26
EDUCATION
OMAN DAILY Observer
SATURDAY, JULY 4, 2009
A study on aflaj management and the water market
Allocating income generated
from the aflaj water market to aflaj
maintenance has contributed
to their sustainability in the
Sultanate. Drought-related losses
are estimated at RO 2,000 per
family while finding a new home
costs farmers about RO 32,000
W
ithin the framework of
SQU's efforts to encourage and foster research
activities, and in accordance with its
ongoing search for excellence and effective participation in research at all
levels, Dr Slim Zakeri of the Department of Natural Resource Economics at the College of Agricultural and
Marine Sciences and Dr Saif Rashid
al Shaqsy, Director-General of Water
Resources in the Ministry of Regional
Municipalities and Water Resources,
have collaborated on a study of aflaj
management and the water market using a questionnaire which solicited the
response of 191 farmers immediately
connected with aflaj and investigated
the extent of the damage caused on
their lives by aflaj dryness. The study
produced a number of important results.
The first part of the study dealt with
aflaj management and water market
procedures. It focused on four aflaj in
the Samail area. Prices paid at the water market which took place every Friday for six years were analysed; data
regarding water-flow measures were
obtained from the MRMWR, and the
researchers were able to determine the
price per cubic metre.
Commenting on the study's most
significant conclusions, Dr S Zakeri
says: 'One of the most important findings of our research is the fact that the
farmers involved in our study have
paid an average of 30 Omani Baisas
(OB) for each cubic metre of aflaj water over a period of six years , which
equals the price of one cubic metre of
water used for agricultural purposes.
We were able to estimate the difference in water prices when the water
was sold during the day or night as
well as the difference in prices according to the season, i.e. summer or
winter.'
Findings
Dr Zakeri goes on to talk about the
implications of the research findings.
The most important outcome of the
study concerns the extent of the farmers' willingness to accept the water
price. For example, if the researchers
want to know about the farmers' acceptance of the price of desalinated
water (triple-treated), they can compare it with the maximum price imposed on the farmers by either government or commercial companies,
which will not exceed a maximum of
30 OB per cubic metre, which is an
early indicator of whether or not the
desalinated water can be used for ir-
rigation in the Sultanate due to its current price. In other words, it indicates
that desalinated water cannot be used
in the agricultural sector except under
two conditions : (a) either Omani citizens will be responsible for paying a
bigger share of the cost of desalinated
water so that its price will be acceptable to the farmers, or (b) that the government must subsidise the infrastructure so that the desalinated water can
be supplied to some farms at a price
lower than the one currently in effect.
The problem, therefore, does not lie
with the farmers' acceptance of the
quality of the desalinated water, but
with its excessive cost that does not
allow them to make a profit.
The study also examined the most
important reasons for the sustainability of the aflaj in the Sultanate,
among which Dr Zakeri believes is
the fact that the revenues generated
from the water market are applied to
their maintenance. In this respect, 90
per cent of them go to aflaj maintenance and the rest to the Wakil (agent)
and his assistants as incentives. In Dr
Zekri's opinion, there is a good lesson
here that countries with problems of
irrigation management can learn. In
most cases, the falaj is not properly
maintained due either to the farmers'
unwillingness to pay their dues or
to the insufficiency of the collected
funds. Hence, aflaj upkeep in the Sultanate requires the ability of farmers'
independent ability to choose the right
Wakil (agent) and to keep the weekly
water market going in order to collect
the funds needed for maintenance.
It should also be mentioned that, in
times of insufficient funding, some
farmers make donations to make up
the shortfall, a practice which should
be encouraged. Any aflaj modernisation or renovation scheme should take
into consideration the fact that their
cost must be covered by the revenues
from the water market, otherwise, the
shortfall will jeopardise the future of
the aflaj themselves. It is understood
that the introduction of new irrigation
technology is very expensive, so it is
important to ensure a sufficiency of
funding in the budget to allocate for
this purpose.
