Society and Natural Resources, 13:747–762, 2000
Copyright Ó 2000 Taylor & Francis
0894-1920/2000 $12.00 + .00
Fern Gathering on the San Bernardino National
Forest: Cultural versus Commercial Values
Among Korean and Japanese Participants
JANET A. ANDERSON
DALE J. BLAHNA
Department of Forest Resources
Utah State University
Logan, Utah, USA
DEBORAH J. CHAVEZ
USDA Forest Service
PaciŽ c Southwest Research Station
Riverside, California, USA
Most attention to special forest products (SFPs), both in the literature and in management practice, has focused on economic aspects of gathering activities. The majority
of bracken fern gatherers on the Arrowhead Ranger District are of Japanese and
Korean backgrounds, and they pick ferns not for commercial purposes, but as a
recreational, social, and outdoor activity. These Ž ndings indicate that economically
and commercially based assumptions are sometimes inappropriate for managing
SFP gathering activities.
Keywords bracken ferns, cultural diversity, East Asians, ethnicity, Japanese,
Koreans, multicultural resource use, resource values, special forest products
Most attention to special forest products (SFPs), both in the literature and in management practice, has focused on economic aspects of gathering activities. While a limited
number of studies acknowledge both material and cultural values of SFP harvests,
research reports that describe SFP gathering with no commercial goal are extremely rare.
This study investigates the gathering of bracken fern Ž ddleheads on the San Bernardino
National Forest by individuals of Japanese and Korean backgrounds, not for commercial purposes, but as a recreational, social, and outdoor activity. These Ž ndings indicate
Received 29 June 1998; accepted 15 September 1999.
A version of this article was presented at the International Symposium on Society and Resource
Management, Columbia, Missouri, June 1998.
Funding for this project was provided by the PaciŽ c Southwest Research Station (USDA Forest
Service) and the Utah Agricultural Experiment Station (approved as AES paper no. 7097). The authors
thank Bob Wood and the front ofŽ ce staff of the Arrowhead Ranger District, as well as Julie Kessler and
Kris Komar of the San Bernardino National Forest Association, for their cooperation and assistance in this
study. Thanks also to Eunja Jones, Miiko Toelken, and Tomoyo Tamayama for translation and cultural
information, and to Matthew Blahna for help with the project.
Address correspondence to Jan Anderson, Department of Forest Resources, Utah State University,
Logan, UT 84322-5215, USA. E-mail: janand@cc.usu.edu
747
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J. A. Anderson et al.
that economically and commercially based assumptions are sometimes inappropriate
for managing SFP harvesting activities.
Each spring hundreds of Asians and Asian-Americans visit the San Bernardino
National Forest’s Arrowhead Ranger District (ARD) to pick the tender young shoots,
or Ž ddleheads, of bracken ferns (Pteridium aquilinum ) for use in preparing holiday and
everyday meals. Bracken fern picking is accommodated under a special forest products
permit program initiated in 1981 after Ranger District staff noticed an increase in the
number of fern gatherers and also received complaints that pickers were straying onto
private land within the district (Anderson et al. 1997).
In 1996 the Forest Service initiated a project to identify demographics and motivations of ARD fern gatherers. The ARD staff wanted to protect the quality and diversity
of the ferns and related resources while maximizing compliance with fern program
regulations. They were also concerned that commercial gathering was resulting in
some gatherers picking more than their licensed amount of ferns or picking outside
designated gathering areas and times.
The purposes of the present study were to conduct a more extensive test of the
results of a preceding pilot study (Anderson et al. 1997), to compare them to the Ž ndings
of two PaciŽ c Northwest studies regarding the collection of special forest products
(Hansis 1996; Richards and Creasy 1996), to expand our understanding of non-Anglo
orientations to gathering special forest products, and to make recommendations for
managing SFP programs on the ARD and elsewhere. The study investigated group
characteristics and picking experience, occupation and income characteristics of picking
groups, motivations and ages of pickers, interest in stewardship behavior while picking,
and perceptions of discrimination or other structural inequities related to program rules
and in-Ž eld behavior. We also compared the responses of Korean and Japanese pickers
to see if major cultural differences exist.
Project results indicated that little commercial harvest is occurring and that visitors
of both Japanese and Korean backgrounds picked and used the ferns (Anderson et al.
1997; Anderson et al. 1998). While some motivation and behavior characteristics varied
between the two groups, it appeared that cultural differences between the Asian pickers
and Caucasian managers were the cause of greater management problems. The purpose
of this article is to compare the characteristics and motives of Korean and Japanese
fern pickers and to compare their opinions with the perceptions of ARD staff and the
assumptions of the current permit program.
Literature Review
No studies of people who pick bracken ferns were found in the literature. The
most relevant literature is related to gathering special forest products in general and to
recreational characteristics of multicultural visitors and differences in uses of SFPs.
Gathering Special Forest Products
Many categories of nonwood forest products have been documented and analyzed.
