Empowerment,SaysWho?
AstudyoftheimpactofparticipationinASAmicrocredit
programsonperceivedempowermentoffemaleborrowers
MeganDavis
Fall2014
UniversityofPugetSound
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Acknowledgments
IwouldliketothankstheIPEdepartmentandtheDeltaPhiChapteratthe
UniversityofPugetSoundforprovidingthefundingaswellasacademicsupport
thatmadethisresearchpossible,andspecificallyBradDillmanandPierreLyfor
providingadditionalguidanceandreassurancethroughoutthisprocess.Yourtrust
inmyabilitiesandallofthefeedbackandsupportthatyouprovidedmadethisthe
experienceofalifetime.
IwouldalsoliketothankMr.MAbdulAzizandASAforprovidingmewith
theopportunitytoworkwiththeirorganization.Itrulyappreciatedtheaccesstothe
newresearchlibraryandtheprovisionoftranslationservices,transportation,and
generalsupportthroughoutmyinternshipwithASA.
Finally,IwouldliketothankNicholasDeCostaforhisguidanceinthedesign
andimplementationofmystudy.Idon’tknowwhatIwouldhavedonewithoutyour
revisionsanddailycheck-ins.Thankyouforbeingmysupportsystemthroughout
thesummer.
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Empowerment:theprocessofincreasingcapacityofindividualsorgroupstomakechoicesand
totransformthosechoicesintodesiredactionsandoutcomes-AlsopR&HeinsohnN,WorldBank,2005
Introduction
Microfinancehasbecomeacentraltoolineffortstopromoteempowering
developmentaroundtheworld.Bangladeshisconsideredthebirthplaceof
contemporarymicrofinance(Abed2000).Themicrocreditrevolutionwasinitiated
inthe1970’swhenorganizationsbegantoprovidethepoorwithsmallloansto
encourageself-employmentandincomegeneration(AminandMajamder2011;Aziz
2012).Manyorganizationsinvolvedinthemovementcametorealizethe
importanceofsavingsandotherfinancialservicesinadditiontotheavailabilityof
credit;fromthisthecurrentmultifacetedmicrofinancemodelemerged.Despitethe
necessityoftheseservices,thereisalong-standingdebateregardingthe
effectivenessofmicrofinancebothasameanstoliftmembersfrompovertyand
empowerthem.Somestudiesarguethatfinancialloansarenotenoughtoovercome
socialbarriers(Hashemietal.1996),whileothersarguethatmixingfinancialand
sociallybasedprogramspreventsthefocusfromremainingonthefinancialgoals
andthattheloansareusedinefficientlyasaresult(Kabeer2000).Onekeydebate
involvingmicrofinanceefficacyistheinclusionofthesenon-creditelements,and
particularlyanexplicitfocusonfemaleempowerment.Inordertoaddressthis
concern,thisreviewwillfocusononeorganization’sefforttoutilizefemale-targeted
microfinancetopromotesustainabledevelopment.
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AssociationforSocialAdvancement(ASA)
ASAisalargemicrofinanceinstitution(MFI)thatbeganinBangladeshand
hasactedasamodelformanyothersacrosstheglobe.The“ASACost-effectiveand
SustainableMicrofinanceModel”isonethatisemulatedbybranchesaroundthe
worldasitboaststheabilitytomakeamicrofinancebranchself-reliantin12
months(AminandMajamder2011,5).Asof2000,theorganizationbecame
entirelyself-sustaining,freefromdonorandgrantdependence(Aziz2012).The
cost-effectivemicrofinancemodelwasintroducedin1994inanefforttoachieve
self-sufficiency(Aziz2012).ASAisoneofthelargestandmostefficientMFIsinthe
world,servingalmost6millionmembers;butlikesomanyothers,ithadahumble
beginning(ArmendarizandJonathan2010).Itwasstartedin1978byasmallgroup
ofmenwhowantedtoeradicateruralpoverty(AminandMajamder2011;
ArmendarizandJonathan2010).Theorganizationbeganasadevelopment
organizationfocusedonpoliticaltransformations,howeveritswitcheditsfocusto
economicdevelopmentsoonafter(ArmendarizandJonathan2010).This
demonstratesakeyelementofthedevelopmentdebate:decidingwhichaspectof
societyfromwhichtoenactchange.Followingtheestablishmentofthisnew
economicfocus,microfinancewasaddedinthe1980’s(AminandMajamder,2011;
Aziz2012).
