Lecture 13
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Lecture 13
Introduction to
High-Level Programming
(S&G, §§7.1
–7.6)
§§7.1–
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From Algorithms to Programs
• Algorithms are essentially abstract things
that can have
– Linguistic realizations (in pseudocode or
programming languages)
– Hardware realizations (in digital circuitry)
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What Is a Program?
• Usually, one or more algorithms written in a
programming language that can be
translated to run on a real machine
• We sometimes call programs software
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What Is a Programming
Language?
• A bit like pseudocode, but with very strict
syntax rules
• Examples: Basic, Pascal, C++, Java
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From Algorithms to Hardware
Algorithm
Translate (by a human being)
Program
Translate (by another program)
A real computer
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The Program Development
Process (Data Flow)
Algorithm
Editor
Program in programming language
Compiler
Program in machine’s language
Input
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A real computer
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Output
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The Program Development
Process (Control Flow)
Edit
Syntax errors
Compile
Input
Run
Output
Runtime errors
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Java
• Was developed at Sun Microsystems in the
early 1990s
• A general-purpose language but
– Programs could run in small devices
(embedded systems)
– Internet-ready and Web-ready
– Standard support for multimedia applications
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Compiling and Running
a Java Program
• A Java compiler translates a Java program
to an equivalent program in byte code
• A Java virtual machine (JVM) is a program
that interprets a Java byte code program to
execute it
User inputs
Java code
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Compiler byte code
JVM
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Program outputs
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Portability
• A Java program translates to a standard byte
code
• A Java byte code can run on any JVM
• A JVM, and thus a Java program, can run
– In a PDA
– In a desktop computer
– In a Web browser
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Statements in Java: Assignment
Pseudocode:
Set the value of <identifier> to <arithmetic expr>
Java:
<identifier> = <arithmetic expr> ;
Examples:
i = i + 1;
force = mass * acceleration;
average = sum / n;
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Example Java Statements
// This is a comment.
// Comments are not executable statements
// but exist solely for the benefit of human readers
int width = 20;
// Declare an integer variable and set its
// value to 20
int height = 35;
int area;
// Declare an integer variable; its
// default value is 0
area = height * width;
// An assignment statement
// Pseudocode: set area to height * width
All variables must be declared before they are used in statements.
Each variable has a data type, such as int, double or String.
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Basic Data Types
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Type Name
Example Values
int
34, 0, 10000000
double
3.14,
0.563333333
String
"Java rules!"
char
'a', '9', '%'
boolean
true, false
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Algorithms that use arrays, such
as Sequential Search
Given values for Name, N1, …, N10 and for T1, …, T10
Set the value of i to 1 and set the value of Found to NO
Repeat until either Found = YES or i > 10
In pseudo code, we use
If Name is equal to Ni, then
subscripts
to create a list …
Print Ti
Set the value of Found to YES
Else
… and to reference
Increment i
particular elements of it
If (Found = NO) then
Print “Sorry, but the name’s not in the directory”
Stop
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Translating to Java
• Here are examples of creating arrays:
int[ ] years = new int[10]; // a list
double[ ] area = new double[2000]; //
//
String[ ] name = new String[40];
//
of 10 integers
a list of 2000
real numbers
a list of 40 strings
• Here are examples of referencing elements:
firstyear = years[0];
//
//
lastarea = area[1999]; //
//
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warning: array elements are
numbered starting at zero !
the last element in the
list of area’s
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Statements in Java: Input
Pseudocode:
Ask user to enter a value of <identifier>
Java:
<identifier> = Console.readInt(<prompt>);
<identifier> = Console.readDouble(<prompt>);
<identifier> = Console.readChar(<prompt>);
Examples:
int speed;
speed = Console.readInt ("Please enter" +
" the speed you traveled");
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Statements in Java: Output
Pseudocode:
Output the value of <identifier>
Java w/ examples:
System.out.println("thanks for the data");
System.out.println("The time for your trip is " + time);
System.out.println("A trip of " + distance + " miles "
+ "at " + speed + " mph " + "requires " + time + " hours");
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Example Problem
Write a program that computes the area of a circle.
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From Problem to Algorithm
The algorithm
• uses area = πr2
• accepts as input a decimal point number
representing the radius of the circle
• computes and displays the area of the
corresponding circle
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Pseudocode for Program
input radius
area = π × radius × radius
output area
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Basic Computation
radius = Console.readInt ("Radius?");
area = Math.PI * radius * radius;
System.out.println ("Area = " + area);
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From pseudocode
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Complete Program
public class CircleArea
{
double radius, area;
public static void main (String[] args)
{
radius = Console.readInt ("Radius?");
area = Math.PI * radius * radius;
System.out.println ("Area = " + area);
}
From pseudocode
}
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Digression: What Does It All
Mean?
The language machine regulates and adjusts in advance the
mode of our possible usage of language through mechanical
energies and functions. The language machine is — and above
all, is still becoming — one way in which modern technology
controls the mode and the world of language as such.
Meanwhile, the impression is still maintained that man is the
master of the language machine. But the truth of the matter
might well be that the language machine takes language into its
management and thus masters the essence of the human being.
