SCHOLARS,EXPLORERS,PRI
ESTS
Ho
wt
heRe
na
i
s
s
a
nc
eGa
veUst
heMo
de
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r
l
d
February2-March 27,2010
Cur
at
edbyJamesM.Sasl
ow
Pr
of
essorofAr
tHi
st
or
y
,Renai
ssanceAr
tandTheat
er
,
QueensCol
l
egeAr
tDepar
t
mentand
TheGr
aduat
eCent
er
,Ci
t
yUni
ver
si
t
yofNewYor
k
TheGodwi
nTer
nbachMuseum,QueensCol
l
ege,CUNY
Publ
i
shedi
nconj
unct
i
onwi
t
ht
heexhi
bi
t
i
onSchol
ar
s,Expl
or
er
s,Pr
i
est
s:Howt
heRenai
ssanceGaveUst
he
Moder
nWor
l
datt
heGodwi
nTer
nbachMuseum,QueensCol
l
ege,CUNY,Febr
uar
y2—Mar
ch27,2010
Theexhi
bi
t
i
onwasmadepossi
bl
ebyt
heNewYor
kCi
t
yDepar
t
mentofCul
t
ur
al
Af
f
ai
r
s;t
heWannFami
l
y
Foundat
i
on,t
heQueensCol
l
egeOf
f
i
ceoft
hePr
esi
dent
,t
heQueensCol
l
egeAr
tDepar
t
mentandt
heFr
i
endsof
t
heGodwi
nTer
nbachMuseum.
Edi
t
or
s:JamesM.Sasl
ow,AmyH.Wi
nt
er
Desi
gner
:Br
i
t
aHel
gesen
Ter
nbachMuseum,QueensCol
l
ege,CUNY
Copyr
i
ght©Godwi
nAl
lr
i
ght
sr
eser
ved
Nopar
toft
hecont
ent
soft
hi
sbookmayber
epr
oduced,st
or
edi
nar
et
r
i
evalsyst
em,ort
r
ansmi
t
t
edi
nanyf
or
m or
byanymeans,el
ect
r
oni
c,mechani
cal
,phot
ocopyi
ng,r
ecor
di
ng,orot
her
wi
se,wi
t
houtt
hewr
i
t
t
enper
mi
ssi
onof
t
heGodwi
nTer
nbachMuseum.
Godwi
nTer
nbachMuseum
QueensCol
l
ege,CUNY
405Kl
apperHal
l
6530Ki
ssenaBoul
evar
d
Fl
ushi
ng,NewYor
k1
1367
www.
qc.
cuny
.
edu/
godwi
n_t
er
nbach
I
SBN9780979951
145
Phot
oCr
edi
t
:Br
i
t
aHel
gesen
esaCl
ar
ksonFar
r
el
l(
TCF)
,Ant
honyDel
Aver
sano(
AJD)
,
Cont
r
i
but
i
ngaut
hor
s:Ki
mber
l
eyBabcock(
KB)
,Ter
Ar
i
anneFer
nandez(
AMF)
,Car
ol
i
neGer
ki
sCG)
,Just
i
nneLakeJedzi
nak(
JLJ)
,El
i
zabet
hLamour
t(
EL)
,Pet
er
Leeds(
PL)
,Joel
l
ynMal
oney(
JM)
,Gal
eMat
t
hews(
GDM)
,Mar
i
aMur
i
l
l
o(
MEM)
,Laur
enNuzzol
o(
LN)
,Ant
oni
a
Per
ez(
AP)
,Chr
ysoul
aPol
i
t
ou(
CP)
,Wi
l
l
i
am St
ei
nman(
WS)
,Laur
aSt
evenson(
LS)
,NavaSt
r
ei
t
er(
NS)
,Laur
en
Wi
l
l
i
ams(
L
W)
,andFl
or
aZhenRonKuo(
FK)
.
FOREWORD
Onceagai
n,t
hi
sexhi
bi
t
i
on,cur
at
edbyPr
of
essorJamesSasl
owandhi
sst
udent
si
nasemi
naronRenai
ssancear
t
,al
l
owst
hemuseum t
of
ul
f
i
l
li
t
s
mi
ssi
ont
oeducat
eandenl
i
ght
ent
hr
ought
hei
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
onofar
tobj
ect
si
nourr
i
chcol
l
ect
i
ons.I
nconcept
ual
i
zi
ngt
heexhi
bi
t
i
onar
oundt
hekey
t
hemesofschol
ar
s,expl
or
er
s,andpr
i
est
s,Dr
.Sasl
ow hasf
or
mul
at
edameanst
ocl
osel
yexami
neandappr
eci
at
ehi
st
or
i
calobj
ect
si
nt
hei
rown
cont
extaswel
l
asi
nr
el
at
i
ont
oourcont
empor
ar
ywor
l
dvi
ewandexper
i
ence.
Ashepoi
nt
sout
,t
heRenai
ssancepr
ovi
dedt
hef
oundat
i
onsf
ormoder
n
educat
i
on,communi
cat
i
on,t
echnol
ogy
,andspi
r
i
t
ual
i
t
yt
hatst
i
l
lexi
stt
oday
.Atat
i
meofi
nst
ant
aneouscommuni
cat
i
on,whenhi
st
or
yseemst
ohave
f
adedf
r
om memor
yandgl
obalcont
acthasshr
unkt
hewor
l
d,t
hi
si
sacr
i
t
i
calexer
ci
sef
orunder
st
andi
ngcent
r
alpr
i
nci
pl
esofmoder
nWest
er
n
ci
vi
l
i
zat
i
ont
hatst
i
l
ldeepl
yi
nf
or
m andaf
f
ectourl
i
ves.Wi
t
ht
hi
smet
hod,st
udent
sandaudi
encesar
eof
f
er
edasenseoft
hecont
i
nui
t
yofhuman
cul
t
ur
eandconsci
ousness,anunder
st
andi
ngofhowar
ti
savesselandmi
r
r
orofhi
st
or
y
,andt
her
el
evanceofhi
st
or
yf
orourt
i
mes.
Theni
net
eenst
udent
s,namedbel
ow,wor
kedasat
eam t
osel
ectpai
nt
i
ngs,pr
i
nt
s,scul
pt
ur
eanddecor
at
i
veobj
ect
sf
r
om over300wor
ksi
nt
he
col
l
ect
i
on.Theyr
esear
chedandwr
ot
ecat
al
ogueent
r
i
esandwal
l
t
ext
s,desi
gnedt
hel
ayout
,andcr
eat
edt
hesl
i
deshowsandaudi
oandeducat
i
onal
gui
dest
hataccompanyt
heexhi
bi
t
i
on.I
nt
hecr
eat
i
vespi
r
i
tt
hatchar
act
er
i
zedRenai
ssancei
nnovat
i
on,t
heyexper
i
ment
edwi
t
hnew i
nt
er
act
i
ve
t
echnol
ogi
est
hatar
e,i
nf
act
,t
hehi
ght
echout
gr
owt
hofGut
enber
g’
si
nvent
i
onoft
hepr
i
nt
i
ngpr
ess,whi
chl
edt
ot
her
ei
nvent
i
onofcul
t
ur
eand
i
dent
i
t
y
.But
,asdemonst
r
at
edi
nt
heexhi
bi
t
i
on,t
hi
smomental
sosaw t
heexpansi
onofcont
actandexchangewi
t
hnonWest
er
ncul
t
ur
es,whi
ch
t
odayf
or
mt
hebasi
sf
oragl
obalcul
t
ur
et
hatwi
l
l
,agai
n,r
ei
nventwhowear
e,howwet
hi
nkaboutour
sel
ves,andwhatwear
eabl
et
oaccompl
i
sh.
Wet
hankPr
of
essorSasl
ow f
orhi
si
nspi
r
i
ngandt
hought
f
uli
deasandf
orgui
di
nghi
sst
udent
si
nt
her
eal
i
zat
i
onoft
hi
sexhi
bi
t
i
on.Wet
hankt
he
st
udent
st
hemsel
ves—Ki
mber
l
ey Babcock,Ter
esa Cl
ar
ksonFar
r
el
l
,Ant
hony Del
Aver
sano,Ar
i
anne Fer
nandez,Car
ol
i
ne Ger
ki
s,Just
i
nne
LakeJedzi
nak,El
i
zabet
hLamour
t
,Pet
erLeeds,Joel
l
ynMal
oney
,Gal
eMat
t
hews,Mar
i
aMur
i
l
l
o,Laur
enNuzzol
o,
Ant
oni
aPer
ez,Chr
ysoul
aPol
i
t
ou,
Wi
l
l
i
am St
ei
nman,Laur
aSt
evenson,NavaSt
r
ei
t
er
,Laur
enWi
l
l
i
ams,andFl
or
aZhenRonKuo—f
ort
hei
rexcel
l
entcont
r
i
but
i
onsandhar
dwor
k.We
t
r
ustt
hatt
heexper
i
encewasasgr
at
i
f
yi
ngf
ort
hem asi
twasf
ort
hemuseum,andknowi
twi
l
lbef
orouraudi
ences.
sot
hankt
hosewhosegener
ousf
undi
ngmadet
hi
sexhi
bi
t
i
onandi
t
spr
ogr
amspossi
bl
e,i
ncl
udi
ngt
heNewYor
kCi
t
yDepar
t
mentofCul
t
ur
al
Weal
Af
f
ai
r
s,t
heWannFami
l
yFoundat
i
on,t
heQueensCol
l
egeOf
f
i
ceoft
hePr
esi
dent
,t
heQueensCol
l
egeAr
tDepar
t
mentandt
heFr
i
endsoft
he
Godwi
nTer
nbachMuseum.
Asal
ways,wear
egr
at
ef
ult
ot
heGTM st
af
ff
ort
hei
rdedi
cat
i
onandunt
i
r
i
ngef
f
or
ti
npr
oduci
ngt
hi
sexhi
bi
t
i
on—Br
i
t
aHel
gesen,Al
l
ysonMel
l
one,
Denni
sCady
,Jessi
caMar
i
ano,
Ai
shaHassan,andJohnThayer
,aswel
l
ast
hemember
soft
heQueensCol
l
egecommuni
t
y
,f
orf
aci
l
i
t
at
i
ngt
hemany
aspect
soft
hi
spr
oj
ect
.
AmyH.Wi
nt
er
Di
r
ect
orandCur
at
or
I
ntroducti
on
Whatdoesi
tmeant
obe“
moder
n,
”andhowdi
dwear
r
i
veatourcul
t
ur
e,whi
chi
sdr
amat
i
cal
l
ydi
f
f
er
entf
r
om howpeopl
el
i
vedt
hr
oughoutourl
ong
humanpast
?
Thef
er
t
i
l
eper
i
odknownast
heRenai
ssance(
ca.13001700)pr
oducednumer
ouscul
t
ur
al
i
nnovat
i
onst
hatsett
hest
agef
ort
oday’
sgl
obal
,secul
ar
,
andt
echnol
ogi
cal
wor
l
d.Hi
st
or
i
ansof
t
encal
l
i
tt
heEar
l
yModer
nper
i
od:i
twast
hecr
eat
i
vewombt
hatconcei
vedandnur
t
ur
edembr
yoni
cf
eat
ur
es
ofmoder
nsoci
et
y
,f
i
nal
l
ydel
i
ver
edi
nt
he18t
hcent
ur
ybyt
hest
eam engi
neandt
heAmer
i
canRevol
ut
i
on.Thevi
sualar
t
sbot
hr
ef
l
ect
edt
hese
pr
of
oundchangesandhel
pedcr
eat
et
hem.Theypr
ovi
dedi
magesoft
hatexpandi
ngwor
l
dt
hathel
pedpeopl
et
ounder
st
andnewi
deasi
nsci
ence,
r
el
i
gi
on,andgeogr
aphy
.Andt
her
evol
ut
i
onar
yt
echnol
ogyofpr
i
nt
i
ngspr
eadaf
l
ur
r
yofconf
l
i
ct
i
ngi
deas,l
eadi
ngt
oour“
i
nf
or
mat
i
onage”ofmass
medi
aandcr
osscul
t
ur
alt
ensi
ons.
Renai
ssancemeans“
r
ebi
r
t
h,
”buti
t
scul
t
ur
alt
or
r
entf
l
owedf
r
om mor
et
hant
heunear
t
hi
ngofcl
assi
calGr
eeceandRome. Thr
eef
ount
ai
nsof
i
nspi
r
at
i
onpour
edoutcont
r
ast
i
ngst
r
eams:Sur
vi
valofi
nst
i
t
ut
i
onsf
r
om t
hemedi
evalpast
;Revi
valofanci
entknowl
edgeandat
t
i
t
udes;and
unpr
ecedent
edI
nvent
i
oni
nsci
ence,t
echnol
ogy
,phi
l
osophy
,andt
heol
ogy
.Theobj
ect
si
nt
hi
sexhi
bi
t
i
on,f
r
om t
heGodwi
nTer
nbachcol
l
ect
i
ons,
ar
egr
oupedi
nsi
xcl
ust
er
s,i
l
l
ust
r
at
i
nghowt
heser
i
ver
sdeepenedandi
nt
er
mi
ngl
ed.Thecl
ust
eronRel
i
gi
ondepi
ct
ssur
vi
vi
ngCat
hol
i
ct
r
adi
t
i
on,i
t
s
oPr
ot
est
antchal
l
enges,andt
heJewi
shmi
nor
i
t
y
.Asecondhi
ghl
i
ght
sCl
assi
calRevi
val
,whoseExpandi
ngKnowl
edgeAcr
ossTi
mei
s
r
eact
i
ont
cl
osel
yr
el
at
edt
ogr
owi
ngi
nt
er
esti
nTheI
ndi
vi
dual
,vi
si
bl
ei
nbot
hPor
t
r
ai
t
ur
eandNew Oppor
t
uni
t
i
esf
orWomen.Thr
eecl
ust
er
sspot
l
i
ght
aspect
sofEmpi
r
i
ci
sm:t
hei
nnovat
i
vespi
r
i
tofobser
vat
i
onandexper
i
mentt
hatpr
oducedLandscapeandGenr
easnew ar
t
i
st
i
csubj
ect
s;t
he
Sci
enceandTechnol
ogyofPr
i
nt
maki
ngandPaper
;andt
heabi
l
i
t
yt
osai
lar
oundt
hegl
obe,t
husExpandi
ngKnowl
edgeAcr
ossSpace.
Theexhi
bi
t
i
onwasdevel
opedandr
esear
chedbygr
aduat
est
udent
si
nar
thi
st
or
y
,st
udi
oar
t
,andar
teducat
i
on,i
naFal
l2009semi
nar
.Theywr
ot
e
t
hecat
al
ogueent
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i
est
hatexpl
ai
neachobj
ect
,aswel
last
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ar
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ngeachcl
ust
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.St
udentcont
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i
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i
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f
i
edby
i
ni
t
i
al
s(
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nt
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oduct
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ornames)
.Toconsul
tonl
i
necat
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i
est
hatar
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ot
heobj
ect
,vi
si
tt
he
medi
acent
eri
nt
her
eargal
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er
y
.St
udent
sal
socr
eat
edcont
ext
ual
medi
apr
esent
at
i
onsonkeyt
hemes,vi
ewabl
eonmoni
t
or
si
nt
hegal
l
er
i
es,anda
r
ecor
dedaudi
ot
our
,whi
chvi
si
t
or
swi
t
hpor
t
abl
eaudi
odevi
cesmaydownl
oad.
Hi
st
or
i
ansar
ef
ondofsayi
ng“
Thepasti
spr
ol
ogue.
”Themoder
ni
t
yt
hatt
hi
sexhi
bi
t
i
onseekst
oi
l
l
umi
nat
ei
sst
i
l
l
evol
vi
ng,andmanyagr
eet
hatwe
ar
enowatt
hedawnofanot
her
,“
post
moder
n”er
a.Nooneknowswhatt
hatwi
l
l
br
i
ng,butr
adi
cal
changet
odaymakesi
ti
mpor
t
antt
oappr
eci
at
et
he
f
or
cest
hatl
edt
oourwor
l
d.Onl
ybyunder
st
andi
nghowwegotwher
ewear
ecanwedi
scer
nwher
ewear
egoi
ng.
JamesM.Sasl
ow,GuestCur
at
or
Pr
of
essorofAr
tHi
st
or
yandRenai
ssanceSt
udi
es
1
Af
t
erPi
er
r
eGar
ni
er(
Fr
ench,17251800,Mast
er1742)
Bacchus
Br
onze
Ant
i
qui
t
y was an endl
ess sour
ce ofi
nspi
r
at
i
on f
orRenai
ssance ar
t
i
st
s.I
n
149697,Mi
chel
angel
ocr
eat
edast
andi
ngmar
bl
ef
i
gur
eofaBacchus,whi
ch
seemst
obet
hemodel
f
orourf
i
gur
e.TheGr
eekgodst
andsi
nanexagger
at
ed
cl
assi
cal
cont
r
appost
oposi
t
i
ononar
ect
angul
arbase.I
nhi
sr
i
ghthandhehol
ds
at
azza(
wi
necup)andi
nhi
sl
ef
tabunchofgr
apes.Di
onysusl
eansagai
nsta
t
r
eest
umpcover
edbyanani
malski
nandgr
apevi
nes,whi
chcur
lupandcover
hi
s geni
t
al
s.Wi
ne was hi
s gi
f
tt
o hi
sf
ol
l
ower
s,who dr
ank i
ti
n abundant
quant
i
t
i
esandi
ndul
gedt
hemsel
vesator
gi
est
hataccompani
edt
her
i
t
ual
i
st
i
c
cer
emoni
esdedi
cat
edt
ohi
m(
cat
.no.45)
. Thebasi
cchar
act
er
i
st
i
coft
hese
r
i
t
ual
swasecst
asy
,t
hr
oughwhi
cht
hegod’
si
nt
oxi
cat
edf
ol
l
ower
saccompl
i
shed
t
hei
rspi
r
i
t
ualuni
onwi
t
hhi
m,ast
hegi
f
toft
hegodwaspassedt
hr
ought
hei
r
bodi
es.
Anal
mosti
dent
i
calbr
onzest
at
ueofBacchusatt
heDr
esdenMuseum,wor
kof
t
he 18t
hcent
ur
y Fr
ench scul
pt
orPi
er
r
e Gar
ni
er
,makes i
tl
i
kel
yt
hatt
hi
s
di
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uence
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St
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ustbeen r
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i
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ai
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evalaspect
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Eur
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ai
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om t
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agment
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om
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ort
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om t
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orpor
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FROM UNI
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uencet
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ossabusesof
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at
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Ages,communi
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ectcont
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et
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nt
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i
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ent
(
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dt
or
ei
t
er
at
e Cat
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i
cl
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ol
ayt
or
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spower
. To answert
he obj
ect
i
onst
or
el
i
gi
ousi
mager
y
,t
he
Count
er
Ref
or
mat
i
onpl
acedagr
eat
eri
mpor
t
anceonhi
ghl
yemot
i
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at
i
onsofBi
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i
calnar
r
at
i
vesandencour
agedi
magesr
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esent
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Chr
i
st
’
spassi
on.Ani
ncr
easedemphasi
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sopl
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i
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nt
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l
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i
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t
yr
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hor
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t
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.TheJesui
t
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cmovementl
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gnat
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a,pr
omot
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t
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i
but
i
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nt
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oconver
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el
i
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nt
el
l
ect
ual
i
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i
onst
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opei
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odundoubt
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oft
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ousar
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entofhumani
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t
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nt
r
oduct
i
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vi
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.
LS
4
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t
i
st
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sh
PapalSai
nt
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eval
,ca.1500s
Woodandpai
nt
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sel
abor
at
el
ydr
essedmal
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i
gur
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dent
i
f
i
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nt
.Hei
s
i
nt
hemi
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er
i
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ohi
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denti
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hegest
ur
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hi
sr
i
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sl
ef
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kel
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osi
erorst
af
f
.Thepapal
t
i
ar
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sevol
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r
om apoi
nt
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oundcapi
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e
t
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i
pl
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ecei
nt
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y
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t
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i
at
i
onsst
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l
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ngusedby
t
hepapacyt
oday
. Spai
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nt
er
esti
nt
hear
t
i
st
i
cst
yl
esofNor
t
her
n
Eur
ope, i
ncl
udi
ng t
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i
nuat
i
on of some medi
eval t
hemes. Vi
sual
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esent
at
i
onsofsai
nt
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hi
npai
nt
i
ngandscul
pt
ur
econt
i
nuedt
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ar
t
hr
ought
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l
ymoder
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i
od.
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i
nui
t
yofmedi
eval
i
nf
l
uencei
sevi
denti
nt
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armedi
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nt
ed
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ur
e. Thepapalsai
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i
ki
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al
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pt
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i
r
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om 13001450i
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i
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arpose.I
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hi
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unct
i
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nst
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owerwoul
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ayt
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nt
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st
.We,
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enotseenaswor
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ect
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hem,butduet
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r
hol
y st
at
us t
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alsai
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s have t
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l
i
t
yt
o speak f
orus. Thi
s
scul
pt
ur
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ons i
nt
he same way as t
he t
wo r
el
i
quar
i
es near
by i
nt
hi
s
exhi
bi
t
i
on(
cat
.nos.5and6)
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agmentorcl
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l
owt
hef
ai
t
hf
ul
t
ohaveavi
sualpoi
ntofr
ef
er
encet
ot
hei
nt
endedsai
nt
.Unf
or
t
unat
el
y
,i
ti
snot
knownspeci
f
i
cal
l
ywhom t
hef
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gur
ei
smeantt
or
epr
esent
.
AJD
5
Unknownar
t
i
st
,Br
abant
,Dut
ch
Rel
i
quar
ybustofyoungwoman,ca.1400s
Woodandpai
nt
Rel
i
quar
i
eswer
econt
ai
ner
st
ohouset
her
el
i
csofsai
nt
sandot
herhol
yper
sons.
Dur
i
ngt
heMi
ddl
eAgesandt
heRenai
ssance,t
hei
rpr
oduct
i
onwasconnect
edwi
t
h
si
l
ver
smi
t
handgol
dsmi
t
hwor
kshops,ofwhi
cht
hi
sexampl
ef
ol
l
owst
het
r
adi
t
i
on.
Theyof
t
ent
ookt
heshapeoft
hebodypar
tf
r
om whi
cht
her
el
i
cwaspr
oduced.Such
cont
ai
ner
swer
ecal
l
ed“
speaki
ngr
el
i
quar
i
es.
” Bustr
el
i
quar
i
eswer
epr
oducedt
o
houseskul
l
sorskul
l
f
r
agment
soft
hehol
yper
son.Suchcont
ai
ner
swer
epl
acedon
ornearal
t
ar
sand,byt
hel
at
eMi
ddl
eAges,t
her
emi
ghthavebeenmanyoft
hem
wi
t
hi
n a chur
ch sanct
uar
y
. Of
t
ent
i
mes,t
he bustwoul
d cont
ai
n a smal
lgl
azed
medal
l
i
ont
hatl
ookedl
i
kej
ewel
r
y
.I
nsi
det
hemedal
l
i
onwoul
dbemor
er
el
i
cs.
Thi
sexampl
eofaf
emal
er
el
i
quar
ybusti
smadeofpai
nt
edwood,whi
chr
et
ai
ns
t
r
acesoft
heor
i
gi
nal
col
or
i
ng.Herheadi
scar
vedi
namannert
hati
mpl
i
est
hatshe
i
swear
i
ngar
ol
lofcl
ot
hwi
t
hj
ewel
s. Ther
ol
lmayhavepossi
bl
ybeenpar
tofa
t
ur
banwhi
chwasf
ashi
onedoutofact
ual
cl
ot
h,f
ort
hehai
rabovet
her
ol
l
i
ssket
chi
l
y
r
ender
ed.Ther
el
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quar
yi
sNet
her
l
andi
shanddat
esf
r
om t
he15t
hcent
ur
y
.I
ti
sl
i
kel
y
t
hecont
ai
nerwaspr
oducedi
nt
hehi
st
or
i
cal
r
egi
onofBr
abant
,awi
der
angi
ngar
ea
oft
he Low Count
r
i
esknown dur
i
ng t
he Renai
ssance f
ori
t
swor
kshops,whi
ch
pr
oducedr
el
i
quar
i
esandl
i
t
ur
gi
cal
equi
pment
.Compar
abl
et
oot
herext
antr
el
i
quar
y
bust
sf
r
om Br
abant
,ofpar
t
i
cul
ari
nt
er
esti
sanexampl
ehel
dbyt
heLosAngel
es
Count
yMuseum ofAr
ti
nt
heWi
l
l
i
am Randol
phHear
stCol
l
ect
i
on.Li
keouryoung
woman,shewear
sat
ur
banpar
t
i
al
l
ymadeofahi
nged,f
abr
i
cl
i
nedl
i
d.Sheal
sohas
t
hepl
ast
i
cf
eat
ur
esandar
chai
csmi
l
eofourr
el
i
quar
y
,maki
ngi
tl
i
kel
yt
hatour
smay
beat
t
r
i
but
edt
oBr
abant
.
Ther
e have been sever
ali
deas aboutwhathol
y per
son t
hi
sr
el
i
quar
y bust
r
epr
esent
s.Onepossi
bi
l
i
t
yi
st
hati
thel
dar
el
i
cofMar
yMagdal
ene,whowasof
t
en
depi
ct
edwi
t
hasi
mi
l
arheadcover
i
ngi
nNet
her
l
andi
shar
tdur
i
ngt
heRenai
ssance,
mostnot
abl
yi
nt
hewor
ksofRogi
ervanderWeyden.
JLJ
6
Unknownar
t
i
st
,I
t
al
i
an
Rel
i
quar
yi
nt
hef
or
m ofanar
m wi
t
habl
essi
nghand,Lat
eGot
hi
c,ca.1400s
Woodandcopper
Rel
i
cswer
ehousedi
ncont
ai
ner
sknownasr
el
i
quar
i
es,whi
chof
t
ent
ookt
he
shapeoft
hebodypar
toft
her
el
i
c.Abonef
r
om af
i
ngermi
ghtbehousedi
na
handshapedr
el
i
quar
y
,whi
l
easkul
lmi
ghtbeencasedi
noner
esembl
i
ngt
he
headorbustoft
hedeceasedper
son. Thesewer
ecal
l
ed“
speaki
ngi
mage”
r
el
i
quar
i
es,because t
hey st
ood i
nf
oror“
spoke”f
ort
he body par
tt
hey
r
esembl
ed.Thi
sexampl
ei
si
nt
heshapeofanar
m,ar
at
herwi
despr
eadf
or
mi
n
l
at
e medi
evaland ear
l
yRenai
ssance t
i
mes,exampl
esofwhi
ch have been
r
ecover
edi
npl
acesasdi
st
antasmoder
ndayAr
meni
aandI
r
el
and.Becausea
r
el
i
quar
ywast
houghtt
or
et
ai
nt
hepowerandhol
i
nessoft
hesai
nt
l
yper
son,
cl
er
gyused ar
mr
el
i
quar
i
est
o bl
esspeopl
e orhealt
he si
ck. The hand i
s
posi
t
i
onedi
namannerspeci
f
i
cal
l
yassoci
at
edwi
t
ht
hebenedi
ct
i
on,orl
i
t
ur
gi
cal
bl
essi
ng.Oddl
y
,al
t
houghmanyext
antr
el
i
quar
i
esar
ei
nt
heshapeofanar
m,
t
her
ear
enonesur
vi
vi
ngt
hatdepi
ctal
ef
tar
m,possi
bl
yduet
ot
henegat
i
ve
associ
at
i
ons wi
t
ht
hatdi
r
ect
i
on and speci
f
i
cal
l
y
,t
he st
i
gma at
t
ached t
o
l
ef
t
handedness.