In1992,realizingtheimportanceoffinancialsupportforthepoor,ASA
begantofocussolelyonmicrofinance(AminandMajamder2011).Themajority(71
percent)ofASA’smembersarewomen,mostofwhomarelandless(Aminand
Majamder2011;Aziz2012).Creditisgivenforaone-yearterm,toberepaidin
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weeklyinstallments(AminandMajamder2011).Previously,ASA’smicrofinance
wasdividedintoseveralcategoriesincluding:smallloans(women);smallloans
(men)formarginalfarmers;smallbusinessloanstosupportemployment
opportunitiesandassistsmalltraders;smallentrepreneurlendingintendedto
supportsustainableemploymentopportunities;supplementaryloansforseasonal
ornaturaldisasterstoencourageborrowstokeepcomingback;andhardcorepoor
loansforextremelypoorpeoplewithmoreflexiblerepayment(AminandMajamder
2011).ThisdiversecategorizationofaidrepresentsASA’spreviouslymultifaceted
approachtodevelopment.However,inanefforttosimplifythemodel,the
categorizationofloanswasreorganizedin2011toincludejusttwocategories:
primaryloans(upto50thousandtaka)andspecialloans(morethan50thousand
taka)(Aziz2012).Forprimaryloans,theeligibilityfortheASAprogramislessthan
halfanacreofagriculturallyusefullandorupto1acreoflessfertilelandwitha
ruralincomeof4,500takaorlessandanurbanincomeof8,000takaorless(Aziz
2012).Forspecialloans,individualsmayownupto1.5acresoflandandhavea
monthlyincomeof9,000takainruralareasor12,000takainurbanareas(Aziz
2012).
Inaddition,eachfamilyisonlyallowedonememberatanygiventime
(Kamal2006).Baselinesurveysareconductedinordertodeterminewhetherornot
thewomenqualifyandtheremotenessofthearea.Inaddition,geo-politicalriskin
theareaisalsotakenintoconsideration(Kamal2006).ASAusesasystemof
individuallendingthroughagroupapproach,whichmeansthatalthoughtheloans
aretakenoutbyindividuals,thereisthethreatofsocialhumiliationiftheloanisnot
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paidback,duetothepresenceofothergroupmembers(Kamal2006).Thisdiffers
slightlyfromothermodels,suchastheGrameenmodel,inwhichtheentiregroupis
responsiblefortherepaymentoftheloan.
ASA’smissionnowistoeradicatepovertywithabottom-upapproachby
providingfinancialservicestothepoor(Aziz2012).Althoughthereisaninherent
elementofsocialadvancementwithineconomicdevelopment,ASA’ssingular
approachtoeconomicadvancementisunique.ASA’ssingularfocusoneconomic
advancementopposesthemoredualisticsocio-economicelementsofbothGrameen
andBRAC’sprograms(Rahman,etal.2012;Abed2000).
FemaleEmpowerment
Empowermentisbothindividualizedandmulti-dimensional,requiring
considerationofeconomic,sociocultural,familial/interpersonal,legal,politicaland
psychologicalfactors(Kulkarni2011).Asaresult,therearemanydifficultiesthat
arisewhenattemptingtomeasuretheempowermentofanindividualor
community.Thereareseveralstudiesthathavebeendonewhichhaveaddresseda
coupleofthedifficultiesoftackingsuchawidespread,andyetindividual,issue
withinsociety.Onestudyemphasizesthedifferencebetween“woman
empowerment”and“womenempowerment,”highlightingtheimportanceof
focusingonpersonalempowermentbecausecollectiveactionmayleaveoutmany
importantdistinctionsbetweentheexperienceofvariousindividuals(Kulkarni
2011).Individualempowermentincludes:agency,autonomy,choice,self-confidence
andself-esteem,whilecollectiveempowermentisrepresentedthroughcollective
mobilization(Kulkarni2011).