These include Ž ber products (for matting, fodder, ropes, thatching, etc.); food products from both plants (fruits, nuts, sap, etc.) and animals (honey, eggs, meat, etc.);
medicinal and cosmetic products; extractive products such as gums, resins, oils, and
dyes; and animal products other than food, including live animals, feathers, hides, etc.
(Richardson 1995). Aside from the direct use of forest commodities, other types of
Fern Gathering: Cultural vs. Commercial Values
749
special forest product values recognized in the literature include cultural symbolism
(Dick 1996; Emery 1998; Love and Jones in press; Tippeconnic 1995), recreation,
biological diversity, carbon storage (FAO 1996), and commercial values.
The overwhelming majority of literature on the management of special forest
products focuses on the economic value and the commercial harvest of these products
and on subsistence uses. Some common themes related to economic and subsistence
concerns include harvest and resource value (Adger et al. 1995; Johnson 1992; Wibe
1995; Science News 1989), subsistence versus commercial use (Falconer 1990; Wickramashinghe et al. 1996), harvest sustainability (Ros-Tonen et al. 1995), marketing of
SFPs (Litu 1995), the role of SFPs in rural development (Cesaro et al. 1995), support
of SFP harvest for household income and use (Thomas and Schumann 1993; USDA
Forest Service n.d.), migrant SFP gatherers’ attention to proŽ t rather than resource
sustainability (Hosford et al. 1997, 44), outsiders’ intrusion on the commercial income
of local/indigenous peoples through SFP harvest (Sunday Times of India 1995; Richards
and Creasy 1996), and so forth. While some authors have emphasized the noncommercial, cultural, and symbolic values of nonwood forest products (Love and Jones in
press; Tippeconnic 1995), even the acknowledgment of noncommercial values often is
couched in relationship to the economic value of the resources and collectors’ livelihoods (Taylor 1997; Richards and Creasy 1996; Falconer 1990).
Multicultural Recreational Concerns
In the United States, most research on ethnic participation in outdoor recreation has
focused on the underrepresentation of ethnic minorities among recreation populations.
Marginality (caused by ethnic discrimination, low socioeconomic status, or lack of
access to recreation opportunities), ethnicity (variation in cultural expectations and
preferences), and discrimination have been used to explain low levels of minority
participation (Washburne 1978; Hutchison 1988; West 1989; Blahna and Black 1993;
Chavez 1993). Studies of intraethnic variation in recreation participation have examined
factors such as level of acculturation, place of birth, and place of residence and emphasize that participation is more complex than basic analysis by primary racial or ethnic
afŽ liation suggests (Carr and Williams 1993; Chavez 1992; Simcox and PŽ ster 1990;
Woodard 1988). Recent attention at conferences such as the 1996 Northeastern Region
Recreation Research Symposium (Dwyer and Gobster 1996; Pawelko et al. 1996a;
Pawelko et al. 1996b) and in research literature, including a recent issue of Journal
of Leisure Research (1998, vol. 30, no. 1) devoted to studies of minority and ethnic
recreation participation, illustrates the current high level of attention to multicultural
recreation issues.
Comparatively little research, however, has been conducted on the recreation
motivations, interests, and activities of Asians, and recreational collecting of special
forest products by ethnic minorities is a very recent topic of research. Studies that do
investigate Asian recreational activity usually fall into one of two categories: comparisons of Asians as a group with other racial or ethnic groups such as Hispanics,
African-Americans, or Anglo-Americans (Blahna 1992a; Dwyer 1994; Gobster and
Delgado 1993), or studies that look at a single Asian group such as Chinese-Americans
(Hutchison 1993; Zhang and Gobster 1998). Few studies look at differences among
subgroups of Asian-Americans, and most of these studies investigated activity or area
use patterns and preferences (cf. Blahna 1992b; Gobster and Delgado 1993).
750
J. A. Anderson et al.
Multicultural Uses of Special Forest Products
The fern-gathering situation on the Arrowhead Ranger District provides an opportunity to study activities of different cultural groups related to the harvest of a special
forest product and to compare two cultural groups using the same resource. Most sociological or ethnographic research on SFP harvesters in the United States has been done
on Native Americans and their subsistence use of SFPs. While there is little research
on recreational behavior of Asians in general, even less exists for harvesting special
forest products. Most commodity production studies on public lands assume “ethnicity
and race are nonexistent” (Hansis 1996, 611). Studies linking cultural differences and
resource behavior are important to understand diverse cultural groups whose numbers
are growing on public lands, to understand interests and preferences of underrepresented groups, and to understand potential sources of con ict over resource use (Carr
and Williams 1993; Chavez 1993; Chavez et al. 1995; Dwyer 1994; Dwyer and Gobster
1996; Hansis 1996; Richards and Creasy 1996).
Two studies of multicultural harvesters, including several Southeast Asian groups,
were conducted recently in the PaciŽ c Northwest. Hansis (1996) conducted qualitative
interviews with Cambodian, Laotian, and Hispanic harvesters in the Yakima Valley
in Washington who collect beargrass, huckleberries, matsutake mushrooms, medicinal herbs, and other products. He found harvest pressure increasing on public lands
and growing numbers of Hmong, Mien, Vietnamese, and Thai pickers. The primary
purpose of the harvest is to sell products for commercial use. Matsutake mushrooms,
for example, in addition to personal use and sale, are sold for export to restaurants in
Europe and Japan. Some Hispanic pickers are migrant farm workers who supplement
their incomes between fruit harvests by working for Southeast Asian SFP harvesters.
