ACHIEVING ENERGY EFFICIENCY AND IMPROVING INDOOR AIR QUALITY
IN ARMY MAINTENANCE FACILITIES (TEMF)
Alexander Zhivov, Ph.D., Dale Herron and Richard Liesen, Ph.D.
USACE Engineer Research and Development Center
Michael Deru, Ph.D.
National Renewable Energy Lab
Introduction
Section 109 of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct 2005) states that for new federal facilities “the
buildings be designed to achieve energy consumption levels that are at least 30 percent below the
levels established in the version of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE) Standard or the International Energy Conservation Code (IECC), as appropriate”
(U.S. Congress 2005). The energy efficient designs must be life cycle cost effective; however, “cost
effective” is not defined in the law and left up to each federal agency to define. The U.S. Department of
Energy (DOE) issued additional guidance in the Federal Register (NARA 2006), which states that
savings calculations should not include the plug loads and implies that the savings shall be determined
through energy cost savings. The U.S. Army decided it would use site energy for the HVAC, lighting,
and hot water loads to determine the energy savings.
The U.S. Army constructs buildings across the country and the Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff of
the Installations Management and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (HQUSACE) decided to
streamline the process of meeting the energy savings requirements. The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE) DOE worked in collaboration with the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), and
the ASHRAE Military Technology Group (MTG) to develop baseline and target energy budgets and
design guides with one prescriptive path for achieving 30% or more energy savings. The project covers
eight building types over all U.S. climate zones: basic training barracks, unaccompanied enlisted
personal housing, battalion headquarters, tactical equipment maintenance facilities, dining facilities,
child development centers, Army reserve centers, and company operations. This paper focuses on
TEMF; however, the process for developing all the design guides is similar.
The concept for these design guides was adapted from the Advanced Energy Design Guides
(AEDGs) from ASHRAE (2008). Each AEDG was developed for a specific building type and
provides recommendation tables for each of the eight major climate zones and a “how-to”
section on implementing the recommendations. The AEDGs do not provide baseline and target
energy budgets, which are used by the Army in its requests for proposals.
Approach
Energy use baseline, target energy budgets were developed and energy savings using different sets of
technologies were analyzed for the representative building. The model of the TEMF building used for
this study is based on the information provided by the USACE Savannah District – the TEMF Center of
Standardization.. Energy conservation technology candidates were selected based on previous CERL
studies of existing TEMF (Zhivov et al., 2007) which outlined energy and IAQ related issues in existing
facilities, and used research data resulted from the IEA-ECBCS (International Energy Agency – Energy
Conservation in Buildings and Community Systems) Annex 46 “Holistic Assessment Tool-kit on Energy
Efficient Retrofit Measures for Government Buildings (EnERGo) (IEA ECBCS Annex 46).
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
All energy simulations for the UEPH were carried out with EnergyPlus version 2.0 (DOE 2008). NREL is
part of the EnergyPlus development team and has developed additional programs that work with
EnergyPlus. These programs work together to create input files, manage the numerous simulations,
provide optimization, and post process the results. The optimization engine, called Opt-E-Plus, is used
to help optimize building designs based on energy performance, energy cost performance, or life cycle
cost performance.
The first step in this whole building energy simulation project was to define the baseline building model,
which meets the requirements of ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 following the Appendix G guidelines
(ASHRAE 2004a). This project followed Appendix G with two exceptions, which were approved by
DOE.
In this project analysis we used site energy based on the Army decision, and developed baseline and
target energy budgets without plug loads as our metric for savings following EPAct 2005 guidance from
DOE.
Finally, Standard 90.1-2004 does not contain requirements for building air leakage and infiltration
levels. For the TEMF office area a baseline air leakage rate and an energy efficient leakage rate were
defined and this factor was included in the energy efficiency analysis.
Existing TEMF Facilities, Their Systems and Issues
Tactical Equipment Maintenance Facilities (TEMF) are buildings used to provide shelter while
maintaining Army vehicles. Figure 1 shows a typical Army maintenance facility. They are also equipped
with lifts, utility services, and tools that enable service people to effectively perform the maintenance
tasks. These tasks include periodic fluid and component changes, replacement of broken or damaged
parts, and subassemblies, and the addition of some new components. The tasks are similar to those
performed in an automotive repair garage. Tasks that require major rebuild of subassemblies are
typically performed elsewhere.
The TEMF come in a range of sizes. They generally are long buildings and consist of a number of bays
that are 35 ft wide with a length in the range of 60 to 80 ft, which is long enough to drive in two vehicles
end to end. At the short ends of the bay, there is an outside door large enough to allow a vehicle to
enter. Also included in the TEMF are administrative offices, rest rooms, cribs for parts storage, and
spaces for specialized maintenance operations. Vehicle bays may form wings off a central core area
where non maintenance activities occur. The building may also be rectangular with administrative,
storage, and specialized spaces occurring in bays similar to the maintenance bays.
The common TEMF building is of masonry construction with a number of vehicle doors on opposite
sides of the building. These doors often do not fit tightly and thereby provide easy access for outdoor
air to enter the building. Windows are normally limited to a narrow band above the row of doors.
2
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Figure 1. Typical Army maintenance facility.
Energy Systems
The energy systems required in a TEMF are those that provide power for tools, lighting, heating, and
ventilation. Outlets providing electrical power are found in each bay. There is also a compressed air
piping system with outlets in each bay. This allows for the use of both electrical and pneumatic tools.
The lighting system consists of ceiling hung general lighting using a high wattage lamp and lower
wattage task lighting for close-up work. The heating system is required to maintain reasonable space
temperatures in the winter. This is typically difficult to accomplish in this type of facility due to the large
number of vehicle doors and the need to occasionally open them. The maintenance areas typically use
radiant heaters or unit heaters.
The administration spaces normally have a forced air unit serving them. Heat is obtained by burning
natural gas in the heating unit or using hot water from a building distribution system. Ventilation is
accomplished by an air handling unit supplying outdoor air and/or by exhaust systems that remove
vehicle exhaust from the maintenance areas. The restrooms have their own exhaust system. Space
cooling is not provided except in the administrative areas.