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Inanotherstudy,Kimetal(2007)alsoaddresstheissueofgeneralization
withinempowermentresearch.However,thisstudytookadifferentapproach,
breakingdownvariousaspectsofdevelopmentintermsoftheindividual,rather
thanthesocialsector.Therearethreecategories:“powerwithin,”whichaddresses
Internalqualitiesincludingself-confidenceandcriticalthinkingthatpromote
individualagency;“Powerto,”whichrepresentscreationofnewopportunities
withoutdomination,includingtheabilitytomakeindependentdecisionsthat
demonstrateagency;andfinally,“Powerwith,”whichisthecommunalaspectand
includesgroupsolidarityandcollectiveaction,demonstratingthepositivechange
thatcanbeenactedthroughworkingtogether.Identifyingthevariouslevelsat
whichempowermentcanoccurissignificantfordeterminingbothitsextentand
sustainability.Theclaimedinfluenceofmicrofinanceonfemaleempowermentis
throughanincreaseinthedecisionmakingoffemaleborrowers,whichwouldimply
increasesin“powerto,”thesecondlevelofempowerment(Kamal2006).Inaddition
toincreasesinautonomy,microfinanceparticipationhasalsobeensaidtoincrease
theself-confidenceandambitionoffemaleparticipantsinparticular(i.e.,increases
in“powerwithin”)(Kamal2006).Thisterminologybetterhighlightstheimpactby
centeringontheintendedbeneficiaries.Definingindividualandcommunal
empowermentiscriticaltoevaluatingthesuccessofanydevelopmenteffort.
However,acasemuststillbemadeforanexplicitfocusonfemaleempowerment
withinthisproject.Thisisparticularlysignificantbecauseofthenumberoffactors
atplaywithinthestructureofmicrofinanceinstitutions.Forthedurationofthis
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discussion,theterm“multifaceted”willbeusedtoreferenceamicrofinancemodel
inwhichfemaleempowermentisoneofseveralexplicitnon-creditelements.
Theheightenedneedofpoorwomenisapparentthroughouttheliterature
(Abed2000;AminandMajamder2011;Kabeer2000;Hashemi,SchulerandRiley
1996;Balk1997;Rahmanetal.2012).Itisbecauseofthisconsensusthattheissue
offemaleempowermentwithinmicrofinancehasarisen.Variousinstitutionsand
studiescontesttheextenttowhichfemaleempowermentshouldbeanintentional
focusofmicrofinanceprograms.Thisdiscussionisparticularlyrelevantin
Bangladeshwherethereissignificantsocialpressureforwomentoupholdthe
familyhonorbybehavinginaccordancewithhighlyrestrictivesocialnorms
(Papanek1985;Balk1997;Hashemi,SchulerandRiley1996).Bytargetingthepoor
populationswithlessaccesstoformalcredit,microfinanceorganizationsinherently
targetwomen(Hashemi,SchulerandRiley1996;Rahmanetal.2012;Kabeer2000).
However,itisnotclearwhetherornotamoreexplicitefforttopromotefemale
empowermentisneeded.Thedebatethatfollowsfocusesontheextenttowhich
femaleempowermentshouldbeanintentionalfocusofmicrofinanceprograms.
Therearemanysupportersofmultifacetedprograms,whetherornotfemale
empowermentisexplicit.Rahmanetal.(2012)arguesthatthemicrofinance
programwhichincorporatenon-creditelements,includinghealth,education,etc.,
aremoreimpactfulthanthosethatfocussolelyontheprovisionofcreditaccess.
Thisinclusionofnon-creditelementscanbeextendedtoincludeanexplicitfocuson
femaleempowerment.McKernan(2002)findsthattheincreaseinproductivityof
thelandlesspoorasaresultofparticipationintheGrameenBankprogramis
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significant.Interestingly,thosewhobenefittedmostarethosewhohadtheleastto
beginwith(McKernan2002).Thissupportsthenotionthatwomen—themore
disadvantagedgroup—shouldbeintentionaltargetsofmicrofinanceprograms.
McKernan(2002)alsosuggeststhatthenoncreditelementsofprogramssuchas
Grameenareessential.Theskillsandrelationshipsbuiltthroughparticipation
furtherthesocialdevelopmentofparticipants(McKernan2002).Rahmanetal.