As a result of the economic emphasis, organized information networks exist to help
locate mushrooms, and con icts result from competition for picking areas, clan rivalry,
resource impacts, and differences with Native American pickers (Hansis 1996; Richards
and Creasy 1996; Richards 1994 cited in Hansis 1996).
A study by Richards and Creasy (1996) focused on gathering matsutake mushrooms in the Klamath region of Oregon and California. The authors reported differences
in both the cultural backgrounds and gathering behavior of Southeast Asians and Native
Karuk tribal members. Southeast Asian pickers are primarily Cambodian, Laotian, Vietnamese, and Mien, but they were treated as one group in the results. The Asian pickers
are relatively new to the practice in the Klamath region (mean of 1.66 years), but they
spent an average of 3.75 weeks picking per year, and most intend to continue picking
“as long as there are mushrooms to pick” (Richards and Creasy 1996, 366). The
primary motive is to sell mushrooms to help offset unemployment and to supplement
the pickers’ relatively low incomes in a way that re ects traditional forest resource gathering practices from their native countries. The traditional nature of the activity and
the social gatherings are also important motives, but the pickers are very commodity
oriented and not necessarily concerned with resource sustainability or protection.
For Native Karuks, matsutake (or tanoak) mushroom picking is a traditional activity
they have conducted in the same areas for generations (Richards and Creasy 1996). For
Karuk pickers, sustainability is a key concern. Most Karuks pick in family areas that
are respected by other tribal members, and they use several practices they feel will help
sustain the mushroom beds, such as leaving small “button” mushrooms, not disturbing
mycelia, and replacing disturbed soil and forest duff after picking. Most Karuk pickers
dislike the idea of picking mushrooms for commercial use and feel there are con icts
with newer pickers competing for traditional family picking areas.
Fern Gathering: Cultural vs. Commercial Values
751
Both Karuk and Southeast Asian pickers felt there were con icts with other visitors
and discrimination from other recreationists (Hansis 1996; Richards and Creasy 1996).
All subgroups felt SFP information is low, and Hansis (1996) suggested improved
communications were needed. Despite being newer users, Southeast Asian pickers
seem to be more likely to obtain permits than Native Karuk pickers (Richards and
Creasy 1996). Hansis (1996) observed that Asian pickers may feel the need to be more
careful about regulations because they are newer users and may be targeted by law
enforcement due to discrimination and physical differences.
Literature Summary
The literature indicates that the collection of nontimber or special forest products on
public land is increasing and that, in the United States, Southeast and East Asian
subgroups are active participants. Most studies document economic and subsistence
aspects of these activities. There is little literature on interethnic differences in collecting
speciŽ c SFPs. The PaciŽ c Northwest studies address these weaknesses, and they
suggest several other social factors that are important for managing SFP collection
programs on public lands.
First, there were major cultural differences in the ethnic gatherers of beargrass,
matsutake mushrooms, and other products in the PaciŽ c Northwest. This may lead
to misunderstandings over management and con ict between activity groups. Second,
there appears to be a traditional cultural basis for the gatherers, but this cultural basis
varies among groups and results in varying implications for the acceptance of management actions and for on-site behavior and impacts. While subsistence is one goal for
Southeast Asian pickers, external economic values dominate their orientation, but for
Native Karuks the primary goal is carrying on family-based cultural traditions. Finally,
pickers in the PaciŽ c Northwest studies experienced discrimination and felt there is a
lack of information concerning the collection of SFPs.
Methods
Study Background
The Arrowhead Ranger District (ARD) is located in the San Bernardino Mountains,
a one-hour drive east of Los Angeles. In the spring of 1981, ARD staff Ž rst noticed
heavy bracken fern picking by Asian visitors. At the same time, they became aware of
con icts between fern pickers and owners of nearby private lands. In response to these
con icts, the Ranger District instituted a per-pound fee for gathering bracken ferns and
began selling permits for the activity. In 1993, management of the fern program was
taken over by the San Bernardino National Forest Association (SBNFA), a private,
nonproŽ t support group that provides certain visitor services that forest staff cannot
provide.
When the study was conducted, the purchase of a $20 permit allowed an individual
or group to gather up to 40 pounds of bracken ferns, and multiple permits could be
purchased. Five areas on the Arrowhead Ranger District were designated as legal
picking areas and marked with signs (in English and Korean) and plastic  agging.
The bracken fern Ž ddlehead season lasts about 6 weeks each spring, roughly from
the last week in April through the Ž rst week in June. Fern program information is
provided at the ARD ofŽ ce and through ads in Korean newspapers in the Los Angeles
area. In 1996, 427 permits were sold, representing permission to pick nearly 10 tons
752
J. A. Anderson et al.
(19,900 pounds) of bracken ferns. In 1997, 381 permits were issued for gathering
16,520 pounds.
