t i k a l , pot-bellied, scaley-hided,
whisky-wastin, s t i n k i n o l e grount-hog.3
Consequently, S u t sets o u t t o expose t h e h y p o c r i t i c a l parson a t
t h e " n e x b i g m e e t i n a t R a t t i l s n a i k " w h e r e S u t "@ t u p r o m i s t h e
o l e t u b o v e s o a p - g r e a s " t h a t h e w o u l d "cum a n ' h e v n h i m s e l f " c o n v a r t e d , j i s t Ns o t h e P a r s o n w o u l d k e e p " f r u m k i l l i n " h i m ( p . 5 3 ) .
F i n a l l y , a t t h e camp m e e t i n g , S u t e x p o s e s t h e P a r s o n , b o t h i n s i d e
a n d o u t , by p u t t i n g s e v e n o r e i g h t l i z a r d s up t h e P a r s o n ' s
"britches-laig" and then " s o t i n t u pinchin t h a r t a i l s " (p. 5 4 ) .
Of c o u r s e , P a r s o n B u l l e n m u s t c o m p l e t e l y u n d r e s s i n f r o n t o f t h e
c o n g r e g a t i o n t o r i d h i m s e l f o f what h e t h i n k s are " H e l l - s a r p e n t s "
( p . 5 6 1 , a n d we f i n d t h a t t h e P a r s o n ' s p a n t s n o t o n l y c o n t a i n " n i
ontu f i f t e e n shorten'd b i s k i t s , a boiled chicken, wif h i t s l a i g s
c r o s s e d , " b u t a l s o "a hunk o v e t e r b a c k e r , a cob-pipe
and
"a s p r i n k i l ove whiskey," u n l i k e l y c o n t e n t s f o r a p a r s o n ' s p a n t s
( p . 5 5 ) . A c c o r d i n g t o S u t , when B u l l e n e v e n t u a l l y r e c o v e r s f r o m
h i s o r d e a l and resumes h i s p a s t o r a l d u t i e s ,
. . ."
h e h a d n ' t t h e f u s t d u r n t d 'oman t u h e a r ' i n ; they
h e v s e e d t o o much o v e ' i m .
Passuns g i n e r l y hev a
p o w ' f u l s t r o n g h o l t on wimen; b u t , h o s s , I t e l l yu
t h a r a i n ' t meny o v e em k i n r u n s t a r k n a k i d o v e r a n '
t h r u a c r o w d o v e t h r e e h u n d r e d wimen a n t n o t i n j u r e
(p. 57)
thar karacters
sum.
Obviously, S u t is an a c t i v e protagonist, c e r t a i n o f h i s values
and ready t o expose hypocrisy.
He h a s a s t r o n g s e n s e o f r i g h t
a n d wrong a n d d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e t o j u d g e o t h e r s by h i s moral s t a n d a r d .
L i k e w i s e , m o s t o f Mary N o a i l l e s M u r f r e e ' s m o u n t a i n p r o t a g o n i s t s a r e u n s t i n t i n g l y c e r t a i n a b o u t t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e i r own
personal systems of values.
Natnalia Wright p o i n t s o u t t h a t "in
d e p i c t i n g t h e m o r a l n a t u r e o f he1 m o u n t a i n c h a r a c t e r s ,
Murfree t e n d s t o go t o
/an/ extreme
a n d t o make t h e m
n o b l e m e n a n d n o b l e w o m e n o f n a y u 7 e . ~ ~E v e n s o , M u r f r e e ' s c h a r a c t e r s
may b e v i e w e d t h e m a t i c a l l y a s p r o t a g o n i s t s who a r e n o t i n v a l u e
crises.
W h a t e v e r c o n f l i c t t h e s e p e o p l e e x p e r i e n c e comes from t h e i r
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h t h e i r environment and n o t from a v a l u e c r i s i s .
L i k e Harris's S u t , t h e y a r e s u r e o f t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f themselves.
Even i n M u r f r e e ' s f i r s t p u b l i s h e d book, I n t h e T e n n e s s e e
M o u n t a i n s , p u b l i s h e d i n 1884 u n d e r t h e pseudonym C h a r l e s E g b e r t
Craddock, t h e a u t h o r c h a r a c t e r i z e s h e r p r o t a g o n i s t s a s c e r t a i n
o f t h e i r v a l u e s i n a n u n c e r t a i n world.
F o r e x a m p l e , i n "The
' H a r n t ' T h a t W a l k s C h i l h o w e e , " f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n W i l l i a m Dean
H o w e l l s ' A t l a n t i c i n May 1 8 8 3 , w e f i n d C l a r s i e G i l e s , a c h a r a c t e r
A s h e r f a t h e r , P e t e r Giles,
who s t e r n l y l i v e s b y h e r own r u l e s .
...
...
...
s a y s , "Clarsie a i r a l i k e l y enough g a l .
But s h e a i r m i g h t i l y s o t
t e r h e v e n ' h e r own way.
An' i f ' t a i n ' t g i v e t e r h e r p e a c e a b l e l i k e , s h e jis' t a k e s i t , w h e t h e r o r no" ( p . 2 8 6 ) .
C l a r s i e d o e s n o t c o m p r o m i s e h e r v a l u e s , n o matter w h a t t h e
c o n s e q u e n c e s may b e .
A l t h o u g h s h e i s u n c e r t a i n a b o u t whom s h e i s
d e s t i n e d t o m a r r y a n d w a l k s l a t e a t n i g h t i n t o t h e woods t o h a v e
h e r f o r t u n e t o l d i n t h e m o u n t a i n way by a b i r d ' s w h i s t l e a n d a
cow's l o w i n g , s h e h a s no d o u b t s a b o u t h e l p i n g Reuben C r a b b , a onea r m e d man who h a s b e e n u n j u s t l y a c c u s e d o f m u r d e r a n d i s s u p p o s e d l y
dead.
I n a c t u a l i t y , i t i s R e u b e n ' s b r o t h e r J o e l who h a s r e c e n t l y
d i e d , a n d when R e u b e n m u s t come o u t o f t h e w o o d s t o f i n d s o m e t h i n g
t o e a t , t h e m o u n t a i n p e o p l e who s e e R e u b e n t h i n k h e i s a g h o s t a n d
w i s h h e would walk a mountain o t h e r t h a n Chilhowee.
However, t h e
s h e r i f f from t h e v a l l e y i s n o t q u i t e s o c o n v i n c e d t h a t Reuben i s
a " h a r n t v a n d d e c i d e s t o c a p t u r e him.
These a r e t h e circumstances
when C l a r s i e e n c o u n t e r s R e u b e n i n t h e w o o d s a n d h e a s k s p a t h e t i c a l l y
f o r f o o d , s a y i n g , "I w a r a t s t a r v i n ' ; - - I w a r a - s t a r v i n ' " ( p . 3 1 0 ) .
I n r e s p o n s e , Clarsie eats l e s s a t m e a l s i n o r d e r t o f e e d Reuben.
A s Murfree w r i t e s :
She had been s c r u p u l o u s l y c a r e f u l t o p u t i n t o t h e
p a i l o n l y s u c h t h i n g s as h a d f a l l e n t o h e r s h a r e
a t t h e t a b l e a n d w h i c h s h e h a d s a v e d f r o m t h e meals
o f yesterday.
"A g a l t h a t g o e s a - r o b b i n ' f u r a
h o n g r y h a r n t , " was h e r m o r a l r e f l e c t i o n , " o u g h t e r
be throwed bodaciously o f f ' n t h e b l u f f . "
(p. 314)
A s we c a n s e e , C l a r s i e a b i d e s c l o s e l y b y h e r v a l u e s a s s h e w i l l
t a k e food from h e r s e l f , b u t n o t h e r f a m i l y , t o g i v e t o a s t a r v i n g
man.
E a r l y o n e m o r n i n g w h i l e g i v i n g Reuben h i s f o o d , s h e i s s e e n
b y S i m o n B u r n e y , a n a g i n g w i d o w e r who h a s b e e n h o p i n g t o m a k e
Clarsie h i s wife.
A l t h o u g h s h e a n d Simon d i s a g r e e o n h e r f e e d i n g
o f Reuben, b o t h are c e r t a i n o f t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f r i g h t a n d
w r o n g , a n d n e i t h e r d i s s u a d e s t h e o t h e r . When S i m o n s a y s :
"Ye
a i r a-doin' wrongful, C l a r s i e .
I t air a g i n t h e law f u r
f o l k s t e r f e e d a n ' s h e l t e r t h e n e z a - r u n n i n ' from j e s t i c e .
An'
y e ' l l g i t y e r s e l f i n t e r t r o u b l e " ( p . 3 1 6 1 , C l a r s i e r e p l i e s , "I
can't holp it.
I c a n ' t g i n my c o n s e n t t e r s t a r v i n ' o f f o l k s ,
She adds
even e f t h e y a i r a - h i d i n ' a n ' a-runnin' from j e s t i c e . "
t h a t s h e w o u l d g o t o " t h e p e n ' t i a r y a w a y down y a n d e r , s o m e w h a r s
i n t h e v a l l e y l t l r a t h e r t h a n g i v e "my c o n s e n t t e r s t a r v i n ' o f f o l k s "
(p. 317).
T h u s C l a r s i e w i l l e v e n l e a v e h e r b e l o v e d m o u n t a i n s bef o r e s h e w i l l compromise h e r v a l u e s .
I n t h e same w a y , when Simon
e n c o u n t e r s t h e n e a r h e l p l e s s , o n e - a r m e d R e u b e n , h e p r o m i s e s Reuben
t h a t he w i l l t a k e c a r e o f h i a i f he w i l l j u s t s t a n d trial f o r the
murder h e d i d n o t commit.
D e s p i t e h i s s y m p a t h y , Simon d o e s n o t
b a c k down a t a l l , i n h i s v a l u e s b e c a u s e h e b e l i e v e s t h a t p e o p l e
should r e s p e c t t h e law s o t h z t j u s t i c e can p r e v a i l .
Clearly,
b o t h C l a r s i e a n d S i m o n Pollo,.,: s t r i c t l y t h e i r own p e r s o n a l m o r a l
p r i n c i p l e s and d o n o t s u c c u x 3 ko t h e v a l u e s o f t h e s o c i e t y around
them.
By k n o w i n g t h e m s e l v e s , t h e y a r e c o n f i d e n t i n t h e i r p e r ception o f moral nature.
E a c h b e l i e v e s h e knows t h e h i g h e r v a l u e .
...
...
A f t e r t h e l o c a l c o l o r movement l o s t i t s i m p e t u s a r o u n d t h e
t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y , Tennessee w r i t e r s , w i t h t h e e xc e pt i on o f
n i n o r w r i t e r s s u c h a s W i l l A l l e n Dromgnole, produced l i t t l e s h o r t
f i c t i o n u n t i l t h e e n d o f t h e f i r s t World War when t h e s e c o n d , a n d
p e r h a p s t h e g r e a t e s t , p e r i o d o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y began.
During
t h i s p e r i o d b e t w e e n t h e two World Wars, s e v e r a l m a j o r i n t e r n a t i o n a l l i t e r a r y f i g u r e s appeared on t h e Tennessee scene.
For
example, R o b e r t Penn Warren, T. S. S t r i b l i n g , C a r o l i n e Gordon,
Andrew L y t l e , J a m e s A g e e , a n d P e t e r T a y l o r w e r e a l l p r o d u c i n g
work t h a t was g a i n i n g r e c o g n i t i o n o u t s i d e t h e r e g i o n .
One r e a son f o r t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , according t o Louis D. Rubin, is t h a t
many o f t h e s e w r i t e r s l e f t t h e S o u t h ,
a n d i f t h e y came b a c k home, a s many u l t i m a t e l y
d i d , i t was i n a d i f f e r e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p t o t h a t
home.
F o r no l o n g e r were t h e y p r e p a r e d t o
accept without question t h e a t t i t u d e s , ideas,
v a l u e s , and a c t i o n s o f t h e o l d e r S o u t h e r n
community.
They had become d i s l o d g e d f r o m
t h a t community, and t h e y began e x p l o r i n g t h e
m e a n i n g o f t h i s new p e r s p e c t i v e i n t h e i r w r i t i n g s . 5
T h a t i s t o s a y , Tennessee w r i t e r s were, on a g r a n d e r s c a l e than
e v e r b e f o r e , probing u n i v e r s a l moral problems.
Neither Harris's
n o r M u r f r e e ' s c h a r a c t e r s had t o s e a r c h f o r m e a n i n g ; t h e y a l r e a d y
had i t . B u t t h e T e n n e s s e e w r i t e r s b e t w e e n t h e two World Wars
found t h e world s u d d e n l y and r a d i c a l l y changed, and t h e y o f t e n
looked t o t h e p a s t i n a n attempt a t s e l f - d e f i n i t i o n .
In short,
many o f t h e s e w r i t e r s w e r e p l u n g e d i n t o a v a l u e c r i s i s .
In order
t o f o r g e meaning, t h e y o f t e n had t o l o o k o u t s i d e t h e m s e l v e s ,
e x a m i n i n g t h e p a s t a n d i t s t r a d i t i o n s t o h e l p them f i n d m e a n i n g
i n the present.
For i n s t a n c e , a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e examples, both
Andrew L y t l e a n d P e t e r T a y l o r o f t e n d e p i c t t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s i n
value c r i s e s .
I n Andrew L y t l e ' s " J e r i c h o , J e r i c h o , J e r i c h o , " we h a v e Mammy,
who on h e r d e a t h b e d f i n d s t h a t e v e r y t h i n g s h e h a s b e l i e v e d i n f o r
s e v e n t y y e a r s h a s m e a n i n g t o no o n e e l s e , i n p a r t i c u l a r t o h e r
g r a n d s o n who f o r t h e l a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s h a s h a d h i s " f l i n g i n
town."6
E x p e c t i n g t o l e a v e h e r l a n d , Long G o u r d , t o t h e g r a n d s o n ,
!-lammy f i n d s t h a t h e i s a b o u t t o m a r r y E v a , a t o t a l l y u n s u i t a b l e
woman w i t h whom h e p l a n s t o " s p e n d t h e w i n t e r s i n town" ( p . l l ) ,
When Mammy h e a r s h i s u n s e t t l i n g n o t i o n , s h e t e l l s him I 1 t o g e t
o u t o f t h e room," a n d h e r t h o u g h t s wander back t o t h e p a s t and t o
a l l s h e h a s performed t o keep i n t a c t t h e l a n d t h a t meant h e r
Lytle writes:
e n t i r e e x i s t e n c e ( p p , 11-12).
How s h e had s t r u g g l e d t o g e t t h i s l a n d a n d k e e p
i t t o g e t h e r - - t h r o u g h t h e War, t h e R e c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
The t h i n g s
and t h e p l e a s a n t e r a f t e r days.
No.
The o n e
s h e had done t o keep i t t o g e t h e r .
t h i n g . ( p . 12)
...
Mammy f u r t h e r r e f l e c t s t h a t s h e a c t u a l l y h a d s t o l e n t h e l a n d f r o m
i t s r i g h t f u l o w n e r , I v a L o u i s e , w h o s e f a t h e r h a d g i v e n Mammy c h a r g e
A s Mammy i s a p p r o a c h i n g d e a t h , s h e c l i n g s t o l i f e
of h i s property.
i n a n e f f o r t t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e l a n d s h e h a s s a c r i f i c e d s o much f o r
w i l l be saved.
But, her e f f o r t s a r e f u t i l e :
How s l y l y d e a t h s l i p p e d u p o n a b o d y , l i k e
s l e e p moving o v e r t h e vague boundary.