(2012)addtotheargumentfortheinclusionofnon-creditelementthroughtheir
assertionoftheimportanceofmaintainingtiesandrelationshipstoensurethe
continuedsuccessofmembers.Thisisfurtheredbytheirclaimthattheculturethat
hascometosurroundmicrofinance,includingthehighparticipationrateofwomen,
isvitaltothesuccessofthemovement(Rahmanetal.2012;Balk1997).Thegroup
lendingmodelsofGrameenandBRACalsoadvocatethenecessityofestablishingthe
properculturesurroundingmicrofinance,includingtheimportanceof“peersocial
pressureandsolidarity”(Rahmanetal.2012,1061;Kabeer2000).Whilethese
scholarsadvocateamorepassiveapproachtotheinclusionoffemaleempowerment
withinthemissionofmicrofinanceorganizations,therearethosewhoadvocatefor
anintentionalemphasisonfemaleempowerment.
Anotherargumentinsupportofamoreintentionalinclusionoffemale
empowermentwithinmicrofinanceprogramsistheincreasedimpactofthecredit
accessandsocio-economicmobilityforboththewomanandherfamilyasawhole.
Somestudiesfindthatinadditiontobreakingdownthegenderbarrier,the
provisionofloanstowomenhasagreaterimpactonthefamily’soverallwell-being
(Balk1997;Kabeer2000).Banerjeeetal.(2013)findconsumptionwithinthe
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householdsoffemalemicrofinancemembersisconcentratedonmoredurable
purchasesthanthatoftheirmalecounterparts.Thisspeakstotheargumentthat
womenputadditionalfundstobetterusethanmalemicrofinancemembers.There
isalsoalotofevidencetosupportthebenefitsmenexperienceevenwhenwomen
arefavoredformembership.AlthoughtheGrameenBankloansprimarilytowomen,
severalstudieshaveshownthatthemeninthefamily,whilenotthedirect
recipientsoftheloan,oftenbenefitmorethanthewomen(PittandKhandker1998).
Thisisinlargepartduetothebeliefofmaleownership;manymenseethemselves
asownersoftheirwives,andthereforetheownerofanymoneytheyreceive(Karim
2008;Khandker1996;Molla,AlamandWahid2008).Similarly,Kabeer(2001)
emphasizesthebenefitsofloaningtowomenratherthanmen.Thisisduepartially
tothesocialstructure,whichmarginalizeswomenandlimitstheiraccesstocredit
(Kabeer2000;Hashemi,SchulerandRiley1996).Therefore,withoutanintentional
femaleempowerment,existingsocialstructureswouldcontinuetoperpetuatethe
genderdivideandlackofsocio-economicmobilityforpoorwomen.
Finally,somescholarsclaimanexplicitfocusonfemaleempowermentis
unnecessaryduetotheinherentempoweringnatureofcreditaccess.Someargue
womenaremuchmorelikelytobenefitpersonallyandsociallyfromaloanthan
men,evenifempowermentisnottheintention,becausetheirgenderisamain
barriertoresources,especiallyifthereareintegratednoncreditdevelopment
elements(Kabeer2001;Aminetal.1998;McKernan2002).Hashemietal.(1996)
findthat,despiteclaimsotherwise,womeninvolvedinmicrofinanceprograms
throughGrameenandBRACareempowered.Althoughtheseprogramsalsohave
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socialdevelopmenteffortsinconjunctionwiththemicrofinanceprograms(more
BRACthanGrameen),thecreditaloneaidsintheempowermentoffemalemembers
(Hashemi,SchulerandRiley1996).
Overall,therearemanyinstancesinwhichthemultifaceteddesignofmany
microfinanceinstitutionsmaydetractfromthepotentialimpact(PittandKhandker
1998;Kabeer2000).However,duetotheintentionsofMFIs,explicitfemale
empowermentmaybeinthebestinterestinthetargetedgroup(Banerjeeetal.
2013;Kabeer2000;Karim2008).Thenecessityoffemaleempowermentmeasures
isapparent;however,theextenttowhichthisshouldinfluencethedesignof
microfinanceprogramsisstilldebatable.Thehighrateoffemalemembership
speakstotheinherentfemalebiaswithinthemicrofinancesector.Inaddition,the
inclusionofnon-creditaspectswithintheseorganizationsprovidesthenecessary
skillandknowledgetomaximizetheearningpotentialofthefinancialsupport.