To power electrical equipment, an electrical transformer is used to reduce voltage from the site
distribution system to voltages of 110, 220 or 460, which are those needed by the TEMF tools and
systems. Some of the systems found in this facility are air compressors, hydraulic pumps for lifts,
overhead cranes, and various test equipment. Other processes that use electricity are welders,
grinders, sanders, and other machine shop tools. Building systems that use electricity are lights,
ventilation and fans, water distribution and waste pumps, door openers, and local hot water heaters.
Equipment and Processes
The types of processes found inside a TEMF include normal maintenance operations where lubricating
oils are changes, damaged body parts are replaced, brakes are changed and adjusted, engines are
tuned, transmissions adjusted. Also, through the assistance of a crane the engine can be pulled and
replaced with a new one. There a special maintenance bays for handling large transport trucks,
armored troop carrying vehicles, and tanks. Typically these special bays are found in a few TEMP
facilities on a Post. These facilities also have a location where welding is accomplished and another
location where painting is done.
Concerns with proper system operation
There are a number of problem areas with the TEMF. The first is the lack of a good temperature control
system. In the summer, these buildings can become quite hot in southern climates. The only relief is to
open the doors to take advantage of whatever breeze is available. At some locations, large roll-around
evaporative cooling units are used to provide a degree of temperature reduction, but they are only
marginally effective. During the heating season, these buildings can be quite cold. Outside air enters
the building through open doors and the cracks around the doors. Warm air heaters have a difficult time
heating the lower occupied zone since the warm air rises.
Radiant heaters can heat the floor, but they need to be placed where the people are located. Someone
working under a vehicle does not gain any benefit from the overhead radiant heaters. At times the
radiant heaters are placed near the roof along the perimeter of the building above the vehicle doors.
This places the heaters in a location that does not interfere with the overhead crane operation, but
away from the people in the space.
3
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Another major area of concern is the ventilation system for the building. The tail pipe exhaust systems
are hard to use (Figure 2); nozzles typically do not fit most of vehicles tail pipes or exhaust grills, and
the hoses usually cannot withstand vehicle exhaust gas temperature and melt. Also, most of exhaust
fumes are released by vehicles when they enter of exit the building. There are only few systems
available to capture exhaust fumes from moving vehicles, but they are rarely specified for TEMFs
operations. Thus, often no attempt is made to connect exhaust systems to the vehicles and take
advantage from close capture.
Figure 2. Tail pipe exhaust system (suspended above vehicle) is hard to use.
Ventilation systems that consist of sidewall exhaust fans do not remove those fumes that are heavier
than air. As the result general energy building ventilation should be provided to dilute these exhaust
fumes to maintain a healthy environment. However, these systems require a lot of energy to move high
volumes of air and to heat it during a cold season. There are many TEMF buildings where general
ventilation is either inadequate or inefficient, or does not exist.
Lighting is a concern in some of the buildings. The high level luminaries provide a good general “walkaround light” level, but the level is inadequate for any close work. Often the doors in the building are
kept open, which increases the lighting level in the work areas significantly. A good task lighting system
in the repair bays is a necessity. Dark internal surfaces result in increased electrical energy
consumption for lighting and in increased heat radiation/discomfort to workers in summer
Model Building Description
The model of the TEMF is a two story structure (Figure 3) with a total area of 49,920 sq ft. Tables 1 to 3
list details of the building description, and Table 4 lists the building zones and internal loads. Figure 4
shows the building’s floor plan and Figure 3 shows a rendered view of the energy simulation model.
The building is nominally occupied from 8 a.m. to 5 p.m. Monday through Friday.
4
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Figure 3. Schematic of the TEMF building used for energy simulation
Table 1. Building description
Building Component
Baseline Building Model
Efficient Building Model
Area
49,920 sq ft (4,638 m2)
Same as baseline
Floors
2
Same as baseline
Aspect ratio
4.4
Same as baseline
Fenestration type
Standard 90.1-2004. See Table 2
See Table 3
Wall construction
Steel frame
Metal building
Wall insulation
Standard 90.1-2004. See Table 2
See Table 3
Roof construction
Flat built up roof
Metal building roof
Roof insulation
Standard 90.1-2004 equal to the “insulation entirely
above deck”
See Table 3
Roof albedo
0.3
0.65 (CZ 1-5) 0.3 (CZ 6-8)
Infiltration
0.5 ACH
0.5 ACH
Temp set points
70 °F heating; 75 °F cooling – set back when
unoccupied to 55 °F heating; 91 °F cooling
Same as baseline
Repair bays, vehicle corridor, and storage 1: 55 °F
heating, no cooling
HVAC
PSZ with DX-AC (3.05 COP) and gas furnace (0.8 Et);
packaged make-up air units for exhaust make-up air
and gas fired unit heaters for the repair bays, vehicle
corridor, and consolidated bench
See Table 4
DHW
Natural gas boiler (0.8 Et)
Natural gas boiler (0.9 Et)
5
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Table 2. 90.1-2004 envelope (baseline)
Zone
City
Wall Ins.
(ft2hF
/Btu)
Roof Ins.
(ft2hF
/Btu)
Slab Ins.
(ft2hF
/Btu)
Window
(U-Btu/ft2hF : SHGC)
N
E
S
W
1A
Miami, FL
13
15 ci
NR
1.22
1.22
1.22
1.22
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
2A
Houston, TX
13
15 ci
NR
1.22
1.22
1.22
1.22
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
2B
Phoenix, AZ
13
15 ci
NR
1.22
1.22
1.22
1.22
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
3A
Memphis, TN
13
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
3B
El Paso, TX
13
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.37
0.37
0.37
0.37
3C
San Francisco, CA
13
15 ci
NR
1.22
1.22
1.22
1.22
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
4A
Baltimore, MD
13
15 ci
NR
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
4B
Albuquerque, NM
13
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
4C
Seattle, WA
13
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.57
0.57
0.57
5A
Chicago, IL
13+ 3.8 ci
15 ci
NR
5B
Colorado Springs, CO
13+ 3.8 ci
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
6A
Burlington, VT
13+ 3.8 ci
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
6B
Helena, MT
13+ 3.8 ci
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.57
0.39
0.39
0.39
0.39
7A
Duluth, MN
13+ 7.5 ci
15 ci
NR
0.57
0.49
0.57
0.49
0.57
0.49
0.57
0.49
8A
Fairbanks, AK
13+ 7.5 ci
20 ci
10
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
NR
NR
NR
NR
6
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Table 3. Improved Envelope.