Thi
sar
mr
el
i
quar
yi
smadeofpai
nt
edandgi
l
dedwood.I
thasbeenbadl
ywor
n
overt
i
me,havi
ngl
ostmostofi
t
sext
er
i
ordecor
at
i
on,whi
chmostl
i
kel
yconsi
st
ed
ofagi
l
dedsur
f
aceembel
l
i
shedwi
t
hpr
eci
ousst
ones.Thebaseoft
her
el
i
quar
y
r
et
ai
nst
hegi
l
dedl
ookt
hatwoul
dhaveappl
i
edt
ot
heent
i
r
econt
ai
ner
.Thear
m
cont
ai
nsar
ecessi
nwhi
cht
hebodyf
r
agmentwaspl
aced.Aswascommon
dur
i
ngt
heMi
ddl
eAgesandRenai
ssance,t
her
ei
sat
r
anspar
entcr
yst
al
t
hr
ough
whi
cht
hepi
eceoff
l
eshorbonewasvi
si
bl
et
ot
hedevout
. Thepr
act
i
ceof
showi
ng t
he f
l
eshyr
emai
nsoft
he deceased hol
yper
son wasa pr
omi
nent
aspectofpubl
i
cr
i
t
uali
nI
t
al
i
an chur
chesdur
i
ng t
hi
sper
i
od,and wasl
at
er
denouncedbyt
hePr
ot
est
ant
s.
JLJ
7
JusepedeRi
ber
a,LoSpagnol
et
t
o(
Spani
sh,15911652)
St
.Jer
omeReadi
ng,ca.1624
Et
chi
ngwi
t
hengr
avi
nganddr
ypoi
nt
Thi
spr
i
ntpor
t
r
aysSt
.Jer
ome,apopul
arRenai
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ect
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eseat
edbyawal
l
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eadi
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i
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ongsi
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er
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i
ngt
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t
at
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yanddeat
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,books,al
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om t
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amedal
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epent
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hepapacyandi
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om t
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ygui
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ends,wascl
assi
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edandst
udi
edHebr
ew
wi
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udi
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Cat
hol
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cChur
ch.
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ar
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ki
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nNapl
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ber
awaspor
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ayi
ngSt
.Jer
omei
nacent
erofi
nnovat
i
onatt
het
i
me.Whi
l
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acedwi
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hsoci
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andpol
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decl
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ne,
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mul
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aneousl
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ewer
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ms,newl
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r
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ensi
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uggl
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schol
ar
l
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onsofnew i
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pexpl
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ber
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suni
quedepi
ct
i
onofSt
.Jer
ome.Ar
t
i
st
sl
ear
nedt
or
ever
eJer
omef
orhi
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shi
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accept
anceofot
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l
l
umi
nat
i
onbyseeki
ngnewper
spect
i
vesandsour
cesofi
nf
or
mat
i
on.
Ri
ber
ai
sr
ecogni
zedf
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snat
ur
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i
sm andexpr
essi
venessi
nt
het
r
eat
mentofChr
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ansubj
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s,whi
chi
ncl
udedher
oesandmar
t
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odepi
ctt
he
devot
i
onali
mageofSt
.Jer
omewi
t
har
eal
i
sm si
mi
l
art
ot
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spor
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r
ai
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sf
r
om l
i
f
e.Ther
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soadegr
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qui
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yi
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st
hen“
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k:
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ket
heusual
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Ref
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mat
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hi
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yr
at
hert
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scl
osenesst
oGod.I
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oni
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,Ri
ber
a’
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t
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but
et
oapi
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arofCat
hol
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cor
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hodoxyandhi
si
deal
sofwi
der
angi
ngi
nqui
r
yhi
ghl
i
ghtt
hei
ncr
easi
ngacknowl
edgmentofapl
ur
al
i
st
i
csoci
et
y
.
EL
8
Rembr
andtHar
menzvanRi
j
n(
Dut
ch,16061669)
Jewsi
nt
heSynagogue,1648
Et
chi
ngwi
t
hengr
avi
nganddr
ypoi
nt
Rembr
andt
’
sJewsi
nt
heSynagoguedepi
ct
sJewi
shl
i
f
ei
nmi
d17t
hcent
ur
yAmst
er
dam.I
ti
si
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cat
i
veoft
hei
nt
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connect
i
onandmut
ualr
espectofdi
f
f
er
ent
cul
t
ur
esatt
hebegi
nni
ngsoft
hepl
ur
al
i
st
i
csoci
et
ypi
oneer
edbyt
heDut
chatt
hatt
i
me.
MuchofHol
l
and’
sdevel
opmentoccur
r
eddur
i
ngRembr
andt
’
sl
i
f
e,i
ncl
udi
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heset
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l
ementofvar
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ousJewi
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oupsat
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r
act
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ot
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andsi
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cent
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gi
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ol
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anceandat
hr
i
vi
ngeconomy
.Thet
wol
ar
gestgr
oupswer
et
heAshkenazi
candSephar
di
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ongerhadt
o
f
ei
gnt
hebel
i
efi
nChr
i
st
i
ani
t
yt
hathadbeenf
or
cedupont
hem i
nt
hei
radopt
edhomel
ands.By1796,Jewswer
egr
ant
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ul
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ci
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si
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I
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nandf
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war
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ooki
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andti
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nt
er
act
edwi
t
h
Jewswhenhemovedt
ot
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eest
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aatsect
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onoft
heci
t
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,al
soknownast
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shQuar
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,
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chwasheavi
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ypopul
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edbyPor
t
ugueseJewswhoser
eason
andi
nt
el
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ectadvancedt
hebr
oaderspi
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nqui
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ymor
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hant
hei
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ni
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heol
ogi
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het
i
me.
Al
t
houghhewasmostl
i
kel
yr
ai
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vi
ni
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em,Rembr
andt
’
swor
ki
mpl
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entHebr
ewhi
st
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nf
or
medbyanci
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shsour
ces(
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.Jer
ome,cat
.no.7)
.
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t
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hi
scommuni
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,Rembr
andtpr
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hef
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medaboutanci
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shsour
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bl
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egend.
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lf
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andtgi
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at
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asedpor
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ayalofJewst
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i
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s,whoof
t
en
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ur
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zedJewsi
nanunf
l
at
t
er
i
ngl
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ght
.
EL
9
Fr
ansFr
anckenI
I(
Fl
emi
sh,15811642)
Wor
shi
poft
heGol
denCal
f
,ca.16301635
Oi
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ansf
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edt
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n1812
Thi
spai
nt
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ct
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dTest
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denCal
f
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nt
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or
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ebr
i
ngAar
ont
hei
rgol
df
ort
hei
dol
;i
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hedi
st
ance,
t
hecal
fi
sseenr
ai
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wi
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hmai
densdanci
ngar
oundi
t
.Thi
spi
ece,l
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keot
herscr
i
pt
ur
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wor
ksbyFr
ancken,i
sr
ecogni
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ori
t
sal
l
egor
i
cal
cont
ent
andmor
al
i
zi
ngmessage. Fr
ancken’
si
ncl
usi
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or
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r
om t
heJewi
shf
ai
t
hbr
oughtpr
omi
nencet
ot
hei
rpr
esencei
nsoci
et
y
. Thesepor
t
r
ayal
sal
so
connect
edt
hemessagesshar
edbybot
hJudai
sm andChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
.
Ast
ol
di
nExodus32,t
hesecondbookoft
heOl
dTest
ament
,andl
at
err
abbi
ni
ccomment
ar
y
,t
hest
or
yt
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l
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ot
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nai
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ve
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sf
r
om God.Whenhedi
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answhoaccompani
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ael
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et
ur
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acet
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ef
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i
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Aar
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et
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.TheEgypt
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ht
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or
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gni
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or
mat
i
onbecausei
tdi
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ayst
heconsequencesofi
dol
at
r
y
.
EL
10
Fol
l
owerofAl
essandr
oAl
gar
di(
I
t
al
i
an,15981654)
Chr
i
statt
heCol
umn,ca.1630
Br
onzef
i
gur
ei
npol
ychr
omewoodt
aber
nacl
e
Cr
eat
edbyaf
ol
l
oweroft
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gar
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pt
ur
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ct
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t
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agel
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at
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sti
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umnandwhi
ppedbef
or
ehi
s
Cr
uci
f
i
xi
on.Wi
t
ht
he ever
gr
owi
ng pr
esence oft
he Pr
ot
est
antmovement
,
Cat
hol
i
cChur
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f
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ci
al
st
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i
edt
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ghtwhatt
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esybyusi
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esent
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or
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ort
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n or
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ver
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ai
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ewerast
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om t
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msel
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gar
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avor
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nnocentX,whor
ul
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om 16441655.Bei
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oset
ot
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ar
gestpat
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onoft
hear
t
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i
ngt
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sper
i
od,woul
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edt
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hi
sar
t
i
st
i
cst
yl
ef
ol
l
owed t
he r
ul
esoft
he Count
er
Ref
or
mat
i
on.Hi
smet
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woul
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epl
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ower
,whomostl
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ound i
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r
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gar
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Kunst
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sti
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ppedbyt
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i
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Ourscul
pt
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st
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nt
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er
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ai
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Ref
or
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oj
ect
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om
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ound,sl
umpi
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gh
l
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ai
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k’
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hat
Chr
i
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er
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eat
l
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ort
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st
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uebel
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Cat
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ved set
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ake away f
r
om t
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essed.I
n
conj
unct
i
onwi
t
ht
hi
swor
k,compar
et
hepor
t
r
ai
tofEr
asmusofRot
t
er
dam by
Al
br
echtDür
er(
cat
.no.12)
,apr
omi
nentPr
ot
est
antsympat
hi
zeragai
nstwhom
t
heCount
erRef
or
mat
i
onwoul
dhavebeenai
med.
AJD
RELI
GI
ON AND THEARTS:
THEPROTESTANTREFORMATI
ON
Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
ydur
i
ngt
heRenai
ssancewasmar
kedbycor
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vesal
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unds
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veThesesont
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enber
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n1517,mar
ki
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begi
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ot
est
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or
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net
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udgment
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r
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ack
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Onepr
act
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or
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ect
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ar
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om whi
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ancei
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f
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agment
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eder
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I
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ar
gestcol
l
ect
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el
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om t
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om t
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Vi
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gi
nMar
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.Theseamassedr
el
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ovi
dedFr
eder
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ckwi
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000year
sofr
emi
ssi
onf
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om pur
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herand
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herr
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mer
scausedFr
eder
i
ckgr
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assmentbypoi
nt
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di
t
yofhi
sdevot
i
ont
ot
heser
el
i
c“
t
r
easur
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”
However
,t
her
ef
or
mer
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rmovement
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val
Pr
ot
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eader
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okeaway
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ef
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act
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emai
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r
ef
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mi
ngi
tf
r
om wi
t
hi
n.Themosti
mpor
t
antpr
oponentoft
hi
smoder
at
evi
ew wasEr
asmusofRot
t
er
dam,amanwhoear
nedbot
h
suppor
tandcr
i
t
i
ci
sm f
r
om Chur
chf
ol
l
ower
sanddet
r
act
or
sal
i
ke(
cat
.no.12)
.Hi
si
deas,asmuchast
hoseofdi
ssent
er
swhof
i
r
ml
y
r
ej
ect
ed t
he est
abl
i
shed chur
ch,accel
er
at
ed t
he devel
opmentoft
he Count
er
Ref
or
mat
i
on (
somet
i
mes cal
l
ed t
he Cat
hol
i
c
Ref
or
mat
i
on)
,whi
chwast
heChur
ch’
sr
esponset
ot
hePr
ot
est
antupr
i
si
ng:amovementf
ori
nt
er
nal
r
ef
or
mi
nwhi
chi
ssuesbr
oughtt
o
t
hef
or
ef
r
ontbyPr
ot
est
antr
ef
or
mer
swer
eopenl
yaddr
essed.
JLJ
11
Pet
erFl
öt
ner(
Ger
man,ca.1475/
851546)
Pr
i
nt
edbyHansGul
denmund(
Ger
man,14901560)
ThePoorCommonAss,1525or1526
Woodcut
ThePoorCommonAsswascr
eat
edi
nNur
ember
g,Ger
manyasani
l
l
ust
r
at
edbr
oadsi
de,orl
ar
gesheetofpapert
hatwasnotf
ol
dedandof
t
enf
unct
i
onedasa
post
er
.I
nt
hedecadef
ol
l
owi
ngt
hepubl
i
cat
i
onoft
hepr
i
nt
,Nur
ember
gbecameknownf
ori
t
spr
oduct
i
onofi
l
l
ust
r
at
edbr
oadsi
des.Oft
hepubl
i
sher
sact
i
vei
n
Nur
ember
gdur
i
ngt
heRenai
ssance,f
ew wer
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l
knownorpr
ol
i
f
i
casHansGul
denmund.A woodcut
t
erandi
l
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umi
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orofmanuscr
i
pt
s,hewasl
at
er
r
ecogni
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or
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edi
t
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t
ht
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easeofwoodcut
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gnedbyHansBr
osamer
,Al
br
echtDür
er
andEdwar
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ndeed,hi
sf
amest
emsf
r
om hi
sr
ol
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nt
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ol
i
f
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at
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onofRef
or
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i
oner
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t
hal
lt
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el
i
gi
ousandpol
i
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i
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mpl
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cat
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onsoft
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wor
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nt
ed,asmuchasi
tdoesf
r
om hi
sor
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gi
nalcr
eat
i
ons.ThePoorCommonAssbr
oughthi
mf
ameandr
ecogni
t
i
onwheni
twasf
i
r
stpubl
i
shedi
n1525.
ThePoorCommonAssi
sasymbol
i
cwor
kshowi
ngmal
i
ci
ousandi
mmor
al
compani
onsf
i
ght
i
ngagai
nstr
i
ght
eousandj
ustf
i
gur
es(
i
thassever
al
al
t
er
nat
i
vet
i
t
l
es:
TheCour
seoft
heWor
l
d:Tyr
anny
,Gr
eed,andDi
ssi
mul
at
i
onFi
ght
i
ngAgai
nstt
heWor
dofGod;andTyr
anny
,Usur
y
,andHypocr
i
sy)
.Let
t
er
pr
esst
i
t
l
esi
dent
i
f
y
t
hevar
i
ousal
l
egor
i
cal
f
i
gur
esi
nt
hepr
i
nt
.Thei
mage’
sact
i
oncanber
eadf
r
om l
ef
tt
or
i
ghtasf
ol
l
ows:t
hepeasant
r
y
,r
epr
esent
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,hasj
ustki
cked
Rel
i
gi
ousHypocr
i
sy(
t
heRomanCat
hol
i
cChur
ch)
.However
,Tyr
anny
,i
nmal
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or
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ngar
mor
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i
dest
hedonkeywhi
l
eUsur
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l
ays
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ve.HumanReason,per
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i
edasawomanwear
i
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at
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ess,of
f
er
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ndf
ol
dt
ot
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,showi
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ust
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t
hy
.Just
i
cei
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esswomanl
ockedi
nt
hest
ocks,whi
l
eCommonSenser
emai
nsbat
t
l
er
eadyatt
hef
arr
i
ghtoft
hepr
i
nt
.
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i
ntaccompani
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aywr
i
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dentf
ol
l
owerofMar
t
i
nLut
her
.Thepoem,t
i
t
l
ed“
ThePoorCommonAss,
”scol
dedt
he
peasant
saf
t
ert
hei
rr
evol
t
:“
Ass!Youhavebeenbl
i
ndedbyr
eason,whenyout
hi
nkt
oopposet
heaut
hor
i
t
i
es:f
orGodhasest
abl
i
shedt
hem t
opuni
shyoursi
ns.
Sodonotbeobst
i
nat
eandbearyourcr
ossi
nyourdi
st
r
ess.Bepat
i
entunt
i
lt
heEnd… l
eavevengeancei
nGod’
shands.
”
JLJ
12
Al
br
echtDür
er(
Ger
man,14711528)
Er
asmusofRot
t
er
dam,1526
Engr
avi
ng
Desi
der
i
us Er
asmus, Chr
i
st
i
an t
heol
ogi
an and humani
st
, wi
t
nessed t
he
bur
geoni
ng movementt
hatwoul
d come t
o be known as t
he Pr
ot
est
ant
Ref
or
mat
i
on,yetr
emai
ned commi
t
t
ed t
or
ef
or
mi
ng t
he Chur
ch f
r
om wi
t
hi
n.
Her
e,hei
sdepi
ct
edbypr
i
nt
erandf
el
l
ow t
heor
i
stAl
br
echtDür
er
.Er
asmus
r
epr
esent
edamor
emoder
at
eposi
t
i
ont
hanhi
scont
empor
ar
y
,Mar
t
i
nLut
her
,a
manf
orwhom Dür
ercl
ear
l
yhadsympat
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,t
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i
keLut
hert
hear
t
i
stnever
openl
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oke wi
t
ht
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hol
i
c Chur
ch. Hi
sr
el
i
gi
ous l
oyal
t
i
es
not
wi
t
hst
andi
ng,Er
asmusgai
nedt
her
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hLut
herandDür
erf
orhi
s
super
i
orl
ear
ni
ng and commi
t
mentt
or
ef
or
m.The r
espectwas mut
ual
,f
or
Er
asmuswasagr
eatadmi
r
erofDür
er
’
swor
k,i
nqui
r
i
ngonce:“
Whatcannot
Dür
erexpr
essi
nmonochr
omes,t
hati
s,bybl
ackl
i
nesonl
y?” I
n1520,Dür
er
gaveEr
asmusanengr
avi
ngoft
hePassi
on(
seet
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i
nt
sont
heupper
l
evel
)
,andi
n1526execut
edanengr
avi
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het
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ogi
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amous
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weent
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l
uent
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asmusi
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andi
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t
i
on,wor
ki
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oundedbyt
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bookst
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esenthi
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ar
shi
pandsuper
i
ori
nt
el
l
ect
.
ALat
i
ni
nscr
i
pt
i
onon
t
hewal
l
pr
ocl
ai
ms:“
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si
mageofEr
asmusofRot
t
er
dam wasdr
awnf
r
om l
i
f
eby
Al
br
echtDür
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.
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nscr
i
pt
i
on:“
Abet
t
erpor
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r
ai
t
hi
swr
i
t
i
ngsshow.
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eekwascopi
edf
r
om amedali
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hepossessi
onof
t
hei
rmut
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r
i
endWi
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ckhei
mer
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t
sel
fi
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hatonemay
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erunder
st
and Er
asmus’
s nat
ur
et
hr
ough hi
s wr
i
t
t
en wor
ks,r
at
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han
t
hr
oughagr
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cl
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keness.
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nscr
i
pt
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onsal
soshowt
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assi
cal
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anguageandl
ear
ni
nghel
dbyt
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ectwhi
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ot
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i
st
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s
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edge.I
mmedi
at
el
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i
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oni
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1526)as
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lasDür
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am.
Theengr
avi
nghast
heuni
quedi
st
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nct
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onofbei
ngDür
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’
sl
ast
,f
orhedi
edl
ess
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hant
woyear
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eri
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et
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unat
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,Er
asmusf
oundt
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t
r
ai
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r
at
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acki
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est
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eci
at
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nt
edi
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i
ghtoft
hef
actt
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hi
si
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emai
ns
oneofDür
er
’
smostf
amous(
andt
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ecogni
zabl
el
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kenessofEr
asmus)
,
one woul
dl
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ke t
ot
hi
nkt
hatEr
asmuswoul
d have appr
eci
at
ed i
t
scont
i
nued
i
mpact
,near
l
yf
i
vecent
ur
i
esaf
t
eri
t
sexecut
i
on.
JLJ
13
Wor
kshopofAndr
eadel
l
aRobbi
a(
I
t
al
i
an,14351525)
Lunet
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eofMadonnabet
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anci
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Gl
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Thi
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,Sai
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ecogni
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st
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oppedst
af
f
.
Renai
ssancei
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i
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deol
ogi
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ot
est
ant
i
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opment
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t
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ay
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Andr
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edanewt
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emel
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ai
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i
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i
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ace.I
thasbeenar
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onoft
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tt
oscul
pt
ur
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ks.
Fr
om t
hatmoment
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l
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ea,excl
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ywor
kedi
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amedi
um.Yetevenwi
t
ht
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snewar
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or
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st
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om l
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ort
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ot
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AJD
14
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t
i
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,Li
moges,Fr
ench,ca.1500s
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xpanel
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om adevot
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Gr
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senamelt
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ychal
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hehomeofaweal
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hyRenai
ssance
pat
r
onasavi
sualai
di
npr
i
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ayer
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twascr
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edi
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ori
t
ssuper
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kshops,atat
i
mewhen
Pr
ot
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ypeofr
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.
ert
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gnat
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Tocount
devot
i
omoder
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aci
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eat
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ghl
yemot
i
onal
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epr
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at
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onsofbi
bl
i
cal
nar
r
at
i
ves,especi
al
l
yscenesofChr
i
st
’
s
Passi
on(
cat
.no.10,
15,67and68)
.Thescour
ge,t
hecol
umn,andi
nst
r
ument
soft
hePassi
onar
eemphasi
zedi
nt
heout
erhemi
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unet
t
es
oft
hi
sal
t
ar
pi
ece,aswel
last
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hor
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spr
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nent
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ypl
acedi
nt
hef
or
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oundoft
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r
alpaneldepi
ct
i
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he
Lament
at
i
on.Thehi
ghemot
i
onalcont
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i
st
’
sPassi
onwasi
dealf
orobj
ect
sofpr
i
vat
edevot
i
onbecausei
ti
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ewert
o
exper
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ct
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ompt
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ualmedi
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at
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at
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pt
ot
hedi
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net
hr
oughpr
ayer
.
Thesceneoft
heLament
at
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onofChr
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soi
mpor
t
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ndomest
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onal
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ect
sbecauseoft
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.Consi
der
i
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gh
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nf
ant
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t
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yr
at
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nt
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ssance,t
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efoft
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gi
nwoul
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al
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mpor
t
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ort
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obj
ect
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pi
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ualst
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r
om t
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nt
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owoft
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r
gi
nMot
her
.
LS
15
At
t
r
i
but
edt
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chol
asFr
oment
,(
Fr
ench,ca.14351484)
Lament
at
i
onovert
heDeadChr
i
st
,ca.1450
Oi
lonwoodpanel
Fr
oment
,al
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andQuar
t
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ori
nt
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oduci
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Fl
emi
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i
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enchar
t
.Fr
omenti
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oughst
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e.Hi
sLament
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Fl
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t
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emi
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aper
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Fr
omentpai
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ands
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lf
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omentt
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’
sdeat
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r
el
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gi
ouseventi
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smi
nd.
Thi
sf
or
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at
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encehadbeenpr
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edbyt
her
el
i
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nt
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har
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oot
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LMN
16
Har
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Ger
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t
ur
emovi
ngf
r
om medi
evalt
omoder
n.TheChr
oni
cl
e
bot
hr
ef
er
st
ocl
assi
calsour
cesandbor
r
owsf
r
om ot
hermedi
evalchr
oni
cl
es.
Al
so,dur
i
ngat
i
mewhenf
ew coul
dr
ead,i
tr
eachedawi
deraudi
encewi
t
h
det
ai
l
edi
l
l
ust
r
at
i
onsandasi
mpl
i
f
i
ededi
t
i
on.
LMN
17
Unknownar
t
i
st
,I
t
al
i
an
MadonnaandChr
i
stChi
l
d,ca.15501600
Boxwood
I
n1431t
heCounci
lofEphesussanct
i
onedt
hecul
toft
heVi
r
gi
nMar
y
,and
i
magesoft
heVi
r
gi
nandChi
l
df
orpr
i
vat
edevot
i
onaluse,ordevot
i
omoder
na
(
cat
.no.15)
,qui
ckl
yf
ol
l
owed.
Dur
i
ng medi
evaland Renai
ssance t
i
mes,Mar
y was cent
r
alt
o Cat
hol
i
c
spi
r
i
t
ual
i
t
yast
hemedi
at
orbet
weenhumanki
ndandChr
i
st
.Mosti
magesoft
he
Vi
r
gi
nst
r
essherr
ol
easChr
i
st
'
smot
her
,showi
ngherst
andi
ngandhol
di
ngher
son.I
nt
hi
sscul
pt
ur
e,Mar
yi
sr
epr
esent
edast
heQueenofHeaven,ascanbe
seenbyhercr
own,or
nat
eneckl
ace,l
ongr
obe,andt
hescept
ershehol
dsi
nher
l
ef
thand. Thi
sscul
pt
ur
e,done on a modestscal
e,hel
ped one’
sspi
r
i
t
ual
endeavor
ssi
ncei
tmadet
heobj
ectofpr
ayer
smor
et
angi
bl
e. Thr
ought
hi
s
pi
ece,t
heownerwasencour
agedt
ocont
empl
at
et
hel
i
f
eofChr
i
standt
heVi
r
gi
n
asi
ft
heywer
epr
esent
.I
tencour
agedt
heownert
of
or
m aper
sonal
,emot
i
onal
r
el
at
i
onshi
pwi
t
ht
hehol
yf
i
gur
es.
I
nhi
sext
r
emel
yi
nf
l
uent
i
alMedi
t
at
i
onsont
heLi
f
eofChr
i
st
,t
he14t
hcent
ur
y
Fr
anci
scanaut
horPseudoBonavent
ur
ewr
i
t
est
hatt
her
eadershoul
d“
ki
sst
he
beaut
i
f
ul
l
i
t
t
l
ef
eetoft
hei
nf
antJesuswhol
i
esi
nt
hemangerandbeghi
smot
her
t
oof
f
ert
ol
etyouhol
dhi
m awhi
l
e.Pi
ckhi
m upandhol
dhi
mi
nyourar
ms.Gaze
onhi
sf
acewi
t
hdevot
i
onandr
ever
ent
l
yki
ssanddel
i
ghti
nhi
m.
”I
nt
hi
swor
k,
t
hef
ol
dsont
heVi
r
gi
n’
sr
obeandt
hef
eetofJesusar
esomewhatwor
ndown
andsmoot
h,pr
obabl
yf
r
om t
heownerr
ubbi
ngorki
ssi
ngi
tdur
i
ngpr
ayer
.The
handsoft
hechi
l
d,andt
heMadonna’
sl
ef
thand,par
t
sofherl
ef
tar
m andf
eet
,
andpossi
bl
yhercr
own,havebeenr
est
or
edi
nadi
f
f
er
entwood.