How many
t i m e s s h e had l a i d awake t o t r i c k t h e u n c o n s c i o u s
A t l a s t s h e w o u l d know
But s h e
there.
wasn't ready.
She must f i r s t do something a b o u t
She
Long Gourd.
That s l u t must n o t e a t i t up.
wouLd g i v e i t t o t h e h a n d s f i r s t .
He l h e r g r a n d s o n / must be b r o u g h t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s . ( p . 1 7 )
...
Mammy d i e s , r e a l i z i n g t h a t t h e v a l u e s s h e b e l i e v e d i n f o r s o l o n g ,
a n d , i n f a c t , b a s e d h e r l i f e u p o n , mean l i t t l e o r n o t h i n g t o h e r
grandson.
A s s h e d i e s , Mammy h e a r s " v o i c e s
s i n g i n g , Joshua
f i t t h e b a t t l e o f J e r i c h o , J e r i c h o , Jericho--Joshua f i t t h e b a t t l e
o f J e r i c h o , a n d t h e w a l l s came a - t u n b l i n g down,'' a n a p p r o p r i a t e
s o n g s i n c e Mammy h a d b e l i e v e d t h a t l a n d w a s t h e h i g h e s t v a l u e ,
a n d now h e r v a l u e s h a d 'I come a - t u m b l i n g down1' ( p . 1 8 )
...
.,
Peter Taylor's protagonists a r e also often i n a s t a t e of
a n g s t o r m o r a l a n x i e t y a n d , l i k e Mammy, t h e y l o o k o u t s i d e themselves for values.
F o r e x a m p l e , i n T a y l o r ' s "The F a n c y Woman,''
Josephine is searching f o r values, f o r something t o believe in.
Not f i n d i n g a n y m e a n i n g i n h e r p r e s e n t l i f e , w h i c h i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d
by h e r e x c e s s i v e d r i n k i n g a n d h e r p r e s e n t p r o f e s s i o n a s "a f a n c y
woman," s h e l o o k s t o G e o r g e , who r e p r e s e n t s t o h e r t h e S o u t h e r n
a r i s t o c r a c y , an a r i s t o c r a c y t h a t s h e presumes is c e r t a i n o f its
values.
W h i l e s p e n d i n g a week a t G e o r g e ' s h o u s e i n t h e c o u n t r y
o u t s i d e o f Memphis, J o s e p h i n e b e l i e v e s t h a t s h e c a n "make a p l a c e
f o r h e r s e l f a t l a s t " i f "somehow" s h e c o u l d " g e t a h o l d o f him."7
When t h r e e m a r r i e d c o u p l e s come b y u n e x p e c t e d l y t o v i s i t G e o r g e ,
J o s e p h i n e f i n d s t h a t a l t h o u g h t h e s e p e o p l e h a v e money a n d s o c i a l
p o s i t i o n a n d a r e "Memphis s o c i e t y p e o p l e , " t h e i r v a l u e s a r e n o
b e t t e r than hers (p. 179). For instance, during the f i r s t night
o f t h e v i s i t , Mrs. R o b e r t s b e g i n s t o d a n c e w i t h J a c k s o n who s a y s ,
"We l i k e t o d a n c e , b u t t h e r e a r e b e t t e r t h i n g s w ( p . 1 8 5 ) . I n
t h e m e a n t i m e , Mrs. C o l t o n l e a v e s t h e room w i t h R o b e r t s , s u p p o s e d l y
" t o dance i n t h e h a l l where t h e r e a r e fewer r u g s u ( p . 1 8 4 ) . A t
t h e same t i m e , J a c k s o n i s l u s t i n g a f t e r J o s e p h i n e a n d e v e n v i s i t s
h e r room l a t e r i n t h e n i g h t .
Waking t h e n e x t m o r n i n g , J o s e p h i n e
a s s e s s e s w h a t h a p p e n e d t h e p r e v i o u s n i g h t a n d w o n d e r s "who w a s
w i t h G e o r g e , by damn, a l l n i g h t ? " ( p . 1 8 5 ) . S h e r e f l e c t s u p o n
t h e s e p e o p l e ' s v a l u e s i n t h i s way:
" T h e y ' r e n o n e o f 'em a n y b e t t e r t h a n t h e n i g g e r s .
I knew t h e y c o u l d n ' t b e .
Nobody i s . By God, nob o d y ' s b , g t t e r t h a n I am.
Nobody c a n s a y a n y t h i n g
t o me."
Everyone would l i k e t o l i v e a s f r e e a s
There
s h e d i d ! T h e r e was no s u c h t h i n g a s
was no s u c h t h i n g a s what t h e n i g g e r s and t h e
w h i t e s l i k e d t o p r e t e n d t h e y were.
S h e was g o i n g
t o l e t up, and do t h i n g s i n s e c r e t .
Try t o look
...
l i k e an angel.
It wouldn't
s u c h t h i n g . ( p p . 185-6)
b e h a r d s i n c e t h e r e was n o
T h u s , J o s e p h i n e sees t h e s e w s o c i e t y n p e o p l e f o r w h a t t h e y a r e 2nd
d e c i d e s t o p l a y t h e i r game.
Taylor notes:
S h e e v e n f e l t t h a t s h e was b e g i n n i n g t o c a t c h o n
t o t h e s e p e o p l e a n d t h a t s h e was g o i n g t o s t a r t
a l i t t l e p r e t e n s e o f h e r own a n d m a k e a g o o d
t h i n g o u t o f o l d Georgie.
I t w a s f u n n y t h e way
h e r i n t e r e s t i n him, any real p a i n f u l i n t e r e s t ,
was s o r t o f f a d i n g . ( p . 1 8 9 )
L a t e r , when t h e d i v o r c e d G e o r g e ' s s o n s a r r i v e , t h e i n s e n s i t i v i t y o f George and h i s f r i e n d s becomes t o o o b v i o u s t o i g n o r e .
G e o r g e ' s s o n B u d d y , who i s f o u r t e e n , a p p e a r s a t f i r s t t o J o s e p h i n e
as " h o n e s t l y k i n d - a s h y .
It gave h e r t h e s h i v e r s t o s e e anybody
s o s h y a n d i g n o r a n t o f t h i n g s n ( p . 1 8 9 ) . B u t t h e n h e s t a r t s rec i t i n g v e r s e s f o r e v e r y o n e ' s amusement a n d c a l l s J o s e p h i n e a
"queen o f p l e a s u r e , " which, o f c o u r s e , c a u s e s e v e r y o n e t o clap-e x c e p t J o s e p h i n e , who t h i n k s " ' Q u e e n o f p l e a s u r e ' s o u n d e d j u s t a s
bad as whore!" ( p . 1 9 1 ) . D u r i n g t h e l a s t n i g h t o f J o s e p h i n e ' s
v i s i t , George's older son, Jock, t r i e s i n t h e middle o f t h e night
t o g e t i n t o J o s e p h i n e ' s room, a n d e a r l y t h e n e x t morning, h i s
f a t h e r s e n d s h i m t o Memphis.
F i n a l l y George buys J o s e p h i n e a
t r a i n t i c k e t b a c k t o Memphis e v e n t h o u g h h e p r o m i s e d h e r a w e e k ' s
v i s i t a t h i s country estate.
S h e r e a l i z e s now t h a t
he wasn't such a s t i c k l e r f o r h i s word, a f t e r
a l l ! Not i n t h i s c a s e .
He w a s s e n d i n g h e r
Well, w h a t d i d h e e x p e c t h e r t o s a y ?
home.
Did h e t h i n k s h e would b e g t o s t a y on? s h e
would c l e a r o u t , and s h e w a s n ' t t h e o n e b e a t e n .
George was b e a t e n .
One o f h i s k i d s t h a t h e w a s
s o m o r t a l l y fond o f , one f o r s u r e had had n o t i o n s .
(P. 195)
A t last, Josephine realizes t h a t these people's values a r e not
what s h e wants, and s h e l o s e s h e r s e l f i n a n o t h e r b o t t l e o f whiskey.
Although Josephine has y e t t o f i n d something t o b e l i e v e i n , s h e
u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t t h e p a s t , a s r e p r e s e n t e d by George and h i s
f r i e n d s , a n d t h e s u p p o s e d l y i n n o c e n t , as r e p r e s e n t e d b y G e o r g e ' s
sons, have no v a l u e s h i g h e r t h a n h e r s t o o f f e r .
Thus, both
T a y l o r ' s J o s e p h i n e a n d L y t l e ' s Mammy a r e p r e s e n t e d a s c h a r a c t e r s
i n a m o r a l vacuum i n w h i c h t h e t r a d i t i o n a l v a l u e s o f t h e p a s t
a r e shown t o b e e i t h e r i n e f f e c t u a l o r c o r r u p t .
Finally, a t h i r d period o f l i t e r a r y a c t i v i t y i n Tennessee
b e g i n s a f t e r W o r l d War 11. W h e r e a s L y t l e ' s a n d T a y l o r ' s p r o t a g o n i s t s l o o k o u t s i d e themselves f o r a r e l e a s e from angst-a r e l e a s e they o f t e n cannot find--the latter-day p r o t a g o n i s t s ,
r a t h e r t h a n looking o u t s i d e themselves f o r v a l u e s , u s u a l l y examine
the inner self.
R o b e r t Penn Warren, f o r example, p o i n t s t o t h i s
c h a n g e when h e s a y s :
I n e v e r t h o u g h t o f a combat w i t h t h e p a s t .
I
g u e s s I t h i n k more o f t r y i n g t o f i n d what t h e r e
is valuable t o u s , t h e l i n e o f c o n t i n u i t y t o u s ,
and through us.
The s p e c i f i c S o u t h e r n p a s t , I ' m
now t a l k i n g a b o u t .
A s f o r combat, I g u e s s t h e
r e a l combat i s a l w a y s w i t h y o u r s e l f , S o u t h e r n e r
o r anybody e l s e . 8
C e r t a i n l y , i n Madison J o n e s ' s "The F u g i t i v e s , " f i r s t p u b l i s h e d i n
T h e S e w a n e e R e v i e w i n 1 9 5 4 , a n d i n Jarnes A g e e ' s " T h e W a i t i n g , ' ' publ i s h e d i n T h e New Y o r k e r i n 1 9 5 7 , we f i n d p r o t a g o n i s t s who l o o k
w i t h i n f o r meaning.
T h e s e s t o r i e s seem t o g o a s t e p f u r t h e r t h a n
L y t l e ' s o r T a y l o r ' s works.
K h e r e a s L y t l e ' s Mammy d i e s i n m o r a l
a n x i e t y and T a y l o r ' s Josephine d r i n k s t o f o r g e t t h e need f o r
v a l u e s , J o n e s ' s and Agee's p r o t a g o n i s t s go f u r t h e r i n f i n d i n g
and u n d e r s t a n d i n g man's need t o b e l i e v e i n something.
I n J o n e s ' s "The F u g i t i v e s , " f o r e x a m p l e , we f i n d W a l t , a
young man, i n s e a r c h o f m e a n i n g .
T e l l i n g h i s d i s g r u n t l e d mother
t h a t h e i s g o i n g t o N a s h v i l l e t o v i s i t a f r i e n d , Woody, h e l e a v e s
h i s Memphis home t o w a l k S o u t h , p e r h a p s a l l t h e way t o New O r l e a n s .
He u n d e r s t a n d s t h a t h i s f a m i l y
h a d g i v e n h i m e v e r y t h i n g ; w h a t e v e r t h e y knew o f
t o do t h e y had done.
E x c e p t t h e y seemed n e v e r
t o h a v e known, o r e l s e t o h a v e f o r g o t t e n , t h a t
s t i f l i n g sense o f tedium, o f meeting yourself
coming b a c k i n a t i n y c i r c l e w h i c h was y o u r
t h e r i g h t t o d r a w y o u r own
birthright
c i r c l e , o r t o draw n o n e a t a 1 1 .9
...
T h i s e x p e r i e n c e i s e x a c t l y what h i s e n c o u n t e r w i t h t h e young f u g i t i v e p r o v i d e s f o r him--an o p p o r t u n i t y t o f i n d m e a n i n g a n d e s t a b L a t e a t n i g h t , o u t s i d e a s m a l l S o u t h e r n town,
l i s h k,is i d e n t i t y .
Walt m e e t s t h e t h i r s t y , young f u g i t i v e from P o i n t Creek, Tennessee,
i n an o l d boxcar.
W i t h home f o r g o t t e n , W a l t i s i m m e d i a t e l y t h r u s t
i n t o t h e p r e s e n t , a s J o n e s w r i t e s , " Y e s t e r d a y a n d w h a t h a d come
b e f o r e w e r e t h i n g s s h u t o u t by t h e l e v e l h o r i z o n t h a t e n c i r c l e d
them" ( p . 2 7 8 ) .
I d e n t i f y i n g i n c r e a s i n g l y w i t h t h e f u g i t i v e who
t e l l s Walt t h a t a l t h o u g h h e h a s been s e n t e n c e d t o l i f e i n p r i s o n ,
h e " a i n ' t s o r r y " b e c a u s e h e h a d w a r n e d t h e man " t o s t a y away f r o m
t h e r e , " W a l t s u g g e s t s t o t h e r u n a w a y t h a t h e "go t o New O r l e a n s ' '
where h e would n o t l i k e l y b e f o u n d ( p p . 2 8 3 - 4 ) .
When t h e y h e a r
t h e d o g s a f t e r t h e m , t h e y h e a d f o r t h e swamp, a n d W a l t l e t s " g o
h i s handbag," w i t h a l l h i s o r i g i n a l thoughts o f a p l e a s u r e jaunt
Now, h e f e e l s
o u t o f h i s mind ( p . 2 8 5 ) .
a d i f f e r e n c e , a s e n s e o f s o m e t h i n g g o n e , some
u n c l e a r h a z e l i k e d e p a r t e d s l e e p t h a t l e f t him
a w a r e of w r e t c h e d n e s s , o f s w e a t a n d h i s a c h i n g
I t was o n l y t h i s
l e g s ! and t h e n , o f wonder.
m o r n i n g - - o r y e s t e r d a y - - h e s t o o d o n h i s own f r o n t
walk--as t h o u g h i t w e r e someone e l s e , n o t him,
who w a s f l e e i n g h e r e t h r o u g h t h e swamp. ( p . 2 8 6 )
C l e a r l y , i l a l t ' s a r c h e t y p a l j o u r n e y h a s a l r e a d y c h a n g e d him.
L a t e r , w i t h W a l t r u n n i n g j u s t b e h i n d him i n t h e c o t t o n f i ; l d ,
t h e f u ~ i ' l - ~ ei s s h o t .
C a l m l y t u r n i n g t h e boy o v e r , W a l t sees
" t h o s e p a l e l i d l e s s e y e s " w h i c h " s t a r e d a t him.
He t r i e d t o l s s k
d e e p i n t o t h e m , p a s t t h a t l o o k o f w h i t e a m a z e m e n t , down t h r o u g h
t h e c h a n n e l s o f h i s mind.
B u t t h e w h i t e n e s s b l i n d e d him" ( p . , , 2 8 9 ) .
C a p t i v a t e d , Walt i s d e t e r m i n e d t o c a r r y t h e c o r p s e f r o m t h e r i e l d .
A s t h e s u n r i s e s , h o w e v e r , Walt r e a l i s t i c a l l y s e e s t h e f u g i t i v e
f o r t h e f i r s t time.
Jones writes:
T h e r e a r e n o s h a d o w s o n t h e f a c e now.