Item
Component
Climate Zones
1
Roof
Walls
Floors Over
Unconditioned
Space
Slab-on-Grade
3
4
5
6
7
8
Assembly Max U-value
U-0.0750
U-0.0750
U-0.0660
U-0.0490
U-0.0490
U-0.0490
U-0.0388
U-0.0325
Insulation Entirely
Above Deck
R-15ci
R-15ci
R-15ci
R-20ci
R-20ci
R-20ci
R-25ci
R-30ci
Metal Building
R-13 + R13
R-13 + R13
R-19 + R19
R-19 +
R-11 LS
R-19 +
R-11 LS
R-19 +
R-11 LS
R-19 +
R-11 LS
R-25 +
R-11 LS
Attic and Other
R-38
R-38
R-49
R-49
R-19
R-19
R-19
R-38
Assembly Max U-value
U-0.1667
U-0.1667
U-0.1667
U-0.1667
U-0.0595
U-0.0595
U-0.0595
U-0.0391
Mass
R-11.4
R-11.4
R-11.4
R-11.4
R-15.0
R-15.0
R-15.0
R-11.4 +
3.0ci
Steel Framed
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-13 +
12.5ci
R-13 +
12.5ci
R-13 +
12.5ci
R-13 +
18.8ci
Metal Building
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-13 +
13.0ci
R-13 +
13.0ci
R-13 +
13.0ci
R-13 +
19.5ci
Assembly Max U-value
U-0.1067
U-0.1067
U-0.1067
U-0.0739
U-0.0521
U-0.0377
U-0.0377
U-0.0377
Mass
R-6.3ci
R-6.3ci
R-6.3ci
R-10.4ci.
R-16.7ci.
R-25.1ci.
R-25.1ci.
R-25.1ci.
Steel Joists
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-19
R-30
R-30
R-30
Wood Framed and
Others
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-13
R-19
R-30
R-30
R-30
Assembly Max F-value;
F-0.730 ;
F-0.730 ;
F-0.730 ;
F-0.520 ;
F-0.520 ;
F-0.510 ;
F-0.510 ;
F-0.434 ;
NR
NR
NR
R-15.0 for
24 in.
R-15.0 for
24 in.
R-20.0 for
24 in.
R-20.0 for
24 in.
R-20.0 for
48 in.
F-0.900 ;
F-0.860 ;
F-0.843 ;
F-0.688;
F-0.688;
F-0.671;
F-0.671;
R-10 for
24 in
R-15.0 for
24 in.
R-20 for
24 in.
R-20.0 for
48 in
R-20.0 for
48 in
R-25.0 for
48 in
R-25.0 for
48 in
Unheated
Assembly Max F-value;
Heated
Doors
2
NA
Swinging
U-0.70
U-0.70
U-0.70
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
Non-swinging
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
U-0.50
Vertical Glazing Window to Wall Ratio < 10%
(WWR)
< 10%
< 10%
< 10%
< 10%
< 10%
< 10%
< 10%
Skylights
Thermal
transmittance
U-0.56
U-0.45
U-0.45
U-0.42
U-0.42
U-0.42
U-0.33
U-0.33
Solar heat gain
coefficient (SHGC)
0.25
0.25
0.37
0.39
0.39
0.39
NR
NR
Percent Roof Area
≤ 2%
≤ 2%
≤ 2%
≤ 2%
≤ 2%
≤ 2%
≤ 2%
≤ 2%
Thermal
transmittance
U-1.36
U-1.36
U-0.69
U-0.69
U-0.69
U-0.69
U-0.69
U-0.58
Solar heat gain
coefficient (SHGC)
0.19
0.19
0.19
0.34
0.39
0.49
0.64
NR
Table 4. Building zones and internal loads.
Area
sq ft (m2)
Volume
ft3 (m3)
22,272
(2,069)
757,248
(21,437)
56
0.7 (7.5)
15,590 W
Vehicle
Corridor
6,144
(571)
122,880
(3,480)
2
0.7 (7.5)
4,300 W
0.25 (2.7)
1,536 W
17.1 (0.483)
0.5 ACH
Showers
2,048
(190)
40,960
(1,160)
4
0.6 (6.5)
1,230 W
0.25 (2.7)
512 W
5.69 (0.161)
0.5 ACH
Storage 1
4,096
(381)
81,920
(2,320)
2
0.9 (9.7)
3,686 W
0.25 (2.7)
1,024 W
11.4 (0.322)
0.5 ACH
Zone
Repair Bay
Lights
W/sq ft (W/m2)
People
7
Equipment
W/sq ft (W/m2)
0.75 (8.1)
16,704 W
Infiltration
cfm (m3/s)
105 (2.98)
0.5 ACH
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Zone
Area
sq ft (m2)
Volume
ft3 (m3)
Lights
W/sq ft (W/m2)
Equipment
W/sq ft (W/m2)
Infiltration
cfm (m3/s)
Consolidated
Bench
3,072
(285)
61,440
(1,740)
12
1.9 (20.5)
5,836 W
1.0 (10.8)
3,072 W
8.53 (0.242)
0.5 ACH
Storage 2
3,072
(285)
61,440
(1,740)
2
0.9 (9.7)
2,765 W
0.25 (2.7)
768 W
8.53 (0.242)
0.5 ACH
Office
9,216
(856)
129,024
(3,651)
36
1.0 (10.8)
9,216 W
0.75 (8.1)
6,912 W
17.9 (0.507)
0.5 ACH
Total
49,920
(4,638)
1,254,912
(35,528)
114
42,624 W
30,528 W
People
Figure 4. Thermal zoning for the TEMF.