LMN
18
Gui
doReni(
I
t
al
i
an,15751642)
St
.Chr
i
st
opherCar
r
yi
ngt
heChr
i
stChi
l
d,ear
l
y1600s
Et
chi
ng
Thi
spr
i
nt
,at
t
r
i
but
ed t
ot
he Bol
ognese pai
nt
erand pr
i
nt
makerGui
do Reni
,
depi
ct
sani
maget
hathasi
t
sr
oot
si
nmedi
evalmanuscr
i
pti
l
l
umi
nat
i
on. The
ear
l
ymar
t
yrSt
.Chr
i
st
opheri
spi
ct
ur
edher
ewi
t
hhi
susualat
t
r
i
but
eofast
af
f
,
car
r
yi
ngt
heChr
i
stchi
l
dacr
ossar
i
ver
,andst
r
uggl
i
ngundert
hechi
l
d’
swei
ght
,
whi
ch was sai
dt
o have equal
ed t
he wei
ghtoft
he wor
l
d.However
,i
ni
t
s
exagger
at
ed muscul
at
ur
e and ant
i
que f
or
m,t
hi
sf
i
gur
er
esembl
es many
depi
ct
i
onsoft
heTi
t
anAt
l
asorAeneasf
r
om Homer
’
sI
l
i
ad. Such a hi
ghl
y
cl
assi
ci
zedr
epr
esent
at
i
onofar
el
i
gi
ousf
i
gur
er
ef
l
ect
st
hei
nf
l
uenceofGr
eek
andLat
i
nt
ext
s,t
henewsci
enceofanat
omy
,andt
hear
tofant
i
qui
t
yonschol
ar
s,
t
heol
ogi
ans,and ar
t
i
st
s ofhumani
stcent
er
sl
i
ke Bol
ogna,as wel
las t
he
Chr
i
st
i
an humani
stt
eachi
ngs ofDesi
der
i
us Er
asmus t
hatemphasi
zed t
he
consi
st
encyofChr
i
st
i
anscr
i
pt
ur
eswi
t
hanci
entphi
l
osophi
es(
cat
.no.12)
.
Theval
uedl
i
t
er
ar
yt
r
adi
t
i
onofTheGol
denLegend,amedi
eval
t
extdet
ai
l
i
ngt
he
l
i
vesoft
hesai
nt
s,wi
t
hst
r
ongmor
al
over
t
ones,cont
i
nuedwi
t
ht
headventoft
he
pr
i
nt
i
ng pr
ess and i
ncr
eased as a r
esul
toft
he Pr
ot
est
antRef
or
mat
i
on’
s
di
scr
edi
t
i
ng ofnew canoni
zat
i
ons,r
ej
ect
i
on oft
he vener
at
i
on ofr
el
i
cs,and
denunci
at
i
onofmedi
evalhagi
ogr
aphy
.Tor
easser
tt
heaut
hor
i
t
yoft
heChur
ch
andt
hepowerofChr
i
st
i
anmar
t
yr
s,Jesui
tmi
ssi
onar
ycampai
gnsover
saw t
he
massdi
st
r
i
but
i
onoft
heEccl
esi
aemi
l
i
t
ant
i
st
r
i
umphi
,apr
i
ntser
i
est
hatbol
st
er
ed
t
hest
r
engt
handi
nf
l
uenceofear
l
ymar
t
yr
sandchampi
onedt
hei
mpor
t
anceof
t
hesai
nt
sasmor
alr
ol
emodel
sandi
nt
er
cessor
si
npr
i
vat
edevot
i
on.Thepr
i
nt
s
wer
echeapl
ymadeandwoul
dhavebeenaccessi
bl
et
omember
sofdi
f
f
er
ent
soci
alcl
asses,appeal
i
ngt
obot
ht
hei
l
l
i
t
er
at
eandt
ot
hegr
owi
ngpopul
at
i
onof
l
et
t
er
edChr
i
st
i
ans.
LS
EMPI
RI
CI
SM:AWAKENI
NG I
NTERESTI
N EARTHLYLI
FE
TheSi
gni
fic
a
nc
eo
ft
heI
ns
i
gni
fic
a
nt
:
Ge
nr
ea
ndLa
nds
c
a
pePa
i
nt
i
ngi
nt
he17t
hc
e
nt
ur
yNe
t
he
r
l
a
nds
Genr
epai
nt
i
ngsar
ei
magesofor
di
nar
ydai
l
yl
i
f
e,of
t
enshowi
ngsuchel
ement
alpl
easur
esasf
east
i
nganddr
i
nki
ngwi
t
hcompani
ons;andDut
ch
genr
epai
nt
i
ngswer
et
hef
i
r
stt
oshowhumansubj
ect
swi
t
houtr
ef
er
encet
oanymyt
hol
ogi
cal
,soci
al
,orhi
st
or
i
cal
si
gni
f
i
cance.Todayweval
uet
hem
f
orr
ecor
di
ngwhatpeopl
e’
sl
i
veswer
el
i
kei
not
hert
i
mes.Thei
rf
ocuswasnotont
hecompl
exi
t
yofi
ndi
vi
dual
s,butr
at
herongener
i
ct
ypes:peasant
s,
sol
di
er
s,andmember
soft
hebour
geoi
si
eoroft
heupper
mi
ddl
ecl
asses.Thef
i
gur
esmostt
ypi
calofgenr
epai
nt
i
ngar
epeasant
s,whocannotbe
under
st
oodapar
tf
r
om t
hei
roccupat
i
onandenvi
r
onment
.
Landscapepai
nt
i
ngbecamepopul
aratt
hesamet
i
measgenr
e.Soonaf
t
ert
hef
oundi
ngoft
hei
ndependentDut
chRepubl
i
c,anal
t
oget
hernewway
ofseei
ngaswel
lasdepi
ct
i
ngt
het
r
anqui
l
,f
l
at
,wat
er
y
,andal
mostf
eat
ur
el
essl
ocalt
opogr
aphybecameevi
denti
nnumer
ouspi
ct
ur
es. Those
pai
nt
i
ngsar
eappar
ent
l
ynat
ur
al
i
st
i
candi
nsi
st
ent
l
y
,r
ecogni
zabl
yDut
ch.Theyf
or
m par
tofani
conogr
aphyofnat
i
onhood,ashar
edsetofi
deas,
memor
i
es,andf
eel
i
ngs,t
hatt
i
edt
henewci
t
i
zenst
oget
her
.
Thet
womai
nr
easonswhygenr
epai
nt
i
ngbecamesopopul
ardur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
odwer
et
henear
di
sappear
anceoft
r
adi
t
i
onal
pat
r
ons—t
hechur
chand
t
henobi
l
i
t
y—andt
hei
ncr
easi
ngpur
chasi
ngpoweroft
hemi
ddl
ecl
ass. TheCat
hol
i
cchur
cheshadbeent
ur
nedovert
ot
heDut
chRef
or
med
denomi
nat
i
on,whi
chwasst
r
ongl
yopposedt
oi
magesandi
dol
si
nt
hehouseofGod;andmanyCat
hol
i
cnobl
eshademi
gr
at
edf
r
om t
hePr
ot
est
ant
Nor
t
ht
ot
henowsepar
at
eSout
her
nNet
her
l
ands(
Fl
ander
s,t
odayBel
gi
um)
. Ar
t
i
st
swer
ef
or
cedt
of
i
ndorcr
eat
eot
hermar
ket
s,andt
heyf
ound
t
hem i
nt
hegr
owi
ngci
t
i
esoft
henor
t
her
npr
ovi
nceofHol
l
and.Becauseofaneconomi
cboom,t
hegr
owi
ngmi
ddl
ecl
asssuddenl
yhadmoneyt
obuy
l
uxur
ypr
oduct
st
odecor
at
et
hei
rhouses.However
,whi
l
et
het
owndwel
l
er
shadmoneyt
ospar
e,t
heywer
est
i
l
lf
arf
r
om weal
t
hy
.Fort
hesenew
cl
i
ent
s,t
r
adi
t
i
onal
,l
ar
gescal
ehi
st
or
ypai
nt
i
ngswer
eoutofr
each.Soar
t
i
st
spr
oducedmor
eaf
f
or
dabl
epai
nt
i
ngs,andonest
hatcat
er
edt
ot
he
di
f
f
er
entt
ast
esoft
hei
rnew cust
omer
s.Ur
bani
t
eshadagr
eat
eraf
f
i
ni
t
yf
ordepi
ct
i
onswi
t
hwhi
cht
heycoul
deasi
l
yi
dent
i
f
y
,suchasr
ecogni
zabl
e
scenesf
r
om ever
ydayl
i
f
eseti
nt
hei
rownenvi
r
onment
s.Asar
esul
t
,hugenumber
sofpai
nt
i
ngst
hatf
i
tt
hei
rr
equest
sappear
ed:ki
t
cheni
nt
er
i
or
s,
bui
l
di
ngs,aqui
etst
r
eet
,orevenabr
ot
hel
.Thesepai
nt
i
ngsar
eshar
pl
ydet
ai
l
ed,r
epr
esent
i
ngaf
ami
l
i
arwor
l
dt
hatwasper
f
ect
l
yadapt
edt
ot
hel
i
vi
ng
r
oomsofmi
ddl
ecl
asshouses,andaccur
at
el
ymi
r
r
or
i
ngt
heout
l
ookoft
hei
rowner
s.
Dur
i
ngt
hi
sper
i
od,bot
ht
hegr
eatDut
chmast
er
saswel
lasl
essout
st
andi
ngpai
nt
er
sexcel
l
edatgenr
epai
nt
i
ng.Themosti
mpor
t
antpai
nt
er
swer
e
t
hesocal
l
edLi
t
t
l
eMast
er
s,i
ncl
udi
ngAdr
i
aenvanOst
ade(
cat
.nos.22and23)andsuchot
her
sasJanSt
een,Gabr
i
el
Met
su,andPi
et
erdeHooch.
I
naddi
t
i
on,t
het
hr
eel
eadi
ng17t
hcent
ur
yDut
char
t
i
st
s—Rembr
andt(
cat
.no.8)
,Fr
ansHal
s,andJanVer
meer
—al
socr
eat
edgenr
epai
nt
i
ngsof
unr
i
val
edbeaut
y
.
FK
19
Dani
elNi
kol
ausChodowi
ecki(
Ger
man,17261801)
Cabi
netd’
unpei
nt
r
e(
TheAr
t
i
standhi
sFami
l
y)
,1771
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
ng
Dani
elNi
kol
ausChodowi
ecki
,aGer
manpai
nt
er
,dr
aught
smanandengr
aver
,f
i
r
stl
ear
nedpai
nt
i
ngf
r
om hi
sf
at
her
,Got
t
f
r
i
edwhowasanamat
eurpai
nt
er
,and
aDanzi
g(
nowGdanski
nPol
and)gr
ai
nmer
chantofPol
i
shnobl
el
i
neage.WhenDani
elwassevent
een,hel
ef
tDanzi
gt
owor
ki
nBer
l
i
n;i
n1797,hebecame
t
hedi
r
ect
oroft
heAcademyofAr
t
si
nt
hatci
t
y
.Whenhedi
ed,hewast
hemostf
amousGer
mani
l
l
ust
r
at
orofhi
scent
ur
y
.Chodowi
eckicombi
nedadel
i
cat
e
et
chi
ngt
echni
quewi
t
hanuner
r
i
ngsenseofbour
geoi
sr
eal
i
t
y
.Heal
sopr
oducedcount
l
esset
chi
ngsofscenesf
r
om cont
empor
ar
ypl
ays,whi
chhasenabl
ed
moder
nschol
ar
st
or
econst
r
uct18t
hcent
ur
yt
heat
r
i
calmet
hodswi
t
hgr
eataccur
acy
.
Beneat
ht
hei
mageoft
hi
spr
i
nti
saFr
enchsent
encet
hatr
eads:“
Dedi
cat
edt
oMr
s.Mar
i
eHenr
i
et
t
eAyr
er
,wi
dow oft
hel
at
eMr
.G.Chodowi
eckibyherver
y
humbl
eandver
yobedi
entser
vantandson,Davi
dChodowi
ecki
”
.I
n1771,hededi
cat
edt
hi
smostf
amouspr
i
ntofhi
sf
ami
l
yt
ohi
smot
her
,Henr
i
et
t
e,whohad
neverseenhergr
andchi
l
dr
en.
Chodowi
eckisi
t
sbyt
hewi
ndowonourr
i
ght
,peer
i
ngoverhi
sspect
acl
esatt
hechi
l
dhei
sdr
awi
ng.Seat
edatt
het
abl
e,hi
sel
destsonWi
l
hel
mi
ssket
chi
nga
hor
se,whi
l
eayoungerbr
ot
herl
ooksonadmi
r
i
ngl
y
.Theel
destdaught
er
,Jeanne,st
udi
esani
l
l
ust
r
at
edal
bum,whi
l
eChodowi
ecki
’
swi
f
est
andsatt
hel
ef
t
,
t
al
ki
ngwi
t
ht
hei
rdaught
er
.Thecapt
i
ont
ot
hepr
i
ntmakesapubl
i
cst
at
ementaboutbour
geoi
sl
i
f
eandr
ef
i
nedcul
t
ur
e.
I
nt
heper
i
od,t
hi
sf
undament
al
l
ybour
geoi
sat
t
i
t
udewasf
ai
t
hf
ul
l
yr
ef
l
ect
edbynor
t
hGer
manar
t
i
st
s,whot
r
ansf
or
medt
heFr
enchRococoi
nt
oapedant
i
cf
or
m of
r
eal
i
sm.Thi
st
r
ansi
t
i
onf
r
om t
r
adi
t
i
onal
Rococoor
nament
at
i
ont
oahi
ghl
yobj
ect
i
vear
tf
or
ml
edt
oar
eappr
ai
sal
ofet
chi
ng,whi
chwaspar
t
i
cul
ar
l
ywel
l
sui
t
edt
o
t
her
epr
esent
at
i
onofscenesf
r
om mi
ddl
ecl
assl
i
f
e.Dani
elChodowi
eckii
sat
ypi
calr
epr
esent
at
i
veoft
hi
sst
yl
e.
FK
20
Phi
l
i
psWouwer
man(
Dut
ch,16191668)
ADut
chHor
seman’
sGame,ca.16501668
Oi
loncanvas
I
nPhi
l
i
psWouwer
man’
sgenr
escene(
depi
ct
i
onofever
ydayl
i
f
e)
,t
hecl
oudsandt
heskyoccupyt
hemaj
or
i
t
yoft
hepai
nt
i
ng,cr
eat
i
ngasi
l
ver
y
,l
i
ghtt
onei
n
t
hebackgr
ound.Thepeopl
eandhor
seshavebeenr
educedt
ot
hel
esspr
omi
nentf
or
egr
oundi
nahar
moni
ouscombi
nat
i
onofgenr
eandl
andscapeel
ement
s.
Scenesoff
ami
l
i
arever
ydayl
i
f
ecamei
nt
ogr
eatdemandi
nt
hear
tmar
ketatt
hi
st
i
me.I
nt
hem,wecanseet
heent
er
t
ai
nment
soft
hemi
ddl
ecl
assi
n17t
h
cent
ur
yHol
l
andandt
hei
rcl
ot
hesandf
ashi
on.
manwasundoubt
edl
yt
hemostsuccessf
ul
17t
hcent
ur
yDut
chpai
nt
erofhor
ses,whi
chwer
ei
ncl
udedi
nhi
smanysmal
l
pi
ct
ur
es.Hever
ycommonl
y
Wouwer
i
ncl
udesawhi
t
ehor
seasahi
ghl
i
ghti
nt
hef
or
egr
ound. I
naddi
t
i
on,hi
swor
ksr
angewi
del
yi
nsubj
ect
,f
r
om equest
r
i
anscenesandhunt
i
ngpar
t
i
est
o
l
andscapeswi
t
ht
r
avel
er
s,caval
r
ybat
t
l
es,andmi
l
i
t
ar
yencampment
s.Hei
samast
erofvi
vaci
oust
r
eat
mentoff
i
gur
es,ski
l
l
f
ul
ani
mal
pai
nt
i
ng,andappr
opr
i
at
e
l
andscape backgr
ounds. I
n 17t
hcent
ur
y Hol
l
and,cust
omer
sr
equest
ed a near
per
f
ectr
ef
l
ect
i
on ofr
eal
i
t
y
,l
i
ke t
oday’
s vi
ewer
s oft
el
evi
si
on soap
oper
as—di
st
or
t
edj
ustenought
omakei
tmor
eexci
t
i
ngt
hant
hei
rownhumdr
um exi
st
ences—andDut
chpai
nt
er
scat
er
edt
ot
hewi
der
angi
ngt
ast
esoft
he
ar
t
buyi
ngpubl
i
c.For
ei
gner
swer
eamazednotonl
yatt
hegr
eatnumber
sofpai
nt
i
ngsi
nDut
chhousesbutal
soatt
hewi
dedi
f
f
usi
onofar
t
:evenor
di
nar
y
peopl
eownedoneort
wopai
nt
i
ngs.TheDut
chpai
nt
er
swer
eext
r
emel
ypr
oduct
i
ve.I
ti
sest
i
mat
edt
hatatl
eastf
i
vemi
l
l
i
onpai
nt
i
ngswer
epr
oducedi
nt
he
Dut
chRepubl
i
ci
nt
he17t
hcent
ur
y
.Thesear
t
i
st
s,br
eaki
ngawayf
r
om t
hest
at
usofgui
l
dcr
af
t
wor
ker
s,compet
edi
nt
hef
i
r
stdevel
opedar
tmar
ket
.
FK
21
Wi
l
l
i
am Hogar
t
h(
Br
i
t
i
sh,16971764)
Wi
l
l
i
am Hogar
t
hPai
nt
i
ngt
heComi
cMuse,1764
Engr
avi
ng,6t
hst
at
e
22
Adr
i
aenJanszvanOst
ade(
Dut
ch,16101685)
Cot
t
ageI
nt
er
i
orwi
t
hPeasantFeast
,ca.1650s
Et
chi
ng
Thi
set
chi
ngofagenr
esceneshowshowanar
t
i
stcoul
dcr
eat
er
el
at
edwor
ksi
ndi
f
f
er
entmedi
a(
f
orasi
mi
l
arpai
nt
i
ngbyOst
adeseecat
al
ogue.no.23)
.What
i
si
mmedi
at
el
yst
r
i
ki
ngi
nt
hi
swor
ki
st
hebr
awl
yscenei
nsi
deoft
hecot
t
ageandt
hemagi
cl
i
ghtwhi
chemphasi
zest
hemai
nf
i
gur
es.Thear
t
i
stshowsushi
s
t
al
ent
sofobser
vat
i
on.Not
hi
ngdecor
at
est
hepat
chwor
koft
hei
nt
er
i
or
,t
het
umbl
edownchi
mneysort
hel
adderst
ai
r
cases,char
act
er
i
st
i
coft
her
ust
i
cDut
ch
housei
nt
hosedays.I
nt
hi
spr
i
nt
,weseecr
osshat
chi
ngi
nmanypl
aces:ont
hecei
l
i
ng,chi
mneypi
ece,r
earwal
landt
hedoor
,andbel
ow t
hesuspended
chai
r
.Sever
alpl
acesar
el
i
ght
er
:t
hel
owerpar
toft
hechi
mney
,t
heupperhal
foft
heopendoor
,t
heboar
dsabovet
hesuspendedchai
r
,andt
hel
i
ghtsi
deof
t
heseati
nt
hel
owerl
ef
t
.Dar
kerar
easappeari
nt
heapr
onoft
hewomanandt
hehatoft
hemanont
hest
ai
r
s,t
hewai
st
coatoft
hesmokersi
t
t
i
ngi
nf
r
ontof
t
hebed,andt
hebonnetoft
hewomansi
t
t
i
ngt
ot
hef
arr
i
ght
.Avi
vi
ddepi
ct
i
on,i
tshowsamanwi
t
hahatcomi
ngdownt
hest
ai
r
sandt
womensi
t
t
i
ngona
bencht
al
ki
ng.Theent
i
r
ebackofonemansi
t
t
i
ngi
nt
hef
or
egr
oundi
sshaded,whi
l
et
hedogundert
het
abl
e(
i
nt
hecent
er
)i
smor
edi
st
i
nct
.
Hangi
ngont
hewal
lar
et
hepeasant
s’meagerpossessi
ons:pi
ecesofmeat
,apot
,sever
albasket
s,t
wopi
ecesofcl
ot
handacei
l
i
ngl
amp.Thepeasant
s
mi
ngl
et
oget
heri
nt
hesamer
oom.Thel
ackofpr
i
vacymayseem unbear
abl
et
ous,butwascommonpl
acet
oa17t
hcent
ur
yper
son.Anawar
enessofl
i
f
ei
n
i
sol
at
i
onhadnotyetbeenaccept
edatt
hi
st
i
me.
FK
23
Adr
i
aenJanszvanOst
ade(
Dut
ch,16101685)
PeasantScene,ca.1642
Oi
lonpanel
Thi
sgenr
epai
nt
i
ngshowsal
i
vel
y“
l
owl
i
f
e”peasantscene.Thepai
nt
i
ngcapt
ur
esadr
amat
i
cmomenti
nsi
dear
ur
al
hut
.Amanst
andi
ngont
hest
ai
r
st
hr
ows
t
hi
ngsdownf
r
om t
hecabi
net
,whi
l
eot
her
sundert
hest
ai
rpi
ckt
hem upf
r
om t
hef
l
oor
.Thear
t
i
sti
sdi
st
i
ngui
shedf
r
om hi
scont
empor
ar
i
esbyhi
smor
edr
amat
i
c
useofl
i
ghtandshade,especi
al
l
yt
hegr
eat
erconcent
r
at
i
onofl
i
ghtonasmal
lsur
f
acecont
r
ast
edwi
t
habr
oadexpanseofgl
oom.
Adr
i
aenJanszvanOst
ade,aDut
chpai
nt
erandpr
i
nt
makerwhowor
kedal
lhi
sl
i
f
ei
nHaar
l
em,i
schi
ef
l
yr
emember
edf
orhi
sr
eal
i
st
i
cgenr
escenest
hat
concent
r
at
eonpeasantmer
r
ymaki
ngorbr
awl
si
nhouses,t
aver
ns,orbar
ns.I
naddi
t
i
on,heshowsust
hei
nsi
deandout
si
deofcot
t
ages:t
umbl
edown
chi
mneys,l
adderst
ai
r
cases,andover
hangi
ngt
r
ees. Ost
adecoul
dcapt
ur
et
hei
dyl
l
i
cpar
tofpeasantl
i
f
eandshow i
t
sel
ement
alpl
easur
esoff
east
i
ng,
dr
i
nki
ng,smoki
ng,andmer
r
ymaki
ngwi
t
hcompani
ons.Hel
ef
tusar
i
chr
ecor
dofpeasantl
i
f
ei
nhi
st
i
me.
I
tseemst
hathumansubj
ect
sf
i
r
stappear
edi
nDut
chgenr
epai
nt
i
ngswi
t
houtr
ef
er
encet
ohi
st
or
i
calsi
gni
f
i
canceandmyt
h. Onecansayi
ti
sasubj
ect
cat
egor
yofhumbl
eor
i
gi
ns.I
nt
heear
l
i
estexampl
esofgenr
epai
nt
i
ng,t
hear
t
i
st
st
ookt
hei
rt
hemesf
r
om t
hef
ai
r
gr
ound,mar
ketpl
ace,andki
t
chen.Thi
swas
aper
i
odwhenal
l
subj
ect
scamet
obeconsi
der
edequal
l
ysui
t
abl
ef
orr
epr
esent
at
i
on,f
r
om humanf
i
gur
esandt
hei
renvi
r
onmentt
ot
heani
mal
andpl
antwor
l
d.
Peopl
eonl
yoccupi
edonepar
toft
hewor
l
dper
cei
vedbyt
hear
t
i
st
,andamonghumans,t
ypeswer
est
i
l
lmor
ei
mpor
t
antt
hani
ndi
vi
dual
s,whet
herpeasant
s,
sol
di
er
s,member
soft
hepet
i
tbour
geoi
si
eort
heupper
mi
ddl
ecl
asses.
FK
24
Wencesl
ausHol
l
ar(
Bohemi
an,16071677)
Muf
f
s,16441652
Facsi
mi
l
eet
chi
ng,19t
hc.
Thi
set
chi
ng(
al
ongwi
t
hcat
.nos.25and26)i
saf
acsi
mi
l
eoft
heor
i
gi
nal
byWencesl
ausHol
l
ar
,whowasbor
ni
nPr
agueandwor
kedmai
nl
yi
nEngl
and.Hol
l
ar
wasbestknownf
orhi
st
opol
ogi
call
andscapesofpl
acesl
i
keSt
r
asbour
gandLondon.Thi
set
chi
ngexhi
bi
t
st
hehi
ghl
evelofdet
ai
landnat
ur
al
i
sm f
orwhi
ch
hewasnot
ed,appl
i
edt
oani
t
em ofcl
ot
hi
ng.
rofmuf
f
s,whi
char
ewor
nonbot
hhandsf
orwar
mt
h,l
i
esonat
abl
ei
nashal
l
owspace.Adel
i
cat
eshawl
andeyemaskar
el
ai
dovert
hem.Theat
t
ent
i
on
Apai
t
odet
ai
lgi
vent
oeachst
r
andoff
uront
hemuf
f
spar
al
l
el
st
hecar
ef
ul
,sci
ent
i
f
i
cobser
vat
i
onofnat
ur
alobj
ect
st
hatemer
gedatt
hi
st
i
meofr
i
si
ngsecul
ar
empi
r
i
ci
sm.Yett
hi
si
smuchmor
et
hanast
i
l
ll
i
f
e:t
hi
st
ypeofpr
i
ntbecameknownast
hepr
over
bi
al“
f
ashi
onpl
at
e.
”Hol
l
arwasoneoft
hef
i
r
star
t
i
st
swhose
et
chi
ngswer
epubl
i
shedi
ncost
umebookst
hatbecamepopul
ari
nt
he17t
hcent
ur
y
.Cost
umebookswer
esour
cesofi
nf
or
mat
i
onf
orwomen:t
hef
ashi
on
pl
at
esi
nt
hem i
l
l
ust
r
at
edhowt
owearcer
t
ai
ncl
ot
hesanddesi
gnat
edspeci
f
i
ccl
ot
hi
ngas“
i
nst
yl
e.
”I
naddi
t
i
on,Hol
l
arcr
eat
edaser
i
esofet
chi
ngsdepi
ct
i
ng
womenwear
i
ngappr
opr
i
at
egar
ment
sf
oreachseason.Fashi
onpl
at
esandcost
umebooksl
ast
edt
hr
oughoutt
he19t
hcent
ur
y
,whent
heywer
ephasedout
duet
ot
hei
nvent
i
onofphot
ogr
aphy
.
Thi
si
mageal
sor
el
at
est
ot
hemoder
ni
nt
er
esti
nt
hei
ndi
vi
dualt
hatar
osei
nt
heRenai
ssance,andt
ot
hedevel
opmentoft
hepr
i
nt
i
ngpr
ess,bywhi
ch
knowl
edgebecameavai
l
abl
et
oawi
derr
angeofpeopl
e.Womenwer
eper
mi
t
t
edonl
yl
i
mi
t
edr
ol
esi
nsoci
et
ydur
i
ngt
heRenai
ssance–t
hei
rmai
nt
askwas
t
ot
akecar
eoft
hehome–soexpr
essi
ngt
hei
ri
ndi
vi
dual
i
t
yt
hr
oughf
ashi
onbecameani
mpor
t
antpar
tofci
vi
l
i
zedl
i
f
e.
KB
25
Wencesl
ausHol
l
ar(
Bohemi
an,16071677)
HawksandOwl
s,1663
Possi
bl
yf
r
om Ani
mal
i
um f
er
ar
um f
l
or
i
um ver
i
umquei
cons,
Fr
anci
sBar
l
owaf
t
erHol
l
ar
,1671or1674
Facsi
mi
l
eet
chi
ng,19t
hc.