However,itisdifficulttodiscerntheidealbalance.ASAboaststhemostcosteffectivemethod,withthehighestreliablereturnratesandtheleastamountof
requiredsociallycomplementaryservices(Aziz2012).Unfortunately,thetrue
successoftheseorganizationsliesnotintheirreturnratesorself-sufficiency,but
ratherintheabilityoftheprogramstopermanentlybetterthelivesoftheir
members.Whetherornotamoreexplicitfemaleempowermentfocusisnecessary
forthisisstillnotclear.
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CaseStudy:BorrowersinDhaka,Bangladesh
Thisstudyaimstoqualitativelydemonstratetheempowermentoffemale
borrowersasaresultofparticipationinASA’sprogram,butnotsimplyasaresultof
accesstocredit.Althoughthenon-creditaspectsofthesystemarenotintendedto
actasexplicitsourcesofempowerment,inmanywaystheydo.Thesenon-credit
aspectsoftheprogramwereparticularlybeneficialforincreasing“powerwithin”
and“powerwith”(Kimetal.2007)byencouragingbothself-confidenceand
communalsupport.
Establishedmetricsforvariousaspectsofmicrofinancecanbebrokendown
intoseveralgroups:developmental,economic,socialempowerment,andpolitical
empowerment.Developmentalimpactsinotherstudiesinclude:schoolenrollment
ofchildren;socialmobility;womenparticipation;andHHwelfare(Ahmed2002).
Economicimpactmeasurementsinclude:employment,assets,workingcapital,
investments(andreturnoninvestments),expenditures,consumptionandthe
diversificationofeconomicactivities(Ahmed2002).Socialempowerment
indicatorsinclude:childwomanratio;socialenrollment;girl’sschooling;attitude
towardeducation;adoptionoffamilyplanning;membershipinaformalgroup;and
insomecases,assumingleadershiproleswithinthecommunity(Ahmed2002).
Ichosetodoaqualitativestudyinordertomoreaccuratelydepictthe
perceptionsoftheparticipants.Sincethegoalofthestudywastoevaluatetheir
empowermentwithinthecontextoftheircultureratherthandoanevaluationwith
westernmetrics,Ifeltitwouldbemoreappropriatetoaskthemdirectlytodefine
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empowermentandevaluateitforthemselves.Theinterviewswereconducted
throughatranslator(variousASAemployees)atvariousbranchoffices.
ResearchQuestions:
1. HowhasASA’sprogramimpactedthelivesoftheborrowers?
a. Arethechangesfemaleparticipantsexperience(asclaimedbyKamal,
seelistbelow)sustainable?
i. ASAaddressesitsconcernwithfinancialself-reliability,but
whataboutthesustainabilityofthesocialimpact(assuming
thereisone)?
2. Hasitinspiredanysortofdesiretochangethestatusquo?
3. ArefemaleborrowersofASA’smicrofinanceprogramempowered?
4. Ifso,canitbeattributedtoaccesstocapitalalone?
a. Ifso,doesthisimplythattheonlyrealbarriertosocialmobilityis
economic?
i. Whataboutotherfactorssuchasculturalandreligious
practicesthatshapewomen’sroleswithinthecommunity?
5. Arethewomenontheroadtoself-sufficiency?
QuestionnaireSections:(Variablesandimplications)
1. Introduction
2. ImpressionofASA
a. WhyASA?
b. Howhavethefinancialservicescontributedtochangesin
lifestyle/income/etc.?
c. Arenon-financialservicesimportant?