Locations
Energy analysis was conducted for the locations selected as representative cities for the 15 DOE
climate zones by the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (Briggs et al. 2003). For the climate zone
5B Colorado Springs, CO was selected instead of Boise, ID to more closely align with the installations
at Fort Carson. The 15 climate zones and the cities used to represent the climate zones (Table 5).
8
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Table 5. Climate zones and cities used for simulations.
Climate
Zone
HDD
(Base 65ºF)
City
200
CDD
(base 50ºF)
1A
Miami, FL
2A
Houston, TX
1599
9474
6876
2B
Phoenix, AZ
1350
8425
3A
Memphis, TN
3082
5467
3B
El Paso, TX
2708
5488
3C
San Francisco, CA
3016
2883
4A
Baltimore, MD
4707
3709
4B
Albuquerque, NM
4425
3908
4C
Seattle, WA
4908
1823
5A
Chicago, IL
6536
2941
5B
Colorado Springs, CO
6415
2312
6A
Burlington, VT
7771
2228
6B
Helena, MT
7699
1841
7A
Duluth, MN
8A
Fairbanks, AK
9818
1536
13940
1040
Energy Modeling
The energy simulations were completed using EnergyPlus version 2.0 (DOE 2008). All simulations
were completed with the NREL analysis platform that manages EnergyPlus simulations. The approach
to modeling the energy efficiency improvements was to add one improvement at a time starting with the
envelope then infiltration and HVAC. The approach to modeling each of these areas is presented in the
following sections.
Baseline Envelope
The baseline building envelope features are modeled as steel frame wall construction, roof insulation
entirely above deck, and door and fenestration types from ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004. The door,
window, and skylight sizes and distribution are exactly the same in all building models. Skylights are
included at 2% of the roof area in the repair bays, vehicle corridor, and office for daylighting. Table 2
lists the building envelope parameters. The TEMF buildings are constructed as metal buildings, which
have slightly different insulation requirements in Standard 90.1-2004.
Infiltration
The infiltration for the baseline and energy efficient building models was assumed to be 0.5 air changes
per hour (ACH). The infiltration in all zones except the repair bays was assumed to be 0.05 ACH when
the building was pressurized by the HVAC system. The infiltration in the repair bays is strongly affected
by the operation of the overhead doors, and it was assumed that the average infiltration over the day
remains at about 0.5 ACH. No improvements to the infiltration were modeled to show energy savings in
this study.
Ventilation
The outdoor air requirements from ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007 (ASHRAE 2007) are calculated by
Voz = RpPz + RaAz
9
(1)
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Where Voz is the zone outdoor air requirement assuming a air distribution effectiveness of 1, Pz is the
number of occupants, Az is the area of the zone, and Rp and Ra are the outdoor air requirements per
occupant and per area. Some areas have an exhaust requirement instead of an outdoor air
requirement. The “exhaust makeup air may be any combination of outdoor air and transfer air”
(ASHRAE 2007). All simulations completed for this study used only outdoor air for the makeup air.
Table 6 lists the exhaust and outdoor air requirements for different building areas from ASHRAE
Standard 62.1-2007.
Table 6. Baseline building outdoor air requirements from ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007.
Zone
Ra
(cfm/sq ft)
Rp
(cfm/person)
Total (cfm)
Total (ACH)
Notes
Repair Bay
1.5
33,408
2.6
Vehicle Corridor
1.5
9,216
4.5
Exhaust for auto repair room
Showers
0.25
512
0.8
Exhaust for locker/dressing room
Storage 1
0.12
Consolidated Bench
1.5
Storage 2
Office
5
Exhaust for auto repair room
492
0.4
Ventilation for storage room
4,608
4.5
Exhaust for auto repair room
0.12
369
0.4
Ventilation for storage room
0.06
733
0.3
Ventilation for office space
Fans
The TEMF models have several fans, which use a large portion of the total energy. Table 7 lists the
assumptions for modeling the fans in EnergyPlus. The fan flows for the repair bays, vehicle corridor,
and consolidated bench make-up air units (MAUs) are determined by the exhaust air requirements. The
other fans are autosized by EnergyPlus to meet the outdoor air requirements and satisfy the zone
loads, which change slightly with each climate and model variation. The baseline fan efficiencies were
set from the allowable fan efficiency equations in ASHRAE Standard 90.1-2004 (Appendix G).
Table 7. Baseline fan model assumptions.
System
Repair Bay
Flow
(m3/s)
Pressure Rise
(Pa)
Baseline Efficiency
Fan Motor
Total Fan
15.52
400
0.8
0.27
Vehicle Corridor
4.28
300
0.8
0.19
Showers
0.78
250
0.8
0.20
Storage 1
0.54
250
0.8
0.20
Consolidated Bench
2.14
300
0.8
0.19
Storage 2
1.19
250
0.8
0.20
Office
2.49
250
0.8
0.20
Results - Target Energy Budgets
The annual energy use intensity for each climate as simulated by EnergyPlus forms the baseline
energy budget. The target energy budget is 70 percent of these baseline values. Table 8 lists the site
energy use intensities (EUI) with and without plug loads for the baseline and target energy budgets for
each climate zone. Figure 5 shows breakouts of the energy consumption by end use.
10
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Table 8. Energy budgets by climate zone.
With Plug Loads
Climate
Zone
Without Plug Loads
Target Energy
Baseline Energy
Target Energy
Baseline Energy
Budget (kBtu/sq ft) Budget (kBtu/sq ft) Budget (kBtu/sq ft) Budget (kBtu/sq ft)
City
1A
Miami, FL
43
30
36
25
2A
Houston, TX
52
37
45
32
2B
Phoenix, AZ
49
34
42
29
3A
Memphis, TN
63
44
56
39
3B
El Paso, TX
54
38
47
33
3C
San Francisco, CA
50
35
43
30
4A
Baltimore, MD
82
57
75
52
4B
Albuquerque, NM
68
48
61
43
4C
Seattle, WA
71
50
64
45
5A
Chicago, IL
100
70
93
65
5B
Colorado Springs, CO
87
61
80
56
75
6A
Burlington, VT
115
80
108
6B
Helena, MT
106
74
99
69
7A
Duluth, MN
141
99
134
94
8A
Fairbanks, AK
214
150
207
145
3,500
Heating
Cooling
SWH
Pumps
Fans
Interior Equipment
Interior Lighting
Annual Total Site Energy (MWh)
3,000
2,500
2,000
1,500
1,000
500
0
1A
2A
2B
3A
3B
3C
4A
4B
4C
5A
5B
6A
6B
7A
8A
Climate
Figure 5. Energy use by end use for the baseline building.