Li
kecat
al
oguenos.24and26,t
hi
set
chi
ngi
sal
at
erf
acsi
mi
l
er
epr
i
ntofawor
kbyWencesl
ausHol
l
ar
,eachofwhi
chappl
i
esHol
l
ar
’
sdet
ai
l
edobser
vat
i
ont
o
avar
i
et
yofhumanornat
ur
alsubj
ect
s.
Hol
l
armadesever
al
ser
i
esofst
udi
esofani
mal
s,suchasbut
t
er
f
l
i
es,dogs,andevenshel
l
s.Ar
t
wor
ksdepi
ct
i
ngani
mal
sdat
ebackt
ocavepai
nt
i
ngs,butt
he
nat
ur
al
i
sm ofhi
set
chi
ngssetanew st
andar
d.I
nt
henextgener
at
i
on,ar
t
i
stMar
i
aSybi
l
l
aMer
i
an(
16471717)publ
i
shedsever
alf
ol
i
osofmet
i
cul
ous
engr
avi
ngsofpl
ant
sandi
nsect
si
nSout
hAmer
i
ca(
Met
amor
phosi
sI
nsect
or
i
um Sur
i
namensi
um,1705)
.
Thescr
upul
ousvi
sual
r
ecor
di
ngseeni
nMer
i
an’
sand
Hol
l
ar
’
spr
i
nt
sst
emsf
r
om t
he17t
hcent
ur
yconceptt
hatal
lnat
ur
alt
hi
ngs—evenhumbl
eani
mal
sl
i
kebi
r
dsandi
nsect
s—ar
edi
vi
necr
eat
i
onsofGod.
’
set
chi
ngdepi
ct
ssi
xbi
r
dsi
nani
nt
er
i
orset
t
i
ngsuggest
i
ngast
udyr
oom.Unl
i
keMer
i
an,Hol
l
art
akest
hebi
r
dsoutoft
hei
rnat
ur
al
cont
ext
.Thi
sdeci
si
on
Hol
l
ar
t
oi
sol
at
et
heobj
ectofst
udyi
ssi
mi
l
art
ot
he“
t
heat
r
e”ofsur
ger
i
esont
hehumanbodypopul
ar
i
zedt
hr
oughAndr
easVesal
i
us’
medi
calt
r
eat
i
se(
1543)
.The
at
t
ent
i
ont
odet
ai
loft
hesubj
ectmat
t
eri
scompl
et
el
yobj
ect
i
ve,wi
t
hanabsenceofar
t
i
st
i
cper
sonal
i
t
y
.Thi
sdesi
r
et
ost
udyani
mal
s,andnat
ur
ei
ngener
al
,i
n
avi
sualf
or
m wasaRenai
ssancedevel
opment
. Ni
col
ausCoper
ni
cus’ast
r
onomi
calt
r
eat
i
se(
1543)
,whi
chconcl
udedt
hatt
hesunwast
hecent
eroft
he
uni
ver
se,l
i
keVesal
i
us’
anat
omi
cal
t
r
eat
i
set
hatdi
ssect
edt
hehumanbodyf
orst
udy
,wer
eachi
evement
soft
henewspi
r
i
tofempi
r
i
ci
sm.Ani
ndi
vi
dual
’
sabi
l
i
t
y
t
oexper
i
enceandobser
vet
hei
nnersoul
,body
,andwor
l
dar
oundt
hem wasoner
esul
tofal
lt
heseef
f
or
t
s.Hol
l
ar
’
swor
ki
sast
r
ongexampl
eoft
hemer
gi
ng
ofsci
enceandar
tandt
hebegi
nni
ngsofnat
ur
alhi
st
or
y
.
KB
26
Wencesl
ausHol
l
ar(
Bohemi
an,16071677)
ABol
ogneseDog,1649
Facsi
mi
l
eet
chi
ng,19t
hc.
Li
kecat
al
ogueno.25,t
hi
si
spar
tofanot
herser
i
esofani
malst
udi
esbyHol
l
ar
,aBohemi
anar
t
i
stknownf
orhi
scar
ef
ulnat
ur
al
i
st
i
cobser
vat
i
on.Thedogi
s
seti
nashal
l
ownondescr
i
ptspace,wi
t
honl
yt
hef
ai
nt
estsuggest
i
onoft
hel
i
neoft
het
abl
ewher
et
hedogi
sposi
t
i
oned.Thedet
ai
l
edat
t
ent
i
ont
ot
hedog’
s
f
urandanat
omyi
sanot
herexampl
eofHol
l
ar
’
smer
gi
ngofsci
enceandar
t
–whennat
ur
alhi
st
or
yi
ni
t
i
al
l
yi
nvol
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t
,schol
ast
i
c
t
al
ent
s,andbenevol
ence. Vasar
ist
at
est
hatCi
ol
imadet
wol
i
f
el
i
ke,l
i
f
esi
ze
andnudescul
pt
ur
es—oneoft
hedwar
fMor
gant
eandt
heot
herofBar
bi
no.
Ther
ei
s skept
i
ci
sm among some schol
ar
st
hatBar
bi
no woul
d have been
i
l
l
ust
r
at
edast
heabsur
dl
i
t
t
l
emanonat
or
t
oi
se.Theysuggestt
hatt
her
emust
besomeconf
usi
onbet
weent
hescul
pt
ur
ei
nquest
i
onandt
heot
herscul
pt
ur
e,
whi
ch i
nhabi
t
sa ni
che on t
he nor
t
h si
de oft
he near
bypal
ace’
scour
t
yar
d.
Thoughtt
obet
hemostcel
ebr
at
edscul
pt
ori
nt
hel
at
t
erhal
foft
he16t
hcent
ur
y
,
Gi
ovanni
daBol
ognaal
sohadcommi
ssi
onsf
r
om t
heMedi
ci
f
ami
l
y
.Muchofhi
s
wor
ki
sf
ount
ai
nbased,andhesomet
i
mesmadenumer
ouscl
ayandbr
onze
model
st
oassi
sti
nt
hepr
ogr
essofhi
swor
k.
Dwar
f
sdepi
ct
edi
nar
tcanhavevar
i
ousmeani
ngsandconnot
at
i
ons. Some
Chr
i
st
i
anssawdwar
f
sasnegat
i
vel
ymar
kedbyGodandavoi
dedt
hem.Dwar
f
s
wer
eal
sogi
vencomi
cal
l
ypr
omi
nentnamesbyt
hei
rmast
er
s,asi
nt
hecaseof
Mor
gant
e,whowasnamedaf
t
eragi
ant
.Theywer
eof
t
encompani
onst
or
oyal
chi
l
dr
en,ascanbeseeni
nDi
egoVel
ázquez’
(
15991660)f
amouspai
nt
i
ngLas
Meni
nas.
GDM/
FK
31
At
t
r
i
but
edt
oWi
l
l
em dePoor
t
er(
Dut
ch,16081648)
Repent
antMagdal
ene
Oi
loncanvas
Mar
yMagdal
enei
sapopul
arsai
nti
nt
heChr
i
st
i
ancal
endar
.Knownbot
hasone
ofChr
i
st
’
sf
ol
l
ower
sandar
ef
or
medpr
ost
i
t
ut
e,sheembodi
esnotonl
yt
heevi
l
s
associ
at
edwi
t
hf
emal
esexual
i
t
ybutal
sosal
vat
i
ont
hr
oughr
epent
ance.I
nt
he
Renai
ssance,heri
mager
epr
esent
edt
hedi
chot
omyofwomanasei
t
heri
deal
or
want
on,l
ovi
ngorl
ust
f
ul
,chast
eorseduct
i
ve,obedi
entorheadst
r
ong,sai
ntor
si
nner
.Mar
yMagdal
ene’
si
mageal
sor
ecal
l
edt
hecl
assi
calgoddessVenusas
t
he gl
or
i
f
i
cat
i
on oft
he nude and vener
at
i
on ofphysi
calbeaut
y(
f
ormor
e
i
nf
or
mat
i
onaboutcl
assi
cal
ar
t
,seet
hesect
i
onoft
heexhi
bi
t
i
ononTheCl
assi
cal
Revi
val
)
.
Wi
l
l
em dePoor
t
er
,aDut
chf
ol
l
owerofRembr
andt
,depi
ct
sMar
yMagdal
eneas
ani
mageoff
emi
ni
nebeaut
y
,wi
t
hdel
i
cat
ef
aci
al
f
eat
ur
esandasensuousbody
.
Shewear
sasi
l
kyr
edgownasasymbolofpassi
on,si
nf
ul
ness,andvani
t
y
,as
wel
lassuf
f
er
i
ng.I
namomentofspi
r
i
t
ualst
r
uggl
eandi
nt
ensedevot
i
on,she
t
ur
nsherheadt
owar
dsHeavenshowi
ngr
emor
sef
orhersi
nswi
t
hhercl
asped
hands,t
her
ednessofhereyes,andt
hepear
l
l
i
ket
ear
st
hatr
ol
ldownherf
ace.
Shehast
hr
ownont
ot
hef
l
oorherl
uxur
i
ousaccessor
i
es,gol
dcoi
ns,andj
ar
sof
unguent
,used bot
ht
o per
f
ume herf
l
esh f
orf
or
bi
dden act
sand t
o cl
eanse
Chr
i
st
’
sf
eet
. Wi
t
houtf
ear
,shehasr
ej
ect
edt
hepl
easur
esofear
t
hl
yl
i
f
eand
embr
acedal
i
f
eoft
ear
s,penance,andsacr
i
f
i
ce.Mar
yMagdal
enehasbecome
anobl
esoulwi
t
hi
nabeaut
i
f
ulbody
,whocl
ai
mst
hesuper
i
or
i
t
yofwomenwi
t
h
r
egar
dt
of
ai
t
handbel
i
ef
. Tot
hi
sday
,sher
emi
ndsusofChr
i
st
’
sl
oveand
f
or
gi
venessandal
i
f
eofpeni
t
ence.
MEM
32
El
i
sabet
t
aSi
r
ani(
I
t
al
i
an,16381665)
Restont
heFl
i
ghti
nt
oEgypt
Et
chi
ng
Thi
spr
i
nti
l
l
ust
r
at
est
hest
or
yoft
heHol
yFami
l
y’
sFl
i
ghti
nt
oEgypt
,oneoft
hemostpopul
arl
egendsaboutt
hel
i
f
eofChr
i
stt
hatbegani
nt
heMi
ddl
eAges.
Accor
di
ngt
ot
heGospelofMat
t
hew2:
1621,t
heHol
yFami
l
yf
l
edi
nt
oEgyptt
oescapeKi
ngHer
od’
sor
dert
oexecut
eal
lf
i
r
st
bor
nmal
ei
nf
ant
si
nt
hevi
l
l
age
ofBet
hl
ehem,t
oaver
tt
hel
ossofhi
st
hr
onet
oanewbor
nKi
ngoft
heJewswhosebi
r
t
hwasannouncedt
ohi
m byt
heWi
seMen.
Si
r
anipor
t
r
ayst
heHol
yFami
l
yasor
di
nar
ypeopl
e.Shedr
essest
hem i
ncont
empor
ar
ycl
ot
hi
ngandseat
st
hem underapal
mt
r
ee,emphasi
zi
ngt
hehuman
r
at
hert
hant
hedi
vi
nenat
ur
eoft
hehol
yf
i
gur
es,andf
ocusi
ngont
hemat
er
nali
nt
i
macyandt
ender
nessoft
heVi
r
gi
nMar
y
.Thear
t
i
st
’
sf
emal
esensi
t
i
vi
t
yno
doubtcont
r
i
but
edt
ot
her
epr
esent
at
i
onofi
nt
i
mat
emoment
sl
i
ket
hi
si
nt
hedai
l
yl
i
vesofcont
empor
ar
ywomen(
f
ormor
ei
nf
or
mat
i
onaboutgenr
escenes,r
ef
er
t
ot
heexhi
bi
t
i
onsect
i
onAwakeni
ngI
nt
er
esti
nEar
t
hl
yLi
f
e)
.
Si
r
anir
ecei
vedhert
r
ai
ni
ngf
r
om herf
at
herGi
ovanni
Andr
eaSi
r
ani(
16101670,af
ol
l
owerofGui
doReni
)
,anddespi
t
ehershor
tl
i
f
e(
shedi
edatt
heageof
27)
,shecont
r
i
but
edt
ot
heevol
ut
i
onofpai
nt
i
ngi
nBol
ogna,hernat
i
veci
t
y
.Si
r
ani
openedherownschool
ofpai
nt
i
ngf
orwomen;exper
i
ment
edwi
t
hnewmedi
a
suchaset
chi
ngandpr
i
nt
i
ng(
f
ormor
ei
nf
or
mat
i
onaboutt
hepr
i
nt
i
ngpr
ocess,r
ef
ert
ot
hesect
i
onSci
enceandTechnol
ogy)
;anddevel
opednewi
nt
er
pr
et
at
i
ons
ofmyt
hol
ogi
calt
hemesandf
emal
eher
oi
nesf
r
om ant
i
qui
t
y
,avoi
di
ng,i
nmostoft
hem,t
heer
ot
i
ci
sm t
ypi
cal
l
yempl
oyedbyhermal
econt
empor
ar
i
es.She
exal
t
ednobl
evi
r
t
uessuchascour
age,st
r
engt
h,andl
oyal
t
y
,usual
l
yat
t
r
i
but
edt
omenr
at
hert
hanwomen.Hermonument
al
mannerofpai
nt
i
ng,dr
amat
i
cuse
ofl
i
ght
,andr
api
dbr
ushwor
kwer
eadmi
r
edbycont
empor
ar
yar
t
i
st
sandbyt
hepubl
i
c,whomour
nedherpr
emat
ur
edeat
h.
MEM
33
Gi
r
ol
amoMocet
t
o(
I
t
al
i
an,ca.14701531)
Judi
t
h,af
t
erAndr
eaMant
egna,150005
Engr
avi
ng
Thi
spr
i
nti
l
l
ust
r
at
est
hest
or
yf
r
om anOl
dTest
amentapocr
yphalst
or
yabout
Judi
t
h,aJewi
shwi
dow whosavedherpeopl
ef
r
om sl
aver
yanddeat
hbyt
he
Assyr
i
anar
my
.Gai
ni
ngaccesst
ot
het
entoft
heenemygener
al
Hol
of
er
nesshe
t
ookadvant
ageofhi
sdr
unkenst
upor
,decapi
t
at
edhi
m andt
ookhi
sheadback
t
ohercount
r
ymen.Havi
ngl
ostt
hei
rl
eader
,t
heAssyr
i
anar
myf
l
ed,andI
sr
ael
wassaved.
Gi
r
ol
amoMocet
t
o,anI
t
al
i
anengr
aver
,pai
nt
er
,anddesi
gnerofst
ai
nedgl
ass,
por
t
r
aysJudi
t
hasr
emot
e,i
mpassi
ve,andunawar
eoft
hecr
i
met
hatshehas
j
ustcommi
t
t
edasshepassest
heheadofHol
of
er
nest
ohermai
dser
vantAbr
a.
Thear
t
i
stemphasi
zesJudi
t
h’
spassi
vest
r
engt
handdownpl
ayst
hedanger
ous
poweroff
emal
esexual
i
t
ybypl
aci
ngherawayf
r
om t
hesceneoft
hecr
i
me,t
he
t
ent
,andt
hebedoft
heAssyr
i
angener
al
.
I
nt
heRenai
ssance,Judi
t
hbecameanexampl
eoft
hest
r
engt
hofl
ocalpeopl
e
agai
nstt
yr
anni
calr
ul
ef
r
om af
ar
. Li
keDavi
d,whobecamet
hesymboloft
he
Fl
or
ent
i
neRepubl
i
c,sheappeal
edt
ot
heFl
or
ent
i
nes,whosaw t
hemsel
vesas
t
heunder
dogf
i
ght
i
ngamor
epower
f
ulenemy
,or
i
gi
nal
l
yt
heMi
l
anese. The
young her
oi
ne al
so at
t
r
act
ed el
i
t
e women such as I
sabel
l
a d’
Est
e,Vi
t
t
or
i
a
Col
onna,and Cat
her
i
ne and Mar
i
a de’Medi
ci
. Theycommi
ssi
oned wor
ks
depi
ct
i
ngJudi
t
handot
herf
emal
eher
oi
nesofant
i
qui
t
yf
r
om f
amousar
t
i
st
sof
t
hei
rt
i
mesuchasTi
t
i
an,Mant
egna,andLeonar
dodaVi
nci
. Thr
ought
hei
r
commi
ssi
ons,el
i
t
ef
emal
esf
el
taut
onomous,abl
et
oasser
tt
hei
rowni
dent
i
t
i
es
andpower
.Nobl
ewomenr
el
at
edt
hei
raccompl
i
shment
st
ot
heachi
evement
sof
anci
enther
oi
nessuch asJudi
t
h,Lucr
et
i
a,Por
t
i
a,and Cl
eopat
r
a who wer
e
pr
ai
sedf
ort
hei
rcour
age,f
or
t
i
t
ude,andl
oyal
t
y
.
MEM
34
HansBal
dungGr
i
en(
Ger
many
,1484/
851545)
TheWi
t
ches’
Sabbat
h,1510
Chi
ar
oscur
owoodcut
I
nt
hi
spr
i
nt
,HansBal
dungGr
i
en,aGer
manpai
nt
er
,pr
i
nt
maker
,andf
ol
l
owerof
Al
br
echtDür
er
,i
l
l
ust
r
at
eshi
spr
eoccupat
i
on wi
t
ht
he dar
kersi
de ofhuman
nat
ur
e,t
hesuper
nat
ur
al
,wi
t
ches,anddeat
h.I
nt
hi
schi
ar
oscur
owoodcut
,he
depi
ct
sawi
t
ches’sabbat
h,anoct
ur
nalcer
emonyi
nadesol
at
ef
or
estwher
e
womenpar
t
i
ci
pant
sr
i
debackwar
dsonf
l
yi
nggoat
s,st
ew humanbones,eat
f
l
eshsupposedl
yofchi
l
dr
en,andcopul
at
ewi
t
hSat
ani
nt
heshapeofagoat
.
Thi
si
mageofwi
t
chesst
andsasacl
earexampl
eoft
hepoweroft
hecul
t
ur
al
myt
hi
nher
i
t
edf
r
om t
heMi
ddl
eAgest
hatassoci
at
edwomenwi
t
hwi
t
chcr
af
tand
t
hef
emal
ebodywi
t
hsi
n.Dur
i
ngt
heRenai
ssance,f
r
om t
he14t
ht
ot
he17t
h
cent
ur
y
,t
he myt
h became a r
eal
i
t
y
,and women became t
he t
ar
get
s of
wi
t
chhunt
s as a r
esul
tofsoci
al
,pol
i
t
i
caland economi
c changes,t
he
emer
genceofanewr
el
i
gi
on,i
nt
er
esti
nast
r
ol
ogy
,changesi
nt
her
ol
eofwomen,
and t
he gr
owt
h ofpr
i
nt
ed l
i
t
er
at
ur
e on wi
t
chcr
af
tsuch as t
he Mal
l
eus
mal
ef
i
car
um (
f
ormor
ei
nf
or
mat
i
on on t
he evol
ut
i
on ofpr
i
nt
i
ng,r
ef
ert
ot
he
exhi
bi
t
i
onsect
i
onSci
enceandTechnol
ogy)
.
Commonpeopl
ewer
enott
heonl
yonesaf
r
ai
dofwi
t
chesandt
hei
rdest
r
uct
i
ve
nat
ur
e. Hi
ghr
anki
ngchur
chmenandmanyi
nt
el
l
ect
ual
sal
sobel
i
evedi
nt
he
powerofwi
t
ches,andf
el
tapr
of
oundpessi
mi
sm aboutt
heevi
l
sofsoci
et
y
.
Thesel
ear
nedmenagr
eedt
hati
twasupt
ot
hem t
ocont
r
olpeopl
ewhol
acked
di
sci
pl
i
neandpr
opereducat
i
on. Amongt
hosewhoneededt
obecont
r
ol
l
ed
wer
e women,si
nce t
hey wer
er
egar
ded as danger
ous,seduct
i
ve,and
suscept
i
bl
et
owi
t
chcr
af
tbecauseoft
hei
ri
nf
er
i
orphysi
cal
,ment
al
,andmor
al
capaci
t
y
. Power
l
essagai
nstsecul
arandr
el
i
gi
ousl
aw,womenbecameeasy
t
ar
get
sf
oral
lt
heabnor
mal
i
t
i
esofsoci
et
yandvi
ct
i
msofmal
er
esent
mentand
gui
l
t
.Al
ongwi
t
hwar
sandt
hebuboni
cpl
ague,wi
t
chhunt
swer
epar
toft
he
dar
kersi
deoft
heRenai
ssance.
MEM
THECLASSI
CALREVI
VAL:
EXPANDI
NG KNOWLEDGEACROSSTI
ME
Br
onzeSt
at
ue e
s
Thr
oughoutt
heRenai
ssancel
ar
gescal
ebr
onzescul
pt
ur
eswer
ecommi
ssi
onedbyt
heCat
hol
i
cChur
chaswel
lasweal
t
hypat
r
ons.Cr
eat
edf
or
publ
i
cdi
spl
ay
,t
hesewor
ksat
t
est
edt
ot
hepol
i
t
i
calaut
hor
i
t
y
,r
el
i
gi
ousdevot
i
on,orsoci
alst
at
usoft
hei
rcommi
ssi
oner
sandenhancedt
heChur
ch’
s
r
el
i
gi
ouspr
ogr
am. Br
onzest
at
uet
t
es,knownasbr
onzet
t
i
,f
i
r
stappear
edi
nt
heear
l
y15t
hcent
ur
yi
nFl
or
ence,t
hought
hepr
oduct
i
onoft
hese
smal
l
si
zewor
ksr
eachedi
t
szeni
t
hi
nt
heci
t
yofPadua.
Of
t
ensuper
bpi
ecesofscul
pt
ur
e,t
hesebr
onzesf
or
m ani
nt
egr
alwef
ti
nt
hef
abr
i
coft
heI
t
al
i
anRenai
ssance,hel
pi
ngt
hevi
ewert
ounder
st
andt
he
ar
t
i
st
i
ci
deasandst
yl
i
st
i
cpr
edi
l
ect
i
onsoft
hei
rmast
er
s,aswel
last
hedemandsofanew cl
i
ent
el
et
hatvar
i
edf
r
om t
her
i
si
ngmi
ddl
ecl
assest
o
humani
sti
nt
el
l
ect
ualci
r
cl
es.Att
hesamet
i
met
heyacquai
ntuswi
t
hsever
alscul
pt
or
swhodi
dnotpr
oducemonument
alwor
ks,aswel
laswi
t
h
st
yl
es,t
hemes,mot
i
f
s,andsubj
ect
swhi
choccur
r
edl
essof
t
eni
nl
ar
gescal
escul
pt
ur
es,suchast
her
epr
esent
at
i
onoft
henude(
cat
.nos.35,37,
38,39,41,42,43)
.Thesebr
onzet
t
i
wer
eof
t
enr
epl
i
casofl
i
f
esi
zeor
i
gi
nal
s(
cat
.nos.1,41,42)orpr
el
i
mi
nar
ysket
chesf
ort
hem,cl
osel
yassoci
at
ed
wi
t
hl
ar
gerwor
ksbyt
hear
t
i
storhi
scont
empor
ar
i
es(
cat
.no.1)
.Manywer
er
epr
oduct
i
onsofant
i
quewor
kst
hatei
t
hersur
vi
vedi
nt
he15t
hand16t
h
cent
ur
i
esorhadbeenel
oquent
l
ydescr
i
bedi
nt
hecl
assi
calt
ext
sst
udi
edbyer
udi
t
ehumani
st
s(
cat
.nos.1,41,42,43)
.Thus,t
heywer
esoughtby
ot
herar
t
i
st
swhocoul
dst
udyandr
epr
oducef
amouswor
ksi
nt
hesecl
usi
onoft
hei
rst
udi
os.Fur
t
her
mor
e,si
ncet
hemaj
or
i
t
yoft
hesesmal
lbr
onze
st
at
uet
t
esar
ef
r
eest
andi
ngf
i
gur
esi
nt
endedt
obeseenf
r
om al
lsi
des,t
heydi
spl
ayt
hear
t
i
st
’
st
al
entf
ordesi
gni
ngi
ndi
vi
dualf
i
gur
esorgr
oups
det
achedf
r
om wal
l
sorni
chesf
orwhi
chmanymonument
alst
at
ueswer
ei
nt
ended.
Agoodnumberoft
hesest
at
uet
t
eswer
edesi
gnedf
ordomest
i
cpur
posesand,t
houghpr
i
mar
i
l
ydecor
at
i
ve,t
heyal
sohadut
i
l
i
t
ar
i
anf
unct
i
ons,such
assuppor
t
i
nganoi
ll
amp,i
nkwel
l
,orcandl
esocket(
cat
.nos.35,38,39)
.Whet
hercopi
esofr
enownedant
i
quemast
er
pi
ecesoror
i
gi
nalwor
kson
anci
entsubj
ect
s(
cat
.nos.1,35,38,39,43)
,t
heydemonst
r
at
et
henewRenai
ssanceconceptofr
evi
vi
ngacul
t
ur
edi
f
f
er
entf
r
om Chr
i
st
i
ancul
t
ur
e,
andt
husar
evehi
cl
esoft
hei
deaofpl
ur
al
i
sm.Att
hebegi
nni
ng,mostoft
hesest
at
uet
t
eswer
eexactr
epl
i
casoft
heor
i
gi
nal
s.Event
houghmany
ar
t
i
st
st
r
i
edt
ogi
vet
hei
rbr
onzesnovelqual
i
t
i
esi
nor
dert
osat
i
sf
yagr
owi
ngmar
ketf
oruni
quevar
i
ant
s,i
mpr
ovement
si
nt
hebr
onzecast
i
ng
pr
ocess—t
aki
ng pl
ace i
n wel
l
est
abl
i
shed publ
i
c,r
at
hert
han cost
l
y
,pr
i
vat
ef
oundr
i
es—opened t
he possi
bi
l
i
t
yf
orexactdupl
i
cat
i
on. Var
i
ous
der
i
vat
i
veobj
ect
s,sever
alver
si
onsofwhi
chsur
vi
ve,wer
epr
oducedei
t
herbyt
hear
t
i
st
’
swor
kshoporhi
sf
ol
l
ower
s,whor
et
ai
nedt
hei
ni
t
i
almodel
s
andmol
dsandcopi
edt
hem l
ongaf
t
ert
hear
t
i
st
’
sdeat
h.Thel
ar
genumberofRenai
ssancebr
onzest
at
uet
t
esat
t
est
st
ot
hei
rpopul
ar
i
t
yashi
ghl
y
appr
eci
at
edcol
l
ect
i
bl
es,andsi
mul
t
aneousl
ymakest
hem pr
edecessor
soft
hemasspr
oducedobj
ect
sofourt
i
me.