Permits are sold at the Arrowhead District ranger station. With each permit,
purchasers are issued two ofŽ cial fern collection bags as well as a handout including
basic program rules and a map showing designated picking areas. Since ARD staff
believed most of their visitors were Korean, the handout was made available in both
English and Korean.
This study was undertaken at the suggestion of ARD staff, who were concerned
that fern pickers may trespass on private land or pick more ferns than they paid
for. Staffers were also concerned about the possible impact of picking activities on a
California state-listed threatened snake, the southern rubber boa, and about potential
con icts between visitor groups. Some staff members also felt there was a relatively
low level of awareness of and cooperation with program rules. (See Anderson et al.
1997 and Anderson et al. 1998 for details.)
Pilot Study on the ARD
Accounts of potential proŽ ts and ecological overuse from SFP harvesting have been
carried in news stories and have been concerns of Forest Service and SBNFA staff
members (Anderson et al. 1997). Staff members felt the sale or commercial use of
ferns was an important motive for pickers, and the district instituted a relatively high
fee for picking the ferns based on the prices charged for processed ferns in the city.
And as noted earlier, the staff also felt there was a relatively low level of awareness of
and cooperation with program rules, and that con ict between pickers and local land
owners and other recreationists existed and was increasing.
The results of a pilot study conducted in 1996 found little evidence for these
concerns (see Anderson et al. 1997). The study was based on on-site observations at
the Ž ve designated fern picking areas in the forest (observing Asian pickers on two
weekdays and two Saturdays during the fern gathering season), in-depth interviews with
six agency and eight cultural informants (e.g., Korean and Japanese university professors and fern pickers), a brief postcard-length questionnaire sent to permit holders, and
a review of literature related to bracken fern sustainability and regeneration (e.g., Crane
1990; May 1978). Some of the key Ž ndings of the 1996 pilot were that (1) there were
Japanese fern pickers in addition to Korean pickers on the ARD; (2) fern gathering
is primarily a recreational and cultural, rather than commercial (< 3% of respondents),
activity; (3) bracken fern gathering is mainly an activity of the middle and older generations; and (4) the bracken fern resource is not endangered by even extensive picking
of the Ž ddleheads.
Present Study
This follow-up study provides an opportunity to look at speciŽ c East Asian subgroups
with different demographic and cultural backgrounds when compared with the PaciŽ c
Northwest studies. In 1996, 83% of the fern gatherers were Korean, and 13% were
Japanese. Both the pilot survey and on-site observations revealed that, compared to
matsutake pickers, fern pickers come in smaller, somewhat more family-oriented groups
made up of middle income members who consider it an annual recreational –cultural
outing. This would suggest a very different activity and different management implications compared to the studies of Hansis (1996) and Richards and Creasy (1996) in
the PaciŽ c Northwest.
Fern Gathering: Cultural vs. Commercial Values
753
An eight-page mail survey was sent to each person who purchased a fern gathering
permit during the 1997 picking season.1 Using a modiŽ ed Dillman method (Dillman
1978), the initial survey was followed up over a 4-month period with a postcard
reminder; a second copy of the questionnaire, plus cover letter; another reminder postcard; and Ž nally, a third copy of the questionnaire accompanied by a cover letter in
three languages: English, Korean, and Japanese. 2
The original mailing was sent to each of the 351 individuals who Ž lled out a
fern picking permit in the ARD ofŽ ce. Typically this person purchased one permit
to cover his or her group. Over the course of the study, 82 were returned by the
Post OfŽ ce as undeliverable. Of the 269 surveys delivered, 146 were completed and
returned, for a response rate of 54.3%. Since the survey was sent to all permit holders,
random sampling methods were not employed, and therefore, inferential statistics are
not presented in the data tables.
As a check on potential response bias, permit data were analyzed, and those who
responded were compared to the entire subject population (all permit holders) in terms
of county of residence, number of pounds for which permits were purchased, and
Japanese versus Korean ethnicity. Just over 84% of respondents were residents of
Los Angeles County or adjoining Orange County, compared with 87.5% of all permit
holders. The percentage of respondents who purchased permits to pick 40 pounds
of ferns was 69.6%, compared with 67.8% of all pickers; 26.6% of respondents and
20.4% of all pickers paid to pick 80 pounds of ferns; 3.8% of respondents and 9.4%
of all pickers paid for 120 pounds. One individual paid to pick 240 pounds but did not
respond to the survey.
The number of all permit purchasers by ethnicity was estimated through a process
of name identiŽ cation by Japanese and Korean research assistants.3 When compared
to all permit holders, the respondents appear to be a good representation of the group
in general. Koreans were the largest ethnic group, including 85.4% of permittees and
81.5% of respondents; Japanese represented 11.2% of permittees and 14.4% of respondents; 3.4% of permittees and 6.3% of respondents were Caucasian. The single Hispanic
permittee did respond to the survey, but the ethnicities of three permit holders were
unidentiŽ able by either family or given name. Judging by these three criteria —county
of residence, number of pounds purchased, and ethnicity —the respondents appear to
represent the subject population fairly well. Responses may be slightly biased toward
those who picked smaller, rather than larger, amounts of ferns.