— Martin Heidegger
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Java Methods
// A method is like a little program that performs a complex task
double d = Math.sqrt(25);
// d is 5.0
int i = Math.abs(-4);
// i is 4
i = Math.pow(2, 10);
// i is 1024
System.out.println("Hello there!");
// Displays output in
// the terminal window
The data in the parentheses are called parameters.
Methods receive information in parameters and can return
information to the rest of the program.
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Structure of Simple Program:
The Main Method
public class <name of program>
{
public static void main (String[] args)
{
<declarations>
<statements>
} //end of main method
}
//end of program
A Java method describes data and an algorithm as a chunk of
program code.
The main method is run when the program starts up.
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Java Control Structures
Conditionals
(if statements)
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Syntax of Compound Statements
{
}
<statement1>
<statement2>
…
<statementn>
A compound statement is a sequence of zero or more
statements.
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Syntax of Selection Statements
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if (<Boolean expression>)
<statement>
// One-way decision
if (<Boolean expression>)
<statement>
else
<statement>
// Two-way decision
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Semantics of
Selection Statements
if (<Boolean expression>)
<statement>
true
?
false
statement
if (<Boolean expression>)
<statement>
else
<statement>
true
?
false
statement
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statement
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Java Control Structures
Iteration/Loops
(while statements and for statements)
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Example: Summation
Write a program that computes the sum of the
numbers between 1 and 10.
Set counter to 1
Set sum to 0
While counter ≤ 10 do
Set sum to sum + counter
Increment counter
Print sum
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Example: Summation
Write a program that computes the sum of the
numbers between 1 and 10.
int counter = 1;
int sum = 0;
while (counter <= 10)
{
sum = sum + counter;
counter = counter + 1;
}
System.out.println (sum);
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Syntax and Semantics of
while Statements
while (<Boolean expression>)
<statement>
while (<Boolean expression>)
{
<statement 1>
…
true
?
false
statement
<statement n>
}
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Count-controlled Loops
// General form
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<test counter for termination condition>){
<do something>
<change the value of counter>
}
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Count-controlled Loops
// General form
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<test counter for termination condition>){
<do something>
<change the value of counter>
}
// Count up
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<counter is less than a limit value>){
<do something>
<increase the value of counter>
}
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Count-controlled Loops
// General form
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<test counter for termination condition>){
<do something>
<change the value of counter>
}
// Count up
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<counter is less than a limit value>){
<do something>
<increase the value of counter>
}
int counter = 1;
while (counter <= 10){
<do something>
counter = counter + 1;
}
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Count-controlled Loops
// General form
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<test counter for termination condition>){
<do something>
<change the value of counter>
}
// Count down
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<counter is greater than a limit value>){
<do something>
<decrease the value of counter>
}
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Count-controlled Loops
// General form
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<test counter for termination condition>){
<do something>
<change the value of counter>
}
// Count down
<initialize a counter variable>
while (<counter is greater than a limit value>){
<do something>
<decrease the value of counter>
}
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int counter = 10;
while (counter > 0){
<do something>
counter = counter - 1;
}
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Increment and Decrement
int counter = 1;
while (counter <= 10){
<do something>
counter = counter + 1;
}
int counter = 10;
while (counter > 0){
<do something>
counter = counter - 1;
}
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Increment and Decrement
int counter = 1;
while (counter <= 10){
<do something>
counter++;
}
int counter = 10;
while (counter > 0){
<do something>
counter--;
}
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Designing Correct Loops
• Initialize all variables properly
– Plan how many iterations, then set the counter
and the limit accordingly
• Check the logic of the termination condition
• Update the loop control variable properly
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Off-by-One Error
int counter = 1;
while (counter <= 10){
<do something>
counter++;
}
int counter = 1;
while (counter < 10){
<do something>
counter++;
}
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// Executes 10 passes
// Executes 9 passes
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Infinite Loop
int counter = 1;
while (counter <= 10){
<do something>
counter = counter + 2;
}
int counter = 1;
while (counter != 10){
<do something>
counter = counter + 2;
}
// Executes 5 passes
// Runs forever
In general, avoid using != in loop termination conditions.
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The for Loop
int counter = 1;
while (counter <= 10){
<do something>
counter++;
}
for (int counter = 1; counter <= 10; counter++)
<do something>
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The for Loop
int counter = 10;
while (counter > 0){
<do something>
counter--;
}
for (int counter = 10; counter > 0; counter--)
<do something>
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Syntax and Semantics of
the for Loop
for (<initializer>; <termination>; <update>)
<statement>
false
initializer
termination
true
statement
update
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The Life Cycle of Programs:
Waterfall Model
Analysis
-----------Verify
Design
-----------Verify
Implementation
------------------Test
Integration
------------Test
Maintenance
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Maintenance
• Programs might have a lifetime of 5-20
years
• Requirements might change, and minor or
major changes would be necessary
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The Cost of Correcting an Error
Cost of
Correcting
a Fault
implementation
maintenance
analysis
integration
design
Software Development Phase
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The Relative Costs of the
Phases
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