CP
35
Wor
kshopofSever
odaRavenna(
I
t
al
i
an,ca.14961543)
For
mer
l
yat
t
r
i
but
edt
oAndr
eaRi
cci
o(
I
t
al
i
an,14701532)
I
nkwel
lwi
t
hseat
edCupi
dsuppor
t
edbyt
hr
eewi
nged
sphi
nxes
Br
onze
Thi
st
wopi
ecei
nkwel
loncewasat
t
r
i
but
edt
ot
hewor
kshopof
Andr
eaRi
cci
o.I
tconsi
st
sofaci
r
cul
arbase,suppor
t
edbyt
hr
ee
sphi
nxes,andal
i
dont
opofwhi
ch,onat
r
eest
ump,si
t
sawi
nged
cupi
d.Ast
hesphi
nxesspr
eadt
hei
rwi
ngs,t
het
i
psnear
l
yt
ouch:
onl
yanor
nament
aldr
aper
yst
andsbet
weent
hem,accent
uat
i
ng
t
hedecor
at
i
vel
eafmot
i
foft
her
i
ng.ThebabyEr
osl
ooki
ngt
ohi
s
l
ef
tor
i
gi
nal
l
yhel
danobj
ect
,possi
bl
yabow andar
r
ow t
oshoot
i
nt
ot
he hear
tofan unsuspect
i
ng vi
ct
i
m. The t
r
ee st
ump i
s
pi
er
cedwi
t
hequal
l
yspacedhol
est
ohol
dqui
l
l
pens,t
hef
eat
her
s
ofwhi
ch sur
r
ounded t
he Cupi
d and musthave cr
eat
ed a
r
emar
kabl
evi
sualef
f
ect
.
I
nt
he16t
hcent
ur
y
,t
heset
ypesofobj
ect
s,besi
dest
hei
rpr
act
i
cal
f
unct
i
on,wer
e made f
ort
he del
ect
at
i
on oft
he Renai
ssance
connoi
sseur
, who coul
d appr
eci
at
e t
he combi
nat
i
on of
myt
hol
ogi
calf
i
gur
esf
r
om t
wo di
f
f
er
entcul
t
ur
es,Egypt
i
an and
Gr
eek.Thecoexi
st
enceoft
het
hr
eef
emal
ehybr
i
dcr
eat
ur
eswi
t
h
t
hegodofl
ovegi
vessymbol
i
cmeani
ngt
ot
hi
sgr
oup:accor
di
ng
t
ot
heEgypt
i
ant
r
adi
t
i
on,sphi
nxesper
soni
f
yhumanwi
sdom t
hat
chal
l
enges t
he i
r
r
at
i
onal
i
t
y ofer
ot
i
c passi
on,i
nspi
r
ed by t
he
wi
ngedcupi
d.However
,t
hepr
edomi
nantpl
acementofEr
oson
t
hecoveroft
hei
nkwel
lal
l
udest
ot
hedomi
nanceofi
nf
at
uat
i
on
overr
eason.
CP
36
Ar
t
i
stunknown,I
t
al
i
an
BustofaMan,ca.1600
Br
onze
At
t
r
i
but
edatonepoi
ntt
ot
he16t
hcent
ur
yVenet
i
anar
t
i
stNi
ccol
oRoccat
agl
i
at
a,
t
hi
sst
at
uet
t
ei
sabustpor
t
r
ai
tofamandr
apedi
nat
ogal
i
kegar
ment
.I
tsi
t
son
amar
bl
ebaseandi
si
ngoodcondi
t
i
onexceptf
oral
ar
gehol
eont
her
i
ghtsi
de
oft
he head and a numberofdi
sper
sed,smal
l
erhol
es. Render
ed i
na
nat
ur
al
i
st
i
cst
yl
e,i
thasanani
mat
edandconvi
nci
ngexpr
essi
on.
Li
kecat
al
ogueno.40,abustofamandr
essedasaRomanemper
or
,t
he
cl
ot
hi
ng and st
yl
e oft
hi
s por
t
r
ai
tr
evealan i
nt
er
esti
nt
he ar
tofant
i
qui
t
y
.
Educat
edpat
r
onsandar
t
i
st
soft
heRenai
ssancewoul
dhaveunder
st
oodt
hat
bustpor
t
r
ai
t
ur
ehadbeenani
mpor
t
antgenr
ei
nant
i
quear
t
,andwoul
dhave
beenf
ami
l
i
arwi
t
hanci
entbust
sdr
essedandposedl
i
ket
hi
sone. Her
e,t
he
man’
spost
ur
e,wi
t
hi
t
ssl
i
ghtupwar
dandbackwar
dt
i
l
toft
hehead,par
t
i
cul
ar
l
y
r
ecal
l
sanexpr
essi
vest
yl
eofpor
t
r
ai
t
ur
epopul
ari
nt
heHel
l
eni
st
i
cage,whi
ch
wasr
evi
vedi
nsomeoft
hemostendur
i
ngl
yf
amouswor
ksoft
heRenai
ssance.
Becauseoft
hei
raugustor
i
gi
ns,bust
sl
i
ket
hi
s,whi
chwoul
dl
i
kel
yhavebeen
owned byan i
ndi
vi
dualand used t
o ador
n a pr
i
vat
e home orst
udy
,wer
e
symbol
sofweal
t
handeducat
i
on.
Ther
evi
valoft
hecl
assi
calst
yl
eofbustpor
t
r
ai
t
ur
ecor
r
espondedt
oar
enewed
i
nt
er
esti
nt
heant
i
queunder
st
andi
ngoft
heval
ueandr
ol
eoft
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.
St
at
uesl
i
ket
hi
s,askt
hevi
ewert
oi
nvesti
nani
ndi
vi
dualper
sonal
i
t
y
.Whet
her
r
ealori
magi
ned,t
heyr
epr
esentadr
amat
i
cshi
f
tf
r
om t
hecommunal
l
yor
i
ent
ed
r
el
i
gi
ousspi
r
i
toft
heMi
ddl
eAgest
oacul
t
ur
et
hatr
evi
vedt
hebel
i
eft
hat“
mani
s
t
hemeasur
eofal
lt
hi
ngs,
”ast
hepr
eSocr
at
i
cphi
l
osopherPr
ot
agor
asputi
t
.
NS
37
Wor
kshopofSever
odaRavenna(
I
t
al
i
an,ca.14961543)
Seat
edSat
yr
esswi
t
hChi
l
d
Br
onze
At
t
r
i
but
ed t
ot
he wor
kshop oft
he pr
omi
nentPaduan scul
pt
orSever
o da
Ravenna(
cat
.nos.35,38,39)
,t
hi
sst
at
uet
t
eshowsasat
yr
esssi
t
t
i
ngcal
ml
yon
anant
i
quest
yl
et
r
eest
ump,wi
t
honear
m ar
oundt
heshoul
der
sofachi
l
dsat
yr
,
andt
heot
herext
ended,pr
obabl
yoncesuppor
t
i
ngt
hecandl
ehol
dernowbol
t
ed
t
ot
hest
at
uet
t
e’
sbase. I
nt
het
r
adi
t
i
onofsi
mi
l
arRenai
ssancebr
onzes,t
he
gr
oupi
sel
egant
l
yandnat
ur
al
i
st
i
cal
l
ymodel
ed,wi
t
hat
ypi
cali
nt
er
esti
nt
he
car
ef
ulandl
i
f
el
i
ker
epr
esent
at
i
onofbodi
l
yf
or
m.
Li
ket
hest
at
uet
t
e’
snat
ur
al
i
st
i
cst
yl
e,i
t
ssubj
ectwoul
dhavebeeni
ncongr
uousi
n
t
hepr
eRenai
ssanceer
a.Thesat
yr
ess,l
i
kehermal
ecount
er
par
t
,t
hesat
yr
,i
s
acr
eat
ur
eder
i
vedf
r
om cl
assi
calmyt
hol
ogy
.Combi
ni
nghumanf
eat
ur
eswi
t
h
t
hoseoft
hegoatorhor
se—not
eherhor
ns,t
ai
l
,andhai
r
y
,goat
l
i
kel
egs—she
appear
si
nant
i
quear
tandcul
t
ur
ei
nconnect
i
onwi
t
ht
hecul
tofDi
onysus,t
he
Gr
eekgodofwi
neandr
evel
r
y
,andof
t
enasasymbolofwi
l
dandunbr
i
dl
ed
sexual
i
t
y
.
I
nr
epr
esent
i
ng a myt
hol
ogi
calcr
eat
ur
e,t
he st
at
ue r
ef
l
ect
st
he gr
owi
ng
awar
enessandi
nt
er
esti
nCl
assi
cal
t
houghtandcul
t
ur
et
hatemer
geddur
i
ngt
he
Renai
ssance.Byemphasi
zi
ngnat
ur
al
i
st
i
cf
or
m andbychoosi
ngi
mager
ywi
t
h
heavy
,sexualconnot
at
i
ons,t
hest
at
uesi
gnal
sar
et
ur
nt
oanunder
st
andi
ngof
t
hebodyandofsexual
i
t
yt
hatwasunaf
f
ect
edbyChr
i
st
i
anascet
i
ci
sm.St
i
l
l
,t
hi
s
sat
yr
ess,pr
esent
ed i
n a cal
m and mot
her
l
ypose,can be seen notasan
unqual
i
f
i
edr
ebi
r
t
hofCl
assi
cali
deal
s,butasagent
l
erandmor
er
est
r
ai
ned
commentont
hef
or
cesoft
henat
ur
alwor
l
d.
Thest
at
uet
t
ei
sanexampl
eofagenr
eofsat
yri
mager
yt
hatbecamepopul
ar
amongI
t
al
i
anar
t
i
st
soft
heear
l
y16t
hcent
ur
y(
compar
ecat
.no.45)–r
ef
er
r
i
ng
t
ot
her
i
t
esofBacchanal
.I
ni
t
,asi
nt
heper
i
odgener
al
l
y
,i
ti
spossi
bl
et
ot
r
ace
t
hecombi
nat
i
onofcl
assi
calandmedi
evali
nf
l
uencest
hatdef
i
nedear
l
ymoder
n
vi
ewsofl
ustandembodi
ment
.
NS
38
Andr
eaRi
cci
o(
I
t
al
i
an,
14701532)
For
mer
l
yat
t
r
i
but
edt
ot
hewor
kshopofSever
odaRavenna(
I
t
al
i
an,ca.
14961543)
At
l
asSuppor
t
i
nganOi
lLamp
Br
onze
For
mer
l
yat
t
r
i
but
ed,l
i
kecat
al
oguenos.35,37,and39,t
ot
hewor
kshopoft
he
I
t
al
i
anscul
pt
orSever
oCal
zet
t
adaRavenna,At
l
asSuppor
t
i
nganOi
lLampi
sa
pr
oductofabr
onzecast
i
ngt
echni
quet
hatenabl
edt
hear
t
i
standhi
sassi
st
ant
s
t
ocr
eat
emor
et
hanonest
at
uet
t
ef
r
om agi
venmodel
.Setuponasquar
ebase,
t
het
i
t
ani
swei
gheddownbyanoi
ll
amp,shapedl
i
ket
hegl
obeoft
heheavens,
r
est
i
nguponhi
sr
i
ghtshoul
der
.Hesuppor
t
shi
msel
fwi
t
hhi
sl
ef
thandandt
ur
ns
hi
sheadt
owar
dst
hel
amp,t
hehemi
spher
i
cl
i
dofwhi
chi
sl
ost
.Mostl
i
kel
y
,a
spoutandawi
ckemer
gedt
hr
ought
hemi
ssi
ngcover
. At
l
as’upwar
dt
ur
ned
headconveysei
t
herangui
shoranger
,si
ncehewascondemnedt
ot
hel
aborof
bear
i
ngt
heheavensonhi
sheadandhands.Legendhasi
tt
hatZeuschoset
hi
s
puni
shmentf
orhi
m,asAt
l
asdi
sput
edhi
spol
i
t
i
cal
aut
hor
i
t
yandl
edt
heTi
t
ansi
n
ar
ebel
l
i
onagai
nsthi
m.
Themanyver
si
onsi
nwhi
chourf
i
gur
eexi
st
ssuggesti
t
spopul
ar
i
t
yamonga
humani
st
i
cel
i
t
ewhol
ookedf
orsophi
st
i
cat
edcol
l
ect
i
bl
es.Sever
odaRavenna
wasoneoft
hepr
ot
agoni
st
soft
hePaduanSchoolandhi
scl
i
ent
swer
ePaduan
andVenet
i
ani
nt
el
l
ect
ual
swhor
ever
edmyt
hol
ogi
calsubj
ect
s. Thef
i
gur
eof
At
l
asmusthavebeenofpar
t
i
cul
ari
nt
er
estt
ot
hem,si
nce,accor
di
ngt
oGr
eek
myt
hol
ogy
,hei
nst
r
uct
edmanki
ndi
nt
hear
tofast
r
onomy
,at
ool
whi
chwasused
bysai
l
or
si
nnavi
gat
i
onandf
ar
mer
si
nmeasur
i
ngt
heseasons. Theser
ol
es
wer
eof
t
encombi
ned,andAt
l
asbecamet
hegodwhot
ur
nedt
heheavenson
t
hei
raxi
s,causi
ng t
he st
ar
st
or
evol
ve. Humani
st
sdeepl
yi
nvol
ved i
nt
he
sci
encesandempi
r
i
calobser
vat
i
onoft
henat
ur
alwor
l
dandt
heuni
ver
semust
have been especi
al
l
yf
ond ofa f
i
gur
er
epl
et
e wi
t
h ast
r
onomi
calr
ef
er
ences.
Fur
t
her
mor
e, oi
ll
amps wer
e t
r
easur
ed as symbol
s of t
r
anscendent
al
i
l
l
umi
nat
i
onbyhumani
st
s,aconceptdat
i
ngbackt
oAr
i
st
ot
l
e.
Moder
nr
esear
chhaspr
ovedt
hatRi
cci
ocr
eat
edt
hemaj
or
i
t
yofhi
sbr
onze
st
at
uet
t
eswhi
l
e he waswor
ki
ng att
he Sant
o Chapeli
nt
he Basi
l
i
ca ofSt
.
Ant
honyi
nPaduabet
ween1507and1516.Ri
cci
o’
sci
r
cl
econt
i
nuedt
or
epl
i
cat
e
hi
sbr
onzesf
orasl
ongast
heysat
i
sf
i
edcl
i
ent
s’
t
ast
e.
CP
39
Wor
kshopofSever
odaRavenna(
I
t
al
i
an,ca.14961543)
Seat
edSat
yr
ess
Br
onze
The st
at
uet
t
e shows a sat
yr
ess,a myt
hol
ogi
calbei
ng who combi
nes t
he
char
act
er
i
st
i
csofahumanandagoat
,seat
edi
naf
r
ont
alposeonawooden
baset
hathasl
ostpar
tofi
t
smol
di
ng.Oneofherhandsi
sext
ended,hol
di
ng
whatmi
ghtoncehavebeenacandl
est
i
ck,whi
l
et
heot
heri
sbentawkwar
dl
yat
hersi
de. Thewor
ki
si
ngoodcondi
t
i
on,butseemsunf
i
ni
shed,wi
t
hsl
i
ght
l
y
uncont
r
ol
l
edmodel
i
ngandal
ackoff
i
nedet
ai
l
.
I
t
scomposi
t
i
oni
sr
emar
kabl
ysi
mi
l
art
ot
hatofanot
hersmal
l
br
onzesat
yr
ess,i
n
t
hecol
l
ect
i
onoft
heMuseodi
Pal
azzoVenezi
a,whi
chhasbeenat
t
r
i
but
edt
ot
he
wor
kshopoft
hePaduanar
t
i
stSever
odaRavenna,andal
sot
ot
hatofcat
al
ogue
no.37i
nt
hi
sexhi
bi
t
i
on,aSeat
edSat
yr
esswi
t
hChi
l
d.Al
t
hought
hesat
yr
ess
si
t
sonaver
ydi
f
f
er
entbaseandi
snotaccompani
edbyachi
l
dsat
yr
,shei
si
n
near
l
yt
hesameposeandi
sr
eal
i
zedi
nal
mostt
hesamest
yl
e.
Thesesi
mi
l
ar
i
t
i
esmakei
thar
dt
ounear
t
ht
hepr
eci
sepr
ovenanceoft
hewor
ks
ort
hei
rexactr
el
at
i
ont
ooneanot
her
,butt
heyal
sor
ef
l
ectanexpl
osi
onofmass
pr
oduct
i
on t
hatbegan t
o char
act
er
i
ze ar
t
maki
ng dur
i
ng t
he Renai
ssance.
Wor
kshopsl
i
ket
hatofSever
o,whi
chusedat
echni
queofbr
onzecast
i
ngt
hat
al
l
owed cr
eat
i
on ofmul
t
i
pl
e copi
es ofa si
ngl
e obj
ect
,began t
o suppl
ya
f
l
our
i
shi
ngpr
i
vat
emar
ketf
orsmal
ldecor
at
i
veorut
i
l
i
t
ar
i
anobj
ect
s. Wi
t
ht
he
i
ncr
easeddemandcameani
ncr
easei
nout
put
,andacor
r
espondi
ngr
i
sei
n
ar
t
i
st
i
cdi
f
f
usi
on,t
ot
heext
entt
hatt
odayi
ti
sof
t
endi
f
f
i
cul
tt
oat
t
r
i
but
ebr
onzest
o
speci
f
i
cPaduanwor
kshops.Thewi
deni
ngavai
l
abi
l
i
t
yofar
ti
sr
ef
l
ect
edi
nt
he
numberofwor
ks,l
i
ke t
hi
s sat
yr
ess,t
hathave sur
vi
ved t
ot
he pr
esentas
const
anti
nf
l
uencesonwest
er
nar
tandcul
t
ur
e. I
tal
sof
or
eshadowst
hevast
pr
ol
i
f
er
at
i
on ofar
t
i
st
i
cr
epr
oduct
i
on t
hatchar
act
er
i
zes t
he moder
n vi
sual
exper
i
ence.
NS
40
Unknownar
t
i
st
,I
t
al
i
an
Por
t
r
ai
tBustofaMani
nt
heGui
seofaRomanEmper
or
,ca.1500s
Br
onze
Thi
sbust
l
engt
hf
i
gur
ecr
ownedwi
t
hl
aur
ell
eaves,wear
i
ngabr
oadl
ydr
aped
capef
ast
enedoverasquar
eneckedt
uni
c,appear
st
obea16t
hcent
ur
ymani
n
t
hegui
seofaRomanemper
or
.However
,t
hi
sf
aci
alt
ype,wi
t
ht
hi
ckeyebr
ows
andbr
ushymoust
ache,doesnotr
esembl
eanyknownant
i
queemper
ort
ype.I
t
i
snever
t
hel
essbasedupont
hel
at
eHel
l
eni
st
i
candRomanbel
i
efi
nsur
vi
val
af
t
erdeat
h,andt
hatt
hef
acewast
hevest
i
geoft
hemor
t
albei
ngwhoei
t
her
ear
ned orl
osta bl
i
ssf
ulher
eaf
t
er
. I
t
s vi
sualsour
ces ar
el
at
e Roman:
2ndcent
ur
yC.
E.mal
ebust
sar
eshownwi
t
hhai
randbear
dst
hatcascadewi
t
h
cur
l
s,asopposedt
oacent
ur
yl
at
er
,whent
hel
ong,f
l
owi
ngcur
l
svani
shandt
he
cl
osef
i
t
t
i
ngskul
l
capst
yl
e,seeni
nt
hi
sbust
,wasf
avor
ed.Thef
aci
alhai
ral
so
appear
sasasi
mpl
esheat
hont
hechi
n,asopposedt
ot
hegr
i
zzl
i
erbear
dsoft
he
pr
evi
ous cent
ur
y
. Towar
ds t
he l
at
t
erpar
toft
he 3r
d cent
ur
y
,t
he wor
r
i
ed,
f
ur
r
owed br
ow seen i
nt
hi
sbustr
emai
ned one oft
he f
ew nat
ur
al
i
st
i
cf
aci
al
char
act
er
i
st
i
cs,andast
he4t
hcent
ur
ypr
ogr
essed,f
acesofr
ul
er
sbecamemor
e
gener
al
i
zedandr
i
gi
d.
Unl
i
kemor
enat
ur
al
i
st
i
cRenai
ssancebust
s,cl
assi
cali
mi
t
at
i
onsl
i
ket
hi
sone
l
ackaf
eel
i
ngofmobi
l
i
t
y
.Theheadi
sal
waysonaf
i
r
m ver
t
i
cal
axi
swi
t
ht
hebody
and neck,whi
l
et
he shoul
der
s ar
e si
t
uat
ed hor
i
zont
al
l
y
. To say t
hatt
he
Renai
ssancer
evi
vedt
hecl
assi
cal
busti
st
husnotent
i
r
el
yt
r
ue;t
hedi
f
f
er
encei
n
st
r
uct
ur
eshowsot
her
wi
se.
I
tshoul
d be not
ed t
hatt
he bustwas notal
ways an accept
abl
ef
or
m of
por
t
r
ai
t
ur
e,event
houghi
tcoul
dt
r
acei
t
sr
oot
sbackt
ocl
assi
calant
i
qui
t
y
.The
por
t
r
ai
tbust
,vi
ewedbyear
l
yChr
i
st
i
ansasapagansymbolr
emi
ni
scentofi
dol
wor
shi
p,wasnoti
nf
actwi
del
yr
evi
t
al
i
zedunt
i
lt
hel
at
t
erpar
toft
he16t
hcent
ur
y
.
GDM
41
Unknownar
t
i
st
,I
t
al
i
an
Romangl
adi
at
or
,ca.1500s
Br
onze
Thi
sRomangl
adi
at
ori
sadi
r
ectr
evi
valofcl
assi
calant
i
qui
t
ybasedonaknown
sour
ce(
compar
ecat
.no42)
.Thi
ssmal
l
br
onze,aswel
l
ast
heot
herbr
onzesi
n
t
he exhi
bi
t
i
on,hel
ped Renai
ssance knowl
edge expand acr
oss t
he moder
n
wor
l
d,si
ncear
twasdi
sper
sedt
hr
oughoutEur
ope.Al
so,l
i
kemanybr
onzes,t
hi
s
obj
ectmayhavebeenmadef
r
om auni
quemol
dandt
husneverr
epr
oduced,
unl
esst
hear
t
i
stt
ookacastoft
heor
i
gi
nal
.Ahumani
stmi
ghthavebeent
he
commi
ssi
oneroft
hi
sbr
onze,si
ncesuchpeopl
ewer
ever
yi
nt
er
est
edi
nt
he
r
evi
valofbot
h cl
assi
calt
ext
s and cl
assi
calar
t
. Unf
or
t
unat
el
yf
orus,t
he
col
l
ect
or
soft
hesebr
onzesdi
dnotf
eeli
twasi
mpor
t
antt
or
ecor
dwhet
hera
br
onzewasanor
i
gi
nal
,f
i
r
stcopy
,orsecondcopy;andt
hei
rr
ecor
dssel
dom
al
l
udet
ot
hear
t
i
st
’
sname.
I
ni
t
sact
i
ve,unst
abl
epose—al
mostl
i
keaphot
ogr
apht
akenj
ustast
hesubj
ect
i
si
nt
heactoft
hr
owi
ngsomet
hi
ng–t
hef
i
gur
er
ecal
l
sat
r
adi
t
i
onofdr
amat
i
c
movementdat
i
ngbackt
ot
heGr
eekscul
pt
orMyr
on’
sDi
skobol
os,madei
n450
B.
C.
E.I
t
si
mmedi
at
esour
ce,however
,i
st
hesocal
l
edBor
gheseGl
adi
at
or
,a
mar
bl
est
at
uef
r
om Gr
eeceorAsi
aMi
nor
,ca.100B.
C.
E.
,di
scover
edsomet
i
me
bef
or
e161
1i
nt
her
ui
nsofEmper
orNer
o'
svi
l
l
a.Thecol
l
ect
oroft
hi
sbr
onze
mayhavewant
edt
ost
udyt
hef
or
m oft
hehumanbody
,ormi
ghthavewant
eda
st
at
uet
t
er
esembl
i
ngt
heanci
entgl
adi
at
or
,because,i
mmedi
at
el
yuponbei
ng
unear
t
hed,i
twaswi
del
yadmi
r
ed.
L
W
42
Unknownar
t
i
st
,I
t
al
i
an
Her
cul
es,basedont
heFar
neseHer
cul
es,ca.1600s
Br
onze
Thi
ssmal
lI
t
al
i
anRenai
ssancebr
onzei
sal
soanexampl
eoft
hedi
r
ecti
mi
t
at
i
on
ofcl
assi
calant
i
qui
t
y
. The mi
ni
at
ur
e st
at
ue i
s model
ed af
t
ert
he f
amous,
over
l
i
f
esi
ze Her
cul
es t
hatt
he Far
nese f
ami
l
y dug up f
r
om t
he Bat
hs of
Car
acal
l
ai
nRomei
nt
he16t
hcent
ur
y
. Muchi
nt
er
estwasar
ousedbyt
hat
near
l
yt
enf
oot
hi
gh,hi
ghl
ydet
ai
l
edst
at
ue.TheGr
eekar
t
i
stGl
ykon’
ssi
gnat
ur
e
i
sont
heanci
entst
at
ue,butschol
ar
sbel
i
evet
hathemodel
edi
taf
t
erabr
onze
at
t
r
i
but
ed t
o Lysi
ppos. The Far
nese Her
cul
eswasi
mmensel
ypopul
arand
at
t
r
act
edmanyvi
si
t
or
s.
Humani
stschol
ar
swhor
eadanci
entt
ext
sandcol
l
ect
edanci
entar
t
i
f
act
swer
e
t
he mostl
i
kel
ypeopl
et
o acqui
r
e such smal
lbr
onze copi
esoft
he Far
nese
Her
cul
es,wi
shi
ngt
ost
udyi
t
. Thesesmal
lbr
onzescul
pt
ur
esbecamever
y
popul
ari
nt
he16t
hand17t
hcent
ur
i
esasameansofst
udyi
ngcl
assi
calar
t
,or
si
mpl
yasl
ear
neddecor
at
i
on.Theywer
eeasi
l
ydi
sper
sedt
hr
oughoutEur
ope
becauseoft
hei
rsi
zeanddur
abi
l
i
t
y
.I
nnovat
i
veschol
ar
scommi
ssi
onedar
t
i
st
st
o
pr
oducet
hesemi
ni
at
ur
ebr
onzesf
ort
hei
rcol
l
ect
i
ons,f
orst
udyandt
odel
i
ght
guest
swhoadmi
r
edt
hem.
L
W
43
Unknownar
t
i
st
,I
t
al
i
an,ca.1500s
Cent
aur
Br
onze
Thesamei
nnovat
i
onsvi
si
bl
ei
ncat
al
ogue.nos.4042,whi
chl
ed
t
heRenai
ssancei
nt
ot
hemoder
nwor
l
d,ar
echar
act
er
i
st
i
coft
hi
s
br
onzeaswel
l
.Thecent
auri
sacl
assi
calf
i
gur
et
hathumani
st
s
woul
d have known,si
nce t
hey wer
e wel
l
ver
sed i
n cl
assi
cal
cul
t
ur
e.I
t
s pat
r
on was pr
obabl
y a per
son wi
t
h a cl
assi
cal
educat
i
on.I
nt
heanci
entwor
l
d,cent
aur
sr
epr
esent
edbar
bar
i
an
f
or
ces,asseenont
hescul
pt
edmet
opesoft
hePar
t
henont
hat
symbol
i
cal
l
yr
epr
esent
ed t
he bat
t
l
e oft
he Per
si
ans and t
he
Gr
eeks.Wecannotsaywhet
hert
hear
t
i
storpat
r
oni
nt
endedt
hi
s
cent
aurt
osymbol
i
zet
hebar
bar
i
cf
or
ei
gner
soft
hei
rownt
i
me,or
si
mpl
yval
uedi
tasagener
i
cal
l
ycl
assi
calal
l
usi
on.