Energy Conservation Measures
Several energy conservation measures (ECMs) were considered in the analysis to reach energy targets
listed in Table 8. Some of them, included in a final set of technologies, allow to achieve building energy
use that is better than energy targets. Other, are presented as optional and can be used to further
reduce building energy consumption, improve working environment, and increase productivity. Table 9
lists these ECMs. Table 3 lists the envelope ECM parameters. The baseline HVAC system was
assumed to be a packaged single zone system with air conditioning (PTAC) according to ASHRAE
90.1-2004 Appendix G requirements. The baseline system uses direct expansion (DX) coil for cooling
and natural gas coil for heating.
11
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Table 9. Energy conservation measures (succeeding ECMs are cumulative).
No
ECM
Description
1
Envelope
Wall and roof insulation for metal buildings and fenestration from the ASHRAE Small Office
AEDG (ASHRAE 2004b); insulated overhead doors (R-4), high roof reflectivity for climate zones
1-5 (0.65)
2
Lower lighting power density (LPD) and
daylighting
Lower LPD in office (0.9 W sq ft) and consolidated bench (1.3 W/sq ft), daylighting in repair
bays, office, and vehicle corridor
3
High efficiency HVAC equipment
Increased efficiency of the baseline HVAC system to 3.52 COP, 0.9 Et, and efficient fans (see
Table 7).
4
Radiant floor heating
Radiant floor heating for the first floor. Requires R-10 (R-15 for climate zone 8) insulation
under slab.
5
Transpired Solar Collector
Ventilation air heating in transpired solar collector on repair bays
6
Energy recovery
Energy recovery from exhausted air to preheat air supplied into repair bay, vehicle corridor,
and consolidated bench exhaust systems. Assumed on sensible heat recovery at 70% to 75%
effectiveness.
7
Close capture exhausts for moving and
stationary vehicles with a reduced make-up
air supply into repair bays, vehicle corridor,
and consolidated bench
Reduced exhaust and make-up air requirements to 0.75 cfm/sq ft
Building Envelope Improvement
Table 3 lists the envelope insulation levels for metal buildings and the window types taken from the
ASHRAE Small Office AEDG. The overhead door insulation levels were increased to R-4 sq ft·h·ºF/Btu.
Cool Roofs
In TEMF, which are conditioned in warm season only by ventilation, cool roofs do not save energy.
However they can improve comfort conditions (and hence productivity) in the space (Figure 6). In cold
climates, a cool roof can increase the heating load, since the solar radiation reflected by the cool roof
would otherwise be absorbed, resulting in a warmer roof. Cool roof materials are available as white
coatings single-ply white membrane or painted metal (white, cool colored).
The EPA and DOE established the ENERGY STAR Roof Products Program to distinguish those
products that are energy efficient. The criteria for an ENERGY STAR labeled roof product are based on
the initial and aged total solar reflectance (TSR) the initial and aged total solar reflectance (TSR). The
ENERGY STAR criteria vary for low and steep slope applications. Table 10 lists the Total Solar
Reflectance (TSR) required.
Table 10. Total Solar Reflectance (TSR) required.
Minimum initial TSR
3-year Aged TSR
Low slope roofing (≤ 2:12)
0.65
0.50
Steep slope roofing (>2:12)
0.25
0.15
Based on the analysis conducted by CERL and NAVFAC, the first cost of most of Energy Star Roof
Products that can be used for TEMF does not exceed the cost of regular (not “cool” roofing materials).
For TEMF roofs with high reflectivity (0.65) are recommended for climate zones 1–5.
12
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
% Available Work Hours Lost
25
Base Model
20
Cool Roof
15
10
5
ry
7:
D
K
8:
A
N
M
:V
ZN
7:
H
um
ry
:
ZN
ZN
T
ID
L
6:
D
um
:I
ZN
5:
H
ry
:
4:
D
ZN
ZN
:M
NM
D
TX
4Hu
m
ZN
:T
N
3Dr
y:
ZN
AZ
3Hu
m
ZN
2Dr
y:
:
2Hu
m
1:
ZN
ZN
ZN
FL
TX
0
Figure 6. Percent of work hours lost in the base industrial building and in the building with a “cool roof”
(based on the analysis under the Annex 46 study.
Daylighting
Repair bays and warehouses are good candidates for hybrid lighting systems, which include a
combination of electrical lighting and daylighting (Figure 7a). Installing skylights to reducing lighting
costs is not a new concept. Skylight technology, however, has advanced significantly in recent years
(Figure 7b).
a
b
Figure 7. Maintenance facility with a daylighting system (a); Schematic of modern skylight installation
details (b)
To automatically dim the lights, a photoelectric sensor measures the amount of light in a zone. If the
specified amount of light has been reached, the controller turns off a bank of lights. Systems can be
obtained to control only lights near windows or an entire building.
Small controllers can control the banks of lights near windows and larger systems can control an entire
building that is illuminated by natural lighting. The controls can be set to dim the lights once a certain
level of light has been achieved. Proper lighting levels can be found in the IESNA Lighting Ready
Reference. Controls systems can typically either perform “step” dimming, which simply turns off certain
banks of lights or linear dimming, and which linearly dims the lights until a minimum power level has
been reached. Linear dimming, however, requires special dimming ballasts that are quite expensive
and less efficient than standards ballasts above 50 percent. Based on the simulation results from the
13
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Annex 46 study, for the ventilated industrial building with no air conditioning, average pay-back ranges
from 4–9 years.