Damage Caused by Drought
The second part of the study deals
with the damage caused by aflaj dryness and its implications. Dr Zakeri
mentions that, besides their historic
and integral role, the aflaj have played
a basic role in supplying water for a
number of decades, both for agricultural and domestic purposes across
many regions of the Sultanate. In fact,
the aflaj can be considered as the backbone of the livelihoods of many villages, especially those located in geographically isolated areas. Because of
the continuing pressure on the aflaj to
provide water both for agricultural and
domestic purposes, in addition to the
acute shortage of rainfall, the phenom-
enon of falaj dryness has become one
of the most important problems facing
the Sultanate's water authorities.
According to the latest statistics of
the MRMWR, 25 per cent of Oman's
existing aflaj suffer from sharp declines in their water levels or from
complete dryness. In response to this
condition, which has lasted for several
years, decision-makers have tried to
find suitable solutions to repair the
damage. Such solutions include drilling back-up wells and developing the
current system of drinking water distribution.
All these procedures aim at keeping
social stability in the affected villages
as well as continuity of production. Dr
Zakeri explains that the present study
aims to revaluate the material damage
caused by aflaj dryness which will
provide an additional perspective on
the economic role of the aflaj.
Dr Zakeri says that the study methodology is based on field-collected
data related to the aflaj which had
gone dry. Thirty-three such aflaj were
visited, distributed among five areas
in the Sultanate: the Sharqiyah, North
Batinah, Al Buraimi, Al Dhahira, and
the Dakhiliyah region. Moreover, 191
farmers were interviewed, 6 farmers
from each falaj. The questionnaire
included questions on social and economic matters. The researchers tried to
compare the farmers' lives before and
after falaj dryness, in order to examine
the change created in their lifestyles
and to estimate the amount of damage
suffered. And since informants were
divided on the basis of the existence
of back-up wells, the researchers discovered that 62 per cent of the farmers
are located in areas which have backup wells.
Agricultural Losses
One of the most important aims
of the questionnaire centred on the
estimation of agricultural loss caused
by drought. To explain this Dr Zakeri
says that the researchers focused their
attention on five basic vegetable prod-
4 per cent for domestic purposes. It
should be pointed out here that bottled
water provides 18 per cent of drinking
water, and is relatively expensive because of the high cost of bottling and
distributing. Concerning the change
of water resources both for drinking
and for domestic purposes and the
losses incurred by such change, Dr
Zakeri says that the material losses resulting from the water demand come
to an average cost of RO 334 divided
between the price of drinking water
and water for domestic purposes, the
breakdown being for an 11-member
family RO 132 for drinking water and
RO 202 for water used for domestic
purposes. These averages are relatively high compared with the figures
before falaj dryness.
So the contribution of the aflaj in
supplying drinking water and water
for domestic purposes is annually esucts (palm dates, citrus fruits, mantimated at RO 328 per family, which
gos, legumes, and animal feed) and on
is a high figure for middle income
four kinds of animal products (sheep,
families living in rural areas.
goats, cows, and camels). The annual
percentage loss in plant production Family consumption
was estimated at RO 1,170 per hecThe extra money which is spent
tare, while the annual percentage loss
on buying fruit and vegetables is conin animal production was estimated at
sidered as a material loss directly reRO 441 per hectare.
lated to the agricultural loss caused by
The total annual percentage of ag- falaj dryness. Dr Zakeri explains that
ricultural loss was estimated at RO the falaj-irrigated farms were a basic
1,160 per hectare. That is to say, the source for family consumption of
annual contribution of the aflaj to ag- palm products, i.e. the different kinds
ricultural production is estimated at of dates which constitute a basic item
RO 1,610 per hectare. And since the in the Omani diet in addition to fruit
cost of agricultural production, ac- and vegetables. This additional cost is
cording to the results of the field sur- estimated, according to the questionvey, represents 50 per cent of the total naire results, at more than RO 550
cost of agricultural production, it is per family. This means that a family
calculated that the annual percentage is spending RO 550 more than it used
loss in the farmer's income will be RO to before falaj dryness.