It looked
o l d e r than i t had before, t h e features not s o
clean o f cut.
And d e e p i n d e n t a t i o n s , l i k e s c a r s ,
a n g l e d down f r o m t h e f l a n g e s o f t h e n o s e p a s t t h e
open mouth.
B u t more t h a n t h e s e , d e a t h had f r o z e n
t h e f a c e i n a l o o k o f d u l l and wanton b r u t a l i t y .
3 e t u r n e d away.
He c o u l d n o t h e l p t o c a r r y t h e
( p p . 290-1)
b o d y a n y more.
Walt's a w a r e n e s s h a s i n c r e a s e d f i n a l l y , a n d " h e f e l t s h a t t e r e d , a s
though he had run hard a g a i n s t a b a r r i e r of stone" (p. 291).
Whereas, T a y l o r ' s Josephine drowns h e r a n x i e t y i n t h e escape o f
whiskey, X a l t imagines
h i s own f i g u r e w a l k i n g s l o w l y n o r t h .
A t the
e n d o f h i s w a l k h i s own f r o n t d o o r w a s s t a n d i n g
open and t h e y were watching him approach and
t h e e x p r e s s i o n on t h e i r f a c e s was something
between p l a c i d s a t i s f a c t i o n and mild s u r p r i s e . (p. 291)
F i n a l l y , X a l t l s e n c o u n t e r w i t h a n o u t s i d e r c o n v i n c e s him n o t t o
escape r e a l i t y , but t o approach it a g a i n w i t h increased awareness.
T h e r e f o r e , t h e s t o r y e n d s w i t h Walt's s u g g e s t e d r e t u r n home--a
r e t u r n t t z t d o e s n o t j u s t symbolize a n end o f a n a r c h e t y p a l jourNo l o n g e r
n e y , b u t , y o r e i m p o r t a n t l y , s y m b o l i z e s a new b e g i n n i n g .
a b l e t o i r i d u l g e i n b l a m i n g o t h e r s f o r h i s m o r a l a n x i e t y , Walt m u s t
look within himself.
I n 2zmes A g e e ' s "The W a i t i n g , " t h e p r i n c i p a l c h a r a c t e r , Mary,
l i k e Jones' Walt, must e x p l o r e h e r i n n e r s e l f .
Furthermore, l i k e
Walt, Y a r y i s f o r c e d t o l o o k w i t h i n by a t u m u l t u o u s e x t e r n a l e x perlence.
The o u t s i d e happening t h a t p r e c i p i t a t e s h e r i n c r e a s e d
a w a r e n e s s i s t h e p h o n e c a l l s h e r e c e i v e s "a f e w m i n u t e s b e f o r e t e n "
o n e n i g h t f r o m a man who t e l l s h e r t h a t " t h e r e ' s b e e n a s l i g h t - He s a y s f u r t h e r t h a t h e
your husband h a s been i n a accident."1°
w a n t s "a x a n
s o m e k i n " t o come i m m e d i a t e l y t o t h e s c e n e o f
the accident (p. 41).
Of c o u r s e , M a r y p h o n e s h e r b r o t h e r , A n d r e w ,
who, b e f o r e g o i n g t o t h e a c c i d e n t , b r i n g s t h e i r Aunt Hannah t o
A t f i r s t , Mary t r i e s t o
s t a y w i t h Mary d u r i n g t h e l o n g w a i t .
e s c a p e f r o m t h e s i t u a t i o n by e n g a g i n g i n s e v e r a l i l l u s i o n s , t h e
f i r s t b e i n g t h a t h e r h u s b a n d , J a y , w i l l b e home s o o n .
Hoping
t h a t " h e ' s w e l l e n o u g h t o b e b r o u g h t home a n d n o t t h e h o s p i t a l , l l
Mary d e c i d e s t o p r e p a r e t h e d o w n s t a i r s bedroom f o r h i s r e t u r n
home.
Refusing t o a c c e p t even t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f h i s death, s h e
...
...
thing.
And n o m a t t e r w h a t , t h e r e ' s n o t
one t h i n g i n t h i s world
t h e n e x t t h a t we c a n
do o r hope o r guess a t o r wish o r pray t h a t can
change i t o r h e l p i t one i o t a .
Because whatever
is, is. That's a l l .
And a l l t h e r e i s now i s t o b e
r e a d y f o r i t , s t r o n g e n o u g h f o r w h a t e v e r i t may b e .
That's a l l .
T h a t ' s a l l t h a t matters. ( p . 4 9 )
or
Y a r y l s acceptance o f t h e s i t u a t i o n does n o t imply any s o r t o f
e n t r a p z e n t ; o n t h e c o n t r a r y , i t s h o w s t h a t s h e i s a p e r s o n who
i s c z p a b l e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d a c c e p t i n g l i f e a n d t h e n moving
aheaf t o face t h e situation, a situation t h a t introduces her t o
a n 2::-important
c o n f l i c t , a c o n f l i c t t h a t t a k e s h e r from i l l u s i o n
to reality.
I n a d d i t i o n , we f i n d t h a t d e a t h h a s a l s o b r o u g h t a b o u t
Eannz?-j's u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e .
I n some o f h i s b e s t p r o s e , Agee
writes:
W h i l e s h e ~ M a t - 2 7w a s s p e a k i n g , s h e w a s w i t h
h e r v o i c e , h e r e y e s , a n d w i t h e a c h word o p e n i n g i n
Hannah t h o s e a l l b u t f o r g o t t e n h o u r s , a l m o s t
t h i r t y y e a r s p a s t , d u r i n g which t h e c r o s s o f l i v i n g
had first nakedly borne i n upon h e r b e i n g , and s h e
h a d m a d e t h e f i r s t b e g i n n i n g s o f l e a r n i n g how t o
e n d u r e a n d a c c e p t i t . Your t u r n now g o o r c h i l d ,
H e r sou~aryry's/ i s b e g i n n i n g
she thought;
t o come o f age
a n d w i t E i n t h z s e moments s h e
h e r s e l f b e c a m e much o l d e r , much n e a r e r h e r own
d e a t h , a n d was c o n t e n t t o be.
Her h e a r t l i f t e d
u p i n a k i n d o f p r i d e i n Mary, i n e v e r y s o r r o w s h e
c o u l d r e m e m b e r , h e r own o r t h a t o f o t h e r s ( a n d t h e
remembrances r u s h e d upon h e r ) ; i n a l l e x i s t e n c e a n d
She wanted t o hold h e r n i e c e a t
endurance.
arm's l e n g t h a n d t o t u r n a n d a d m i r e t h i s b l o s s o m i n g .
S h e w a n t e d t o t a k e h e r i n h e r arms a n d g r o a n u n t o
God f o r w h a t i t m e a n t t o b e a l i v e .
But c h i e f l y s h e
wanted t o keep s t i l l n e s s and t o h e a r t h e young
woman's v o i c e a n d t o w a t c h h e r e y e s a n d h e r
round forehead while s h e spoke, and t o a c c e p t
a n d e x p e r i e n c e t h i s r e p e t i t i o n o f h e r own
younger e x p e r i e n c e , which b o r e h e r h i g h , and
p i e r c e d l i k e music.
( p p . 49-50)
....
....
...
F i n a l l y , 3annah says:
W h a t e v e r we h e a r , l e a r n , M a r y , i t ' s a l m o s t
c e r t a i n t o be hard.
Tragically hard.
You're
b e g i n n i n g t o know t h a t a n d t o f a c e i t , v e r y
bravely.
What I m e a n i s t h a t t h i s i s o n l y t h e
beginning.
Y o u ' l l l e a r n much m o r e .
Beginning
v e r y s o o n now. ( p . 5 0 )
S o ? o r b o t h Mary a n d Hannah, a n d , a s Agee i m p l i e s , f o r t h e r e a d e r
a s s e l l , i t is d e a t h t h a t i l l u s t r a t e s t h e h i g h e s t value--that o f
t h e importance o f t h e meaning o f l i f e .
Death i s t h e frame o f r e f e r e n c e which g i v e s o u r l i v e s meaning.
F o r Mary, a r e f l e c t i v e p e r s o n , i t i s d e a t h t h a t h a s s t r i p p e d h e r
of' i l l u s i o n s a n d h a s , t h e r e b y , f o r c e d h e r i n t o r e a l i t y w h e r e s h e
must f i n d t h e meaning o f l i f e .
Agee p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h i s s t r u g g l e
f o r m o r a l a w a r e n e s s i s n o t a n e a s y o n e when a t o n e p o i n t h e s h o w s
"Cod i s n o t h e r e , H a n n a h
H a n n a h l o s i n g h e r f a i t h f o r a moment:
s a i d t o h e r s e l f ; a n d made a small c r o s s upon h e r b r e a s t b o n e ,
a g a i n s t h e r b l a s p h e m y , " a n d f i n a l l y " h e r moment o f t e r r i f y i n g
u n b e l i e f became a remembrance, a t e m p t a t i o n s u c c e s s f u l l y r e s i s t e d
I n t h i s way, Agee p r e s e n t s Hannah
through Cod's grace" (p. 52).
a s a n e x t r a o r d i n a r i l y , s e n s i t i v e woman who a c t s i n t h e w o r l d t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e m e a n i n g o f l i f e , a n d i n M a r y A g e e d e p i c t s a woman
w i t h t h e p o t e n t i a l t o f o r g e meaning.
T h u s , we a r e a b l e t o a c c e p t
t h e f a c t t h a t , a t t h e e n d o f t h e s t o r y when M a r y ' s b r o t h e r c o m e s
t o t e l l h e r t h a t J a y i s d e a d , s h e i s t h e f i r s t t o s a y , "He's
d e a d , Andrew, i s n ' t he?" ( p . 6 0 ) .
I n s u m m a r y , we c a n s e e t h a t t h r o u g h e x t e r n a l h a p p e n i n g s ,
J o n e s ' s W a l t a n d A g e e ' s M a r y a r e g i v e n new b e g i n n i n g s , new h o p e s .
And a l t h o u g h t h e i r l i v e s a r e c h a n g e d f o r e v e r , t h e s e c h a n g e s a r e
p r e s e n t e d as n e c e s s a r y i n t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r s '
personal values.
M o r e o v e r , we f i n d t h a t t h e s e s t o r i e s a c t u a l l y
e n d o n a much m o r e h o p e f u l n o t e t h a n t h o s e i n t h e s e c o n d p e r i o d ;
f o r b o t h J o n e s a n d Agee n o t o n l y d e p i c t w h a t i s , b u t a l s o d e p i c t
what can b e , showing t h a t while l i f e is still i n u s , t h e r e is a
c h a n c e f o r a new b e g i n n i n g , a n o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e s o l v e o u r m o r a l
anxiety.
I n o u r f i n a l a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s h o r t s t o r y i n T e n n e s s e e , we
s e e a d e f i n i t e s h i f t i n thematic concerns--a s h i f t t h a t r e v e a l s
a changing perception o f values.
I n t h e p e r i o d o f Harris's a n d
M u r f r e e ' s w r i t i n g s , we s e e c h a r a c t e r s who a r e c e r t a i n o f t h e i r
v a l u e s a n d who d o n o t e x p e r i e n c e v a l u e c r i s e s .
From L y t l e a n d
T a y l o r , w r i t e r s o f t h e m i d d l e p e r i o d , we o b s e r v e c h a r a c t e r s who
a r e i n a n g s t a n d who e x p e r i e n c e m o r a l a n x i e t y , a n d y e t a r e i n capable of resolving t h e i r value crises.
However, i n t h e f i n a l
p e r i o d , we see a t r e n d among w r i t e r s t o d e p i c t t h e i r c h a r a c t e r s
a s c o n f r o n t i n g a n d c o m i n g t o terms w i t h t h e m o r a l a m b i g u i t i e s
in their lives.
Furthermore, t h e s e s t o r i e s do n o t end w i t h merely
d e p i c t i n g what is, b u t t h e y l e a v e open a wide range o f possib i l i t i e s f o r new b e g i n n i n g s .
Hence, t h e t h e m a t i c development o f
t h e s h o r t s t o r y i n T e n n e s s e e c a n b e s e e n w i t h i n t h e terms o f a n
e m p h a s i s o n human v a l u e s , o n t h o s e c h o i c e s w h i c h d e f i n e t h e
human s i t u a t i o n a s w e l l a s o u r e n d u r i n g s t r u g g l e w i t h i n t h a t
situation.
NOTES
l ~ e n j a m i nF o r k n e r a n d P a t r i c k Samway, S . J . , e d s . , S t o r i e s
o f t h e Modern S o u t h (New Y o r k :
Bantam Books, 1 9 7 8 ) , pp. x i - x i i .
The P a r i s Review
2 ~ i l l i a mF a u l k n e r , i n W r i t e r s a t Work:
I n t e r v i e w s , e d . M a l c o l m Cowley (New Y o r k :
V i k i n g P r e s s , 19581,
p. 137.
' ~ e o r ~W
e ashington H a r r i s , S u t L o v i n g o o d ' s Y a r n s , e d . M.
Tkomas I n g e (New H a v e n :
C o l l e g e and U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 19661,
pp. 52-3.
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s work a p p e a r i n t h e
text.
4 ~ a t h a l i aW r i g h t , e d . , I n t h e T e n n e s s e e M o u n t a i n s , by Mary
N o a i l l e s Murfree (Knoxville:
The U n i v e r s i t y o f T e n n e s s e e P r e s s ,
1 9 7 0 ) , pp. x v i i i - x i x .
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s work a p p e a r
ir. t h e t e x t .
5 ~ o u i sD . R u b i n , J r . , e d . , T h e L i t e r a r y S o u t h (New Y o r k :
J o h n W i l e y a n d S o n s , 19'791, p . 4 1 3 .
6 ~ n d r e wL y t l e , " J e r i c h o , J e r i c h o , J e r i c h o , " i n A N o v e l , A
N o v e l l a a n d F o u r S t o r i e s (New Y o r k :
McDowell, O b o l e n s k y I n c . ,
1 9 5 8 1 , p. 9 .
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s work a p p e a r i n t h e
text.
7 ~ e t e rT a y l o r , " T h e F a n c y Woman," i n T h e C o l l e c t e d S t o r i e s
o f P e t e r T a y l o r (New Y o r k :
F a r r a r , S t r a u s and G i r o u x , 1 9 6 9 ) , p .
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s work a p p e a r i n t h e t e x t .
175.
8 ~ o b e r tP e n n W a r r e n , i n W r i t e r s a t Work:
The P a r i s Review
I n t e r v i e w s , e d . M a l c o l m Cowley (New Y o r k :
V i k i n g P r e s s , 19581,
P. 195.
adis is on
( 1 9 5 4 1 , 273,
i n The Sewanee Review, 62
J o n e s , "The F u g i t i v e ,
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s work a p p e a r i n t e x t .
1 ° ~ a m e s A g e e , " T h e W a i t i n g , " i n T h e New Y o r k e r , 5 O c t o b e r
1 9 5 7 , P - 4 1 - A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s work a p p e a r i n t e x t .
IRONY A N D THE NARRATIVE VOICE I N THE SHORT
STORIES OF PETER TAYLOR
S a r a Dunne
Middle Tennessee S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
P e t e r T a y l o r i s a member o f o n e o f T e n n e s s e e ' s o l d e s t a n d
most p o l i t i c a l f a m i l i e s .
I n t h e g u b e r n a t o r i a l e l e c t i o n o f 1886,
T a y l o r ' s m a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r , R o b e r t Love T a y l o r , was o p p o s e d
by T a y l o r ' s g r e a t - u n c l e , A l f T a y l o r ( b r o t h e r t o R o b e r t L o v e ) .