Close Capture Evacuation System for Vehicle Exhaust Fumes
Vehicle exhaust ventilation system can mitigate and reduce exposure to Diesel and gasoline fumes
generated by moving vehicles. Vehicle exhaust ventilation systems can be adopted to specific
conditions of the maintenance facility (e.g., maintenance bay, drive-through corridor) and allow a range
of exhausted air volume and withstand temperature ranges specific to variety of vehicles/tactical
equipment serviced or repaired in these facilities. For the biggest vehicles the military needs to service,
exhaust flow varies from 1700 to 3300cfm at temperatures of 650 up to 1200 °F.
Vehicle exhaust capture systems trap and remove by-products of the engine combustion process (gas
or Diesel) without contaminating the building air. Vehicle exhaust fumes contain hydrocarbons (HC),
nitrogen oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur dioxides (SOx), carbon dioxide (CO2) and
approximately 100 other volatile organic and acidic compounds.
Traditional ventilation systems for maintenance facilities include a general dilution system sized for
approximately 1.5 cfm of outdoor air per sq ft of floor area. This flow rate is based on ASHRAE Std. 62
and assumes that running vehicles are entering the building prior to attachment of the stationary close
capture exhaust system. If the close capture system is attached before the vehicle enters the building,
the general dilution rate can be assumed to be similar to mechanical or assembly shops (~0.75
cfm/sq ft) (HPAC Engineering, 2000). The reduction could be achieved through demand controlled
exhaust and make-up air systems and using the exhaust air from the office space as part of the makeup air. Conditioning the make-up air is the largest single energy use in the TEMF. This ECM results in
the most significant energy savings in all climate zones. Figure 8 shows a stationary hose reel type
system requiring ~1.5 cfm/sq ft of outdoor air.
Figure 8. Stationary hose reel type system.
Reduction in the general dilution rate can be achieved by means of well designed suction rail or
pivoting boom systems (Figure 9). Vehicles are connected to these systems prior to entering the facility
and remain attached while moving in and out of the facility.
14
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Suction Rail Systems
Boom Systems
Figure 9. Well designed suction rail or pivoting boom systems.
Selection of the hose for a particular application depends on exhaust temperature and flow rate.
Selection of the nozzle depends on the size and configuration of the tail-pipe or exhaust grill.
In most small vehicle maintenance and repair facilities, it is uncommon for several vehicles to drive in
or out of the facility simultaneously. Likewise, it is uncommon to run all the engines in the facility at the
same time. Typically a demand controlled local exhaust system is sized for a maximum duty cycle of 50
percent of the total available capacity thereby reducing the size of the exhaust duct, fan as well as its
operating airflow rate. The exhaust airflow rate is controlled using a variable frequency drive (VFD) and
a pressure sensor installed in the main duct.
Demand based control of the local exhaust system is initiated by a mechanical damper that opens
when the hose is pulled down from the reel. Each of these mechanical dampers initiates the activation
of air flow from a specific hose reel during maintenance operations. The system fan ramps up or down
to accommodate the number of hose reels activated without affecting the airflow through other reels.
Figures 10 and 11 show the simple payback for both the rail and boom systems based on the
simulation results conducted under the Annex 46 study. For both systems in all climates, the payback is
less than 4.5 years. The significant reduction in outdoor air flow rate is responsible for the savings.
15
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
2.5
Min
2.0
Payback
in Years
Max
Avg
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
TX AZ : TN : TX : MD NM : IL : ID : V T MN AK
:
:
y
:
m
y
y
8:
m
r y Hu
ry
Dr
um Dr
u m -Dr
um
u
6:
ZN
ZN -H 2-D 3-H
3 4-H 4: D 5:
: H 7:
2 N
7
ZN N
ZN ZN
ZN
ZN
Z
ZN
ZN
ZN
Z
1:
Figure 10.
FL
Estimated simple payback for rail system.
3.5
3.0
Min
2.5
Max
Payback 2.0
in Years 1.5
Avg
1.0
0.5
0.0
L
D
T
N
N
D
X
M
TX AZ
:I
M : AK
:I
: T y: T
:V
: M y: N
:
m
y:
8
um Dry um Dry
m
r
m
r
r
u
u
H
D
u
D
H
6:
ZN
ZN - H
-H 4: D 5:
:H
7:
23- N 3
4
2
7
ZN N
Z
ZN
ZN
ZN ZN
ZN
ZN
Z
ZN
1:
Figure 11.
FL
Estimated simple payback for boom system.
General Ventilation
General supply and exhaust ventilation shall be designed to respond maintain indoor air quality and
provide a make-up air for local exhaust systems. Demand controlled ventilation with variable frequency
drives (VFD) and CO and NOx sensors to control residual fumes from gasoline, can be implemented
following the indoor air quality (IAQ) procedure in ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007.
Cascading air from offices to maintenance bays and vehicle corridor pressurizes office areas and
prevents odors/contaminants from more polluted zones to office spaces. It also provides heated or
cooled air for the repair bays area and results in energy conservation. Since vehicle exhaust fume are
16
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
heavier that the air and tend to stay close to the floor, two-thirds of air shall be exhausted by general
exhaust system from within 1 ft from the floor level, and the rest from the upper zone. If TEMF has a pit,
it shall be ventilated by supplying air directly into the pit and have an exhaust from its bottom.
HVAC equipment efficiency improvement
Compared to the ASHRAE Standard 90.1 minimum requirement, the cooling equipment efficiencies
were increased by 20 percent, the gas burner efficiencies were increased to 0.9, and the fan
efficiencies were improved (Table 11).
The improved efficiency fan performance numbers are based on available high efficiency fans. The last
column shows the pressure increase in the fan system for the inclusion of the energy recovery
ventilator (ERV). The fan pressure was increased by 50 Pa when the transpired solar collector was
included. For the cases with reduced ventilation, the pressures were reduced by 15 percent for the
repair bays, vehicle corridor, and the consolidated bench.
Table 11. Improved fan model assumptions.