805 per hectare. Based on the figures
of the agricultural losses caused by Change of family home
aflaj dryness, the annual loss of farmThe study aimed to identify the
ers' agricultural income ( the average percentage of families who left their
family consists of 11 members) can be homes and moved into new areas
estimated at RO 1,442.
because of the dryness. Dr Zakeri explains that the researchers wanted to
Loss of water for drinking and
know whether the dryness had caused
domestic purposes
some families to leave their homes
Dr Zekri says that the falaj for and the losses incurred. The researchmany decades has been the main ers found that 16 per cent of the study
source of drinking water and of water informants had to leave their homes
used for domestic purposes as well. after the dryness of their nearby falaj,
The questionnaire results have shown because they could no longer get their
that 85 per cent of the falaj water is supply of drinking water and water
used for drinking and 91 per cent used for domestic purposes. Building a
for domestic purposes. Wells, come new home had cost about RO 31,813
second as a source of both kinds of on average per family.
water. They provide 18 per cent of
It should be noted here that the
drinking water and 17 per cent of back-up wells did not curb the miwater for domestic purposes, while gration caused by the falaj dryness,
water sold from commercial ground since 74 per cent of the total number
water pumps represents a very small of farmers who had to leave their
barely significant percentage. But be- homes lived in areas which had backcause of aflaj dryness, Omani citizens up wells.
have started to depend on commercial
Dr Zakeri concludes by saying
water transported by tankers, which that, according to the above figures,
now represents 56 per cent of drink- the annual loss per family comes to
ing water sources and 43 per cent of RO 2,320, and that this figure may
water used for domestic purposes. vary from one family to another deWells come second as a source with pending upon the cultivated areas
27 per cent for drinking water and near the falaj.
SQU’s Earthquake Monitoring Center
T
he Center offers accurate information on earthquake activity and its location. It also
conducts joint projects with institutions and companies and carries out
surveys of the Sultanate’s various
governorates and regions.
The Center is vital for providing
information that will reduce hazards
arising from earthquakes. Established
in 2001, the EMC is an integral part
of the University's research on the
best methods for earthquake monitoring and hazard reduction. Through a
network of thirteen seismic stations, at
various locations across the Sultanate,
it registers and measures shock-waves
of all sizes. The following summarises
its tasks and services and lists its completed and planned projects.
Objectives
The main aim of the Center is to
monitor earthquake hazards in the
Sultanate, evaluate them quantitively
and qualitatively and so define their
highest possible strength, locations
and timing. This information forms
the data base for engineers, builders,
and planners since it defines the effect
of earthquake damage on different
kinds of edifices and projects and provides ways and methods of alleviating
this by means of appropriate building
codes and suggested precautions.
The Center also follows up studies
and research related to earthquakes,
holds forums, conferences and symposia, co-operates with Arab and international centres, and offers advice,
consultation and earthquake aware-
ness programmes to Omani citizens.
In a way, the Center's objectives can
be summarised as follows:
l It produces and distributes annual seismological bulletins.
l It produces and annually revises
seismicity maps of Oman and its region.
l It publishes and distributes
earthquake safety brochures.
l It conducts earthquake education lectures for many schools in the
Sultanate.
l It conducts research projects for
PDO on oil field microseismicity.
l It oversees seismic hazard assessment for the entire Sultanate and
micronisation, seismic risk management and mitigation for Muscat. It
collaborates with the Earth Science
and Civil & Architectural Engineering Departments of SQU, with the
Supreme Council for Town Planning
in the Muscat Municipality, and with
MIT in the USA and the Kandili Observatory and Earthquake Research
Institute in Turkey. A current project
covering all these activities will hopefully be completed in 2011.
l It participates in regional and
international conferences on earthquakes and related fields.