R o b e r t L o v e T a y l o r won t h a t e l e c t i o n , b u t h i s b r o t h e r w a s e l e c t e d
governor l a t e r .
Both o f t h e T a y l o r b r o t h e r s s e r v e d a t v a r i o u s
times i n Congress.
P e t e r T a y l o r ' s own f a t h e r , H i l l s m a n T a y l o r ,
f o l l o w e d f o r a time i n t h e p o l i t i c a l f o o t s t e p s o f h i s i n - l a w s .
He g a v e u p b o t h t h e p r a c t i c e o f l a w a n d T e n n e s s e e p o l i t i c s t o
work f o r t h e M i s s o u r i S t a t e L i f e I n s u r a n c e Company, o f w h i c h h e
e v e n t u a l l y became p r e s i d e n t .
P e t e r T a y l o r ' s c h i l d h o o d was i n f l u e n c e d b o t h b y h i s f a m i l y ' s d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i s t o r y i n s t a t e a n d national
p o l i t i c s a n d b y h i s own f a t h e r ' s s u c c e s s , e v e n d u r i n g t h e D e p r e s He l i v e d i n N a s h v i l l e , M e m p h i s , a n d S t . L o u i s
sion, i n business.
a n d was e d u c a t e d a t S o u t h w e s t e r n a t Memphis, V a n d e r b i l t , a n d
Kenyon. 1
P e t e r T a y l o r was n e v e r t e m p t e d t o w a r d l a w , b u s i n e s s , o r p o l i tics.
Much t o h i s f a t h e r ' s c h a g r i n , h e c h o s e t o w r i t e f i c t i o n a n d
t o teach.
The e l e m e n t s o f h i s e a r l y l i f e , however, a r e e a s i l y
discernible i n h i s fiction.
S i n c e 1936, h e h a s produced enough
s h o r t s t o r i e s t o f i l l s i x v o l u m e s , a n d many o f h i s s t o r i e s a r e s e t
i n Memphis o r N a s h v i l l e .
The s t o r i e s a r e o f t e n a b o u t l i f e among
t h o s e S o u t h e r n e r s f o r t u n a t e enough t o l i v e i n e a s y c i r c u m s t a n c e s ,
d e s p i t e t h e Depression.
Many o f T a y l o r ' s e a r l y s t o r i e s h a v e b e e n
c a l l e d by c r i t i c s p l e a s a n t b u t l i m i t e d , o r t h e y have been p r a i s e d
f o r t h e i r q u i e t r e v e l a t i o n s o f l i f e i n t h e upper middle c l a s s i n
southern c i t i e s .
T a y l o r h i m s e l f h a s been p r a i s e d f o r knowing h i s
H i s f i c t i o n m i g h t e a s i l y b e compared t o F.
own l i m i t a t i o n s . 2
S c o t t F i t z g e r a l d ' s o r J o h n O ' H a r a ' s , b u t we a r e r e l i e v e d t o f i n d
n e i t h e r F i t z g e r a l d ' s s e l f - i n d u l g e n c e n o r O'Hara's g r o v e l i n g admiration of the rich.
Taylor's s t o r i e s avoid excesses o f t h i s kind
t h r o u g h h i s u s e o f i r o n y , a f a c t o r r e c o g n i z e d a n d p a r t i a l l y exp l o r e d by R o b e r t Penn Warren i n h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n t o T a y l o r ' s
f i r s t p u b l i s h e d volume o f s t o r i e s , A Long F o u r t h a n d O t h e r S t o r i e s ,
where h e writes o f T a y l o r ' s " s k e p t i c a l , i r o n i c c a s t o f m i n d . " j
Another Taylor s c h o l a r , A l b e r t G r i f f i t h , n o t e s thatTajrlorls oftent r e a t e d t h e m e o f l i f e among t h e S o u t h e r n u p e r c r u s t i s a l w a y s
p r e s e n t e d w i t h s o m e " i r o n i c q u a l i f i c a t i o n . 91
g
S i n c e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f A Long F o u r t h a n d O t h e r S t o r i e s i n
1948, P e t e r T a y l o r ' s r e a d e r s have been aware o f t h e growing i r o n i c
d i s t a n c e between t h e a u t h o r and h i s s u b j e c t m a t t e r .
H i s ironic
c a s t o f mind seems most e a s i l y i d e n t i f i a b l e i n h i s l a t e s t volxme
o f s t o r i e s , p u b l i s h e d i n 1977, c a l l e d I n t h e M i r o D i s t r i c t a n d
O t h e r S t o r i e s a n d i n h i s l a t e s t New Y o r k e r o f f e r i n g , " T h e O l d
F o r e s t , " p u b l i s h e d i n t h e May 1 4 , 1 9 7 9 , i s s u e o f t h a t m a g a z i n e
T a y l o r ' s u s e o f a p a r t i c u l a r ~ k i n do f n a r r a t o r m a k e s t h e i r o n y
more i n s i s t e n t .
T h i s n a r r a t o r i s u s u a l l y a man who d e s c r i b e s
h i m s e l f a s b e i n g " i n l a t e m i d d l e a g e , " who g r e w u p i n a g e n t e e l
n e i g h b o r h o o d i n e i t h e r Memphis o r N a s h v i l l e , a n d who r e m e m b e r s
some i n c i d e n t o r s e r i e s o f i n c i d e n t s f r o m h i s a d o l e s c e n c e o r
young-manhood.
The n a r r a t o r b e l i e v e s t h a t h i s s t o r i e s w i l l be
u n d e r s t o o d i n o n e way, b u t t h e a u t h o r u n d e r c u t s t h e n a r r a t o r
through dramatic irony.
C l e a n t h B r o o k s a n d R o b e r t Penn Warren
e x p l a i n i n Understanding F i c t i o n t h a t t h e r e a d e r o f Ring
L a r d n e r ' s s t o r y " H a i r ~ ~ u t f"e e l s "a = o w i n g n e e d t o r e a s s e s s
things and r e p u d i a t e / t h e n a r r a t o r ' s / a t t i t u d e . " 5
In a similar
f a s h i o n , T a y l o r f o r c e s h i s r e a d e r s t o q u e s t i o n and t h e n t o q u a l i f y
t h e j u d g m e n t s o f h i s n a r r a t o r s i n s u c h s t o r i e s a s " T h e Hand o f
Emmagene," " I n t h e M i r o C i s t r i c t , " "The C a p t a i n ' s S o n u a n d "The
Old Forest."
" T h e Hand o f Emmagene" i s t h e o n l y s t o r y i n I n t h e M i r o D i s t r i c t and Other S t o r i e s t o r e c e i v e negative reviews.
A reviewer
i n Commonweal c a l l e d t h e s t o r y " a n o u t r i g h t f a i l u r e , " a s t o r y
" w h i c h b e c o m e s s h r i l l a n d G o t h i c when t h e p r o t a g o n i s t c h o p s o f f
h a n d w i t h a n ax.'16
The s t o r y i s n o t s o b a d as t h i s
her
r e v i e w e r s u g g e s t s , however.
It is u s e f u l t o u s because t h e r e can
be no doubt a b o u t T a y l o r ' s i n t e n t i o n s i n c r e a t i n g t h i s p a r t i c u l a r
n a r r a t i v e voice.
The s t o r y i s a n a l m o s t t e x t b o o k c a s e o f d r a m a t i c
irony.
...
The n a r r a t o r ' s most obvious q u a l i t y is h i s b l a t a n t snobbishness.
He d e s c r i b e s h i s f a s h i o n a b l e N a s h v i l l e h o u s e a s b e i n g f u l l
of "nice things."
He a n d h i s w i f e , N a n c y , h a v e n o c h i l d r e n b u t
r e q u i r e a c o o k a n d a houseman t o m a i n t a i n t h i s h o u s e f u l l o f n i c e
things.
O f t e n , h e t e l l s u s , t h e y h a v e r e l a t i v e s f r o m t h e i r homet o w n o f H o r t o n s b u r g down t o s t a y w i t h t h e m .
The r e l a t i v e s l i k e t o
v i s i t b e c a u s e , t h e n a r r a t o r s a y s , t h e y " l o v e Nancy ' s n i c e t h i n g s .
T h a t ' s w h a t ' s s o s a t i s f y i n g a b o u t h a v i n g them h e r e ,
t h e y a p p r e c i a t e l i v i n g f o r a w h i l e i n a h o u s e l i k e o see':?
urs.
g e n e i s a y o u n g , h o m e l e s s c o u s i n o f t h e i r s who l i v e s w i t h t h e m
while going t o s e c r e t a r i a l school.
She is a p l a i n , though n o t
u g l y , g i r l who wears n o m a k e u p , d r e s s e s i n p l a i n c l o t h e s , a n d
b e l o n g s t o a f u n d a m e n t a l i s t c h u r c h somewhere "over on t h e f a r s i d e
o f East Nashville1' ( p , 8 8 ) .
.
T h e t r o u b l e a r i s e s f o r o u r n a r r a t o r a n d h i s w i f e when t h e y
r e a l i z e t h a t "Emmagene h a d g o t i d e a s a b o u t h e r s e l f w h i c h i t
wouldn't be p o s s i b l e f o r h e r t o r e a l i z e .
She n o t o n l y l i k e d o u r
things, she liked our life.
S h e m e a n t somehow t o s t a y .
And o f
c o u r s e i t would n e v e r do" ( p. 9 0 ) .
By way c f c o r r e c t i n g t h i s
s t i c k y s i t u a t i o n , t h e n a r r a t o r a n d h i s w i f e f o r c e Emmagene t o g o
o u t w i t h s o m e o f t h e b o y s f r o m H o r t o n s b u r g who h a v e a l s o come t o
Emmagene r e f u s e s t o d o s o a t f i r s t , e x p l a i n i n g t h a t
Nashville.
"They're t r a s h !
Not o n e o f them t h a t knows w h a t a d e c e n t g i r l i s
..
l i k e ! " ( p . 9 2 ) . When s h e t e l l s t h e c o o k t h a t s h e w o u l d l i k e t o
m e e t a boy more l i k e h e r g e n t e e l c o u s i n s , t h e cook b l u n t l y e c h o e s
t h e n a r r a t o r ' s s e n t i m e n t s , s a y i n g , "Don't g i t above your r a i s i n ' ,
h o n e y " ( p . 9 2 ) . Emmagene f i n a l l y c o n s e n t s t o d a t e o n e o f t h e
Hortonsburg boys, George, b u t confirms h e r e a r l i e r judgment o f
It's
s u c h b o y s when s h e t e l l s N a n c y , " I t ' s my h a n d s h e l i k e s .
w h a t t h e y a l l l i k e i f t h e y c a n ' t h a v e i t a n y o t h e r way" ( p . 9 6 ) .
S h e a l s o c o n f e s s e s t h a t G e o r g e a n d some o f t h e o t h e r b o y s h a v e
Emmagene's g u i l t f i n a l l y bemade o b s c e n e t e l e p h o n e c a l l s t o h e r .
comes s o i n t o l e r a b l e t h a t , o n e n i g h t w h i l e George i s w a i t i n g f o r
h e r i c h i s c a r i n t h e d r i v e w a y , s h e c h o p s o f f h e r o f f e n d i n g hand
w i t h t h e a x a n d r u n s o u t t o t h e c a r t o show him w h a t s h e h a s done.
She d i e s immediately, even though George r u s h e s h e r t o t h e hospital.
T a y l o r ' s n a r r a t o r s a y s t h a t a t Emmagene's f u n e r a l , w h i c h
G e o r g e ' s p a r e n t s a l s o a t t e n d , " N a n c y a n d I d i d o u r b e s t t o make them
s e e G e o r g e w a s n ' t t o b e b l a m e d t o o much.
A f t e r a l l , you c o u l d t e l l
f r o m l o o k i n g a t h i s p a r e n t s h e h a d n ' t h a d many a d v a n t a g e s .
H e h a d come down t o N a s h v i l l e l o o k i n g f o r a j o b a n d d i d n ' t h a v e
a n y r e s p o n s i b l e r e l a t i v e s h e r e t o p u t r e s t r a i n t s upon him o r t o
g i v e him t h e k i n d o f a d v i c e h e n e e d e d U ( p . 1 0 1 ) . O b v i o u s l y ,
n e i t h e r d i d Emmagene.
...
The n a r r a t o r and h i s w i f e assume n o r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r what
h a s happened t o t h e i r cousin.
Because o f t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e of
t h e i r l i v e s a n d E m m a g e n e ' s , e v e n Emmagene seems t o a s s u m e t h a t
We r e c a l l t h a t i t i s
George i s t h e c a u s e o f h e r i r r a t i o n a l a c t .
t o G e o r g e , n o t t o h e r c o u s i n s , t h a t s h e r u n s a f t e r s h e h a s c u t cff
h e r hand.
I n t h i s s t o r y , T a y l o r is most o b v i o u s l y f o r c i n g t h e
The n a r r a t o r d o e s
reader t o "repudiate the narrator's attitude."
" n o t r e p r e s e n t t h e a u t h o r t s v i e w , n c r o u r own."8
The t i t l e s t o r y o f I n t h e Miro D i s t r i c t a n d O t h e r S t o r i e s
i s n o t s o d r a m a t i c a s " T h e Hand o f Emmagene." a n d i n i t T a v l o r ' s
i r o n y is less e a s i l y i d e n t i f i e d .
T h i s n a r r a t o r seems t o bk o l d e r
t h a n t h e n a r r a t o r o f " T h e Hand o f Emmagene," s o t h a t i n a d d i t i o n
t o i r o n i c d i s t a n c e , we a r e s e p a r a t e d f r o m t h e s t o r y ' s e v e n t s b y
t h e d i s t a n c e o f time.
The n a r r a t o r remembers t h r e e e v e n t s t h a t
o c c u r r e d when h e w a s e i g h t e e n y e a r s o l d a n d l i v e d w i t h h i s p a r e n t s
i n a l a r g e , p i l l a r e d house i n f a s h i c n a b l e Acklen Park i n Nashville.
The y e a r i s 1 9 2 5 , a n d i n a l l t h r e e e v e n t s h e was c a u g h t by h i s
g r a n d f a t - h e r i n some i n d i s c r e t i o n .
The n a r r a t o r , i d e n t i f y i n g with
h i s p a r e n t s ' v a l u e s , s e e s a wide, u n b r i d g e a b l e gap between himself
a n d h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , who, f o r m o s t o f t h e s t o r y , r e f u s e s t o g i v e
up h i s t r u c k f a r m some f o r t y miles w e s t o f N a s h v i l l e , r e f u s e s t o
e n t e r t a i n g u e s t s o r anyone e l s e w i t h reminiscences about t h e Civil
War--he i s a C o n f e d e r a t e v e t e r a n - - a n d who a l w a y s s h o w s u p i n
Acklen Park d r e z s e d i n k h a k i p a n t s , a c o l l a r l e s s s h i r t , and a n
a n k l e - l e n g t h g a b a r d i n e c o a t , no m a t t e r what t h e season.
Other
g r a n d f a t h e r s , s a y s t h e n a r r a t o r , "seemed a l l e l e g a n c e w h i l e h e
s e e m e d a l l r o u g h n e s s t t ( p . 1 6 4 ) . What t h e g r a n d f a t h e r r e s i s t s
3 o s t o f a l l i s moving away from t h e f a r m t o A c k l e n P a r k .
The t h r e e o c c a s i o n s o n w h i c h t h e n a r r a t o r and t h e g r a n d f a t h e r c r o s s one another provide t h e reader an opportunity t o
s e e a bond r a t h e r t h a n a g a p b e t w e e n t h e two.