L
W
44
Jacopode’
Bar
bar
i(
I
t
al
i
an,ca.1460/
70bef
or
e1516)
Apol
l
oandDi
ana,ca.
15001505
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
ng,19t
hc.
Thi
sevocat
i
onoft
het
wi
ngodsApol
l
oandDi
ana,r
ul
er
soft
hesunandt
he
moon,i
sbyJacopode’
Bar
bar
i
,whowasknownasaVenet
i
an(
whet
herbybi
r
t
h
oradopt
i
oni
sunknown)
.Hewast
hef
i
r
stI
t
al
i
anRenai
ssancear
t
i
stt
ot
r
avelt
o
t
henor
t
her
ncour
t
sofGer
manyandt
heNet
her
l
ands,andhi
smostnot
abl
ewor
k
was t
he monument
alwoodcut map Bi
r
d’
s Eye Vi
ew of Veni
ce, dat
ed
appr
oxi
mat
el
y1500.
Thi
sengr
avi
ngdat
esf
r
om t
het
i
mewhende’
Bar
bar
iwasi
nNur
ember
gand
Wi
t
t
enber
g,wher
e hi
s cr
eat
i
ons wer
e pr
obabl
yi
nt
ended f
ort
he ci
r
cl
e of
humani
st
sanduni
ver
si
t
ypr
of
essor
st
hatwer
ehi
sGer
manassoci
at
esatt
he
t
i
me.I
nt
hesewor
ks,t
hei
nf
l
uenceof
Al
br
echtDür
eri
smostevi
dent
,not
abl
y
,hi
s
useofengr
avedbur
rt
ocr
eat
et
ext
ur
es.I
nt
ur
n,de’
Bar
bar
i
’
sst
udyofpr
opor
t
i
on
i
nf
l
uenced Dür
er
;Dür
er
’
sdr
awi
ng ofApol
l
oi
scommonl
ycompar
ed t
ot
hi
s
engr
avi
ng.
JM
45
SchoolofNi
col
asPoussi
n(
Fr
ench,15941665)
,pr
obabl
yby
Gaspar
dDughet(
Fr
ench,16151675)andCar
l
oMar
at
t
i(
I
t
al
i
an,
16251713)
Bacchanal
,ca.16641670
Oi
loncanvas
Thi
spai
nt
i
ngwasf
or
mer
l
yat
t
r
i
but
edt
oChar
l
esMel
l
i
n,aFr
enchbor
npai
nt
eranddr
af
t
smanwhol
i
vedandwor
kedi
nI
t
al
y
,pr
i
mar
i
l
yRome,f
r
om 1620onwar
d.
Basedonr
eeval
uat
i
onofar
chi
val
paper
sandt
hepai
nt
i
ngi
t
sel
f
,t
hi
swor
kseemsmor
el
i
kel
yt
ohavebeenpai
nt
edbyGaspar
dDughet
,ast
udentofNi
chol
as
Poussi
n,cour
tpai
nt
ert
oLoui
sXI
I
I
.Dughet
,whobecamePoussi
n’
sbr
ot
her
i
nl
aw,wasoneoft
hebestknownl
andscapepai
nt
er
sof17t
hcent
ur
yRome.
Al
t
houghcel
ebr
at
edasal
andscapear
t
i
st
,Dughet
’
sf
i
gur
eswer
eof
t
enexecut
edbyot
herpai
nt
er
s—possi
bl
y
,i
nt
hi
swor
k,byCar
l
oMar
at
t
iwi
t
hwhom he
wor
kedonsever
alpai
nt
i
ngs.Dughet
’
sst
yl
ewasi
nf
l
uencedbyt
hewor
kofSal
vat
orRosa(
cat
.no.48)
.
Abacchanal
i
awasaquasi
r
el
i
gi
ousgat
her
i
ng,i
nt
r
oducedi
nt
oanci
entRomef
r
om t
heGr
eekcul
t
ur
eofsout
her
nI
t
al
y
.Theseevent
swer
ewi
l
d,myst
i
cal
f
est
i
val
soft
heRomangodBacchus—t
hegodofwi
neandf
r
enzyseenpoi
nt
i
ngt
ot
heheavensi
nt
hecent
eroft
hepai
nt
i
ng—whowashal
f
humanand
hal
f
godi
nor
i
gi
n.
Theanci
entbacchanal
i
a,hel
di
nsecr
etandat
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endedonl
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or
i
ous,apl
acewher
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i
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anned.The
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hemor
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,
”wi
t
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ci
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el
axi
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eaf
ew di
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sst
i
l
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ousei
nt
hebackgr
ound.Assoof
t
en
happenedi
nt
hi
sper
i
od,amyt
hol
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ectpr
ovi
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et
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at
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et
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orChr
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anmor
al
i
t
y(
compar
et
heBacchus,cat
.no.1,i
nasi
mi
l
arpose)
.
WS
46
Agost
i
noMusi(
Agost
i
noVenezi
ano,I
t
al
i
an,14901540)
Apol
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1518
Engr
avi
ng
47
At
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Wat
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Ther
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i
’
s known t
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thi
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Youngerand Zanet
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i
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ed1723.Thi
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;hi
sdat
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edi
n1757,butot
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ssayhecoul
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l1765. He
t
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avel
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hr
oughoutEur
ope,had an ext
ensi
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ch i
s how he pr
obabl
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s wor
ks.
Engr
avi
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oduced:once col
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Thedr
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esol
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f
oundi
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L
W
48
Sal
vat
orRosa(
I
t
al
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an,16151673)
Tr
i
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nCombat
,ca.1660
Facsi
mi
l
eet
chi
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49
Mast
erE.S.(
Ger
man,act
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TheEmper
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heTi
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,ca.1450
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EXPLORI
NG THEGLOBE:
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NG KNOWLEDGEACROSSSPACE
Al
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at
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l
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I
ncr
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nar
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et
ai
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e.TheWestaf
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Ot
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I
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nt
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gment
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at
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.Ar
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nt
heJapanesedr
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ew (
cat
.no.
57)
.Att
hesamet
i
me,t
hesear
t
i
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sal
socr
eat
edobj
ect
sspeci
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l
uencedt
hei
rownt
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adi
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i
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t
.
TheNe
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l
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TheSpani
shconquestoft
heI
ncaEmpi
r
ei
n1532i
mposedanewf
ai
t
h,RomanCat
hol
i
ci
sm,ont
hi
sar
ea,asi
nmuchoft
heAmer
i
cas.Pr
i
est
sf
r
om
t
hevar
i
ousr
el
i
gi
ousor
der
swhoaccompani
edt
heconqui
st
ador
s—Domi
ni
cans,Fr
anci
scans,andJesui
t
s—est
abl
i
shedcent
er
sf
ort
hepr
opagat
i
on
ofChr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
.Tost
ampoutwor
shi
pofpagangods,t
heChur
chest
abl
i
shedt
heTr
i
bunaloft
heI
nqui
si
t
i
oni
nLi
ma,f
r
om 1569t
o1820.However
,
nat
i
ver
i
t
ualpr
act
i
ceshonor
i
ngt
heSunandMot
herEar
t
hcont
i
nued.
Pai
nt
i
ngbecamet
hemostef
f
ect
i
vecondui
tofconver
si
on.Spani
shar
t
i
st
swer
esentt
ot
hef
i
r
stPer
uvi
an(
f
or
mer
l
yt
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nca)capi
t
al
,Cuzco,t
ot
each
i
ndi
genouspeopl
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awi
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nt
i
ng;andar
t
i
st
swer
er
epeat
edl
yr
equest
edf
r
om Rome.Mor
eover
,devot
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onal
bookswer
esentt
ot
heAmer
i
cas,
especi
al
l
yt
hoseont
hel
i
vesoft
hesai
nt
s,i
l
l
ust
r
at
edwi
t
hdr
awi
ngs.Fl
emi
shpr
i
nt
sandpai
nt
i
ngssuchast
heMadonnaandChi
l
dat
t
r
i
but
edt
ot
he
wor
kshopofPet
erPaulRubens(
cat
.no.52)
,ser
vedasmodel
sf
orpai
nt
er
swel
li
nt
ot
he19t
hcent
ur
y
.Byt
he17t
hcent
ur
y
,Cuzcohadbecomet
he
maj
orar
t
i
st
i
ccent
eroft
heAmer
i
cas.OurMadonnaandChi
l
d(
cat
.no.50)i
sat
ypi
calexampl
eoft
hei
nnovat
i
vear
t
i
st
i
cvocabul
ar
yt
hatdevel
oped
t
her
e,r
epr
esent
i
ngasynt
hesi
sofEur
opeanandnat
i
veAndeani
conogr
aphyandi
mager
y
.
Thet
r
ansf
or
mat
i
onswr
oughtbyEur
opeanRenai
ssanceexpansi
onwer
ebot
hposi
t
i
veandnegat
i
ve.Eur
opeanawar
enessofEast
er
nphi
l
osophy
,
ar
t
s,andsci
ences,i
ncr
eased,andknowl
edgeofWest
er
nsci
enceandempi
r
i
ci
sm spr
eadabr
oad.Ont
heot
herhand,t
hehor
r
or
sofsl
aver
yandt
he
devast
at
i
ngcul
t
ur
alr
eper
cussi
onsoft
hi
sageofconquestar
est
i
l
levi
denti
nLat
i
nAmer
i
cat
oday
.
CG/
AMF
50
Unknownar
t
i
st
,CuzcoSchool
,Al
t
i
pl
ano,Per
uorBol
i
vi
a
MadonnaandChi
l
d,ca.1700s
Oi
loncanvas
(
Phot
ogr
aphi
cf
acsi
mi
l
eoft
heor
i
gi
nalunderconser
vat
i
on)
Thi
spai
nt
i
ngoft
heMadonnaandChi
l
di
sadel
i
cat
ewor
kt
hatshowcasest
he
synt
hesi
sofEur
opean i
conogr
aphyandAndean st
yl
esf
ound i
nt
he Cuzco
School
. The l
avi
sh pi
ece waspr
obabl
ymodel
ed af
t
erwor
kssuch ast
he
MadonnaandChi
l
d(
cat
.no.52)whi
chpr
esent
st
heseheavenl
yper
sonagesi
n
amannert
hatf
ol
l
owst
het
r
adi
t
i
onaldepi
ct
i
onofMar
yast
he“
GoodMot
her
.
”
Al
sot
ypi
calofEur
opeani
conogr
aphyar
et
hegr
apest
owhi
cht
heChr
i
stChi
l
d
poi
nt
s,whi
chnotonl
yr
ef
ert
ot
heEuchar
i
st
,butmayal
sor
el
at
et
oanot
her
pl
ant
basedmot
i
f
—t
heper
soni
f
i
cat
i
onofMar
yast
he“
t
r
uevi
ne”f
oundi
nbot
h
I
sai
ahandGenesi
s—wi
t
hChr
i
stsymbol
i
zi
ngt
her
i
peni
ngf
r
ui
t
.
Fol
l
owi
ngCuzquenot
r
adi
t
i
ons,t
heVi
r
gi
nandChi
l
dar
edepi
ct
edi
napal
et
t
eof
r
ed,yel
l
owandear
t
ht
ones.The“
embr
oi
der
ed”f
l
or
alandveget
almot
i
f
si
nt
he
r
obe,al
ong wi
t
ht
he st
ar
s and aur
a—meani
ngf
ult
o bot
h Chr
i
st
i
an and
pr
eCol
umbi
ansoci
et
i
es—wer
eappl
i
edt
hr
ought
het
echni
queofbr
ocat
eadoor
sombr
eadof
oundi
nCuzquenopai
nt
i
ngs,i
nwhi
chpat
t
er
nswer
edet
er
mi
nedby
pl
ant
i
l
l
as or st
enci
l
s and pai
nt
ed f
r
eehand when i
mper
f
ect
i
ons needed
cor
r
ect
i
on. Thesef
l
or
almot
i
f
sandst
ar
sar
er
el
at
edt
ot
heI
ncawor
shi
pof
nat
ur
eandMot
herEar
t
h,Pachamama;t
hegol
doft
heembr
oi
der
yst
andsf
ort
he
Sun(
I
nt
i
)
,sacr
edt
ot
heI
ncas.
Thewor
ki
sdi
spl
ayedi
naf
acsi
mi
l
er
epr
oduct
i
onbecausei
ti
scur
r
ent
l
ybei
ng
r
est
or
edbyconser
vat
orAl
exanderKat
l
an,asi
t
sl
ongt
er
m sur
vi
vali
satr
i
sk.
Ti
mehasbeenunki
ndandt
hepai
nt
i
nghassuf
f
er
edst
r
uct
ur
al
damage,sur
f
ace
l
osses,cr
acki
ng,f
l
aki
ng,andst
ai
ni
ng,aswel
lasdi
scol
or
at
i
onandabr
asi
on.
Thesef
act
or
shavenotonl
ychangedt
hephysi
calqual
i
t
i
esoft
hepai
nt
i
ngbut
r
enderi
tunst
abl
e and vul
ner
abl
e. The pr
esentr
est
or
at
i
on oft
he wor
kwi
l
l
ensur
et
hepr
eser
vat
i
onofar
i
chcul
t
ur
alher
i
t
agef
orf
ut
ur
eeducat
i
onaland
r
esear
chpur
poses.
AMF
51
Unknownar
t
i
st
,CuzcoSchool
,Al
t
i
pl
ano,Per
uorBol
i
vi
a
Madonnawi
t
hChr
i
stChi
l
dReadi
ngaBook,ca.1700s
Oi
loncanvas
I
n pr
eHi
spani
c Andean soci
et
i
es,women wer
et
he keeper
s ofr
el
i
gi
ous
or
gani
zat
i
ons dedi
cat
ed t
of
emal
e dei
t
i
es concept
ual
i
zed as t
he f
or
ces of
pr
ocr
eat
i
onandr
egener
at
i
on. Notsur
pr
i
si
ngl
y
,af
t
ert
heSpani
shconquest
,
I
ndi
anconver
t
svener
at
edt
hei
mageoft
heVi
r
gi
nMar
yast
hei
rpat
r
oness,
endowi
ng herwi
t
h mi
r
acul
ous power
s,f
orshe was easi
l
yi
dent
i
f
i
ed wi
t
h
Pachamama,t
heI
ncaear
t
hmot
hergoddess,i
mpr
egnat
edbyt
heSungodI
nt
i
,
whoai
dsandsust
ai
nshumani
t
y
.Thus,t
hemostabundantsubj
ectoft
heCuzco
Schooli
st
heVi
r
gi
n,whowasvener
at
edi
nmanycul
t
s.
TheMadonnaandChr
i
stChi
l
dReadi
ngaBooki
sanexampl
eoft
heexpr
essi
ve,
“
naï
ve”st
yl
ef
oundi
nCuzquenopai
nt
i
ngs. TheVi
r
gi
nandChi
l
dar
eatt
he
cent
er
:t
heChr
i
stChi
l
dhol
dsanopenbook—asymbol
ofknowl
edge—whi
l
et
he
Vi
r
gi
nt
ender
l
yhol
dsherson.Shewear
st
het
ypi
calcol
or
sassoci
at
edwi
t
ht
he
I
nca:r
edf
orst
r
engt
handwar
,gr
eenf
ornat
ur
eandf
er
t
i
l
i
t
y
,andyel
l
ow f
ort
he
Sun. Twoangel
sf
l
anki
ngt
hef
i
gur
esf
l
oatabove,t
r
yi
ngt
ohol
dt
heVi
r
gi
n’
s
cr
owni
npl
ace.Angel
swer
eext
r
emel
yi
mpor
t
anti
nCuzquenowor
ks;t
hecul
tof
angel
st
hathadenj
oyedpopul
ar
i
t
yi
nol
dSpai
nwaspr
obabl
ybr
oughtt
ot
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Amer
i
cast
hr
ough wor
ksofar
t
i
st
sl
i
ke Fr
anci
sco de Zur
bar
an. I
n col
oni
al
Andeanwor
ks,t
hesecel
est
i
al
bei
ngsar
epl
acedatt
heapexoft
hegr
oup,si
nce
t
heyst
andi
nf
orpr
eHi
spani
cgods.
Byt
he18t
hcent
ur
y
,t
heCuzcoschoolbecameamasspr
oduct
i
onbusi
ness,
wi
t
hmanyl
ocalar
t
i
st
sbei
nghast
i
l
yandf
or
ci
bl
yt
r
ai
ned,i
nor
dert
osuppl
yt
he
l
ar
geamount
sofr
el
i
gi
ouswor
kst
hatwer
edi
ssemi
nat
ednotonl
yt
hr
oughout
Sout
h Amer
i
ca butEur
ope as wel
l
. Si
nce t
he pr
oduct
i
on ofwor
ks was
consi
der
edacommunalef
f
or
t
,t
hevastmaj
or
i
t
yofwor
ksar
eunsi
gned,whi
ch
makesi
dent
i
f
yi
ngi
ndi
vi
dualar
t
i
st
spr
obl
emat
i
c.
Thi
spai
nt
i
ng,l
i
ket
heot
herCuzcoSchoolMadonnaonvi
ew,i
si
nneedof
r
est
or
at
i
on. We di
spl
ayi
ther
e,nonet
hel
ess,asan act
ualexampl
ef
ort
he
benef
i
tofvi
ewer
s.
AMF
52
Wor
kshopofPet
erPaulRubens(
Fl
emi
sh,15771640)
,possi
bl
yby
Wor
kshopofFr
ansSnyder
s(
Fl
emi
sh,15791657)
MadonnaandChi
l
d,c.16151624
Oi
lonl
i
nen
Dur
i
ngt
he16t
hcent
ur
yChar
l
esV,Hol
yRomanEmper
or
,waspi
vot
alf
ort
he
appr
eci
at
i
onanddi
ssemi
nat
i
onofar
tf
r
om Fl
ander
s,wher
ehewasbor
n,t
o
Spai
n,wher
e he r
ul
ed as Ki
ng Char
l
es I(
see hi
s por
t
r
ai
t
,cat
.no.29)
.
Consequent
l
y
,Fl
emi
sh pr
i
nt
s and pai
nt
i
ngs wer
e expor
t
ed t
ot
he Spani
sh
empi
r
ei
nt
heAmer
i
casdur
i
ngt
heageofexpl
or
at
i
on(
c.14001600)
.Thear
tof
t
he Bar
oque mast
erPet
erPaulRubens,i
n par
t
i
cul
ar
,may be t
he most
si
gni
f
i
cantFl
emi
shi
nf
l
uencei
nt
hedevel
opmentofAndeanpai
nt
i
ngdur
i
ngt
he
col
oni
alper
i
od,wi
t
hmanyoft
hear
t
i
st
’
swor
ksal
r
eadydi
st
r
i
but
edt
ot
heNew
Wor
l
d dur
i
ng hi
sl
i
f
et
i
me. Pai
nt
i
ngs l
i
ke t
he Madonna and Chi
l
d became
essent
i
alcomposi
t
i
onalai
dsf
orAndeanar
t
i
st
si
nCuzcoandel
sewher
e.Her
e,
wear
econf
r
ont
edwi
t
hani
nt
i
mat
e,t
enderi
mageofmat
er
nall
ove,wher
et
he
Vi
r
gi
nandChi
l
dar
epl
acedi
nadomest
i
ccont
ext
,st
r
i
ppedoft
hei
rheavenl
y
r
egal
i
a.Theemphasi
s,asi
nt
heCuzcowor
ksnear
by(
cat
.nos.50and51)
,i
s
onamor
ehumani
zedver
si
onoft
het
hemeoft
heVi
r
gi
nandChi
l
d,asadvocat
ed
byt
heCount
er
Ref
or
mat
i
on. Fort
hataggr
essi
vemovement
,r
el
i
gi
ouswor
ks
ser
vedadi
dact
i
cpur
pose:t
oevokeanemot
i
onalandmor
alr
esponsei
na
devoutpopul
at
i
on. I
nt
he New Wor
l
d such i
mageswer
e used byr
el
i
gi
ous
mi
ssi
onar
y or
der
s as i
nst
r
uct
i
onalgui
des i
nt
he conver
si
on ofi
ndi
genous
popul
at
i
onst
ot
heCat
hol
i
cr
el
i
gi
on.
AMF
53
Handwovent
ext
i
l
ef
r
agmentofr
epeat
i
ngf
i
gur
es
Per
u,Sout
hCoast
,ca.12001400
Woolandnat
ur
aldyes
Thi
s,andt
hef
ol
l
owi
ngt
wopr
eCol
umbi
anobj
ect
sf
r
om ourcol
l
ect
i
on(
cat
.nos.
54and55)
,ar
edi
spl
ayedi
npr
oxi
mi
t
yt
ot
hewor
ksf
r
om t
heCuzcoSchool
,t
o
al
l
ow compar
i
son bet
ween t
he pr
eHi
spani
c ar
tpr
oduced by t
he excel
l
ent
weaver
s,pot
t
er
s and met
al
l
ur
gi
st
s oft
he var
i
ous i
ndi
genous gr
oups who
popul
at
edt
heAmer
i
cas,andt
hecont
r
ast
i
ng“
newar
t
”t
hatcamei
nt
obei
ngaf
t
er
t
heSpani
shconquestoft
heNewWor
l
d.
Fr
om t
heear
l
i
estper
i
odofAndeanhi
st
or
y
,t
ext
i
l
epr
oduct
i
oncont
r
i
but
edt
ot
he
f
oundat
i
on ofa compl
exsoci
et
y
. Thi
st
ext
i
l
e depi
ct
sni
ne i
magesoff
el
i
ne
f
i
gur
esi
nr
ect
angul
arpanel
s,i
nr
edorbr
ownyel
l
ow col
or
swi
t
hcont
r
ast
i
ng
backgr
ounds.Thef
i
gur
esar
eabst
r
act
edandmayr
epr
esentt
hegodCcoa,who
cont
r
ol
l
edl
i
ght
ni
ngandst
r
uckdownbot
hcr
opsandpeopl
e.
AMF
54
Ani
malef
f
i
gy
Mexi
co,Paqui
me(
CasasGr
andes)
,12001450
Ter
r
acot
t
a
Thi
s pol
ychr
omed zoomor
phi
c vessel has an
expr
essi
vef
acewi
t
hwhi
sker
s. I
t
sl
i
ghtt
ant
obr
own
t
er
r
acot
t
asl
i
psur
f
acei
sdecor
at
edwi
t
hr
edandbl
ack
pai
nt
edgeomet
r
i
cdesi
gns. I
ti
sat
ypi
calexampl
eof
t
hepot
t
er
ypr
oducedbyt
heCasasGr
andescul
t
ur
ei
n
Mexi
co. Such pi
eces wer
e used i
n shamani
c
cer
emoni
es and wer
et
r
aded t
hr
oughoutnor
t
her
n
Mexi
coandasf
araspr
esentdayNew Mexi
coand
Ar
i
zona.
AMF
55
War
r
i
orOr
nament
Col
ombi
a,East
er
nHi
ghl
ands,Lat
eMui
scaPer
i
od,10001600
Tumbaga(
al
l
oyofgol
dandcopper
Thi
sdecor
at
i
vepi
ece,madeoutofaver
yt
hi
nsheetof
gol
d,por
t
r
aysawar
r
i
orhol
di
ngaspearandshi
el
d.I
ti
s
const
r
uct
edi
nr
el
i
efandpi
er
cedt
hr
ought
hegol
datt
he
war
r
i
or
'
s hands. The war
r
i
or wear
s a hel
metor
headdr
essandi
sdecor
at
edwi
t
hchasi
ngandr
epousée
det
ai
lont
hef
aceandbody
. Suchpi
nswer
et
unj
os,
vot
i
veobj
ect
s,madei
navar
i
et
yoff
or
mst
hatf
r
equent
l
y
r
i
orf
i
gur
eswi
t
ht
r
ophyheadsorweapons,
depi
ct
edwar
mi
ni
at
ur
epot
s,andani
mal
s.Tunj
oswer
eusual
l
yused
asof
f
er
i
ngsandl
ef
ti
ncavesorhol
es.Theywer
emade
f
ort
hel
ar
gerMui
scapopul
at
i
onf
orr
i
t
ualof
f
er
i
ngs.
AMF
56
Unknownar
t
i
st
,Per
si
an
Ki
ngRost
am r
ecogni
zeshi
ssonSohr
ab
Mi
ni
at
ur
ef
r
om amanuscr
i
ptoft
heepi
cShahnamah
ofFi
r
dawsi(
“
BookofKi
ngs”
),ca.13701507
Temper
aonpaper
Thi
si
samanuscr
i
ptpagef
r
om t
heShahnameh(
orBookofKi
ngs)ofFi
r
dawsi
.
Thepaperi
sbur
ni
shedwi
t
hahar
dst
oneorgl
asst
opr
epar
ei
tf
oruse,andt
he
ar
t
i
stcr
eat
esapr
el
i
mi
nar
ydr
awi
ngbef
or
epai
nt
i
ng.Thecal
l
i
gr
aphyi
swr
i
t
t
eni
n
moder
nPer
si
an,whi
chi
sasl
i
ght
l
ymodi
f
i
edAr
abi
cal
phabet
.
hedi
st
i
nct
i
onsofPer
si
anpai
nt
i
ngi
st
heuseofbr
i
l
l
i
antcol
or
scr
eat
ed
Oneoft
f
r
om mi
ner
al
sandani
malorpl
antmat
t
er
.Thi
smanuscr
i
ptpagecanbepl
aced
i
nt
he Ti
mur
i
d per
i
od (
13701507) based on t
he vi
vi
d col
or
s,gest
ur
es,
ar
chi
t
ect
ur
eandnat
ur
albackgr
ound,andt
heChi
nesei
nf
l
uenceofovoi
df
aces
andspi
kymoust
aches.Ther
ewer
edi
f
f
er
entcent
er
sofpr
oduct
i
onandt
hi
spage
mayhavecomef
r
om t
heShi
r
azschool
.
Thi
s manuscr
i
ptpage di
spl
ays a di
si
nt
er
esti
n west
er
nst
yl
e per
spect
i
ve.
Per
si
anar
t
i
st
sknew t
hi
st
echni
queandcoul
dr
enderi
magesconvi
nci
ngl
y
,but
pr
ef
er
r
edt
oconveyt
heemot
i
onal
i
t
yofast
or
y
.Addi
t
i
onal
l
y
,t
hedepi
ct
i
onof
nat
ur
eandar
chi
t
ect
ur
eemphasi
zesani
nt
i
mat
emomentbet
weenar
oyal
f
at
her
andhi
sson.
TheShahnamehi
sanepi
ccomposedbyt
hepoetFi
r
dawsii
n1010,basedon
pr
eI
sl
ami
csour
cesr
ecount
i
ng t
he hi
st
or
yoft
he Per
si
an ki
ngs. Si
mi
l
art
o
Renai
ssanceEur
ope’
st
r
ansl
at
i
onsofGr
eekt
ext
s,ear
l
yPer
si
anl
i
t
er
at
ur
ewas
t
r
ansl
at
edi
nt
oAr
abi
candmoder
nPer
si
ani
nt
heMi
ddl
eEast
.Thepat
r
onageof
t
he ar
t
s,phi
l
osophy
,and t
he sci
encesf
l
our
i
shed dur
i
ng t
heTi
mur
i
d per
i
od,
whi
chcanbeconsi
der
edar
i
valt
ot
hecont
empor
aneousI
t
al
i
anQuat
t
r
ocent
o.