Actions
The Center aims to realise its ambitions and aspirations as follows:
l Execute a national earthquake
programme which involves the installation of permanent seismic stations
in selected localities in the Sultanate
in accordance with their geological
and tectonic settings.
l Monitor earthquakes whose
magnitude is less than 4 on the Richter scale, enhance the overall efficiency of the Center’s work and
constantly review the location of its
seismic stations.
l Analyse and calculate earthquake parameters in the Sultanate and
the surrounding areas and conduct
scientific research on their tectonic
settings.
l Exchanges data and expertise
with related Arab and international
seismological institutes.
l Conduct studies and advanced
research on the seismicity and seismotectonics of the South-eastern
part of the Arabian plate, the Arabian Sea, Oman Bay and the Arabian
Gulf , and exchange the findings of
such studies with Arab and national
institutions.
l Offer advice and consultation
on earthquake science to institutions
and authorities, in accordance with
the Center's regulations.
Stations
The earthquake stations record
earthquakes that occur within their
region and via satellite transmit data
around the clock to the Center where
the computerised earthquake-programme gives a preliminary and automatic analysis of their location and
parameters. Later, seismic experts
review the data, provide a more accurate analysis, and map location.
Consultation and awareness
programmes
The Center provides a number of
awareness and educational services.
The Director, Dr Issa al Hussein, says
that the Center annually organises
a number of awareness lectures and
programmes on earthquake hazards
and protective measures for students
at schools, universities, and private
institutions. Experts at the Center organise visits to relevant government
authorities to explain the Center's
services. He adds that in addition to
such regular visits and lectures, the
Center issues a number of publica-
tions to be distributed to students and
others. The Center's annual bulletin is
its most important publication since
it provides important information on
earthquake activity to interested bodies and is exchanged with similar bulletins from international centres. The
Center also produces a number of
brochures, flyers and pamphlets and
is in constant touch with the media
to educate and raise awareness of its
activities. When government or private bodies prepare designs for new
projects, the Center provides relevant
data to mitigate the chance of earthquake damage which may occur during the construction phase or beyond.
Co-operation
Dr Al Hussein says that the Center's role is not restricted to issuing
awareness publications; it also helps
to prepare the earthquake section of
the tenth-grade textbook on Social
Studies. It also participates in research with PDO to analyse microearthquakes that may occur in its oil
fields and to estimate the level of effects on their facilities.
Future projects
Currently the Center is conducting
a major study covering all the Sultanate's regions to protect them against
earthquake hazards. Divided into
three micro projects, it aims at raising awareness levels of such hazards
which, in turn, will encourage the
emergence of new initiatives, new
laws and quality control guidelines
and codes for building construction.
It will also provide local residents
with an improved long-term evaluation of regional earthquake hazards
and give priority to enforcing procedures to mitigate their danger.
Research to ensure
secure and safe food
T
he 20th Century Agriculture witnessed mechanisation, high yielding
crop varieties, improved water
management practices, extensive use of agrochemicals
and expansion of the fisheries
sector. They have resulted in
global food security. Research
in Agriculture and Marine Sciences are largely responsible
for this success. Research have
continuously responded to
challenges faced by the farmers, fishermen and affiliated
S A Prathapar, Dean,
industries.
College of Agricultural &
Similar challenges will conMarine Sciences
tinue for many years to come.
We will be required to find solutions to produce and secure an
ever increasing quantity of food for a growing population with
rising consumption demands. We will be asked to do so while
protecting the natural resource base.
Challenges for Researchers at the College of Agricultural
& Marine Sciences will be more severe. We need to find ways
to (1) produce more with less water, less land and in a harsh
environment; (2) contribute to the development of sustainable
fisheries; (3) add knowledge to our understanding of the coastal
and oceanic environments; (4) improve income levels in sectors
which accounts for less than 3 per cent of the GDP, growing
slower than other economic sectors, but the life line of more than
50 per cent of the population; and (5) ensure that rural industries
grow and offer gainful employment to young Omanis and prevent them migrating to urban areas. Our faculty and staff conduct basic and applied research which can be broadly grouped
into productivity, safety and security, and sustainability.