On t h e f i r s t o c c a s i o n , t h e b o y a n d some o f h i s f r i e n d s h a v e r a i d e d t h e l i q u o r c a b i n e t a n d a r e d r u n k on b o u r b o n .
A f t e r t h e b o y ' s f r i e n d s l e a v e , he
e x p e c t s t o b e s c o l d e d by h i s g r a n d f a t h e r .
Before Grandfather can
s a y a n y t h i n g , h o w e v e r , t h e young boy b e g i n s t o r e p e a t , i n a c h i l d i s h s i n g - s o n g , a l l t h e s t o r i e s h i s g r a n d f a t h e r h a s t o l d him o v e r
t h e y e a r s a b o u t h i s e s c a p e from t h e n i g h t r i d e r s , t h e f o r m a t i o n o f
R e e l f o o t L a k e , a n d how G r a n d f a t h e r w a s f o r c e d t o h i d e i n t h e
swamp.
The b o y ' s l o n g , mocking h a r a n g u e a t h i s g r a n d f a t h e r and
h i s d e f i a n c e o f h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s r e s p e c t e d p o s i t i o n match i n
t o n e s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e g r a n d f a t h e r d i d when h e was s i x t e e n .
He
r e c a l l s , " L i k e l y I ' m t h e o n l i e s t man o r b o y who e v e r c a l l e d Bedf o r d F o r r e s t a s o n - o f - a - b i t c h a n d l i v e d " ( p . 1 7 3 ) . The young
boy h a s b e t t e r manners t h a n t o c a l l h i s g r a n d f a t h e r a son-of-abitch, but t h e intention is there.
Also, t h e boy's p r e c i s e
r e p e t i t i o n o f t h e o l d m a n ' s d i c t i o n a n d h i s c l e a r memory o f o l d
s t o r i e s t o l d t o h i m a b o u t R e e l f o o t L a k e by h i s g r a n d f a t h e r b e l i e
t h e o l d e r n a r r a t o r ' s comment t h a t w h a t e v e r h i s g r a n d f a t h e r w a s
"was l o s t f o r e v e r " ( p . 1 8 9 ) . I t i s o b v i o u s l y p r e s e r v e d i n t h i s
narrative.
T h e s e c o n d t i m e t h e b o y i s c a u g h t by h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , t h e
n a r r a t o r and t h r e e f r i e n d s have s p e n t t h e n i g h t with " g i r l s o f
t h e o t h e r s o r t " (p. 1861, i n t h e Acklen Park hcuse w h i l e t h e
p a r e n t s a r e a w a y i n Memphis.
The g r a n d f a t h e r smacks a l l t h e
y o u n g b o y s a n d g i r l s w i t h h i s c a n e , a n d c h a s e s them o u t o f t h e
house.
Even s o , h e s m i l e s s w e e t l y a t t h e g i r l s , t h e n h e l p s t h e
t o y c l e a n up t h e house.
T h e boy i s s u r p r i s e d b y h i s g r a n d f a t h e r ' s
h e l p f u l n e s s , though n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y g r a t e f u l f o r i t .
The t h i r d o c c a s i o n d o e s n o t p r o v i d e s u c h a good-natured
r e s p o n s e from t h e g r a n d f a t h e r .
T h i s t i m e t h e boy h a s b r o u g h t
h i s own g i r l f r i e n d , a s t u d e n t a t W a r d - B e l m o n t , t o t h e h o u s e a c d
h a s s l e p t w i t h h e r i n t h e room s e t a s i d e f o r t h e g r a n d f a t h e r .
I n a w o n d e r f u l l y c o m i c s c e n e , t h e g i r l , when s h e h e a r s G r a n d f a t h e r ' s c a r d r i v e up, h i d e s naked i n a n oak wardrobe, a p i e c e
o f f u r n i t u r e b r o u g h t o v e r f r o m G r a n d f a t h e r ' s own h o u s e .
He f i n d s
h e r t h e r e , s t i l l n a k e d , a few m i n u t e s l a t e r , a n d r e c o g n i z e s h e r
a s a f r i e n d o f t h e family.
The g r a n d f a t h e r i s t o o s h o c k e d t o do
a n y t h i n g b u t t u r n on h i s h e e l and l e a v e t h e house.
A s G r a n d f a t h e r i s l e a v i n g , t h e n a r r a t o r remembers t h i n k i n g
t o h i m s e l f , " t h a t h i s g e n e r a t i o n and o u r s were a thousand y e a r s
a p a r t , o r t e n t h o u s a n d " ( p . 1 9 9 ) . The f a c t t h a t G r a n d f a t h e r k e e p s
a l l t h r e e o f t h e b o y ' s i n d i s c r e t i o n s a s e c r e t i n d i c a t e s t h e opposite.
A l s o , t h e s t o r y ' s s t r u c t u r e s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e s e two a r e n o t
s o f a r a p a r t a s t h e n a r r a t o r imagines:
balanced almost equally
w i t h t h e n a r r a t o r ' s a c c o u n t s o f h i s boyhood m i s a d v e n t u r e s a r e
t h e g r a n d f a t h e r ' s s t o r i e s a b o u t h i s a d v e n t u r e s a s a y o u n g man.
A s a n o l d e r man, t h e n a r r a t o r s t i l l b e l i e v e s t h a t h e i s t o t a l l y
u n l i k e h i s g r a n d f a t h e r , b u t we n o t i c e t h a t h e s e e m s a s f a s c i n a t e d by t h e g r a n d f a t h e r ' s s t o r i e s a s t h e g r a n d f a t h e r h a d b e e n
himself.
A commoc t r a i t i n b o t h men i s t h e i r f a s c i n a t i o n w i t h
t h e i r own p a s t s .
A n o t h e r b i t o f i r o n y p e r c e i v e d by t h e r e a d e r b u t n o t t h e
n a r r a t o r , is t h a t G r a n d f a t h e r ' s d e c i s i o n t o l e a v e h i s farm and
t o conform c o i n c i d e s w i t h t h e n a r r a t o r ' s e n r o l l m e n t i n t h e Univers i t y o f t h e South.
H i s p a r e n t s had c h o s e n t h i s s c h o o l f o r him
b e f o r e h i s b i r t h when t h e y c o n v e r t e d f r o m t h e M e t h o d i s t C h u r c h
t o t h e Episcopal.
Both t h e boy and h i s g r a n d f a t h e r a r e t h e v i c t i m s
o f t h e s m u g , g e n t e e l m i d d l e g e n e r a t i o n who " s a w e v e r y t h i n g i n t e r m s
o f Acklen P a r k i n t h e c i t y o f N a s h v i l l e i n t h e N a s h v i l l e B a s i n i n
M i d d l e T e n n e s s e e i n t h e o l d M i r o D i s t r i c t a s i t h a d come t o b e i n
t h e f i r s t q u a r t e r o f t h e twentieth century" (p. 164).
The l i m i t e d g e o g r a p h i c f o c u s o f " I n t h e Miro D i s t r i c t w i s
p r e s e n t a l s o i n a n o t h e r s t o r y f r o m t h e same c o l l e c t i o n c a l l e d "The
C a p t a i n ' s Son."
It b e g i n s w i t h t h i s s t a t e m e n t :
"There i s a n exc h a n g e b e t w e e n t h e t w o c i t i e s o f N a s h v i l l e a n d Memphis w h i c h h a s
b e e n g o i n g o n f o r e v e r - - f o r two c e n t u r i e s a l m o s t .
(That's forever
i n T e n n e s s e e ) " ( p . 5 ) . T h i s s t o r y i s a l s o n a r r a t e d by a m i d d l e - a g e d
man o f g e n t e e l b a c k g r o u n d , a n a t i v e o f N a s h v i l l e , who s a y s a b o u t h i s
brother-in-law,
"He w a s w h a t we i n N a s h v i l l e u s e d t o t h i n k o f a s t h e
p e r f e c t Memphis t y p e .
Y e t h e w a s n o t r e a l l y b o r n i n Memphis.
He
was r a i s e d a n d e d u c a t e d o u t t h e r e b u t h e was b o r n on a c o t t o n p l a n t a t i o n f i f t y m i l e s b e l o w Memphis--in M i s s i s s i p p i , w h i c h , a s anybody
w i l l t e l l you, i s a c t u a l l y worse" ( p . 6 ) .
T h e n a r r a t o r ' s smug a t t i t u d e a b o u t N a s h v i l l e i s e m p h a s i z e d
l a t e r i n t h e s t o r y when h e s a y s o f some o f h i s s m a l l - t o w n r e l a t i v e s :
They would t a l k t o you as t h o u g h G a l l a t i n o r
F r a n k l i n , f o r i n s t a n c e , were p l a c e s a s b i g a s
I t was a s t h o u g h t h e y
N a s h v i l l e o r Memphis.
were a l l o f them b l i n d a n d c o u l d n ' t s e e what
a c i t y N a s h v i l l e h a d b e c o m e a n d d i d n ' t know w h a t
a d i f f e r e n c e t h a t made i n t h e way y o u l o o k e d a t
things.
T h e y t h o u g h t t o o much o f t h e m s e l v e s a n d
t h e i r p a s t s t o o b s e r v e t h a t some p l a c e s a n d some
p e o p l e i n T e n n e s s e e had changed and h a d k e p t up
with t h e times. (p. 19)
The i r o n y i s t h a t t h e s t o r y ' s p r i m a r y e v e n t s a l l t a k e p l a c e w i t h i n
'The n a r r a a s i n g l e house on E l l i s t o n P l a c e d u r i n g t h e mid-1930's.
t o r ' s married s i s t e r and h e r husband c o n s i d e r buying a house o u t i n
B e l l e M e a d e , b u t a r e p e r s u a d e d t o move i n w i t h t h e f a m i l y .
When
t h e n a r r a t o r goes t o college, he goes t o Vanderbilt, a distance of
a few b l o c k s .
When h e g r a d u a t e s f r o m V a n d e r b i l t , h e m o v e s t o a n
a p a r t m e n t i n o n e o f t h e s u b u r b a n d e v e l o p m e n t s o f f H i l l s b o r o Road,
a d i s t a n c e o f p r o b a b l y l e s s t h a n t h r e e o r f o u r m i l e s from E l l i s t o n
Place.
T a y l o r ' s p o i n t , made t h r o c g h i r o n y , i s t h a t t h e s m a l l p a r t
o f Nashville t h a t comprises t h e s t o r y ' s s e t t i n g o f f e r s a s limited
and p r o v i n c i a l a view o f t h e world a s G a l l a t i n o r Franklin.
Thus,
t h e n a r r a t o r ' s c l a i m t o be a b l e t o look a t t h i n g s d i f f e r e n t l y than
h i s country r e l a t i q e s is questionable.
I d o n ' t know t h a t we c a n
believe t h a t the narrator, l i k e h i s relatives, thinks too highly
o f h i s p a s t , b u t t h e f a c t t h a t a l l o f t h e s t o r y ' s a c t i o n i s rexovod
by t h i r t y y e a r s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e p a s t i s w h e r e h i s e m o t i o n a l
roots l i e .
T h e l a s t s t o r v we w i l l c o n s i d e r a ~ ~ e a r ei nd a Mav. 1 -9 .7-9,.
i s s u e o f The New ~ b r k e rm a g a z i n e .
I t i s c a l l e d "The b i d F o r e s t "
One o f t h e s t o r y ' s m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g a s a n d i s s e t i n Memphis.
p e c t s i s i t s t o n e , T a y l o r ' s a t t i t u d e toward h i s n a r r a t o r and t h e
s t o r y t h e n a r r a t o r t e l l s us about h i s e a r l i e r l i f e a s the son
o f a Memphis c o t t o n b r o k e r a n d h i s e n g a g e m e n t a n d e v e n t u a l m a r r i a g e t o a Memphis d e b u t a n t e .
T h e n a r r a t o r i s a 6 5 - y e a r - o l d man
named N a t who c h o o s e s , o u t o f a l l h i s l i f e ' s e x p e r i e n c e s , t o t e l l
a b o u t t h e k i n d s o f g i r l s h e d a t e d i n a n d b e f o r e 193'7.
A s a young
man, N a t c l a s s i f i e d t h e g i r l s h e knew a s e i t h e r d e b u t a n t e s , s u c h
a s h i s f i a n c e e C a r o l i n e B r a x l e y , o r "deminondaines" l i k e h i s
f r i e n d L e e Ann D e e h a r t .
Nat c a n d i d l y r e v e a l s h i s a r r o g a n c e t o
t h e r e a d e r i n h i s d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e deminondaines":
T h e i r manners were p r a c t i c a l l y i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m t h o s e o f t h e g i r l s we knew
who h a d a t t e n d e d Miss H u t c h i s o n ' s S c h o o l a n d
S t . M a r y ' s a n d L a u s a n n e a n d w e r e now members
of the debutante s e t .
T h e f a c t i s t h a t some
w e r e f r o m f a m i l i e s who w e r e r e o f them
l a t e d by b l o o d , a n d r a t h e r c l o s e l y r e l a t e d ,
o f t h e d e b u t a n t e s e t , b u t f a m i l i e s , who, f o r
o n e r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r , now f o u n d t h e m s e l v e s
e c o n o m i c a l l y i n a n o t h e r c l a s s from t h e i r
relatives. 9
...
T h e s e w e r e g i r l s who w o r k e d o u t t h e e c o n o m i c n e c e s s i t y i n o f f i c e s ,
who r e a d b o o k s , who w e n t t o t h e o p e r a , a n d who s a w men a s p r o t e c t o r s , b u t a s e q u a l s , no m a t t e r what t h e i r c l a s s .
O f t e n t h e demim o n d a i n e s m i g h t c h o o s e t o s l e e p w i t h o n e o f t h e Memphis s o c i e t y
b o y s , b u t a l w a y s w i t h t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i t was a m a t t e r of
choice, not of pressure o r s t a t u s seeking.
T h e o l d e r Nat a d m i t s
t h a t t h e g i r l s h e and h i s f r i e n d s t y p e d a s demimondaines were t h e
f o r e r u n n e r s o f m o d e r n women, i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e f r o m m o s t o f t h e
A s a young
g i r l s a n d women o n e s e e s o n c o l l e g e c a m p u s e s t o d a y .
man, h o w e v e r , N a t saw t h e s e g i r l s a s t h e k i n d o n e m i g h t t a k e t o
a roadhouse o r beer garden o r t o t h e movies, but never t o dances
a t t h e Memphis C o u n t r y C l u b , a n d c e r t a i n l y n e v e r t o t h e a l t a r .
The o l d e r Nat s e e m s a t t i m e s a l m o s t a p o l o g e t i c a b o u t h i s
a r r o g a n c e a s a y o u n g man, a n d y e t h e i s n o t e n t i r e l y f r e e o f t h e
p r e j u d i c e s o f h i s youth.
He s a y s a b o u t t h e B r a x l e y ' s b l a c k
chauffeur:
" T h e r e was n o t , i n t h o s e d a y s i n Memphis, a n y t i m e
o r o c c a s i o n when o n e f e l t m o r e s e c u r e a n d r e l a x e d t h a n when o n e
had g i v e n o n e s e l f o v e r c o m p l e t e l y t o t h e c a r e and p r o t e c t i o n o f
t h e b l a c k s e r v a n t s who s u r r o u n d e d u s a n d who c r e a t e d a n d s u s t a i n e d
f o r t h e m o s t p a r t t h e l u x u r y w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e l i v e s we
l i v e d t h e n f r o m t h e l i v e s we l i v e now" ( p . 4 1 ) . ,
L a t e r i n t h e s t o r y , when N a t d e s c r i b e s t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s u n d e r
w h i c h h e l e a v e s n o t o n l y t h e c o t t o n b r o k e r a g e , b u t Memphis, h e
s t i l l b e a r s t r a c e s o f b o t h t h e s n o b b e r y a n d t h e l i m i t e d v i s i o n we
have observed i n Taylor's o t h e r n a r r a t o r s .