2. Perceivedimpressionofothers
a. Contributestoperceptionofempowerment,ifpositioninsociety
changes,orthewomenarebelievedtobeperceiveddifferently
3. Empowerment
a. Define
b. Self-evaluation
c. Impactonhealthandsanitation
d. Femaleexperience
i. Establishinggendernorms
ii. Influenceofreligion
e. Incorporationofacceptedempowermentmetrics
i. Socialempowerment
f. Perceptionofeconomicempowerment
g. Perceptionsofpoliticalempowerment
4. Isthereaneedforchange?
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a. Whatshouldbechanged?Why?
b. InfluenceofASA
StudyPeriod:
4June2014–3August2014
Concerns/limitationswiththisstudy:
Severallimitationsregardingtheimplicationsofthisstudythataretheresult
oftheconditionsinwhichitwasconductedshouldbeacknowledgedbefore
presentingthefindings.Firstandforemost,variousASAloanofficersandbranch
managersprovidedthetranslationservicesin-house.Thereispressuretomaintain
aunitedfrontwhendiscussingthesuccessandintensionsoftheprogram.In
addition,theuseofmultipletranslatorswithdifferingrelationshipswiththe
borrowersduetodifferentpowerandgenderdynamicscreatedadiscontinuityin
theinterviewprocess.Severalofthetranslatorswereloanofficers,twowere
managersandtwowerewomen.Anotherlimitationthatarosefromthetranslation
servicesprovidedwasalanguagebarrier.Unfortunately,inmanycasesEnglishspeakingabilitiesofthevarioustranslatorswerelimited.Inordertoassistwiththe
translation,wehadthequestionnairetranslatedintoBanglatominimizethe
translationduringtheinterview.Unfortunately,althoughthisaidedinthetimeliness
ofthetranslationsandthebasicnotionsoftheresponseswereshared,many
nuanceswerelikelylost.
Anotherconcernregardingtheconclusionsofthisstudywastheinabilityto
isolatethevariouselementsoftheprogram.Thisstudyattemptstodetermine
whichelementsoftheprogramcontributemostsignificantlytotheempowerment
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ofitsmembers.Allparticipantsaregrantedaccesstoalltheelementsofthe
program,bothfinancialandnonfinancial.Asaresult,thereislikelyspilloverfrom
variouselementsoftheprogramthatarenotbeingconsidered.Thisiswhythe
studywasframedasananalysisoftheperceivedimpactastoldbytheborrowers
themselves.Alloftheresponsesandtheconclusionsdrawnfromtheseresponses
arebasedonthepersonalexperiencesandreflectionsofthemembersinterviewed.
Findings
Ultimately,thequestionIwasattemptingtotargetthroughmyresearchwas
whetherornotthebeneficiariesofmicrofinanceorganizationsviewedthemselves
inthesameempoweredlightthattheorganizationpaints.AlthoughIwasableto
obtainsomeanswerstothisthroughtheinterviewprocess,sometranslation
difficultiesandinsufficienttimepreventedmefromcollectingdatathatwas
empiricallyrelevant.However,havingtwomonthsinDhakaandinteractingwith
peopleinvarioustiersofsocietyaswellasvarioustierswithinASA’sorganization,I
observedthewaysinwhichseveralgroupswithinthesamesocietyviewedthese
women.WhatIdiscoveredwasnotasmuchasystemofgenderoppression,asa
classistsocietywithlimitedmobility.ThebeneficiariesofASAwereseenas
empoweredbecausetheyhadimprovedtheireconomicstatus,buttheywerestill
seenasimpoverishedindividualswhowereapproachingaglassceilingthat
preventssocialmobilitywithintheexistinghierarchicalstructure.However,thisisa
societalsystem,ratherthananorganizationallimitation.
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AlthoughIwasabletoconductseveralinterviews,Ilearnedasmuch,ifnot
more,outsideoftheinterviews.Iquicklyrealizedthattranslationwouldmakethe
interviewsdifficulttoconductindepth.SoIbegantorecordtheinterviews(with
theverbalconsentofallparticipantsandtranslators)andreviewthemwitha
secondtranslator.Thisprovidedmewithamuchbetterunderstandingofthe
conversationsthatweretakingplacebetweenthetranslatorsandtheborrowers,
theindividualsbeinginterviewedaswellasthecommentaryoftheother
individualsthatwerepresent.Itwastheinformalhushedcommentarythat
providedmoreinsightintoperceptionsofnormsandexpectationsforwomen
withinBangladeshisociety,andspecificallywomenwithlowersocio-economic
standing.Theborrowerslooktothefieldworkersasrepresentativesofthe
organizationthathasverypositivelychangedtheirlives.Thewomenexpressed
gratitudeandpraisetotheorganizationthathasenabledthemtofeedtheirfamilies
andsendtheirchildrentoschool.Asaresult,theperceptionsoftheindividualswho
interactwiththewomenonaweeklybasisishighlyinfluentialinshapingthe
women’sownperceptionsoftheirpotentialandtheirplacesinsociety.