Results
Demographics
As did the 1996 pilot study, the present study found that not all of the Asian fern
pickers were of Korean background. Although the majority were Korean (82.6%),
nearly 15% (14.6%) of the fern gatherers were of Japanese background, 6.3% were
Caucasian, and one person (0.7%) was Hispanic. (Percentages total 104.2% because
some respondents indicated more than one ethnic afŽ liation.) English is the primary
language in the home for only 28.9% of all respondents. Nine percent (8.9%) speak
mainly Japanese, and 62.2% speak mainly Korean. A larger percentage of Japanese
respondents speak mainly English in the home compared to the Korean respondents
(42.1% of Japanese vs. 20.8% of Korean).
Bracken fern gathering is primarily a family activity, with 81.9% of all respondents
(76.1% of Japanese and 82.9% of Korean respondents) participating in family groups
754
J. A. Anderson et al.
TABLE 1 Education and Income Levels and Fern Stewardship
Ethnicity
Parameter
Subgroup
Educational
level
attained
(all, n = 145;
Japanese, n = 20;
Korean, n = 115)
High school
graduation
or less
Any tech school
or undergraduate
college work
or degree
Any postgraduate
work or degree
Percent
(number)
of all
respondentsa
Percent
(number)
of Japanese
respondents
Percent
(number)
of Korean
respondents
23.4 (34)
30.0 (6)
22.6 (26)
64.1 (93)
70.0 (14)
64.3 (74)
12.4 (18)
0.0 (0)
13.0 (15)
Household
income
(all, n = 130;
Japanese, n = 16;
Korean, n = 104)
Up to $25,000
$25,001 to $45,000
$45,001 to $65,000
$65,001 to $85,000
$85,000 or more
20.8
27.7
29.2
13.1
9.2
Take
stewardship
actions b
Yes
37.6 (53)
45.0 (9)
35.1 (39)
No
62.4 (88)
55.0 (11)
64.9 (72)
a
b
(27)
(36)
(38)
(17)
(12)
12.5
25.0
43.8
6.3
12.5
(2)
(4)
(7)
(1)
(2)
22.1
28.8
27.9
12.5
8.7
(23)
(30)
(29)
(13)
(9)
“All” category includes Caucasian, Hispanic, Japanese, and Korean respondents.
Take stewardship actions: all, n = 141; Japanese, n = 20; Korean, n = 111.
or with a combination of family and friends. Just two individuals (1.4%) came with
organized groups, and one (0.7%) came alone.
Unlike the predominantly lower income Southeast Asian SFP gatherers in the
PaciŽ c Northwest (Richards and Creasy 1996), fern pickers on the San Bernardino
National Forest had primarily moderate household incomes (56.9% earning $25,001
to $65,000) as well as higher than average educational levels (76.5% with education
beyond high school) (see Table 1).
Motivations
A 17-item list was used to identify speciŽ c motivations for picking ferns on the ARD
in 1997 (see Table 2). Based on a 4-point scale (1 = not important at all, 2 = slightly
important, 3 = moderately important, 4 = very important), regardless of ethnicity the
primary reasons for picking ferns were social and environmental: to spend time with
family or friends (mean = 3(12), spend time in the mountains (3.00), get away from
the city (2.99), and just be outdoors (2.99). While Japanese respondents rated the
environmental motivations highest (90.4 to 95.0% rating each “moderately” or “very”
important) and spending time with family or friends next highest (85.0% “moderately”
or “very” important), Korean respondents rated spending time with others highest at
80.4%, with the three environmental motivations rated moderately or very important
Fern Gathering: Cultural vs. Commercial Values
755
TABLE 2 Fern Picking Motivations Rated Moderately or Very Important
Respondents who said each motivation
was moderately or very important
Motivation
Spend time with family or friends
(n = 136)
Get away from the city for a while
(n = 135)
Enjoy being in the outdoors (n = 134)
To spend time in an area with mountains
(n = 136)
Like the taste of ferns (n = 136)
Share ferns with family or friends in the
U.S. (n = 136)
Teach children or others about your cultural
background (n = 132)
Reminds you of your own background
(n = 132)
Use the ferns in holiday meals (n = 139)
Use the ferns in non-holiday meals
(n = 135)
Save money by picking ferns instead of
buying them (n = 132)
Share ferns with family or friends outside
the U.S. (n = 131)
Need the ferns to have enough food to eat
(n = 132)
Use ferns for religious purposes (n = 123)
Use ferns for medical purposes (n = 131)
Use the ferns for decoration or display
(n = 130)
Earn money by selling ferns (n = 133)
Percent
Percent
Percent
(number)
(number)
(number)
of all
of Japanese of Korean
respondents respondents respondents
79.5 (112)
85.0 (17)
80.4 (90)
75.2 (106)
74.1 (103)
90.4 (19)
90.5 (19)
74.5 (82)
71.9 (78)
73.9 (105)
64.8 (92)
95.0 (19)
90.5 (19)
72.4 (81)
57.6 (64)
47.9 (68)
61.9 (13)
45.0 (50)
45.6 (63)
52.4 (11)
48.6 (52)
42.3 (58)
39.2 (57)
47.6 (10)
9.6 (2)
43.0 (46)
45.3 (52)
33.3 (47)
28.5 (6)
30.9 (34)
21.0 (29)
4.8 (1)
22.2 (24)
13.8 (19)
5.3 (1)
14.6 (16)
13.0 (18)
2.4 (3)
2.2 (3)
4.8 (1)
0.0 (0)
0.0 (0)
14.0 (15)
3.0 (3)
1.9 (2)
1.5 (2)
0.7 (1)
0.0 (0)
0.0 (0)
1.9 (2)
0.9 (1)
Note. Based on number and percent of responses, not cases. “All” category includes Caucasian,
Hispanic, Japanese, and Korean respondents.