He s a y s :
"After years
of b e i n g m a r r i e d and h a v i n g t h r e e c h i l d r e n and g o i n g t o grownup
Memphis d i n n e r p a r t i e s t h r e e o r f o u r t i m e s a week a n d w o r k i n g i n
t h e c o t t o n o f f i c e s i x d a y s a week, I g o t s o d e p r e s s e d a b o u t l i f e
and
i n g e n e r a l t h a t I s o l d ny i n t e r e s t i n t h e c o t t o n f i r m
managed t o make C a r o l i n e ~ n d e r s t a n d t h a t w h a t I n e e d e d was t o g o
b a c k t o s c h o o l f o r a w h i l e s o t h a t we c o u l d s t a r t o u r l i f e a l l
Though i t c l o z r l y m e a n t t h a t we m u s t l i v e o n a someover.
w h a t m o r e m o d e s t s c a l e 2 n d l i v e among p e o p l e o f a s o r t we w e r e
n o t u s e d t o " ( p p . 5 8 , 8 2 ) . E v e n a s a n o l d e r man, N a t i s u n a b l e
t o stop thinking of peo3le a s types r a t h e r than a s individuals.
T a y l o r a l l o w s N a t some i n s i g h t i n t o h i s own l i m i t a t i o n s :
he
a l l o w s N a t t o d e s c r i b e h i ~ s e l fi n r e t r o s p e c t a s a s h e l t e r e d ,
a r r o g a n t y o u n g man, b u t I t h i n k T a y l o r e m p l o y s d r a m a t i c i r o n y
e v e n m o r e e f f e c t i v e l y i n t h i s s t o r y by r e f u s i n g t o a l l o w N a t t h a t
s a m e i n s i g h t i n t o h i m s e l f a s a n o l d e r man.
For example, Nat r e "& h a v e n ' t l o s t
c a l l s a comment by o n e o f t h e " d e m i m o n d a i n e s " :
i so u n t r y ~ l u b _ 7 T h a t ' s s o m e t h i n g
a n y t h i n g a t t h e M.C.C. ~ ~ r e r n p h C
you b o y s c a n b e t y o u r d a d d y ' s b o t t o m d o l l a r o n " ( p . 3 4 ) . N a t a n d
h i s f r i e n d s l a u g h e d a t >{hat s h e s a i d , b u t f a i l e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
joke.
He s a y s , " T h e r e ' s n o way o f k n o w i n g , a f t e r a l l t h e s e y e a r s ,
i f i t was t o o b r o a d f o r o ~ srh e l t e r e d m i n d s o r i f t h e r e s t o f t h e
g i r l s w e r e l a u g h i n g a t :he v u l g a r t o n e o f t h e g i r l who h a d s p o k e n "
(p. 34).
Even i n h i s s i x t i e s , t h a t i s , Nat s t i l l seems t o o a r r o g a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d f u l l y t h a t h e was b e i n g made f u n o f .
Taylor,
I t h i n k , c a n r e l y on t i s a u d i e n c e t o j o i n i n t h e s n i c k e r i n g a t
N a t , b o t h a s a y o u n g a n d a s a n o l d man.
.
..
...
I n Anatomy o f C r i t i c i s n X o r t h r o p F r y e s a y s t h a t " t h e i r o n i c f i c deprecztes himself and, l i k e Socrates, pretends
tion-writer
C o m p l e t e o b j e c t i v i t y and
t o know n o t h i n g , e v e n ' h a t h e i s i r o n i c .
s u p p r e s s i o n o f a l l e x p l i c i t m_oral j u d g m e n t s a r e e s s e n t i a l t o h i s
method.
Thus p i t y and r e a r / and i n P e t e r T a y l o r ' s c a s e , g x p l i c i t
m o r a l j u d g m e n t s a b o u t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f S o u t h e r n s o c i e t ~ /a r e
t h e y a r e r e f l e c t e d t o t h e r e a d e r from
n o t r a i s e d i n i r o n i c srt:
Taylor's dse of the first-person narrator necessarily
t h e art."1°
e x c l u d e s a n y comment h e ~ i g h to f f e r a b o u t h i s n a r r a t i v e v o i z e s ,
but i n t h e s e s t o r i e s he o f f e r s s u f f i c i e n t evidence s o t h a t t h e
r e a d e r m i g h t f o r m h i s 31,~n o p i n i o n o f t h e n a r r a t i v e v o i c e a n d o f
t h e m o r a l a n d s o c i a l v z l u e s e s p o u s e d by t h a t v o i c e .
...
The w o r l d t h a t P e t e r T z y l o r p a i n t s i n " I n t h e M i r o D i s t r i c t , "
"The C a p t a i n ' s S o n , " " T h e Hand o f Emmagene," a n d "The O l d F o r e s t 1 ,
s e e m s a t t i m e s a l m o s t s e d u c t i v e l y a t t r a c t i v e , e s p e c i a l l y t o some of h i s
Southern r e a d e r s , p a r t l y because t h e s t o r i e s a r e s e t i n neighb o r h o o d s t h a t m o d e r n r e s i d e n t s o f Memphis a n d N a s h v i l l e f i n d
worth p r e s e r v i n g , and ? e r t l y because t h e time s e t t i n g o f t h e
stories especially lends i t s e l f t o nostalgia.
Nat d e s c r i b e s
1 9 3 7 a s a t i m e when o n e ..;as n o t e x p o s e d t o " a c t s o f t e r r o r
which a r e b r o u g h t h o n e t o u s a u d i b l y and p i c t o r i a l l y on r a d i o
However, T a y l o r ' s
and t e l e v i s i o n a l m o s t e v e r y hour" ( p . 3 9 ) .
u s e o f d r a m a t i c i r o n y ? r e v e n t s h i s f i c t i o n from becoming e i t h e r
sentimental o r romantic.
He i s s c r u p u l o u s l y c a r e f u l t o v i e w w h a t
may h a v e b e e n h i s p e r % o n a l e x p e r i e n c e i n N a s h v i l l e o r M e n p h i s i n
the Twenties, T h i r t i e s , asd F o r t i e s with t h e a r t i s t ' s objective
eye.
We a r e r e m i n d e d Ey him t h a t w h a t h e g i v e s u s o n p a p e r i s
n o t l i f e b u t a r t , a n d , a s h e s a y s i n "Daphne's L o v e r , " s t i l l
...
a n o t h e r s t o r y from I n t h e Miro D i s t r i c t and Other S t o r i e s , one
must s t r i v e t o l i v e upon h i s i m a g i n a t i o n r a t h e r t h a n i n i t
(p. 130).
Notes
' ~ l b e r tJ . G r i f f i t h , P e t e r T a y l o r
l i s h e r s , I n c . , 1 9 7 0 ) , p. 21.
L ~ o r g a nB l u m , n P e t e r T a y l o r :
Sewanee Review, 70 ( 1 9 6 2 ) , 559.
( N e w York:
Self-Limitation
Twayne P u b i n Fiction,"
' ~ o b e r t Penn W a r r e n , " I n t r o d u c t i o n , " A Long F o u r t h a n d O t h e r
S t o r i e s (New Y o r k :
H a r c o u r t , Brace, 1 9 4 0 ) , p. i x .
5 ~ l e a n t hB r o o k s a n d R o b e r t P e n n W a r r e n , U n d e r s t a n d i n g F i c t i o n ,
2nd e d . ( N e w York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts,
19591, p. 146.
6 ~ o b e r tP h i l l i p s , r e v . o f I n t h e M i r o D i s t r i c t a n d O t h e r
S t o r i e s , b y P e t e r T a y l o r , Commonweal , 1 0 4 ( 1 9 7 7 1 , 5 4 1 .
7 ~ e t e rT a y l o r , " T h e Hand o f Emmagene," i n I n t h e M i r o D i s t r i c t a n d O t h e r S t o r i e s (New Y o r k :
A l f r e d A. Knopf, 19771, p. 8 9 .
A l l f u r t h e r r e f e r e n c e s t o t h i s volume a p p e a r i n t h e t e x t .
8 ~ r o o k sa n d W a r r e n , p .
p.
146.
' p e t e r T a y l o r , " T h e O l d F o r e s t , " =New
Y o r k e r , 14 May 1 9 7 9 ,
51.
A l l further references t o t h i s story appear i n the text.
1 0 ~ o r t h r o pF r y e , A n a t o m y o f C r i t i c i s m ( P r i n c e t o n :
U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1 9 5 7 1 , p. 40.
Princeton
ROBERT PENN WARREN'S POETRY A N D SOUTHERN
LITERATURE:
DREAMS THROUGH
THE GATE OF HORN
William R . W o l f e
Middle Tennessee S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
It i s an a n c i e n t n o t i o n t h a t dreams coming t o u s through t h e
g a t e o f i v o r y , t h e r i c h g a t e , are b e a u t i f u l dreams, s o u r c e s o f
i m m e d i a t e d e l i g h t - - d r e a m s t h a t make u s w a n t n e v e r t o awake.
Dreams t h r o u g h t h e more humble g a t e , t h e g a t e o f h o r n , are d a r k ,
However, t h e
d i s t u r b i n g d r e a m s , f r o m w h i c h we a r e g l a d t o a w a k e .
a n c i e n t s s a y , dreams through t h e g a t e o f i v o r y , f o r a l l t h e i r
s p l e n d o r a n d p r o m i s e , a r e f a l s e dreams, dreams t h a t i t would be
Dreams t h r o u g h t h e g a t e o f
f o o l i s h and dangerous to believe.
horn, less s a t i s f a c t o r y i n t h e dreaming, a r e dreams t h a t b e a r
truth.
They are s o u r c e s o f wisdom, a t l e a s t t o t h e w i s e .
One
poems i s
a sort.
identify
reason t h a t I choose t o i n t e r e s t myself i n Warren's
t h a t t h e y are, e s p e c i a l l y h i s m a t u r e poems, dreams o f
I n h i s m o s t r e c e n t volume t h e r e a r e poems whose t i t l e s
them as dreams--or a s dreams o f dreams.
I n o u r l a n g u a g e t h e r e i s a l o n g t r a d i t i o n f o r t h e poem t h a t
i s a r e v e r i e o r d r e a m ; a n d t h i s t r a d i t i o n i s l i v e l i e s t among p o e t s
who d e a l i n w h a t I m i g h t c a l l t h e p o e t r y o f i d e a s .
It is i n t h e
i s o l a t e d r e v e r i e s o f s u c h E n g l i s h p o e t s as K e a t s a n d C o l e r i d g e ,
a n d o f t h e A m e r i c a n R o b e r t F r o s t , t h a t t h e y make t h e i r m o s t i n t e l l e c t u a l l y ambitious and philosophically d i f f i c u l t deliberations.
I t i s i n s u c h p o e t r y t h a t t h e h a r d e s t i d e a s are c o n f r o n t e d , t h e
s t e r n e s t realities a d m i t t e d , and t h e most b a f f l i n g dilemmas
despaired of.
These r e v e r i e s f r e q u e n t l y o c c u r i n a s p e c i f i c l o c a t i o n and
In
a p p e a r t o emerge through t h e p o e t ' s a t t a c h m e n t t o t h a t p l a c e .
Warren's poems, t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e s o f a p l a c e a r e o f t e n t h o s e which
h a v e o p e r a t e d o v e r a l o n g time, o v e r t h e l i f e t i m e o f t h e s p e a k e r
o f a poem, o r e v e n w e l l b e f o r e .
It i s i n c o r r e c t t o s a y t h a t W a r r e n ' s l o c a t i o n s are a l w a y s
t h o s e o f t h e Kentucky-Tennessee r e g i o n i n which h e s p e n t h i s
e a r l i e r y e a r s , because Warren's m a t e r i a l range h a s no such
l i m i t s ; b u t i t i s t o t h o s e p l a c e s o f h i s boyhood and y o u t h t o
w h i c h h e f r e q u e n t 3 y r e v e r t s , e v e n a f t e r many y e a r s a w a y .
It is
n o t m i s l e a d i n g t o c a l l W a r r e n a r e g i o n a l p o e t f o r my p u r p o s e s
h e r e ; b u t c e r t a i n l y h e i s much e l s e .
I f I may c a l l W a r r e n a p o e t o f a r e g i o n , p e r h a p s I may
s p e n d some t i m e o n t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f h i s r e g i o n ' s l i t e r a t u r e ;
b e c a u s e t h e p l a c e s t o which Warren r e v e r t s are n o t j u s t p l a c e s
t h a t r e m i n d him o f h i s p e r s o n a l p a s t .
They a r e p l a c e s w i t h p a s t s
o f t h e i r own, o f t e n e n o u g h p e o p l e d b y men a n d women w i t h d i s tinctly regional personalities.
What i s t h e r e g i o n a l l i t e r a t u r e i n w h i c h W a r r e n s o o f t e n
works? I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s t h e r e i s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e r e
i s s u c h a t h i n g a s Southern l i t e r a t u r e - - a n d t h a t it is t h e most
important of the regional literatures.
Other regional l i t e r a t u r e s
h a v e n o t m a i n t a i n e d t h e m s e l v e s ( a s i n t h e c a s e o f New E n g l a n d
l i t e r a t u r e ) o r t h e y h a v e n e v e r q u i t e come t o b e ( a s i n t h e c a s e
o f W e s t e r n l i t e r a t u r e ) . The Midwest i s s o d e t e r m i n e d l y u n s e l f c o n s c i o u s t h a t a l l t h e o p e r a t i o n s o f i t s Hemingways, F i t z g e r a l d s ,
a n d S i n c l a i r L e w i s e s c a n n o t i m p o s e a l i t e r a t u r e upon i t . The
big-city l i t e r a t u r e s remain w i l f u l l y parochial.
Southern l i t e r a t u r e i s variously conceived.
Some p e o p l e s a y
t h a t self-consciousness is t h e key.
L o s e r s o f t h e C i v i l War, a
w a r i n w h i c h m o r a l i s s u e s w e r e c e n t r a l a n d i n w h i c h d e f e a t was
d e v a s t a t i n g , S o u t h e r n e r s s a t down t o e x a m i n e t h e m s e l v e s , t o
explain themselves, t o r e s t o r e themselves.
Very s l o w s o c i a l
and economic development ( p l e a s e n o t i c e t h a t I do n o t s a y
r e c o v e r y ) produced a r e g i o n o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s o c i a l and economic
c o n t i n u i t y from g e n e r a t i o n t o g e n e r a t i o n .
T h e r e was n o t e n o u g h
money t o s u p p o r t s o c i a l f l u i d i t y ; a n d t h e l a t e r i m m i g r a t i o n s d i d
n o t e n r i c h and e n l i v e n S o u t h e r n l i f e .
T h e r e was l i t t l e m o b i l i t y .
S e v e r a l g e n e r a t i o n s were a b l e t o
develop a s e n s i t i v i t y t o t h e nuances o f a complicated c l a s s system
among w h i t e p e o p l e - - a c l a s s s y s t e m r e n d e r e d n o t o n l y c o m p l i c a t e d ,
b u t p a t h e t i c a n d b i z a r r e , by t h e i m p o v e r i s h e d S o u t h e r n e r s 1 p r e Those
t e n s e t h a t money i s n o t t h e c h i e f d e t e r m i n a n t o f c l a s s .
s a m e g e n e r a t i o n s h a d t o c o n f r o n t , w i t h h o w e v e r much h e a r t a n d
mind, t h e t e r r i f y i n g ambivalences o f t h e r e l a t i o n s o f w h i t e
people and black people.