Thewomenwhoexpressedthehighestlevelsofinternalizedempowerment
werethosewhohadbeenwidowedandusedtheloanstofundtheirown
entrepreneurialventures.Previously,manyofthewomenhadtakenouttheloans
andgiventhemdirectlytotheirhusbandstouseastheysawfit.However,withthe
deathoftheirhusbandcametheneedforanewheadofthehouse.Onewidowed
borrowerreferredtoherselfas“theking”inherhome,withagleefullaugh.Itwas
acceptedbyallthatsheneededtoprovideforherchildren,sosheassumedtherole
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asthefinancialheadofthehousehold.ASAreliedonthesocialpressureofthegroup
collectionsettingtoencouragewomentocollecttheweeklyinstallmentsfromtheir
husbands.AmaleASAemployeetoldmethatwomenwereempoweredbecauseof
theirresponsibilityforensuringtheweeklyinstallmentsweremade,thereby
playingavitalroleinensuringthefinancialstabilityofthefamily.
Similarly,thewomenthemselvesexpressedastrongersenseofeconomic
empowermentbecausetheirhusbandsreliedonthemtoreceivetheloansinitially.
Althoughthewomenoftendidnotsingularlydeterminehowthemoneywasspent,
theywereseenascontributingtothefamilialincome.Inmanycasesthewomen
workedwiththeirhusbandsintheirchosenbusinessventure,ormultipleventures.
Whenaskedaboutsocialempowerment,manyofthewomenseemedconfused.The
socialstructurewithintheircommunitieswastakenforgranted,andmanyhadnot
consideredtheideathatthereshouldbeanotherway.Althoughacoupleofwomen
saidtheydidnotfeelsociallyempowered,themajorityexpressednoconcernwith
theirsocialstanding.ThosethatIintervieweddidnotfeelunfairlyrestrictedby
theirhusbandsorthecommunity,althoughsomehadearlierintheirmarriages.
Theirroleasacontributingmemberseemedtohaveprovidedthemwithastronger
senseofselfandaidedinestablishingagreeablepowerdynamicsforbothparties.
Interestinglyenough,themajorityofthewomenwhohadtakenoutloans
saidthattheywouldcontinuetodoso.Despitetheircontinuedrelianceonthese
loans,thewomenconsideredthemselvesself-sufficient,duetotheirabilitytoinvest
intheirchosenbusiness.Oftenthefutureloanswereenvisionedtocontinuethe
expansionoftheirbusinessthroughthepurchaseofadditionalequipment.Dueto
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thislong-terminvestment,boththewomenandASAviewedthemasfinanciallyselfsufficient.Infact,ASAencouragedlong-termmembershipbyofferinglargerloans
forlongtimemembers.Theperceptionofboththemembersandtheorganizationis
thatthecontinueduseofloansdoesnotsuggestfinancialinstability.Infact,itis
viewedasanopportunityforcontinuedprosperityandeconomicexpansion.Asa
result,long-termborrowersexperienceincreasesinbothsocialandeconomic
empowermentthroughcontinuedinvolvementwithASAandtheintegralsupport
network.
AddressingpoliticalempowermentinBangladeshwasalittlemoredifficult
tonavigate.Manyindividuals,awareoftheimportanceofthepoliticalelementof
empowerment,pointedtothefemaleprimeministerasproofoffemale
empowermentinthenation.Despitethisseeminglywell-versedresponse,thefield
officersoftenimpliedthatitwasunfitforwomentobeinvolvedinlocalpolitics.
Thiswasanopinionthatseemedbybesharedbythewomenaswell.Whenaskedif
theywereinvolvedinlocalpolitics,boththefieldofficersandthewomen
themselvesoftenlaughed.However,thevastmajorityofthewomenparticipatedin
electionsandsaidtheydidnotsuccumbtopressure(ifitwasevenpresent)tovote
onewayoranother.Therewerenoinstancesinwhichthewomenexpressedan
interestinanincreaseinpoliticalactivismorempowerment.