Handmademanuscr
i
pt
swer
et
heonl
yt
ypeofbookspr
oduced,event
hough
Musl
i
msknewhowt
opr
i
nt
.Oneoft
hemosti
mpor
t
antdevel
opment
sdur
i
ngt
he
Ti
mur
i
d per
i
od wast
he cr
eat
i
on oft
he Per
si
an mi
ni
at
ur
e pai
nt
i
ng. Mi
ddl
e
East
er
nmanuscr
i
pt
sf
asci
nat
edear
l
yRenai
ssancear
t
i
st
s,whoemul
at
edt
hem
byi
ncor
por
at
i
ng“
pseudoAr
abi
c”cal
l
i
gr
aphyandot
herI
sl
ami
cmot
i
f
si
nt
ot
hei
r
pai
nt
i
ngs.
CG
57
Unknownar
t
i
st
,Japanese
Car
i
cat
ur
eofFi
veMen,Tokugawaper
i
od,1700s
Col
or
edi
nkonr
i
cepaper
Thi
sCar
i
cat
ur
eofFi
veMeni
sanexampl
eoft
r
adi
t
i
onal
Asi
anar
t
unaf
f
ect
ed byt
he expansi
on ofRenai
ssance Eur
ope i
nt
ot
he
East
.Dur
i
ngt
heEdoper
i
od(
16031868)
,t
her
ul
i
ngTokugawa
f
ami
l
yf
ear
ed t
hatEur
opean i
nf
l
uence i
n Japan mi
ghthel
pt
o
over
t
hr
ow t
hem. Though t
he Tokugawa cl
osed Japan t
o
f
or
ei
gner
s,i
ndi
r
ectt
r
adest
i
l
lper
mi
t
t
edJapanesear
t
i
st
st
ol
ear
n
aboutRenai
ssancet
echni
quessuchaswest
er
nper
spect
i
veand
l
andscape.I
nt
ur
n,t
heJapaneseexpor
t
edEdost
yl
ear
t
,suchas
cer
ami
csandl
acquer
s,whi
chi
nf
l
uencedEur
opeanar
t
i
st
s.
Thi
s dr
awi
ng exhi
bi
t
st
he basi
c char
act
er
i
st
i
cs ofmuch East
Asi
anar
t
.Thepaperi
smadeofr
i
ce,basedont
echnol
ogyand
mat
er
i
al
si
nt
r
oducedf
r
om Chi
na. Thei
nksar
ebasedonr
ed
pi
gment
s,suchasor
gani
cmat
er
i
al
sofci
nnabarandr
edochr
e,
andar
t
i
f
i
ci
al
l
ypr
oducedver
mi
l
l
i
on;t
hebl
ackpi
gmenti
sChi
nese
i
nk.Asi
anpai
nt
i
ngst
yl
ei
sbasedonaf
l
exi
bl
ebr
ushmadef
r
om
humanorani
malhai
rorf
eat
her
s.Thear
t
i
st
’
shandmovement
s
cont
r
olt
het
hi
cknessoft
hel
i
ne;i
t
sshapecanber
egul
ari
ft
he
br
ushi
sl
oadedwi
t
hi
nk,ori
r
r
egul
ari
ft
hei
nki
sdr
i
edsl
i
ght
l
y
.The
r
esul
tofbr
ushwor
kt
hatseemssi
mpl
eandcondensedgi
vesan
emot
i
onalef
f
ectt
hati
sapt
l
ydemonst
r
at
edi
nCar
i
cat
ur
eofFi
ve
Men.
Thi
sr
edmonochr
omedr
awi
ngcombi
nest
wost
yl
i
st
i
ct
r
adi
t
i
ons.
Thegr
aphi
c humori
sbasedonyamat
oear
t
,whosel
ooseand
qui
ck mannerand i
nf
or
malr
eal
i
st
i
c st
yl
e al
l
owed Japanese
ar
t
i
st
st
ocr
eat
eamusi
ngorsat
i
r
i
cal
wor
k.Thei
mageal
sodr
aws
ont
hesket
chl
i
kehai
gast
yl
ecr
eat
edbyJapanesepai
nt
erand
poetYosaBuson(
17161783)
,whi
chdef
i
neseachi
ndi
vi
dualby
r
ender
i
ng t
hem wi
t
hl
oose,qui
ck,and abbr
evi
at
ed st
r
okes,
wi
t
houtt
heneedofanyphysi
calset
t
i
ng.
CG
58
Seat
edLi
on
I
ndi
a,Tr
avancor
e,Mughalper
i
od,ca.15001700
I
vor
y
Thi
si
vor
yl
i
on st
at
uet
t
e,seat
ed wi
t
h al
lpawson t
he base,i
sconvi
nci
ngl
y
depi
ct
ed.Thecar
verdemonst
r
at
est
hepr
eci
si
onofhi
sski
l
l
wi
t
hst
yl
i
zeddet
ai
l
s,
suchasr
ender
i
ngt
het
opoft
hel
i
on’
st
ai
landneckwi
t
hpar
al
l
ell
i
nes.Ther
ei
s
al
soanaddedt
ouchatt
het
opoft
hel
i
on’
shead,wher
est
r
andsofcur
vi
nghai
r
br
eakf
r
om t
hest
yl
i
zedpat
t
er
noft
her
estoft
hemane.
Thesest
yl
i
zedmot
i
f
scoul
ddemonst
r
at
et
hatt
hi
sst
at
uet
t
ei
sf
r
om I
ndi
a,si
nce
l
i
onsar
ei
mpor
t
antmot
i
f
si
nBuddhi
stscul
pt
ur
eandar
epor
t
r
ayedasl
i
f
el
i
ke.
Unf
or
t
unat
el
y
,however
,t
her
ei
sno i
ndi
cat
i
on whet
heri
ti
sa Buddhi
stora
secul
arl
i
on.I
vor
y car
vi
ngs pr
oduced dur
i
ng t
he Mughalper
i
od i
nI
ndi
a
(
15261707)wer
eext
ensi
veandvar
i
ed,butar
enott
heonl
ypossi
bl
eor
i
gi
nof
ourst
at
uet
t
e.Asi
mi
l
arst
yl
eal
soexi
st
edi
nMi
ddl
eEast
er
nar
tandsuchapi
ece
coul
dal
sohavebeenmadei
nChi
nadur
i
ngt
heMi
ngper
i
od(
1368–1644)
,when
ol
i
f
er
at
i
onofi
vor
i
es,st
r
i
ki
ngi
nt
hei
rsi
mpl
i
ci
t
y
,wer
eei
t
hersmal
l
,l
i
ket
hi
sl
i
on
apr
st
at
uet
t
e,orel
ongat
ed,f
ol
l
owi
ngt
henat
ur
alcur
veoft
het
uskorbody
.
OnceJesui
tmi
ssi
onar
i
eswer
eest
abl
i
shedi
nAsi
amanysuchar
t
wor
ksf
ound
t
hei
rwayt
oRenai
ssanceEur
opeandf
asci
nat
edcol
l
ect
or
s.Manypar
t
soft
he
cont
i
nental
sopr
oducedi
vor
ycar
vi
ngs,bot
hf
orEur
opeanr
esi
dent
si
nAsi
an
l
andsandf
orexpor
tt
oEur
ope.Ani
vor
ywor
kshopi
nt
hePor
t
uguesecol
onyof
Goapr
oducedahybr
i
dst
yl
et
hatcombi
nedChr
i
st
i
anwi
t
hHi
ndumot
i
f
sand
Mughalwi
t
h ear
l
y Per
si
an desi
gns. Thi
sl
i
on coul
d have been made f
or
Renai
ssanceEur
opesi
ncei
tevokest
heexot
i
cnat
ur
eoft
heEast
.I
ti
sal
so
symbol
i
c,si
ncet
hel
i
onr
epr
esent
edr
oyal
t
y
,st
r
engt
h,andt
hepoweroft
hesun
wi
t
hi
t
ssupr
emacyoverever
yt
hi
ng.
CG
59
Si
xsi
dedcer
emoni
alcont
ai
ner
Chi
na,Qi
ngdynast
y
,ca.16501750
Br
onze
Thi
sbr
onzevesseli
sdecor
at
edwi
t
hsi
xoft
heEi
ghtI
mmor
t
al
sofTaoi
sm,an
anci
entkeyr
el
i
gi
onofChi
na.Ri
t
ualvessel
swer
eusedf
orof
f
er
i
ngs,andt
hi
s
cont
ai
nerpr
obabl
ybur
nedi
ncense.Thesi
xI
mmor
t
al
sher
ear
edef
i
nedbyt
hei
r
at
t
r
i
but
esandTaoi
str
obes,char
act
er
i
zedbydi
agonall
apel
sandwi
desl
eeves.
OneI
mmor
t
ali
sr
epr
esent
edt
wi
ce.
TheI
mmor
t
al
sdepi
ct
edar
e:LuDongbi
n(
pat
r
onoft
hesi
ckwi
t
hhi
sat
t
r
i
but
e,a
swor
d swung overhi
s back)
;Han Xi
ang Zi(
pat
r
on ofmusi
ci
ans wi
t
h hi
s
at
t
r
i
but
e,af
l
ut
e)
;Li
Ti
eguai
(
whof
r
eest
hespi
r
i
tf
r
om t
hebodywi
t
hhi
sat
t
r
i
but
e,
a beggar
’
s cr
ut
ch)
;He Xi
angu (
pat
r
on ofhousehol
ds wi
t
h herat
t
r
i
but
e,a
peach)
;ZhangGuoLao(
whor
ender
shi
msel
fi
nvi
si
bl
ewi
t
hhi
sat
t
r
i
but
e,t
heYu
Kui
nst
r
umenti
nt
heshapeofabamboot
ube)
;andLiTi
eguai
,r
epr
esent
eda
secondt
i
mewi
t
hanot
herat
t
r
i
but
e,api
l
gr
i
m’
sgour
d)
.Nextt
oeachI
mmor
t
al
ar
e
si
xguar
di
answhomaybebi
xi
es:myt
hol
ogi
cal
cr
eat
ur
escombi
ni
ngt
hef
eat
ur
es
ofl
i
onsandgoat
swhohavet
hepowert
owar
dof
fevi
l
.
Theupperpor
t
i
onoft
hevesseli
snotpar
al
l
elt
ot
hebase.Thi
smayhavebeen
done pur
posel
y
,si
nceTaoi
sm emphasi
zest
he questt
o under
st
and nat
ur
e.
Thus i
mper
f
ect
i
on coul
dr
ef
l
ectt
he “
j
our
ney”t
hr
ough ear
t
hl
yi
mper
f
ect
i
on
t
owar
dt
heul
t
i
mat
egoalofnat
ur
e’
sper
f
ect
i
on.TheI
mmor
t
al
sl
i
vedi
ndi
f
f
er
ent
t
i
mes,achi
evi
ngi
mmor
t
al
i
t
yt
hr
oughi
nst
i
nct
ualunder
st
andi
ngoft
hesecr
et
sof
nat
ur
e.ThoughTaoi
sm di
f
f
er
sf
r
om Chr
i
st
i
ani
t
y
,i
tnonet
hel
esscont
ai
nssi
mi
l
ar
per
sonagessuchast
heI
mmor
t
al
s,whower
epat
r
onsai
nt
sf
ort
heChi
nese;and
t
hi
svessel
wasusedf
orr
i
t
ual
ssi
mi
l
art
ot
heChr
i
st
i
anl
i
t
ur
gy
,whi
chusedobj
ect
s
aswel
l
.
Thi
s Taoi
stvessel
,dat
i
ng f
r
om t
he per
i
od ofr
i
si
ng Eur
opean i
ncur
si
ons,
exempl
i
f
i
es Chi
na’
sr
esi
st
ance t
o Eur
opean expansi
oni
sm.Though some
concessi
onswer
emade,Chi
naneverl
osti
t
saut
onomy
,andt
hei
nf
l
uencesof
Chi
nesear
tf
l
owedbot
ht
oandf
r
om Renai
ssanceEur
ope.
CG
60
Br
acel
et
Mal
i
,WestAf
r
i
ca,ca.10001400
Br
onze
Br
acel
et
Mal
i
,WestAf
r
i
ca,ca.10001400
Copperal
l
oy
Theset
wobr
acel
et
s,f
r
om t
hear
eaknownt
odayasMal
i
,ar
eknownt
her
eas
mani
l
as,f
r
om t
he Por
t
uguese wor
df
orbr
acel
et
,mani
l
ha. Mani
l
l
as (
t
he
angl
i
ci
zedf
or
m oft
hewor
d)wer
ei
nt
r
oducedbyt
hePor
t
ugueseasanewf
or
m
ofcur
r
encywhenEur
opeant
r
adi
ngbegani
nWestAf
r
i
caar
ound1450;br
onze
and copper
al
l
oy met
al
s wer
ei
mpor
t
ed by Eur
opeans and used f
ort
he
exchange ofgoods. These met
al
s al
so pr
ovi
ded r
aw mat
er
i
al
sf
orl
ocal
i
ndust
r
i
esandmani
l
l
ast
her
ef
or
eal
sower
eusedt
opr
omot
eAf
r
i
caneconomi
es.
Mani
l
l
asevent
ual
l
ybecamedecor
at
i
veandwer
eusedasj
ewel
r
y
.Al
ongwi
t
h
ot
herj
ewel
r
y
,t
heyi
ndi
cat
edst
at
usandweal
t
hi
nl
i
f
eandi
ndeat
h,f
orbot
h
womenandmen.Thedemandf
ormani
l
l
aswassogr
eatt
hatwhent
heki
ngdom
ofBeni
n—t
odayknown asNi
ger
i
a—i
mpor
t
ed t
hese br
acel
et
s,t
heypai
df
or
t
hem wi
t
hgol
d. Thi
si
nt
ur
nhel
pedsat
i
sf
yt
heEur
opeandemandf
orgol
d.
Mani
l
l
asbecamesoent
r
enchedi
nWestAf
r
i
caneconomi
est
hatt
heywer
enot
wi
t
hdr
awnf
r
om ci
r
cul
at
i
onunt
i
lt
hel
at
e1940s.
The Por
t
uguese al
so di
scover
ed t
hatt
he WestAf
r
i
can coastpossessed
r
emar
kabl
et
r
adi
t
i
onalar
t
.Consequent
l
y
,a synt
hesi
s ofst
yl
es ar
ose i
n
depi
ct
i
onsoft
he Por
t
uguese byBeni
n ar
t
i
st
swho i
ncor
por
at
ed t
hei
rnat
i
ve
mot
i
f
s. Fori
nst
ance,onesur
vi
vi
ngbr
acel
etcombi
nesmot
i
f
sofPor
t
uguese
headsandAf
r
i
canmudf
i
sh,si
ncet
heBeni
nbel
i
evedbot
hwer
ecomf
or
t
abl
e
bei
ngonei
t
herl
andorwat
er
.Si
mi
l
ar
l
y
,pl
aquesdepi
ctPor
t
uguesemenwi
t
h
mani
l
l
as,t
hecur
r
encyt
heycr
eat
ed,andt
her
i
chest
heyamassedi
nt
heBeni
n
ki
ngdom. The mani
l
l
as and hybr
i
d ar
tr
eveal maj
or changes i
n t
he
soci
oeconomi
cl
andscapeofAf
r
i
caaf
t
erEur
opeancont
act
.
CG
SCI
ENCEAND TECHNOLOGY:
PRI
NTMAKI
NG AND PAPER
Pr
i
nt
ma
k
i
ng-Hi
s
t
o
r
ya
ndTe
c
hni
q
ue
s
Theconceptofpr
i
nt
i
ngst
ar
t
edi
npr
ehi
st
or
i
ct
i
mes.TheSumer
i
anscar
vedi
magesi
nt
ocyl
i
nderseal
st
omar
kowner
shi
pofgoodsi
nt
he3r
d
mi
l
l
enni
um B.
C.
E. TheChi
nesecr
eat
edr
ubbi
ngsf
r
om car
vedt
ext
sca.200C.
E.
,and8t
hcent
ur
yJapanesear
t
i
st
spr
i
nt
edmul
t
i
pl
ecopi
esof
Buddhi
stt
ext
s.Pr
i
nt
maki
ngchangedwi
t
ht
hei
nvent
i
onofpaper(
seesl
i
deshownear
by)andspr
eadt
oEur
opewher
e,i
nt
he14t
hcent
ur
y
,woodcut
pr
i
nt
sspr
eadChr
i
st
i
ani
magest
ot
hecommonpeopl
e.
Thei
nvent
i
onoft
hepr
i
nt
i
ngpr
essbyt
heGer
manJohannGut
enber
g,ca.1445,changedhi
st
or
ybyal
l
owi
ngt
r
uemasspr
oduct
i
onofbooksand
pi
ct
ur
es.Thepr
esspr
oducedl
ar
gequant
i
t
i
esataf
r
act
i
onoft
hecostofhandmadebooks,al
l
owi
ngmanypeopl
et
obuyr
eadi
ngmat
er
i
al
andhel
pi
ng
t
ospr
eadawar
enessofnewi
deas.
Ther
ear
et
wobr
oadcat
egor
i
esofpr
i
nt
maki
ngcal
l
edr
el
i
efandi
nt
agl
i
o,dependi
ngonwhet
hert
hei
magei
spr
oducedf
r
om t
her
ai
sedsur
f
aceofa
pr
i
nt
i
ngbl
ockorf
r
om i
t
scut
outl
owerar
eas:
i
nt
i
ngi
st
heol
destf
or
m.Tomakear
el
i
efpr
i
nt
,t
hear
t
i
stusesashar
pt
oolt
ogougeoutar
easf
r
om af
l
atsl
abofmat
er
i
al
,or
i
gi
nal
l
ywood.
Rel
i
efpr
Thear
east
hatar
er
emovedappearwhi
t
ei
nt
hepr
i
nt
,andt
her
ai
sedpor
t
i
onscr
eat
et
hei
mage.Thear
t
i
stappl
i
esi
nkt
ot
her
ai
sedsur
f
aceandpl
aces
asheetofpaperoni
t
,t
hent
r
ansf
er
st
hei
maget
ot
hepaperbyr
ubbi
ngt
hebackoft
hepaperorr
unni
ngt
hebl
ockandpapert
hr
oughapr
ess.Text
s
wer
et
r
adi
t
i
onal
l
ypr
i
nt
edwi
t
hal
phabetbl
ockscuti
nr
el
i
ef
.
I
nt
agl
i
opr
i
nt
i
ngcr
eat
esani
magebyusi
ngavar
i
et
yoft
ool
sorchemi
cal
st
ocar
vedepr
essi
onsi
namet
alpl
at
e.Thear
t
i
stpr
essesi
nki
nt
ot
he
i
nci
sedl
i
nesandwi
pest
her
ai
sedsur
f
acecl
ean,t
henpl
acespaperont
hepl
at
eandr
unsi
tt
hr
oughapr
ess,f
or
ci
ngt
hepaperi
nt
ot
hei
nkedcr
evi
ces.
Ther
ear
ef
ourmai
ni
nt
agl
i
ot
echni
ques:
Engr
avi
ng:Cr
i
spl
i
nesar
ecr
eat
edwhent
hear
t
i
stusesast
eelt
oolt
ocar
vei
nt
oamet
alpl
at
e;t
hedeepert
hecut
,t
het
hi
ckert
hel
i
ne.
Dr
ypoi
nt
:Thear
t
i
stscr
at
chesadr
awi
ngont
oamet
alpl
at
ewi
t
hashar
pneedl
e.Ther
ai
sedmet
albur
r
st
hatar
ecr
eat
edt
r
apandhol
dt
hei
nkaf
t
er
t
hepl
at
ei
swi
pedcl
ean,cr
eat
i
ngasof
t
,heavyl
i
ne.
Et
chi
ng:Themet
alpl
at
ei
scover
edwi
t
hanaci
dr
esi
st
antgr
ound.Thear
t
i
stscr
at
chesani
magei
nt
ot
hegr
oundwi
t
haneedl
et
hensubmer
gest
he
pl
at
ei
naci
dt
hat“
bi
t
es”i
nt
ot
hear
easwher
et
hegr
oundhasbeenr
emoved,cr
eat
i
ngcl
ear
l
ydef
i
nedgr
ooves.Thel
ongert
hepl
at
ei
ssubmer
ged,
t
hedeepert
hegr
ooveswi
l
lbecome,r
esul
t
i
ngi
nheavi
erl
i
nesordar
kerpr
i
nt
s.
Aquat
i
nt
:Thear
t
i
stdust
st
hemet
al
pl
at
ewi
t
haci
dr
esi
st
antpowdert
hatadher
est
ot
hepl
at
ewhenheat
ed,t
henpl
acesi
ti
nanaci
dbat
ht
hat“
bi
t
es”
ar
oundeachoft
hedust
edpar
t
i
cl
es.Thi
st
echni
quecr
eat
esbr
oadar
easoft
one,f
r
om l
i
ghtt
odar
k.
61
Mar
t
i
nSchongauer(
Ger
man,14451491)
Deat
hoft
heVi
r
gi
n,ca.14701475
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
ng
Mar
t
i
nSchongauer
,t
hesonofagol
dsmi
t
handf
or
mal
l
yt
r
ai
nedasapai
nt
er
,wasuni
quel
y
si
t
uat
edi
nt
hedevel
opmentofcopper
pl
at
eengr
avi
ng.Hi
sar
tmar
kedat
ur
ni
ngpoi
nti
nt
he
l
astquar
t
eroft
he15t
hcent
ur
ywhenengr
avi
ngpr
ogr
essedf
r
om agent
eell
ocalcr
af
tt
oa
maj
ori
nt
er
nat
i
onal
ar
tf
or
m.Nogr
aphi
car
t
i
stbef
or
eAl
br
echtDür
ercont
r
i
but
edasmuchi
n
i
nnovat
i
on,andSchongauer
’
smannerofengr
avi
ngi
mmedi
at
el
yat
t
r
act
edar
emar
kabl
e
numberofi
mi
t
at
or
sandcopi
er
s,cont
i
nui
ngupt
hr
ought
he19t
hcent
ur
y
. EvenDür
er
bor
r
owedi
magesf
r
om t
hi
sandot
herSchongauerengr
avi
ngsf
orhi
sownpr
i
nt
s.Because
ofSchongauer
’
s ski
l
li
n usi
ng t
he bur
i
nt
o cutdeep,cl
ean l
i
nes,he coul
d pul
lan
unpr
ecedent
edl
yl
ar
genumberofhi
ghqual
i
t
yi
mpr
essi
ons.Bei
ngwel
l
posi
t
i
onedal
ongt
he
t
r
ader
out
eoft
heRhi
neRi
ver
,heeasi
l
ydi
st
r
i
but
edhi
spr
i
nt
st
hr
oughoutEur
ope,at
t
r
act
i
ng
admi
r
er
sandbuyer
s,i
ncl
udi
ngpai
nt
er
s,scul
pt
or
s,andcr
af
t
wor
ker
si
nsear
chofdesi
gn
i
deas and mar
ket
abl
ei
mager
y
.Schongauernotonl
y mar
ked a pi
vot
alpoi
nti
nt
he
i
nt
er
nat
i
onaldevel
opmentofpr
i
nt
maki
ng,butal
sopl
ayedani
mpor
t
antr
ol
ei
ndevel
opi
ng
nowf
ami
l
i
arwaysofar
tmar
ket
i
nganddi
st
r
i
but
i
on.
ThesecondofMar
t
i
nSchongauer
’
sengr
avi
ngsbel
ongi
ngt
ot
het
r
adi
t
i
onalcycl
eoft
he
Sor
r
owsoft
heVi
r
gi
n(
f
r
om hi
sLi
f
eoft
heVi
r
gi
nser
i
es)
,Deat
hoft
heVi
r
gi
nwasver
ypopul
ar
andendl
essl
ycopi
edi
nhi
sownt
i
me(
l
i
kehi
sot
herpr
i
nt
sonvi
ew,cat
.nos.62,63)
.I
twas
common f
orengr
aved copperpl
at
est
o be r
ecutonce t
heywer
e exhaust
ed,of
t
en by
copyi
st
swhoappl
i
edt
hei
rownmonogr
amsandcl
ai
medt
hei
mager
yast
hei
rown.Wehave
yett
odet
er
mi
net
heper
i
odoft
hi
sf
acsi
mi
l
eofoneofSchongauer
’
smostadmi
r
edand
i
nf
l
uent
i
alengr
avi
ngs.
Thi
spr
i
ntwasconsi
der
edpar
t
i
cul
ar
l
ydar
i
ngbecausei
tbr
oket
heGer
manar
tt
r
adi
t
i
oni
n of
depi
ct
i
ngt
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r
gi
nonherdeat
hbedvi
ewedf
r
om t
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emi
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i
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adi
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or
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ened
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om t
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ootofherbed.I
tal
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egi
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l
.Thepr
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ur
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sualr
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i
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asseshel
doverabook,magni
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yi
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t
het
extbel
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ori
t
si
ncl
usi
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abor
at
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ydet
ai
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ckatt
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ootoft
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ai
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uepr
i
ntf
oramet
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gn.Remar
kabl
et
ooi
st
heski
l
l
f
ulat
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ent
i
ont
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ti
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sr
ahel
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st
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st
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mar
ket
abl
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y
,especi
al
l
yi
naper
i
odwhent
heAr
smor
endi
(
TheAr
tofDyi
ng)was
apopul
arbookoft
heday
.
AP
62
Mar
t
i
nSchongauer(
Ger
man,14451491)
TheFl
i
ghti
nt
oEgypt,ca.147075
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
ng,17t
h18t
hc.
OneofMar
t
i
nSchongauer
’
sear
l
i
estandmostsought
af
t
erengr
avi
ngs,The
Fl
i
ghti
nt
oEgypti
soneoft
wot
hatbel
ongt
ot
heSor
r
owsoft
heVi
r
gi
n(
f
r
om hi
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ser
i
esont
heLi
f
eoft
heVi
r
gi
n)
.Theot
her
,Deat
hoft
heVi
r
gi
n,i
sonvi
ewt
ot
he
(
l
)or(
r
)(
cat
.no.61)
. Her
et
heVi
r
gi
nandChi
l
dsi
tast
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i
deasmal
ldonkey
,
beneat
hboweddat
epal
m br
anches.Angel
sensconcedi
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het
r
eebendt
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boughs down,hel
pi
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he f
r
ui
t
.The t
wo t
r
opi
calt
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ees,
i
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nt
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t
h oft
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Pyr
enees,wer
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ami
l
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art
oSchongauer
’
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encei
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heRhi
neVal
l
ey
.
Per
haps t
hi
s exot
i
ci
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nt
i
mat
e,mi
r
acul
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ur
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i
ni
t
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at
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ar
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t
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s pr
i
nt
.Demand f
orengr
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i
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i
gi
ouspr
act
i
ce,suchast
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smor
i
endi
,
i
ncr
easedr
api
dl
y
.
AP
63
Mar
t
i
nSchongauer(
Ger
man,14451491)
Sai
ntAnt
honyTor
ment
edbyDemons,ca.147075
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
ng,17t
h18t
hc.