T h a t America whose p r o b l e m s were t h e p r o b l e m s o f t h e nouveau
r i c h e , w o r k e d o u t o n t h e F r e n c h R i v i e r a o r on Long I s l a n d e s t a t e s ,
was known t o S o u t h e r n e r s o n l y t h r o u g h t h e r o m a n c e s o f S c o t t
Fitzgerald.
The c o l l i s i o n o f c u l t u r e a n d P h i l i s t i n i s m i n p r o s perous Minnesota communities s t r u c k S i n c l a i r Lewis's Southern
r e a d e r s , m i r e d down i n i g n o r a n c e a n d p o v e r t y , a s a n a c c i d e n t
the nation could survive.
How t h e y o u n g H e m i n g w a y l s S o u t h e r n
c o n t e m p o r a r i e s m u s t h a v e a c h e d f o r t h e l u x u r y o f post-World-War
I angst.
To b e s u f f e r e d t h r o u g h i n P a r i s , n o l e s s .
The s o c i a l a n d economic d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e S o u t h s u g g e s t e d
above a r e h i s t o r i c a l c o n d i t i o n s ; and o f c o u r s e t h e y d e t e r m i n e t h e
s u b j e c t s o f S o u t h e r n l i t e r a t u r e - - a s s o c i a l a n d economic c o n d i t i o n s
determine t h e s u b j e c t s o f any l i t e r a t u r e t h a t i s a t a l l r e a l i s t i c
A s Warren s a y s , " H i s t o r y
( i n t h e l i t e r a r y sense of t h a t term).
i s w h a t we c a n n o t r e s i g n f r o m . "
But s o c i a l and econimic condit i o n s c a n n o t t e l l u s how S o u t h e r n l i t e r a t u r e i s a d i f f e r e n t s o r t
of literature.
History is indispensable; but f o r a l l i t t e l l s us h i s t o r y
d o e s n o t u s u a l l y d e a l d i r e c t l y w i t h how p e o p l e w e r e g e t t i n g a l o n g
i n s i d e t h e m s e l v e s a t a c e r t a i n time a n d p l a c e , w h e r e a s t h i s i s
one o f t h e businesses o f l i t e r a t u r e .
The economic c o n d i t i o n s o f
l a t e eighteenth- and e a r l y nineteenth-century England a r e w e l l
w i t h i n t h e r a n g e and competence o f modern h i s t o r i o g r a p h y ; b u t i f
we w o u l d s e e how t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s b r u t a l i z e d some men a n d made
h e r o e s o u t o f o t h e r s we m u s t r e a d o u r B l a k e a n d D i c k e n s .
The
s o c i a l a n d e c o n o m i c f l u i d i t i e s o f t h e s o - c a l l e d J a z z Age a r e w e l l
u n d e r s t o o d h i s t o r i c a l l y ; b u t i f we w o u l d know t h e m o r a l a n d
p s y c h o l o g i c a l u n c e r t a i n t i e s i n d u c e d i n p e o p l e by t h o s e c o n d i t i o n s ,
we m i g h t s t a r t o u r i n q u i r i e s w i t h T h e G r e a t G a t s b y , a t t e n d i n g
closely not only t o t h a t novel's f i c t i o n a l characters but t o t h e i r
creator.
It i s t r u e t h a t n o t a l l c o h e r e n t sets o f s o c i a l and economic
conditions produce coherent l i t e r a t u r e s .
Nevertheless, Southern
w r i t e r s have had and have used remarkable o p p o r t u n i t i e s n o t only
t o r e v e a l t h e m o r a l a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e i r human
s u b j e c t s , b u t , m o r e i m p o r t a n t , t o r i s e a b o v e t y p e a n d come f a c e
t o f a c e w i t h t h a t u n i v e r s a l humanity which r e v e a l s i t s e l f c o g e n t l y
o n l y i n s i n g l e human b e i n g s w h o s e l i v e s a r e s t o p p e d a n d r e m o v e d
f r o m t h e f l u x o f h i s t o r y by a r t .
T h e r e g i o n a l w r i t e r , u n l e s s h e i s a v e r y f o o l i s h man, c h o o s e s
r e g i o n a l m a t e r i a l s b e c a u s e h e knows t h e m w e l l a n d , i n d e e d , b e c a u s e
h e c a r e s a b o u t them a g r e a t d e a l .
I n t h e case o f t h e Southern
w r i t e r who s o c h o o s e s , h e t h e r e b y t a k e s a d v a n t a g e o f t h o s e c o n t i n u i t i e s I spoke o f before:
a f u s i o n o f p a s t and p r e s e n t i n t h e
c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e human b e i n g a b o u t whom h e s p e a k s a n d f o r
whom h e s p e a k s , a n d e v i d e n c e s o f t h a t c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e v e r y
p h y s i c a l s i t u a t i o n s o f t h o s e p e o p l e - - e s p e c i a l l y when t h e y a r e ,
a s i n Southern l i t e r a t u r e , u s u a l l y r u r a l o r small-town.
t h e omnipresence o f grandThere is t h e s o c i a l c o n t i n u i t y :
p a r e n t s and great-grandparents, o f u n c l e s and aunts--and t h e s e
p e o p l e l i v e i n a n immobile s o c i e t y i n which memories o f p e r s o n s
l o n g dead remain q u i t e a l i v e .
The o l d well i n d i s u s e i s a w e l l
The
o n c e u s e d , a n d i n t h e memory o f men a n d women s t i l l a r o u n d .
s o l d i e r ' s cemetery is n o t j u s t a relic o f war, a f u n c t i o n o f
national history.
It i s t h e cemetery where g r a n d f a t h e r o r g r e a t g r a n d f a t h e r l i e s ; a n d t h e h i s t o r i c a l r e m i n d e r s a r e more t h a n
ambiguous i n t h e s o r t o f p a t r i o t i s m t h e y i n s p i r e .
The w h i t e
S o u t h e r n e r ' s r a c i a l home i s n o t i n I t a l y , i n G e r m a n y , o r i n
I t i s , i t seems t o h i m ,
Poland--and o n l y b a r e l y i n B r i t a i n .
Southerners
where h e is s t a n d i n g and where h e h a s always stood.
a r e t h o s e A m e r i c a n s w h o s e p a s t s a r e i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e i r American place.
T h i s c o n d i t i o n a n d a t t i t u d e p r e v a i l s i n W a r r e n ' s poem "Foundi n g F a t h e r s , N i n e t e e n t h - C e n t u r y S t y l e , S o u t h e a s t u . s . A . " ~T h e
speaker reviews t h e various s o r t s o f ancestors Southeasterners
m i g h t h a v e , o r p e r c e j v e t h e m s e l v e s a s having--from t h e famous
a n d p o w e r f u l , l i k e H e n r y C l a y a n d Sam H o u s t o n , t o t h e n a m e l e s s ,
It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t a l t h o u g h Warren
poor, and f o r g o t t e n .
c o v e r s q u i t e a b i t o f h i s t o r i c a l g r o u n d , t h e o l d e s t p e o p l e who
o p e r a t e i n t h e poem a r e t h o s e who
. . . composed
d e c l a r a t i o n s , remembering
J e f f e r s o n ' s language.
Knew p o s e o f t h e p a t r i o t , l e f t h a n d i n c r o o k o f
the spine or
With f i n g e r t o t a b l e , w h i l e t h e r i g h t i n v o k e s
t h e Lord's j u s t rage.
T h e r e was a l w a y s a g r a n d p a , o r a c o u s i n a t l e a s t ,
who h a d b e e n a r e a l S i g n e r .
I n t h i s poem o f W a r r e n ' s a t l e a s t , t h e S o u t h e a s t e r n f o u n d i n g
f a t h e r s a r e kept j u s t s h o r t o f a firm connection with t h e founding
f a t h e r s o f t h e whole United S t a t e s .
A certain separation is
i n s i s t e d u p o n : a n d I t h i n k some n o t i o n o f t h i s s e p a r a t i o n h a s
o p e r a t e d i n S o u t h e r n e r s f r o m t h e t i m e o f t h e C i v i l War u n t i l v e r y
r e c e n t times--if i t has i n f a c t e n t i r e l y d i s s i p a t e d .
I n t h e s a m e poem W a r r e n c o m m e n t s o n t h e S o u t h e a s t e r n f o u n d i n g
f a t h e r who i s t a k e n u p w i t h t h e s t u d y o f t h e c l a s s i c s ; a n d h e t e l l s
how e v e n t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e G r e e k s somehow w o r k e d i t s e l f o u t i n
p e c u l i a r l y r e g i o n a l ways:
Some w e r e g i v e n t o s t u d y , r e a d G r e e k i n t h e
f o r e s t , and t h e s e
L o n g e d f o r a n e p i c t o d o t h e i r own d e e d s r i g h t
honor:
Were N e s t o r b y p i g p e n , i n some t a v e r n b r a w l
played Achilles.
I n t h e r i n g o f Sam H o u s t o n t h e y f o u n d , when h e
d i e d , o n e word e n g r a v e d :
Honor.
Warren h e r e s u g g e s t s t h a t h i s r e g i o n i s c o h e r e n t enough, i d i o s y n c r a t i c e n o u g h , a n d s e p a r a t e e n o u g h t o w o r k i t s own w i l l w i t h i t s
own h i s t o r y a n d w i t h w h a t e v e r m o r e a n c i e n t l o r e i t h a p p e n s u p o n .
I have been s p e a k i n g o f S o u t h e r n l i t e r a t u r e and i t s circums t a n c e s i n l a n g u a g e t h a t c o n j u r e s up f a m i l y r e l a t i o n s ; a n d , I
t h i n k , t h e medium o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n o f S o u t h e r n l i t e r a t u r e , a n d
t h e a t m o s p h e r e i n w h i c h t h a t c o m m u n i c a t i o n o c c u r s , i s much a k i n
t o t h e medium a n d atmosph;.re i n w h i c h f a m i l i e s c o m m u n i c a t e among
themselves.
I n communications w i t h i n f a m i l i e s t h e r e is a f u s i o n o f p a s t
and p r e s e n t .
I f t h e r e i s s u f f i c i e n t commerce among g e n e r a t i o n s
t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l h i s t o r y t o o b j e c t s and p l a c e s t h a t f i g u r e i n
a family's l i f e .
T h e y o u n g e r members m o r e t h a n h a l f b e l i e v e t h a t
they were p r e s e n t t o o b s e r v e t h e e v e n t s o f one of g r a n d f a t h e r ' s
s t o r i e s a b o u t something t h a t happened l o n g b e f o r e t h e y were b o r n ,
because grandfather and o t h e r r e l a t i v e s a r e l i v i n g connections
with t h e event.
Family t a l e s and o t h e r f a m i l y l o r e a c t i v a t e o u r
i m a g i n a t i o n s i n s u c h a way t h a t s u c h h i s t o r i o g r a p h i c a l n i c e t i e s
a s t h e c o r r e c t o r d e r o f e v e n t s become i r r e l e v a n t .
I n t h e poem
a b o u t t h e f o u n d i n g f a t h e r s , i n which Warren h a s roamed back a n d
f o r t h o v e r time, h e c l o s e s w i t h r e f e r e n c e t o t h a t which d e s t r o y s
a l l chronology, death.
I n s o doing h e reveals t h a t h i s i n t e r e s t
i n time a n d i n r e m e m b e r e d e v e n t s , a p e r s i s t e n t a n d i m p o r t a n t l y
t h e m a t i c i n t e r e s t i n h i s p o e t r y , i s by n o m e a n s s h a l l o w o r m e r e l y
He c l o s e s t h e poem:
nostalgic.
. . . and
t h e y d i e d , a n d a r e d e a d , a n d now
their voices
Come t h i n , l i k e t h e l a s t c r i c k e t i n f r o s t - d a r k ,
in grass lost,
With n o t h i n g t o t e l l u s f o r o u r complexity o f
choices,
But b e g u s o n l y o n e word t o j u s t i f y t h e i r o l d
life-cost.
So l e t u s bend e a r t o them i n t h i s h o u r o f
lateness,
And w h a t t h e y a r e t r y i n g t o s a y , t r y t o u n d e r stand,
And t r y t o f o r g i v e t h e m t h e i r d e f e c t s , e v e n t h e i r
greatness,
F o r we a r e t h e i r c h i l d r e n i n t h e l i g h t o f h u m a n n e s s ,
and u n d e r t h e shadow o f God's c l o s i n g hand.
To W a r r e n t h e c o n t i n u i t i e s o f t i m e , o f p l a c e , o f memory, o f e x p e r i e n c e a r e a way o f b r i n g i n g human experience t o g e t h e r t o make it more useful.
T h e r e a r e s e v e s a l p o e m s , amo;3 t h e m " P e n o l o g i c a l S t u d y :
"American P o r t r a i t :
Old
Southern ExposureIw "Boy's W i l l ,
S t y l e I M 4 a n d "Amazing G r a c e i n t h e B a c k ~ o u n t r ~ , "i 5n w h i c h
Warren, i n v a r i o u s v o i c e s a n d from v a r i o u s p o i n t s o f v i e w , u s e s
t h e device o f going back i n t o t h e l i f e o f a boy, r e c r e a t i n g t h a t
b o y ' s s e n s a t i o n s , and f i l t e r i n g them t h r o u g h t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e s o f
subsequent events.
T h e s e poems a r e v e r y h a r d t o c i t e b r i e f l y ; b u t
t o generalize:
t h e s e poems a r e much m o r e t h a n m e m o r i e s .
They
have a s t r o n g dramatic complexion, with t h e r e s u l t t h a t i n these
poems a n d o t h e r s l i k e t h e m t h e b o y h e c r e a t e s i s n o t j u s t a b o y .
I t i s a b o y w i t h a f a m i l y , a boy who i s a c t i n g i n a n d b e i n g a c t e d
u p o n b y f a m i l y a n d o t h e r i n t i m a t e c h a r a c t e r s ; a n d we a l w a y s h a v e
a s e n s e o f more t h a n o n e p e r s p e c t i v e , more t h a n o n e s e t o f v a l u e s .
Often
O f t e n t h e boy i s n o t o n l y w a t c h i n g , h e i s b e i n g w a t c h e d .
t h e boy i s n o t o n l y s p e a k i n g , h e i s b e i n g spoken to--and h e i s
listening.
E v e r y t h i n g t h e boy t o u c h e s i s s o m e t h i n g t h a t b e l o n g s
t o s o m e o n e h e knows--and s o m e o n e h i s f a t h e r knows.
The s p e a k e r
i n t h e s e poems i s a l w a y s s e n s i t i v e t o t h i s c o m p l e x ; a n d a s r e a d e r s
we a r e a s k e d n o t t o o b s e r v e s y m p t o m s b u t t o i n t e r p r e t s y n d r o m e s .
The t i t l e "Boy's W i l l " p u t s u s i n mind o f Henry Wadsworth
L o n g f e l l o w ; a n d t o b e s o m i n d e d i s t o see t h e d i s t i n c t d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e t w o , t h e New E n g l a n d e r a n d t h e S o u t h e r n e r . T h e s t a t e m e n t o f L o n g f e l l o w ' s ' f i n e a n d f a m o u s "My L o s t Y o u t h , " d e s p i t e i t s
s e t t i n g i n P o r t l a n d , Maine, i s a s t a t e m e n t a b o u t y o u t h i n g e n e r a l .