by between 71.9 and 74.5% of respondents. For both groups, these four motivations
topped the ratings.
The highest rated fern-related motivation was “like the taste of ferns” (mean =
2(82), while sharing ferns with friends, using ferns in holiday meals, and using ferns in
everyday meals ranged from 2.04 to 2.42. The culturally based motivations of teaching
children or others about your cultural background (2.32) and reminding you of your
own background (2.26) averaged somewhat above “slightly important.” Nonfood uses
(decorative, medicinal, and religious) were important to very few respondents (1.06
to 1.12). Although selling ferns was the lowest rated motivation at 1.05, 32% of
756
J. A. Anderson et al.
the respondents reported that “needing the ferns to have enough food to eat” was
at least slightly important (1.48), which suggests there may be a subsistence use of
bracken ferns. While 4.8% of Japanese respondents rated both “save money by picking
ferns instead of buying them” and “need the ferns to have enough food to eat” either
moderately or very important, Koreans placed more importance on both of these:
22.2% rated “save money by picking ferns instead of buying them” and 14.0% rated
“need the ferns to have enough food to eat” either moderately or very important
(see Table 2). Only one person said they were planning to sell some of the ferns
they picked (2 pounds). Because Ž ve respondents said that “earning money by selling
ferns” was a slightly or moderately important reason for picking ferns, at most 3 to 4%
of the respondents report they may sell some portion of their ferns. While Japanese
respondents were more likely than Koreans to share ferns with family or friends in the
United States (61.9% Japanese vs. 45.0% Korean), Koreans were more likely to share
with others outside the United States (5.3% Japanese vs. 14.6% Korean).
When asked to identify the one or two most important reasons for picking from
the survey motivation list, environmental and social reasons were again rated highest.
Most common was “to enjoy the outdoors,” named by 27.3%. Twenty-three percent
(22.7%) named spending time with others and liking the taste of ferns, and 19.3%
named being in the mountains or using ferns in either holiday or everyday meals.
Using ferns for holiday meals was important to just 9.6% of Japanese but to nearly
half (45.3%) of Korean respondents.
Subjects were asked if they considered fern picking to be mostly fun, equally
fun and work, or mostly work. Nearly 60% (58.7%) of respondents reported that they
consider fern picking to be “mostly fun.” Another 34.3% Ž nd it to be equally fun and
work, and just 7.0% consider fern gathering to be mostly work. Japanese respondents
were slightly more likely than Koreans to consider fern gathering “mostly fun” (66.7%
Japanese vs. 60.2% Korean), and no Japanese respondents found picking to be “mostly
work” (0.0% Japanese vs. 8.5% Korean).
About half (45.0%) of Japanese and one-third (35.1%) of Korean respondents
said they take some special effort to ensure that ferns will be available in the future.
Seventeen different stewardship actions were named in an open-ended question. These
included, for example, “take only what’s needed,” “don’t damage the roots,” and “pick
only young ferns” (see Anderson et al. 1998 for details). Again, this is in contrast to
Richards and Creasy’s (1996) Ž nding of little or no concern for resource sustainability
among Southeast Asian matsutake gatherers in the Northwest.
Interest By Age Group
Asked which age group is most interested in picking ferns, 30.0% of the Japanese and
35.4% of the Korean respondents indicated those age 60 years and older, and 70.0% of
Japanese and 61.9% of Koreans said members of the middle generations (ages 26–59)
are most interested. When asked if they expect to continue picking ferns as they get
older, 95.2% of the Japanese responded probably or deŽ nitely yes, and 69.9% of the
Koreans said yes. Similarly, Richards and Creasy (1996) found that Asian subjects
expect to continue picking “as long as mushrooms are available.”
Fern Program Information
The survey asked how subjects Ž rst learned about fern picking on the Arrowhead
Ranger District. Most of the Japanese respondents (85.7%), but only about one-third
Fern Gathering: Cultural vs. Commercial Values
757
of the Korean respondents (39.5%), said “from another person.” Forty-two percent
(42.1%) of Korean fern pickers but no Japanese said they Ž rst learned of the program
through the newspaper. When asked where they would look for future information
about the fern picking program, more than three-quarters of Japanese respondents
(76.2%) said they would call or visit the Ranger District ofŽ ce, compared to 33.0% of
the Korean respondents. Just as they Ž rst learned about the program from the newspaper, 37.4% of Koreans said they would look to the newspaper for further information.