Conclusions
Althoughthisorganizationhasdoneanincrediblejobprovidingthesefamilieswith
accesstocreditwhentheyhadnowhereelsetoturn,theclassistundertonesof
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societyarereinforcedbytheaforementionedglassceilingthatseemstobeimposed
onthesewomen.Thiswasmadeclearwhenfemaleloanofficersmadesimilar
commentsregardingtheborrowers’lackofeducationandpotentialforfurther
socio-economicmobility.Therewereconstantreferencestothewomen’slackof
educationandliteracyinadditiontotheirroleashousewife.Theseassertionswere
madebytheloanofficers,whoarehiredintowhatareconsideredlower-skill,entrylevelpositions.ThesearetherepresentativesofASAthattheyinteractwithona
regularbasis;theirtreatmentofthewomenshouldreflecttheviewsandgoalsofthe
organization.
Thiscomesacrossasaharshcritique.However,itisimportanttonotethat
thisisanideologythatpermeatesalllevelsofsociety.Ihighlightedthisconcern
withinASA’sorganization,becausethisisanorganizationthattrulyhasthebest
intentionsforitsmembers.Additionally,thisorganizationisinapositiontochange
thewayinwhichthesewomenviewthemselvesbecauseofthetypeandbreadthof
servicesprovided,includingtheexplicitfocusontheeconomicempowermentof
womeninthecommunity.Thatisnottosaythatthewomenshouldbeencouraged
toshedtheirculturalidentities,however,therelationsthattheloanofficersin
particularhavebuiltwiththesewomenisincredible.Theeasybanterthattakes
placethroughoutcollectionmeetingsisproofofthis.ThesewomenseeASAasan
organizationthathasprovidedthemwiththeabilitytoprovidefortheirfamily,send
theirchildrentoschool,andlivehealthierlives.Theinfluenceanyaffiliateofthis
organizationhasoverthewomen’sperceptionsofthemselves,theircommunities
andtheirplacesintheircommunitiesismonumental.Thiscouldbecultivatedintoa
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moreprogressivesocio-economicmindedprojectthatwouldhelptobreakthe
statusquoandtheperpetuationofwidespreadpoverty.Currently,oneofthelargest
barrierstobreakingthecycleofpovertyforthesefamiliesisthelackofan
alternativenarrative.AlthoughthemainfocusofASAiseconomicempowerment
andbasicserviceprovision,thesocialrootsoftheorganizationandtheuseof
groupstoensurecomplianceandprovidesupportpresentanopportunityfor
furtherexpansion.
Thesewomenrepeatedlyexpressedtheirhopethattheirparticipationwould
providetheirchildrenwithmoreopportunitiesinlifeincludingschool,jobsanda
higherlevelofcomfort.Onewomanhadadaughterforwhomshehaddreamsofa
differentlife,manyofwhichwerelostwhenherdaughterranawaytoelopewhen
shewas13yearsold.However,herdaughter,whileveryyoung,wasnotan
anomaly.Inorderfortheirchildrentohavetheresourcesnecessarytoliveina
mannertheirparentsenvision,thereneedstobeanalternativenarrative.Equally
importantisthesourceofthisnarrative.Thediscourseofwesterndevelopment
projectsfocusesonempoweringwomentochallengethesocialstatusquoinorder
toachievesocialmobilityandisoftennotsensitivetotheimportanceofsocioculturalstructuresinexistence.Aninternallyconstructednarrativewouldprevent
thiserosionofculturalstructuresandprovidetheseindividualswiththe
opportunitytoleadempoweredlivesasdeterminedbytheirbeliefsandvalues,in
theirowncommunities.ASAhasestablishedastrong,beneficialpresencewithinthe
communityandcouldprovideitsmemberswiththesocialempowermentthatis
currentlyimplicit(throughtheestablishmentofgroupmentalityandself-
Davis21
sufficiency)withinitsprograms.Mostimportantly,thiscouldbedoneinamanner
thatrespectsandprotectstheculturalandreligiousideologyofthecommunities,in
awaythatawesterndevelopmentprojectwouldbeincapableof.
Davis22
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