Productivity: Crop, animal and marine production systems
also have a central role in the culture and heritage of Oman.
In its desire to attain partial food sovereignty a considerable
amount of fruits, vegetables, animals and fish are produced
locally. Crop production is constantly under threat from pests
and diseases: lime witches’-broom, mango decline, date palm
dubas bug and vegetable problems are limitations to increased
productivity that must be addressed. Many farmers opt for
Agriculture in Controlled Environments (ACE) and the recent increase in greenhouse and shade house production has
been dramatic. Construction of greenhouses, climatic control,
identification of profitable crops, and water, pest and disease
management, all require further research. Ways must be found
which can increase animal production without damaging the
environment in which that production has to take place. Awareness for animal production and its products, and environment
interaction issues has to grow. Similarly, there is scope to increase poultry production without increasing pressure on the
freshwater resources of the country. The long coastal lines of
Oman, makes fisheries an important part of Oman’s economy.
However, stock information is lacking, especially for certain
resources such as unexploited or little exploited invertebrates,
tunas and small pelagics. There is also a significant requirement
to study little known species of very high commercial value in
aquaculture. The presence of saline or brackish land and water
bodies provide a unique opportunity to increase productivity of
halophytic plants, aquatic fish and other organisms, which are
of commercial value.
Safety and security involve a wide range of issues concerning access to food, including ensuring a safe, nutritious and
affordable food supply for all and at all times; finding economically and environmentally sustainable ways to increase
food production, and promoting health and education. Food
safety and security impinge on every level of the food production chain — on the farm, during storage and distribution or
during processing. Despite the fact that food supplies in Oman
are adequately available from local and import sources, food
insecurity remains an issue in rural low-income areas where
many households do not have assured access to enough nutritional food to meet their dietary needs and to enable them to
lead active and healthy lives. The lack of purchasing power
and the lack of information about the value of food choices
limit a household’s ability to get a nutritious diet. Furthermore,
consumers, whether locally or internationally are becoming
more aware of food safety and quality standards. This requires
the development of new food attributes that meet consumers’
needs, new post harvesting technologies and more efficient
processing techniques.
Sustaining Agricultural & Marine Environments: Since land
and water (terrestrial and marine) resources will be the foundation of Oman’s economy in future, it is necessary that measures
are undertaken to ensure satisfactory management to avoid
depletion or degradation of these resources. Omanis have a
rich tradition of managing these resources in a sustainable manner. There is a wealth of indigenous knowledge which ensured
sustainability of land and water resources for many centuries.
However, during the recent past, land and water resources are
under increasing threat. Marine biodiversity has become vulnerable, interfering with food chains, marine productivity and
livelihoods in fishing villages. Although some of the reasons
are known, there are many gaps in our understanding in relation
to agricultural and marine environments in Oman. Understanding the effect of human activities and pressures on land and
marine resources of Oman is of high priority. On the basis of
accumulated understanding, environmentally sound technologies to minimise or prevent depletion or degradation of land
and water resources need to be developed.
A major reason for desertification in Oman is the lack of
fresh water reserves within the country. It is partly due to the
perception that freshwater is required to meet all demands for
water, whether it is for drinking or gardening. This paradigm of
water management must shift to one which aims to provide adequate amounts of water of acceptable quality. Such a paradigm
shift will convert freshwater uses and users to water uses and
users, and therefore reduce pressure on the freshwater reserves
of the Sultanate. There is a need to identify alternative sources
of water and develop appropriate technology to harness them,
to reduce pressure on groundwater reserves, and to minimise
the rate of desertification.
We at the College of Agricultural & Marine Sciences are
working to meet these challenges at present while preparing
our students to face them in future. We are proud to have the
highest per faculty rate of research funding and peer reviewed
publications in the University. We are striving to be the top agricultural and marine sciences college in the Gulf region, recognised internationally.
God Willing, we will get there soon!