Sai
ntAnt
honyTor
ment
edbyDemonsi
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our
t
eenpr
i
nt
st
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esai
nt
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ti
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guabl
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amousofSchongauer
’
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scont
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Ant
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AP
ALBRECHTDÜRER:
FATHER OFTHENORTHERN RENAI
SSANCE
I
ti
snear
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egacy
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PL
64
Al
br
echtDür
er(
Ger
man,14711528)
Phi
l
i
ppMel
ancht
hon,1526
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
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Al
br
echtDür
er
,of
t
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dooft
heNor
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”wast
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omi
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nf
l
uent
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man ar
t
i
stoft
he Renai
ssance (
see wal
lpl
aque near
by)
.
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er
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sf
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asmusofRot
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ancht
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Wi
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PL
65
Al
br
echtDür
er(
Ger
man,14711528)
Vi
r
gi
nandChi
l
dwi
t
haMonkey,ca.1498
Facsi
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sengr
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ngspace.
PL
66
Al
br
echtDür
er(
Ger
man,14711528)
Madonnabyt
heWal
l
,1514
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
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,madei
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Chi
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.no.65)
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ur
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PL
PRI
NTMAKI
NG:
FACSI
MI
LES,COPI
ES,AND FORGERI
ES
Af
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ai
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ax”
.When
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susi
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eusi
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ogyt
hatbegani
nt
heRenai
ssance.
Ouri
deal
i
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si
onoft
heRenai
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i
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at
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abor
at
i
onbet
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t
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i
nt
makerMar
cant
oni
oRai
mondiandt
hepai
nt
erRaphaelcanbeseeni
nt
hei
rThr
eeGr
aces(
cat
.no.71)
.
ecl
assi
f
i
edi
nt
hr
eecat
egor
i
es,dependi
ngont
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rcl
osenesst
ot
heor
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t
i
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’
shand.Fi
r
st
,pr
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nt
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sgener
al
l
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eser
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r
Copi
esar
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at
es.Thus,atanyt
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ert
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nt
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om t
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gni
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at
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Engr
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I
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i
on.Al
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rr
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caswi
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ht
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rown
names.Fi
nal
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,paperandi
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cat
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eandwhenani
magewaspr
oduced.Event
hei
mpr
essi
onmadebyt
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at
eont
he
paperi
sr
eveal
i
ng,becauset
hemor
et
i
mesapl
at
ei
sused,t
hef
l
at
t
ert
hemet
albecomes.Shar
p,cl
eani
mpr
essi
onsi
ndi
cat
et
hepr
i
ntwaspul
l
ed
whent
hepl
at
ewasnew;awor
nedgel
eavesabl
ur
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edi
mpr
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Pr
i
nt
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et
hemostsi
gni
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i
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ordi
ssemi
nat
i
ngar
t
i
st
i
ci
magesunt
i
l
t
he19t
hcent
ur
yi
nvent
i
onofphot
ogr
aphy
.Dur
i
ngt
heRenai
ssance,
or
i
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nal
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acsi
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cul
at
edwi
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s,evenbei
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opeani
mager
yt
ot
heNewWor
l
d(
seet
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sect
i
ononExpl
or
i
ngt
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obe)
.I
nt
he18t
hand19t
hcent
ur
i
es,pr
oduct
i
onoff
acsi
mi
l
esofmuchol
derwor
kswasbasedont
hecont
i
nui
ng
admi
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at
i
onf
orRenai
ssancear
t
,whi
chst
i
l
li
nf
or
msourt
hi
nki
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oday
.I
nourowner
aofgl
obali
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or
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r
om Leonar
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oRembr
andtt
ogr
acet
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mi
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or
i
es,andwor
kpl
acesar
oundt
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l
d.
Ourmot
i
vat
i
onf
ordi
spl
ayi
ngt
hesecont
empor
ar
yf
acsi
mi
l
esi
st
hesameast
hatofRenai
ssancepat
r
ons:t
hepl
easur
eofvi
ewi
ngt
hewor
kofgr
eat
ar
t
i
st
st
hatwoul
dot
her
wi
sebeunavai
l
abl
eorunaf
f
or
dabl
e.
TCF
69
Publ
i
usTer
ent
i
usAf
er
,“
Ter
ence”(
Roman,ca.
185159B.
C.
E.
)
Comoedi
ae,publ
i
shedi
nSt
r
assbur
g
byJohann(
Rei
nhar
d)Gr
üni
nger
,1496
Pr
i
nt
edpagewi
t
hwoodcuti
mageofCl
i
t
i
pho
70
Unknownar
t
i
st(
I
t
al
i
an,Fl
or
ent
i
ne)
TheChast
i
sementofEr
os,ca.14501500
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
ng,l
at
e18t
hor19t
hc.
Er
os,al
soknownasCupi
dorLove,wasacommont
hemei
nRenai
ssance
ar
t
,r
epr
esent
i
ngt
hest
r
uggl
ebet
weent
her
at
i
onalandt
hei
r
r
at
i
onalmi
nd.
Er
osi
sher
et
i
edt
oat
r
eeand,aswasusual
,bl
i
ndf
ol
ded.Hei
ssur
r
ounded
byf
ourangr
ywomenwhohavesnappedhi
sbow,br
okent
hebowst
r
i
ng,
andt
or
ni
tawayf
r
om hi
m.Theyoungwomanatt
hef
arr
i
ghthasherar
ms
r
ai
sedwi
t
har
r
owsi
nhand,asi
ft
obeatt
hecapt
ur
edgod;t
hewomannext
t
oherwi
el
dsapi
eceoft
hebr
okenbow,andt
hescat
t
er
edar
r
owsl
i
e
t
r
ampl
edi
nt
hef
or
egr
ound.Nextt
owar
dt
hel
ef
t
,amor
emat
ur
ewoman
car
r
i
esi
n one hand whatappear
st
o be a wr
apped skei
n ofyar
n,an
at
t
r
i
but
eoft
hef
emal
esex,andanempt
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edqui
veri
nt
heot
her
.Theset
hr
ee
womenmayr
epr
esentt
het
hr
eeagesofawoman’
sl
i
f
e,dur
i
nganyof
whi
chshemi
ghtbef
oi
l
edbyt
hepr
omi
sesoft
hegodofl
ove.Thef
our
t
h,
l
ef
t
most
,f
i
gur
ei
st
heonl
yonewi
t
hanact
ualweapon.Shewi
el
dsal
ar
ge
kni
f
ei
nherr
i
ghthandandgr
aspst
heedgeofEr
os’
sf
eat
her
s,asi
ft
o
suggestt
hatr
easoni
saboutt
ocl
i
pl
ove’
swi
ngs(
herheaddr
essr
esembl
es
t
hatofasphi
nx;compar
ecat
.no.35)
.Thet
r
eet
hatEr
oshangsuponi
s
cr
uci
f
or
m,l
endi
ngt
hesceneaf
ai
ntr
el
i
gi
ousover
t
oneofsacr
i
f
i
ce.I
t
sbar
e
andt
r
uncat
edbr
anchesar
esymbol
i
cofwi
t
her
edl
ove,t
hedr
yi
ngupof
passi
on.
Thei
magei
snotr
ender
edi
napar
t
i
cul
ar
l
yski
l
l
f
ulmanner
.Er
os’
sbodyi
s
st
i
f
f
l
ydr
awnandcr
udel
ymodel
ed,andt
hespacei
sshal
l
owandf
l
at
t
ened,
wi
t
hnor
ef
er
encet
oal
andscapet
hatwoul
di
ndi
cat
edept
horpl
ace.The
ci
r
cul
arf
or
matdoes,however
,i
nt
ensi
f
yt
hesenseofvi
ol
enceandr
age.
Thest
yl
ei
st
ypi
caloft
heear
l
i
estengr
avi
ngsoft
hemi
d15t
hcent
ur
y
.
Thi
s pr
i
nti
s one ofmany f
acsi
mi
l
es i
nt
he exhi
bi
t
i
on,whi
ch can be
det
er
mi
nedbyt
het
ypeofpaperonwhi
chi
ti
spr
i
nt
ed,aheavyandsmoot
h
mat
er
i
al
madeofwoodf
i
ber
sr
at
hert
hanr
ags.Paperwasmadef
r
om r
ags
unt
i
lt
heear
l
y1700s,whengr
owi
ngdemandr
equi
r
edi
nexpensi
veand
r
eadi
l
yavai
l
abl
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aw mat
er
i
al
s.Thust
hi
sver
si
onmusthavebeenpr
i
nt
ed
i
nt
hel
at
e18t
hor19t
hcent
ur
y
.
TCF
71
Mar
cant
oni
oRai
mondi(
I
t
al
i
an,ca.14801534)
TheThr
eeGr
aces,ca.ear
l
y1500
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
ng,19t
hc.
Mar
cant
oni
oRai
mondi
,gol
dsmi
t
handpai
nt
er
,wast
hemostadmi
r
edpr
i
nt
erof
hi
sdayandt
hi
si
sanexampl
eofhi
sf
ul
l
ydevel
opedst
yl
e.Her
el
i
edl
esson
cont
ourmodel
i
ngt
hanf
i
necr
osshat
chi
ngt
omodelt
hef
i
gur
es.Thewomen’
s
bodi
es ar
er
ounded,t
hr
eedi
mensi
onal
,and scul
pt
ur
alwi
t
houtappear
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ng
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acedi
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hdept
h:t
hecent
r
alf
i
gur
e’
sf
oot
j
ustbr
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hest
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l
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egant
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nat
i
onofmovementanddet
ai
l
.Wef
eel
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hegent
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eswayoft
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acesas
t
hey ar
ej
oi
ned i
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empl
at
i
ng and shar
i
ng t
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r
ui
t
st
hey hol
d,whi
l
e
Rai
mondi
’
s def
tuse off
i
ne l
i
ne pr
oduces t
hei
ri
nt
r
i
cat
e hai
r
st
yl
es and t
he
swayi
ngpal
ml
eavesabove.
Thi
scl
assi
cal
i
mageandi
t
smeani
ngar
et
ypi
cal
oft
heRenai
ssance.TheThr
ee
Gr
aces,daught
er
sofZeusandt
henymphEur
ynome,r
epr
esent
edJoy
,Char
m
andBeaut
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,i
deal
st
hatwer
ecent
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alt
oNeoPl
at
oni
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scussi
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e
t
oday—l
ovebei
ngat
i
mel
essl
ypopul
arsubj
ect
.Theyar
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t
enassoci
at
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t
h
t
hegodandgoddessofl
ove,VenusandCupi
d(
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odi
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eandEr
os)
.
Rai
mondi
pr
oducedsome1,
000pr
i
nt
s,t
hemaj
or
i
t
yoft
hem f
r
om desi
gnsbyt
he
pai
nt
erRaphael
. Thei
rhi
ghl
ysuccessf
ulpar
t
ner
shi
p,an ear
l
yexampl
e of
col
l
abor
at
i
on bet
ween a desi
gni
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t
i
stand a r
epr
oduct
i
on pr
i
nt
er
,i
s an
exampl
eofamoder
nf
or
m ofpr
oduct
i
onwecant
r
acebackt
ot
heRenai
ssance.
Ski
l
landsubj
ectmat
t
erputRai
mondi
’
swor
ki
nhi
ghdemandacr
ossI
t
al
yand
t
hr
oughoutnor
t
her
nEur
ope.Ar
t
i
st
swoul
dcopyt
hesepr
i
nt
st
ol
ear
nhow t
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model
dr
aper
y
,gest
ur
es,andt
hef
i
gur
e.Hi
sst
yl
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earandhi
smodel
i
ngof
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i
gur
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usi
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i
t
i
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ot
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hear
t
i
st
over
power
i
ngt
hest
udent
’
sowndevel
opi
ngst
yl
e.
TCF
72
Hei
nr
i
chAl
degr
ever(
Ger
man,15021561)
TheAbduct
i
on,1530
Facsi
mi
l
eengr
avi
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Hei
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degr
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nt
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,and pr
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nt
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,pr
oduced some 300
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i
nt
s,mosti
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ysmal
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,whi
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s.Hi
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ocusedont
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dandNew
Test
ament
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egor
i
calf
i
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r
om ant
i
qui
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.Thi
sengr
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san
exampl
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scl
assi
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yi
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l
uencedi
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.
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om onhi
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r
ami
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assi
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nf
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Al
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SCHOLARS, EXPLORERS, PRIESTS
HOW THE RENAISSANCE GAVE US THE MODERN WORLD 7. Jusepe de Ribera, Lo Spagnoletto (Spanish, 1591- 1652)
St. Jerome Reading, ca. 1624
Etching with engraving and drypoint, 7 ¼” x 9 ¾”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P53
INTRODUCTION
8. Rembrandt Harmenz van Rijn (Dutch, 1606-1669)
Jews in the Synagogue, 1648
Etching with engraving and drypoint, 3 ¼” x 5 ¼”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P91
1. After Pierre Garnier (French, 1725-1800, Master 1742)
Bacchus
Bronze, 18 ¼” x 7 ¼”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.85
9. Frans Francken II (Flemish, 1581-1642)
Worship of the Golden Calf, ca. 1630-1635
Oil on canvas, transferred to wood in 1812, 20” x 30”
Mr. and Mrs. Julius J. Cardile, 74.2.1
2. Unknown artist, Flemish
Virgin Annunciate, Late Medieval, ca. 1400s
Stone with traces of paint, 39” x 24” x 11 ½”
Gift of Albert Fried, 63.14
10. Follower of Alessandro Algardi (Italian, 1598-1654)
Christ at the Column, ca. 1630
Bronze figure in polychrome wood tabernacle, 23” x 15 ½”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.83
Catalogue Checklist
3. Workshop of Gian Lorenzo Bernini (Italian, 1598-1680)
Bust of a Young Woman with a Mantle, ca. 1598-1680
Marble, 16” x 8 ⅝” x 5”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Andrew A. Lynn, 58.16
RELIGION AND THE ARTS: FROM UNITY AND FAITH TO
PLURALISM AND REASON
4. Unknown artist, Spanish
Papal Saint, Late Medieval, ca. 1500s
Wood and paint, 43 ½” x 10 ½”
Gift of the Class of 1958, 59.134
5. Unknown artist, Brabant, Dutch
Reliquary bust of young woman, ca. 1400s
Wood and paint, 14 x 11 ½”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 64.22
6. Unknown artist, Italian
Reliquary in the form of an arm with a blessing hand, Late Gothic,
ca. 1400s
Wood and copper, 22” x 11”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 62.44
RELIGION AND THE ARTS:
THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
11. Peter Flötner (German, ca. 1475/85-1546)
Printed by Hans Guldenmund (German, 1490-1560)
The Poor Common Ass, 1525 or 1526
Woodcut, 7” x 15 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P195
12. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528)
Erasmus of Rotterdam, 1526
Engraving, 10 ½” x 8 ¼”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Joseph Ternbach, 63.37
13. Workshop of Andrea della Robbia (Italian, 1435-1525)
Lunette of Madonna between Saints Francis and John,
ca. 1460-1520
Glazed terra cotta, 32” x 16 ¼”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Benjamin H. Namm, 59.167
14. Unknown artist, Limoges, French, ca. 1500s
Six panels from a devotional shrine
Grisaille enamel, 13 ½” x 15 ¾”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 64.20
15. Attributed to Nicholas Froment, (French, ca. 1435-1484)
Lamentation over the Dead Christ, ca. 1450
Oil on wood panel, 33 ½ x 27 ¾”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 57.2
23. Adriaen Jansz van Ostade (Dutch, 1610-1685)
Peasant Scene, ca. 1642
Oil on panel, 6 ¾” x 8 ½”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 64.15
16. Hartmann Schedel (German, 1440-1514)
St. Philip Being Stoned on the Cross, The Nuremberg Chronicle,
folio CV, 1493
Woodcut, 5 ¼’’ x 4 ¼’’
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P80
24. Wenceslaus Hollar (Bohemian, 1607-1677)
Muffs, 1644-1652
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Facsimile etching, 19 c., 2 ½” x 3 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P166
17. Unknown artist, Italian
Madonna and Christ Child, ca. 1550-1600
Boxwood, 10 ⅞” x 3 ¼’’x 3”
Bequest of Joseph Ternbach, 88.1.20
18. Guido Reni (Italian, 1575-1642)
St. Christopher Carrying the Christ Child, early 1600s
Etching, 10 ¼’’ x 8”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P63
EMPIRICISM:
AWAKENING INTEREST IN EARTHLY LIFE
19. Daniel Nikolaus Chodowiecki (German, 1726-1801)
Cabinet d’un Peintre (The Artist and his Family), 1771
Facsimile engraving, 6” x 8”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P168
20. Philips Wouwerman (Dutch, 1619-1668)
A Dutch Horseman’s Game, ca. 1650-1668
Oil on canvas, 48 ½” x 3 ¾”
Gift of Dr. Joseph Schoneman, 67.134
21. William Hogarth (British, 1697-1764)
William Hogarth Painting the Comic Muse, 1764
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Engraving, 6 state, 13 ½” x 13 ¾”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P202
22. Adriaen Jansz van Ostade (Dutch, 1610-1685)
Cottage Interior with Peasant Feast, ca. 1650s
Etching, 10 ½” x 12 ¾”
Gift of Mr. Ernest Erickson, 58.51
25. Wenceslaus Hollar (Bohemian, 1607-1677)
Hawks and Owls, 1663
Possibly from Animalium ferarum florium veriumque icons,
Francis Barlow after Hollar, 1671 or 1674
Facsimile etching, 19th c., 5” x 7 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P164
26. Wenceslaus Hollar (Bohemian, 1607-1677)
A Bolognese Dog, 1649
Facsimile etching, 19th c., 3” x 5”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P165
27. Franz Dotte (German, active ca. 1595-1600)
Rosewater Basin with The Four Seasons
Gilded silver, 21 ¾” diameter
Gift of Mr. Paul Doll, 62.7
28. Albrecht Altdorfer (German, ca. 1482/85-1538)
Fir Tree in a Mountainous Landscape, ca. 1520-23
Colored facsimile etching, 4 ¼” x 6 ¼”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P143
THE RISE OF THE INDIVIDUAL :
PORTRAITURE AND NEW OPPORTUNITIES FOR WOMEN
29. In the style of Antonio Moro (Anthonis Mor van Dashorst, Dutch,
1516/20-1576/78)
Charles V of Spain, ca. 1559-1561
Oil on wood, 36” x 28”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 58.23
30. Workshop of Giovanni da Bologna (Italian, 1529-1608)
or Valerio Cioli Settignano (1529-1599)
Dwarf Astride a Tortoise, after 1560-1608
Bronze, 4 ¾” x 3 ½”
Gift of Max and Georgina Falk, 92.9.10
31. Attributed to Willem de Poorter (Dutch, 1608-1648)
Repentant Magdalene
Oil on canvas, 49 ¼” x 39 ¼”
Gift of Dr. Joseph Schoneman, 60.40
32. Elisabetta Sirani (Italian, 1638-1665)
Rest on the Flight into Egypt
Etching, 6 ⅝” x 7 ⅛”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P61
33. Girolamo Mocetto (Italian, ca. 1470-1531)
Judith, after Andrea Mantegna, 1500-05
Engraving, 11 ¾” x 7 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P133
34. Hans Baldung-Grien (Germany, 1484/85-1545)
The Witches’ Sabbath, 1510
Chiaroscuro woodcut, 14 ½” x 10”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P145
THE CLASSICAL REVIVAL:
EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE ACROSS TIME
35. Workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian, ca. 1496-1543)
Formerly attributed to Andrea Riccio (Italian, 1470-1532)
Inkwell with seated Cupid supported by three winged sphinxes
Bronze, 6 ½” x 6” x 6”
Gift of Judge Irwin Untermyer, 58.1
36. Artist unknown, Italian
Bust of a Man, ca. 1600
Bronze, 8” x 4 ½” x 3 ⅓”
Gift of Max and Georgina Falk, 88.3.2
37. Workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian, ca. 1496-1543)
Seated Satyress with Child
Bronze, 7 ⅞” x 5 ¼” x 5 ⅛”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 60.2
38. Andrea Riccio (Italian,1470-1532)
Formerly attributed to the workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian,
ca. 1496-1543)
Atlas Supporting an Oil Lamp
Bronze, 6 ⅜” x 4 ½” x 4”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 61.5
39. Workshop of Severo da Ravenna (Italian, ca. 1496-1543)
Seated Satyress
Bronze, 7 ¼” x 5 ⅜” x 3”
Gift of Dr. Joseph Schoneman, 64.30
40. Unknown artist, Italian
Portrait Bust of a Man in the Guise of a Roman Emperor, ca. 1500s
Bronze, 11 ½” x 7” x 3 ½”
Gift of Irwin Untermeyer, 59.2
41. Unknown artist, Italian
Roman gladiator, ca. 1500s
Bronze, 17 ½” x 12 ¾” x 10 ½”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.84
42. Unknown artist, Italian
Hercules, based on the Farnese Hercules, ca. 1600s
Bronze, 11 ⅜” x 5 ⅛” x 4”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Hans Arnhold, 60.86
43. Unknown artist, Italian, ca. 1500s
Centaur
Bronze, 9 ¾” x 5 ½” x 10”
Gift of Jack Linsky, 69.17
44. Jacopo de’Barbari (Italian, ca. 1460/70-before 1516)
Apollo and Diana, ca.1500-1505
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Facsimile engraving, 19 c., 6 ¼” x 4’’
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P197
45. School of Nicolas Poussin (French, 1594-1665),
probably by Gaspard Dughet (French, 1615-1675) and Carlo
Maratti (Italian, 1625-1713)
Bacchanal, ca. 1664-1670
Oil on canvas, 36 ½” x 50”
Gift of Mr. Arthur L. Erlanger, 66.49
46. Agostino Musi (Agostino Veneziano, Italian, 1490-1540)
Apollo and Daphne, ca.1518
Engraving, 9 ¼” x 6 ¾”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P57
47. Attributed to Antonio Maria Zanetti (Italian, 1680-1757)
Aeneas Carrying Anchises from the Burning of Troy
th
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Watercolor on paper reproduction, 19 -20 c., 10 ⅞” x 6”
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Harris B. Steinberg, 63.54
48. Salvator Rosa (Italian, 1615-1673)
Tritons in Combat, ca. 1660
Facsimile etching, 4 ¼” x 6 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P179
49. Master E. S. (German, active ca. 1440-1467)
The Emperor Augustus and the Tiburtine Sibyl, ca. 1450
Facsimile engraving, 8 ½” x 5 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P189
EXPLORING THE GLOBE: EXPANDING KNOWLEDGE
ACROSS SPACE
50. Unknown artist, Cuzco School Altiplano, Peru or Bolivia
Madonna and Child, ca. 1700s
Oil on canvas, 23” x 17”
(Photographic facsimile of the original
under conservation)
Gift of Walter Marks, 2003.4.70
51. Unknown artist, Cuzco School, Altiplano, Peru or Bolivia
Madonna with Christ Child Reading a Book, ca. 1700s
Oil on canvas, 27” x 22”
Gift of Walter Marks, 2003.4.69
52. Workshop of Peter Paul Rubens (Flemish, 1577-1640),
possibly by Workshop of Frans Snyders (Flemish,
1579-1657)
Madonna and Child, c. 1615-1624
Oil on linen, 40 ½” x 29”
Gift of a friend of the Collection, 57.1
53. Hand-woven textile fragment of repeating figures
Peru, South Coast, ca. 1200-1400
Wool and natural dyes, 8” x 4 ½”
Gift of an anonymous donor, 98.11.2
54. Animal effigy
Mexico, Paquime (Casas Grandes), 1200-1450
Terra cotta, 5 ¼” x 5 ¾” diameter
Gift of Gladys Mills, 98.1.2
55. Warrior Ornament
Colombia, Eastern Highlands, Late Muisca Period,
1000-1600
Tumbaga (alloy of gold and copper), 3” x 1 ¾”
Gift of Anonymous Donor , 99.2.14
56. Unknown artist, Persian
King Rostam recognizes his son Sohrab, Miniature from a
manuscript of the epic Shahnamah of Firdawsi
(“Book of Kings”) , ca. 1370-1507
Tempera on paper, 14 ¼” x 10”
Gift of Ernest Erickson , 58.37
57. Unknown artist, Japanese
Caricature of Five Men, Tokugawa period, 1700s
Colored ink on rice paper, 10 ⅞” x 11”
Gift of the Friends of Queens College Library, 66.5
58. Seated Lion
India, Travancore, Mughal period, ca. 1500-1700
Ivory, 3 ¾” h
Gift of Mr. and Mrs. Jack Linsky, 61.3
59. Six-sided ceremonial container
China, Qing dynasty, ca. 1650-1750
Bronze, 12” h
Bequest of Joseph Ternbach, 88.1.21
60. Bracelet
Mali, West Africa, ca. 1000-1400
Bronze, 2 ¾” diameter
Gift of Dr. Werner Muensterberger and Michael Ward, 2006.2.14
Bracelet
Mali, West Africa, ca. 1000-1400
Copper alloy, 2 ¾” diameter
Gift of Dr. Werner Muensterberger and Michael Ward, 2006.2.17
SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: PRINTMAKING AND PAPER
61. Martin Schongauer (German, 1445-1491)
Death of the Virgin, ca. 1470-1475
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Facsimile engraving, 17 -18 c., 10” x 6 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P158
62. Martin Schongauer (German, 1445-1491)
The Flight into Egypt , ca. 1470-75
Facsimile engraving, 17th-18th c., 10 ½” x 6 ½”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P157
63. Martin Schongauer (German, 1445-1491)
Saint Anthony Tormented by Demons, ca. 1470-75
Facsimile engraving, 17th-18th c., 12 ½” x 9”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P156
ALBRECHT DÜRER:
FATHER OF THE NORTHERN RENAISSANCE
64. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528)
Philipp Melanchthon, 1526
Facsimile engraving, 6 ¼” x 5”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P06
65. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528)
Virgin and Child with a Monkey, ca. 1498
Facsimile engraving, 7 ¼” x 4 ¼”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P149
66. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1528)
Madonna by the Wall, 1514
Facsimile engraving, 5 ¼” x 4”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P151
67. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1520)
“The Flagellation” (B33) from the Small Passion, 1511
Woodcut, 5 x 4”
Gift of Ruth L. Cohen, Ph.D., Queens College, B.A., 1949
68. Albrecht Dürer (German, 1471-1520)
Christ Nailed to the Cross (B39), 1511
Wood engraving, 5 x 4”
Gift of Ruth L. Cohen, Ph.D., Queens College, B.A., 1949
PRINTMAKING:
FACSIMILES, COPIES, AND FORGERIES
69. Publius Terentius Afer, “Terence” (Roman, ca.
185-159 B.C.E.)
Comoediae, published in Strassburg by Johann (Reinhard)
Grüninger, 1496
Printed page with woodcut image of Clitipho, 9 ½” x 6”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P74
70. Unknown artist (Italian, Florentine)
The Chastisement of Eros, ca. 1450-1500
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Facsimile engraving, late 18 or 19 c., 7 ½" x 7 ½"
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P194
71. Marcantonio Raimondi (Italian, ca. 1480-1534)
The Three Graces, ca. early 1500
Facsimile engraving, 19th c., 8” x 14 ¼”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P135
72. Heinrich Aldegrever (German, 1502-1561)
The Abduction, 1530
Facsimile engraving, 6” x 4”
Gift of Audrey McMahon, P183
73. Giovanni Battista Piranesi (Italian, 1720-1778)
“Clementi XIII P.M.” Frontispiece for Antichita d’Albano e di Castel
Gandolfo (Rome, 1764)
Etching, 17 ⅞” x 25 ⅝”
Anonymous gift in the Memory of George Parks, 81.69
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