System
Repair bay
Flow
(m3/s)
Pressure
Rise
(Pa)
Baseline Efficiency
Fan Motor
Total Fan
Improved Efficiency
Fan Motor
Total Fan
ERV
Pressure
Drop (Pa)
15.52
400
0.8
0.27
0.9
0.45
200
Vehicle corridor
4.28
300
0.8
0.19
0.9
0.45
150
Showers
0.78
250
0.8
0.20
0.85
0.34
Storage 1
0.54
250
0.8
0.20
0.85
0.34
Consolidated bench
2.14
300
0.8
0.19
0.9
0.45
Storage 2
1.19
250
0.8
0.20
0.85
0.34
2.49
250
0.8
0.20
0.85
0.34
75
0.8
0.30
0.85
0.34
Office
Fan coil units
Varies
150
The fan improvements had the largest affect in the climate zones 1 to 3.
Ventilation air preheating in transpired solar collector
A transpired solar collector or a “solar wall” preheats ventilation air by drawing make-up air through a
perforated steel or aluminum plate that is warmed by solar radiation. The solar wall consists of
perforated steel or aluminum cladding attached to the south façade of a building with an air gap
between the existing wall and the cladding. The solar wall is dark-colored to absorb the maximum
amount of solar radiation. Air is drawn through the small holes in the wall and heated at the same time
(Figure 12). The warm air rises to the top of the wall and is drawn into the building’s ventilation system
as shown in the figure below. Figure 13 shows a solar wall installed on the maintenance facility at Fort
Drum, NY.
17
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
a.
b.
Figure 12. Schematic of air flows through (a) a solar wall and (b) typical installation.
a.
b.
Figure 13. Solar wall installed on (a) the maintenance facility at Fort Drum, detail showing (b) perforated
panel element
The performance of a solar wall depends primarily on four parameters: the solar reflectance of the wall,
the orientation of the wall, the size and spacing of the perforations in the wall, and the pressure drop
maintained by the ventilation system across the wall. The solar reflectance is primarily affected by the
coating applied to the solar wall. In general, darker colors have a lower reflectance, and thus absorb a
greater fraction of incident solar radiation.
The orientation of the wall also greatly affects its performance The intensity of the incident solar
radiation is dependent on the cosine of the ‘angle of incidence’, the angle between the outward facing
normal of the surface and the ‘line of sight’ to the sun. Walls that more directly face the sun will receive
more solar radiation. In winter months in the northern hemisphere, south facing walls perform best. The
cost effectiveness of applying solar collectors to East and West facing walls (to catch morning and
afternoon sun) must be analyzed on a case by case basis. Simulation of solar wall energy performance
conducted under the IEA Annex 46 study shows, that a simple pay back is under 6 years for all heating
dominated climates.
18
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Energy recovery ventilators
Heating energy recovery from the stream of air exhausted from repair bays, vehicle corridor, and
consolidated bench can be used to preheat supply air. Use of ERV results in the increased pressure
drop in the supply air system. There is also a need for better duct insulation to reduce heat losses in
the return duct. Given these additional costs and losses, according to (Malmstrom et al., DATE) ERVs
are not cost efficient in mild climates (with HDD < 2500). Considering that exhaust air may contain
sticky particulates, ERVs were selected with a plate heat exchangers, which are 75 to 70 percent
effective..
Hydronic radiant floor heating
Low intensity hydronic radiant floor heating systems are commonly used in industrial facilities, hangars,
warehouses, garages, gymnasiums, hospitals, kindergartens, apartments, and in different other types
of buildings. Heat to the space is provided by hot water supplied through pipes embedded in floors.
Thermal energy is exchanged by at least 50% by radiation between the room and people present in the
space and the heated floor surface. Transfer from the hot water pipes to the surface of the floor is the
important consideration.
The uniform temperature distribution from floor heating increases comfort and reduces room
air temperature stratification especially in high ceiling buildings. Low intensity radiant heating
provides greater comfort for mechanics working near or on the floor. Radiant energy
transmitted to the cold (sometimes snow-covered) vehicles results in rapid conditioning of the
vehicles for service, which improves workers’ productivity and adds to their comfort.
Radiant floor systems are more energy efficient. Compared to warm air heating systems
traditionally used in TEMF, a radiant floor system provides the same comfort level in the
working zone at a lower room air temperature during the heating season. This results in
reduced ventilation and infiltration losses. In hydronic radiant floor systems, energy is
transported by water instead of air. Auxiliary energy for circulation pumps is less than for fans.
The system uses lower water temperature for heating, than the warm air heating systems. This
allows for using HVAC heating coil return water for radiant floor system, which increases
energy performance of boilers (condensing boilers) and heat pumps. Reduced air temperature
stratification along the room height results in heating energy saving, typically at least by 25 to
30 percent.
With the introduction of polybutelene tubing and new design techniques, as well as reduced
energy losses due elimination of room air temperature stratification, the first cost of radiant
floor system became comparable or even lower than the warm air system. Application of
radiant floor systems requires under the slab insulation with 2 in. of EPS insulation (R-10) for
climate zones 1 to 7 and 3 in. (R-15) for climate zone 8.
Vestibules with airlocks
Vestibule with an airlock (Figure 14) prevents cold air drafts into the building and allows to heat the
vehicle prior to bringing it in. The building is protected from outdoor air by two sequentially installed
doors with an enclosed space (airlock). There is only one door open at a time to let a vehicle in or out
the building. After the vehicle enters the airlock the first door closes and the second one opens.
Simulation of “vehicle vestibules” conducted under the IEA Annex 46 study shows that the simple pay
19
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
back is under 4 years for all heating dominated climates.
Figure 14. Example vestibule at auto manufacturing plant.
Results – Energy Savings with Recommended Technology Sets
Table 9 lists specific sets of energy conservation technologies that allow reduction of energy
consumption in TEMF to the levels that meet or exceed EPACT 2005 requirements.
Tables 12 and 13 list energy savings resulted from application of these technology sets with and
without the plug loads. Table 14 lists climate specific sets of energy conservation technologies that
allow reduction of energy consumption in TEMF to the levels that meet or exceed EPACT 2005
requirements.
Table 12. Final energy efficient design solutions without plug loads.