T h i s work was i n f a c t i n s p i r e d by a n o l d L a p l a n d s o n g ; and had t h e
a n c i e n t Greeks t h e s l i g h t e s t i n t e r e s t i n what goes on i n c h i l d r e n ' s
h e a d s t h e y m i g h t h a v e w r i t t e n s u c h a poem a s L o n g f e l l o w ' s i n
q u i t e t h e same t o n e .
I n W a r r e n ' s p o e m s , t h e s t a t e m e n t s h e m a k e s c a n o n l y b e made
a b o u t a y o u t h i n a c e r t a i n p l a c e , a t a c e r t a i n t i m e , a n d among a
c e r t a i n s o r t o f people.
T h i s focus o f Warren's, and o f t h e o t h e r
Southern w r i t e r s , produces a s p e c i a l s o r t o f psychological realism
I t h i n k t o be p a r t and p a r c e l o f S o u t h e r n l i t e r a t u r e .
A l t h o u g h i t i s b y n o m e a n s i n e v i t a b l e , o r a s u s u a l a s many
A m e r i c a n s t h i n k , i t i s n o t uncommon t h a t w i t h i n f a m i l i e s p e o p l e
l o v e one another.
There i s , however, n o t h i n g romantic a b o u t t h i s
We r a r e l y
love--and c e r t a i n l y n o t h i n g i d e a l i s t i c o r i d e a l i z i n g .
f o o l o u r f a m i l i e s a b o u t o u r s e l v e s ; a n d when o u r f a m i l i e s l o v e u s
it is not only d e s p i t e o u r f a u l t s b u t , s i n c e o u r f a u l t s and t h e i r
f a u l t s a r e l i k e l y t o b e t h e same, because o f o u r f a u l t s .
We c a n n o t , w i t h i n o u r f a m i l i e s , w e a r t h e v a r i o u s f a c e s t h a t we w e a r t o
meet t h e p u b l i c e v e r y day.
L i k e i t o r n o t , i f we w o u l d a c c e p t t h e
a f f e c t i o n o f o u r f a m i l i e s , we m u s t a c c e p t i t w i t h t h e c h i l l i n g
realization that i t is gratuitous:
we d o n o t r e a l l y e a r n i t ; a n d
My own b r o t h e r s ,
too often we get that affection despite ourselves.
o f t e n e n o u g h , s p e a k t o me a s t h o u g h i t w e r e a n e s t a b l i s h e d f a c t
t h a t a b o u t t h e r e a l l y i m p o r t a n t i s s u e s i n l i f e I am i r r e t r i e v a b l y
w r o n g h e a d e d ; a n d , i n d e e d , t h e f a c t o f my w r o n g h e a d e d n e s s i s , i n
t h e i r minds, not important.
T h e y a s s u m e my f a u l t s , b u t much w o r s e
I am w h a t t h e y a r e
t h a n t h a t t h e y a t t a c h n o i m p o r t a n c e t o them.
s t u c k w i t h and t h e y m u s t make t h e b e s t o f i t .
S o i t i s i n S o u t h e r n l i t e r a t u r e t h a t w r i t e r s c a r e v e r y much
a b o u t t h e p e o p l e and p l a c e s t h e y t r e a t ; b u t i f t h e r e a r e d e f e c t s
i n t h o s e p e o p l e and t h i n g s wrong w i t h t h o s e p l a c e s , t h a t i s n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y immediately thematic.
I n Southern l i t e r a t u r e the
c h a r a c t e r w i t h u n a c c e p t a b l e s o c i a l a t t i t u d e s , o r e v e n bad m o r a l s ,
is n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t o be despised.
H e i s what h e i s ; and t h e
p o i n t i s much m o r e o f t e n t h e r e v e l a t i o n o f w h a t h e i s - - a n d s o m e
s u g g e s t i o n o f what w e a l l a r e - - t h a n a judgment o f what h e i s .
I n "American P o r t r a i t :
Old S t y l e , " t h e p o e m s s p e a k e r r e v i s i t s a f t e r s i x t y y e a r s a f r i e n d o f h i s boyhood.
Hi.s f r i e n d has
allowed h i s g r e a t and s i n g l e t a l e n t a s a b a s e b a l l p i t c h e r t o be
d e s t r o y e d by w h i s k e y .
T h e r e i s much r e c o l l e c t i o n a s t h e poem
r a m b l e s b a c k a n d f o r t h f r o m boyhood t o manhood.
T h e r e i s some
lamenting o f h i s friend's decline.
But,
...
no b a t t e r
Could do what booze f i n a l l y d i d :
J u s t blow him o f f t h e mound--but anyway,
He h a d a l w a y s c a l l e d i t a f o o l g a m e , j u s t s o m e t h i n g
F o r c h i l d r e n who h a d n ' t y e t d r e a m e d w h a t
A man i s , o r b a r k e d a s q u i r r e l , o r r a i s e d
A s i n g l e dog from a pup.
.,.....
And I , t o o , w e n t o n my w a y , t h e w i n n i n g a n d l o s i n g ,
o r what
Is s o m e t i m e s o f a l l t h i n g s t h e w o r s t , t h e n o t
knowing
One
How
And
Has
t h i n g from t h e o t h e r , n o r knowing
t h e t e e t h i n T i m e ' s jaw a l l s n a g backward
whatever e n t e r s t h e r e i n
l e s s hope o f r e m i s s i o n t h a n shark-meat.
I n Warren, t h e e a s y and g r a c e f u l a c c e p t a n c e o f a n o t h e r man's
r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n a l l o w s him t o e x p o s e t h a t c h a r a c t e r more f u l l y ,
w i t h a l l i t s c o n t r a d i c t i o n s ; b u t Warren is n e i t h e r s o e a s y n o r
s o g r a c i o u s w i t h h i m s e l f o r w i t h m a n k i n d ' s l o t when h e m o v e s o n
t o t h e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e d a r k theme.
I n "Penological Study:
S o u t h e r n Exposure," Warren t e l l s t h e
s t o r y , w i t h h i s u s u a l b a c k w a r d a n d f o r w a r d movement t h r o u g h t i m e ,
The s i t u a t i o n
o f a man who i s a b o u t t o b e e x e c u t e d f o r m u r d e r .
a n d t h e p e o p l e a r e i n some ways m o n s t r o u s a n d t h e man t o b e e x e c u t e d h a s s u f f e r e d many s o c i a l e v i l s ; h o w e v e r , W a r r e n a l l o w s t h i s
f a c t o n l y t o e x p l a i n t h e man's m i s f o r t u n e , n o t t o e x c u s e h i s deed.
To r e t u r n t o t h e f a m i l y . T h e r e i s , i f you w i s h , a c e r t a i n
amorality i n families.
Within f a m i l i e s judgments a r e n o t clouded
by i d e a l i s t i c a n d r o m a n t i c a f f e c t i o n s .
When we s p e a k t o o u t s i d e r s
we m i g h t i d e a l i z e s o m e w h a t , b u t n o t when we s p e a k among o u r s e l v e s .
T h a t i s t h e s o r t o f d u p l i c i t y f o r which m o t h e r s a r e famous.
Our f a m i l i e s l o o k a t u s u n b l i n k i n g l y , w i t h o u t i l l u s i o n , and
judge u s unsparingly--or not a t a l l .
No s e r i o u s S o u t h e r n w r i t e r
g l o r i f i e s t h e S o u t h ; and nowhere i n American l i t e r a t u r e a r e t h e
h o r r o r s p e c u l i a r t o t h e r e g i o n more c l e a r l y r e v e a l e d .
I f we w a n t
t o l e a r n how p o o r w h i t e s a r e d r i v e n s i c k a n d c r a z y by t h e i r
p o v e r t y , a n d we d o n o t w a n t t h e s u p e r c i l i o u s p r o p a g a n d a o f a K a r l
S h a p i r o , we m u s t g o t o S o u t h e r n w r i t e r s .
I f we w a n t t o know how
e v i l r a c i a l h a t e c a n b e , we m u s t g o t o S o u t h e r n w r i t e r s , b l a c k
i t i s p o s s i b l e f o r some
o r white, t o discover the r e a l evil:
people honestly t o see that hate a s a virtue.
Perceived a s
virtuous, such h a t e not only h u r t s black people but corrupts
t h e conscience and undermines t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f a whole s o c i e t y .
I t i s S o u t h e r n e r s who know t h a t t h e e v i l d o n e b l a c k p e o p l e i s more
than t h e a c t i o n o f one group o f people a g a i n s t another.
Southerners
know t h a t r a c i a l h a t r e d i s a n i n t e r n e c i n e c r i m e .
To s e e s u c h a t h i n g i n t h i s way i s t o s e e i t s s c a r y c o m p l i c a t i z n - - o f m o t i v e , o f c i r c u m s t a n c e , o f c h a r a c t e r , o f cause-andeffect relations.
I n t h e face o f such complexity, categorical
judponts will not serve.
So i n Faulkner,
t h a t S o u t h e r n w r i t e r o f t h e w o r l d c l a s s , we
tenderness i n t h e homicide, n o b i l i t y
o f character i n the social deviant.
I n h o n e s t d e s p a i r ( b u t somet i z e s i n t h e i g n o r a n t b e l i e f t h a t F a u l k n e r ' s p e o p l e h a v e no r e a l l i f e r e f e r e n t s ) c r i t i c s have c a l l e d such c h a r a c t e r s grotesque.
?erh??s so.
B u t i s n o t a human b e i n g a g r o t e s q u e ?
And i s n o t
l i f e a grotesquerie?
? i n 2 wisdom i n t h e m a n i a c ,
I n t h e many poems i n w h i c h W a r r e n l o o k s b a c k , f u s i n g p a s t
,
and p r e s e n t , t h e r e is n o s t a l g i a p e r h a p s , and s e n t i m e n t , b u t no
sentimentality.
Confronting those uncategorizable mixtures that
a r e r e a l p e r s o n s i n a n a l m o s t e x i s t e n t i a l way, h e d o e s n o t t u r n
f r o m t h o s e t r u t h s a b o u t l i f e a n d o u r s e l v e s t h a t a r e h a r d t o know:
n o t mean, j u s t t r u e .
I n t h e many p o e m s i n w h i c h W a r r e n q u e s t i o n s
t h e v a l u e o f l i f e i t s e l f - - a n d i n which h e ponders t h e f u t i l i t y o f
v a r i o u s human e n t e r p r i s e s - - t h e r e i s n o s u g g e s t i o n t h a t h e h a s
somehow f a l l e n away f r o m t h e v i r t u e s o f h i s a n c e s t o r s .
There i s
no d e s i r e t o g o back i n t o some p u t a t i v e s t a t e o f i n n o c e n c e .
He
i s l i k e h i s a n c e s t o r s ; a n d h e d o e s n o t d e l u d e h i m s e l f t h a t when
I n "Amazing G r a c e i n t h e Back
h e was a c h i l d h e w a s i n n o c e n t .
C o u n t r y , " t h e b o y , c e r t a i n l y somehow W a r r e n h i m s e l f , r e m e m b e r s t h e
e f f e c t s u p o n h i m o f a r e l i g i o u s r e v i v a l m e e t i n g when h e was t w e l v e
I t i s p e r f e c t l y c l e a r t h a t t h e b o y i n q u e s t i o n was
years old.
c a p a b l e o f shame, cynicism, p r i d e , d e s p a i r .
Warren i s no w i s h f u l
rememberer.
B o y , man, g r a n d f a t h e r , g r a n d s o n :
a l l i n e s c a p a b l y mankind.
T h e i r p r o b l e m s g r o w n o t f r o m t h e i r a g e , f r o m t h e i r time a n d p l a c e ,
from t h e i r i g n o r a n c e o r e r u d i t i o n .
They grow from t h e f a c t t h a t
But Warren, however saddened
t h e y were b o r n i n t o t h e m o r t a l l o t .
by o u r p l i g h t , o r e v e n f r i g h t e n e d b y i t , i s n o t a man u n d o n e by
anger.
A f t e r t h e speaker h a s v i s i t e d t h e decayed baseball p i t c h e r
i n "American P o r t r a i t :
Old S t y l e , " h e p i c t u r e s h i m s e l f a s l y i n g
He asks
on t h e e a r t h where he and h i s f r i e n d used t o p l a y .
h i m s e l f why, when s u c h a t h i n g a s h i s f r i e n d ' s p o i n t l e s s d e c l i n e
c a n o c c u r , a n d when s u c h d e c l i n e i s i n o n e way o r t h e o t h e r t h e
f a t e o f a l l o f us, he should continue t o i n t e r e s t himself i n l i f e .
B u t why s h o u l d I l i e h e r e l o n g e r ?
I am n o t d e a d y e t , t h o u g h i n y e a r s ,
And t h e w o r l d ' s way i s y e t l o n g t o g o ,
And I l o v e t h e w o r l d e v e n i n my a n g e r ,
And l o v e i s a h a r d t h i n g t o o u t g r o w .
T h i s i s h a r d , h a r d wisdom.
I t h i n k Warren's matter i n poetry,
when h e w r i t e s a s a S o u t h e r n r e g i o n a l i s t , i s s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r
t h a t c l a r i t y and complexity o f v i s i o n , and t h a t r u t h l e s s r e s i s t e n c e
t o s e n t i m e n t a l i t y ( t h e n a t u r a l p a r e n t o f a n g e r and s m a l l n e s s o f
h e a r t ) , t h a t t h e s t a t e m e n t o f s u c h wisdom r e q u i r e s .
U n l i k e lesser r e g i o n a l i s t s , Warren n e v e r f a l l s i n t o t h e t r a p
o f supposing t h a t t h e p a s t o f a person o r p l a c e is o f remarkable
i n t e r e s t f o r i t s own s a k e .
The p a s t o f a s o c i e t y r a i s e s q u e s t i o n s
about a personal p r e s e n t ; and it does n o t answer t h o s e questions.
W a r r e n , whose l a n g u a g e i s imbued w i t h t h e r e g i o n a l l o r e , h o p e s
f o r no more t h a n t h e d e f i n i t i o n by t r a d i t i o n - - b y t h e remembered
p a s t - - o f w h a t t o d o now.
And a g a i n , t h e q u e s t i o n i s o n l y a
q u e s t i o n , a s k e d i n t h e k i n d e s t o f ways; a n d t h e r e i s , maybe, hope:
What i s i t t h a t y o u c a n n o t r e m e m b e r t h a t i s
s o true.6
76
And :
I t grows on y o u , a t l e a s t , God
Has a l l o w e d man t h e g r a n d e u r o f c e r t a i n
utterances.
True o r not.
But sometimes t r u e .
T h i s i s wisdom t h r o u g h t h e g a t e o f h o r n .
Notes
' ~ o b e r t Penn Warren, S e l e c t e d Poems:
Random House, 19761, p npo.i t -2
w r i t t e n between 1954 and 1956.
'selected
Poems, pp.
1 23-75
(New York:
was
119-27.
W r i t t e n between 1968 and
3 ~ e l e c t e dPoems, p p . 265-67.
W r i t t e n between 1954 and
1974.
1956.
York:
4 ~ o b e r tPenn Warren, Now and Then:
Random House, 19781, p p . 3-7.
Poems 1976-1978 (New
5 ~ o wand Then, p p . 8-10.
6 ~ o wand Then, p . 5 0 , i n "Memory F o r g o t t e n . "
7 ~ o wand Then, p. 40, i n " W a i t i n g . "