No Japanese indicated newspapers as a source for future information.
These results are not surprising since the ARD places fern picking announcements
in Korean language newspapers only. The results for the Japanese respondents mirrored
those of Hansis (1996), where most of the information exchange regarding matsutake
mushrooms was through informal networks. The reliance of Koreans on the newspaper, however, indicates that the Korean-language newspaper ads help to improve
information exchange for SFP collectors.
Discrimination
While other studies (Blahna and Black 1993; Gobster and Delgado 1993) found
evidence that Asians experienced discrimination by agency ofŽ cials in outdoor settings,
there was little such evidence in the present study. Subjects were asked whether they
had been contacted by a law enforcement ofŽ cial while picking ferns. Among the 29
who reported being contacted in the Ž eld, only 4 gave reasons why they were contacted:
2 were positive (e.g., “tell us where picking was better”) and 2 negative (e.g., “check
for permit”). Only 2 of the 29 said they were treated unfairly during this contact, and
just 1 gave a reason for the unfair treatment: They said, “No way to contact them,”
and gave no further explanation.
Satisfaction
Respondents of both ethnic groups reported high levels of satisfaction with the Arrowhead Ranger District’s fern program. Over 81% reported they were either “satisŽ ed”
or “very satisŽ ed” with the program. Unlike the Southeast Asians in Hansis’s (1996)
study, a majority (75.9%) of ARD fern pickers felt they had enough information before
arriving to pick; 95.0% felt they received enough information at the time they purchased
their permit; 95.7% agreed that the fern program rules are clear and easy to understand.
Nearly 85% indicated that no rule changes or improvements are needed.
The major area of dissatisfaction was the price charged for the ferns: 72.9% of
respondents felt that $20.00 to pick up to 40 pounds of ferns was too high, but there
was discrepancy between how strongly Japanese and Korean respondents felt about
this issue. While 38.1% of the Japanese felt the fee is either “too high” or “much
too high,” 80.4% of Koreans felt the fee is inappropriately high. When asked what
a fair price for 40 pounds of ferns would be, the mean response was $10.06. The
mean Japanese response, at $12.00, ran 20% higher than the mean Korean response
of $9.78. In open-ended comments, Ž ve respondents indicated that the fee is too high
considering that they pick for fun or to remember their culture, rather than for proŽ t.
Most groups picked quite a bit less than the amount of ferns for which they
bought permits. Estimates by those who purchased permits for 40 pounds —which was
the smallest permit they could buy—averaged 25 pounds picked, while those who
paid for 80 pounds of ferns reportedly picked an average of only 37 pounds. Just two
758
J. A. Anderson et al.
TABLE 3 Fern Picking Visits to the Arrowhead Ranger District
Ethnicity
Group
1997 ARD visits
to pick ferns
(all, n = 143;
Japanese, n = 20;
Korean, n = 113)
Total ARD visits
to pick ferns
(all, n = 139;
Japanese, n = 19;
Korean, n = 110)
a
Number of
visits
Percent
(number)
of all
respondents a
Percent
(number)
of Japanese
respondents
Percent
(number)
of Korean
respondents
1
2
3
More than 3
88.1
7.7
2.1
4.2
(126)
(11)
(3)
(6)
90.0
10.0
0.0
0.0
(18)
(2)
(0)
(0)
87.6
8.0
2.7
1.8
(99)
(9)
(3)
(2)
1
2
3
4
5
More than 5
37.4
16.5
16.5
8.6
6.5
14.4
(52)
(23)
(23)
(12)
(9)
(20)
31.6
5.3
5.3
10.5
15.8
31.6
(6)
(1)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(6)
40.0
17.3
16.4
9.1
5.5
11.8
(44)
(19)
(18)
(10)
(6)
(13)
“All” category includes Caucasian, Hispanic, Japanese, and Korean respondents.
respondents bought permits for 120 pounds, one of whom reported picking 50, with
the other reporting 110 pounds.
For 91% of all respondents, the ARD is the only place they go to pick ferns,
and a large majority (90.0% of Japanese and 87.6% of Koreans) picked ferns on the
ARD only once during the 1997 season (see Table 3). The mean time spent picking was
2.4 hours (144 minutes), with Japanese respondents averaging 114 minutes and Koreans
averaging 150 minutes. Among pickers on the Arrowhead Ranger District, 37.4% had
no previous ARD visits ever, and 33.0% had picked there just once or twice previously
(see Table 3). By contrast, Richards and Creasy (1996) found Southeast Asians camping
in the area and picking matsutake mushrooms an average of 3.75 weeks per year. When
speciŽ cally asked about camping, no ARD respondents reported camping in association
with their fern visits.
Discussion
This study illustrates the problem of generalizing Ž ndings both across different ethnic
groups and across different forest products. Failure to make appropriate user group and
SFP distinctions can lead to management decisions that are not in the best interests of
the resources, special forest products gatherers, or even the agency itself.