CZ
Baseline
(kBtu/sq ft)
City
Final Energy Efficient
Solution
(kBtu/sq ft)
Energy Savings
1A
Miami, FL
36
15
59%
2A
Houston, TX
45
19
58%
2B
Phoenix, AZ
42
17
59%
3A
Memphis, TN
56
25
56%
3B
El Paso, TX
47
20
58%
3C
San Francisco, CA
43
17
59%
4A
Baltimore, MD
75
35
53%
4B
Albuquerque, NM
61
27
56%
4C
Seattle, WA
64
29
54%
5A
Chicago, IL
93
45
52%
5B
Colorado Springs, CO
80
36
55%
6A
Burlington, VT
108
54
50%
6B
Helena, MT
99
49
50%
7A
Duluth, MN
134
65
51%
8A
Fairbanks, AK
207
105
49%
20
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Table 13. Final energy efficient design solutions with plug loads.
CZ
Baseline
(kBtu/sq ft)
City
1A
Final Energy Efficient
Solution
(kBtu/sq ft)
Energy Savings
Miami, FL
43
22
49%
2A
Houston, TX
52
26
50%
2B
Phoenix, AZ
49
24
50%
3A
Memphis, TN
63
32
50%
3B
El Paso, TX
54
27
50%
3C
San Francisco, CA
50
25
51%
4A
Baltimore, MD
82
42
48%
4B
Albuquerque, NM
68
34
50%
4C
Seattle, WA
71
36
49%
5A
Chicago, IL
100
52
48%
5B
Colorado Springs, CO
87
43
50%
6A
Burlington, VT
115
61
47%
6B
Helena, MT
106
56
47%
7A
Duluth, MN
141
72
49%
8A
Fairbanks, AK
214
112
48%
Table 14. Summary of Climate Specific Sets of Energy Conservation Measures
Zone
Improved Lighting &
High
Envelope Daylighting Efficient
HVAC
City
Radiant
Floor
Heating
Transpired
Solar
Collector
Energy
Recovery
1A
Miami, FL
2A
Houston, TX
2B
Phoenix, AZ
3A
Memphis, TN
VC & CB
3B
El Paso, TX
VC & CB
3C
San Francisco, CA
VC & CB
4A
Baltimore, MD
VC & CB
4B
Albuquerque, NM
VC & CB
4C
Seattle, WA
VC & CB
5A
Chicago, IL
VC & CB
5B
Colorado Springs, CO
VC & CB
6A
Burlington, VT
VC & CB
6B
Helena, MT
VC & CB
7A
Duluth, MN
RP, VC, CB
8A
Fairbanks, AK
RP, VC, CB
Legend
Include
Include, but with savings less
than 5%
Not included
Energy
Recovery
Zones
RB = Repair Bay,
CB = Consolidated Bench,
VH = Vehicle Corridor
21
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
Conclusions
EPAct 2005 sets energy performance requirements to reduce energy use in federal facilities. The
OACSIM and USACE are determined to meet these requirements for the large number of new buildings
to be constructed in the next few years by setting target energy budgets. USACE also wanted a
prescriptive path to meet or exceed these energy saving requirements, and by using these
technologies to improve soldiers’ and workers’ productivity and wellbeing and sustainability of buildings.
With these objectives in mind, design guides for the most typical categories of Army buildings were
developed. This paper presents the results of developing target energy budgets and energy design
guide for Tactical Equipment Maintenance Facilities (TEMF). The approach for other seven building
types is similar to that presented in this paper. Information on target energy budgets and design
guidelines for Unaccompanied Enlisted Personal Housing (UEPH) barracks and for Dining Facilities are
presented in two companion papers (Herron et al., 2009; Deru et al., 2009).
For the model TEMF building energy savings against the baseline vary between 49% and 59%.
Requirements to radiant floor heating, robust moving vehicle exhaust close capture, vehicle vestibule in
colder climates and daylighting ensure soldiers/workers improved wellbeing and productivity.
Results of this study were implemented through the Army’s standard Bid-Build process in late 2007 by
incorporation in RFP target energy budgets by climate zone and sets of technologies allowing to meet
these budgets. Use of several technologies, e.g., radiant floor heating, solar wall air preheating, close
capture vehicle exhaust, daylighting are listed as mandatory requirements. Designs and construction
using RFP having new requirements began in 2008. They allow either a custom design following target
energy budgets and using required set of technologies with a mandatory proof of compliance with
energy targets, or contractors can use a complete set of technologies included in the prescriptive path,
which doesn’t require a proof of compliance.
It is noteworthy to mention, that predicted energy savings strongly depend upon the climate, building
orientation and for specific building design will vary. However implementation of developed energy
budgets and a sets of technologies included in prescriptive path, allow to streamline and reduce the
cost of facility design and construction process, ensures that newly constructed facilities comply with
the intent of the EPACt 2005 without jeopardizing their functional quality.
Acknowledgements
This paper is based on the results of the project conducted for the Office of the Assistant Chief of Staff
of the Installations Management and the Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (HQUSACE).
Information on the energy conservation technologies analysis used in this project was based on
research data resulted from the IEA-ECBCS (International Energy Agency – Energy Conservation in
Buildings and Community Systems) Annex 46 “Holistic Assessment Tool-kit on Energy Efficient Retrofit
Measures for Government Buildings (EnERGo) financially supported by the Office of the Assistant
Chief of Staff, Installation Management (OACSIM) and Headquarters, Installation Management Agency
(HQIMA). ASHRAE Technical Committee 7.6 Working Group members and the Annex 46 Subtask B
members contributed to generation of the Energy Conservation Measures, their screening conditions
and the industrial model building parameters. The authors express their gratitude to MTG group
members..
22
Energy and Water Conservation Design Requirements for SRM Projects
References
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Low-Rise Residential Buildings. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE, 2004a)
2. ASHRAE (2004b). Advanced Energy Design Guide for Small Office Buildings. Atlanta, GA:
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc.
(ASHRAE, 2004B)
3. ASHRAE (2007). ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2007 Ventilation for Acceptable Indoor Air
Quality. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning
Engineers, Inc.(ASHRAE, 2007)
4. Briggs, R.S., Lucas, R.G., and Taylor, T.; Climate Classification for Building Energy Codes
and Standards: Part 2 - Zone Definitions, Maps and Comparisons, Technical and
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24