One key Ž nding of this research is simply that Koreans are not the only Asians
picking ferns on the Arrowhead Ranger District; almost 15% of respondents were
from Japanese backgrounds. Less than one-third (28.9%) of all respondents primarily
speak English in their homes, making language a key programmatic concern, and the
age results indicate that interest in fern picking is not likely to decrease in the near
future. Various attitude differences were identiŽ ed between the Japanese and Korean
respondents —including likelihood of picking when older, considering fern gathering
to be fun versus work, sharing harvested ferns with friends and family inside versus
outside the United States, strength of belief that the fee is too high, and using ferns
Fern Gathering: Cultural vs. Commercial Values
759
in holiday cooking. These differences illustrate that grouping Asian fern pickers into
a single racial category can be misleading.
Many of the present Ž ndings differ from the results of the Hansis (1996) and
Richards and Creasy (1996) studies of mushroom pickers in the PaciŽ c Northwest.
While the Northwest studies were qualitative and exploratory, the large discrepancies
in the studies indicate a very different SFP picking experience compared to the Korean
and Japanese fern pickers on the ARD. For example, while subjects in both PaciŽ c
Northwest studies felt some degree of discrimination and harassment (even gunŽ re),
only two of the ARD respondents reported feeling that they had been treated even
remotely unfairly. Southeast Asians in the Northwest often gathered special forest
products for consecutive days and even weeks; the majority of fern gatherers came to
the ARD only once in 1997 for just over 2 hours of picking.
While both Hansis (1996) and Richards and Creasy (1996) found commercial
harvest to be a key motivation for their Southeast Asian subjects, very few of the
ARD respondents sell any of the ferns they gather. The survey responses also suggest
in a number of other ways that commercial picking is not the basis of the ARD’s fern
gathering activity. For example, (1) the most commonly named motivations for picking
were social and environmental; (2) the ARD is the only place most respondents gather
ferns, and most picked just once during the 1997 season; (3) the mean picking time
was just 2.4 hours; (4) most respondents gathered considerably fewer ferns than they
paid for; and (5) many more pickers consider fern gathering fun than work.
These Ž ndings suggest that an economic or commercial approach to managing the
ARD fern program is inappropriate. While it is clear from ARD staff members that
some abuses of picking limits and boundaries have occurred, there is no real evidence
that this is common, or that even these abuses (in one case, a car trunk full of ferns
by a group holding a single 40-pound picking permit) indicate commercial activity.
Rather, ARD fern gathering appears to be primarily a social and recreational activity
that is laden with cultural meanings, an activity in which every step —from picking
through processing, cooking, and eating —serves to reinforce ethnic-group afŽ liation.
Although we identiŽ ed several differences between Japanese- and Korean-background
pickers, the similarity in the two groups’ picking motives and behaviors turned out to
be important when compared with the managers’ concept of what was important about
the fern gathering activity, especially since picking bracken fern does not endanger the
ferns (see Anderson et al. 1997 for a full discussion).
Unlike the SFP gatherers in the PaciŽ c Northwest studies by Hansis (1996) and
Richards and Creasy (1996), these results reveal that ARD fern gatherers pick just
once per season for about 2 or 3 hours, pick signiŽ cantly less ferns than they pay for,
participate primarily for purposes of socializing and enjoying the outdoors, and do not
pick for commercial or economic reasons. Thus, in addition to the two major types
of SFP collectors discussed in the literature —subsistence and commercial pickers —a
third general category exists: the recreational picker.
Managers who focus primarily on economic values may be implementing management strategies that are inappropriate to the SFP activities they oversee. The fact that
most SFP research has focused on commercial gathering and economic values may
unfairly give the impression that all SFP gathering is primarily economic in intent, and
that resource competition and scarcity will result unless relatively tight controls are
implemented. In light of the results on the Arrowhead Ranger District, it is clear that
a knowledge of participants and their motivations is essential to designing appropriate
management strategies for special forest products.
760
J. A. Anderson et al.
Notes
1. Since this was a non-Anglo target group, a great deal of effort went into the design of
the instrument. Questions were developed based on interviews with agency staff and cultural
informants, including experienced Japanese and Korean fern pickers, and using results of the
pilot study’s brief postcard survey. For example, “Like the taste of ferns” was added to the
motivation list because it appeared as an “other reason” response to the postcard’s pilot list of
possible reasons for fern picking.
2. Based on the results of the pilot study we felt that printing the survey in English would
not be a problem for most permit holders. Because the response rate was lower than we expected
for a four-wave survey to a targeted population (we usually get a 60– 70% response), we decided
to mail nonrespondents a Ž fth wave including a letter in Korean or Japanese asking the subject
to get assistance with the survey if language was a problem. We received only eight additional
responses (3%) after this letter was sent, which suggested language was not a major barrier for
the survey.
3. The assistants each categorized all the names on the permit list as being Korean, Japanese,
Caucasian, or Hispanic. When the results were compared, there was 100% agreement on the
Korean and Japanese names. There were only four names they were unsure about, and so we
did not include them in the response bias analysis.
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