Course Form (revised 5/1/12)
(Instructions: http://www.umt.edu/facultysenate/documents/forms/courseform_instructionsX.aspx)
I. Summary of Proposed Changes
Dept / Program
MCLL/Russian
Prefix and Course # RUSS 372
Course Title
SRAS: Understanding Central Asia
Please check one or more
X New course  Delete course
of the following:
Course Changes
 Course Title  Description  Learning Outcomes
 Prerequisites  Cross-listing  Other
 Credits
from _________ to________
 Number / Level from _________ to________
 Repeatability
from _________ to________
Justification / explanation (required for ALL proposals) For new courses please provide rationale for why
the course is needed, how it fits with exiting curriculum and whether there are curricular adjustments.
RUSS 372 SRAS: Understanding Central Asia
This course is one of four other newly proposed UM/SRAS courses (see Department Summary for further
clarification about SRAS). It is one of the two core Central Asian courses of the SRAS program. Students of
Central Asian culture must be familiar with numerous facets of the cultures of both the individual Central
Asian countries, as well as with the region as a whole.
Has the Department gone through common course Review?
 Yes  No X In process
II. Syllabus/Assessment Information Required for new courses, learning outcome changes and
course change from U to UG.
Important: please spell out learning goals and learning outcomes clearly in the syllabus.
Learning Goals are a list of what students should know, understand, or be able to do at the end of
the course, including essential information and knowledge or skills relevant to the subject area.
Learning Outcomes are measures of performance or behavior that indicate, to the teacher and the
students, that students understand the material, and what criteria differentiates among different
levels of understanding. Attach syllabus at the end of the document.
III. Endorsement/Approvals
Complete the form and obtain signatures before submitting to Faculty Senate Office
Please type / print name Signature
Date
Requestor:
Ona
Renner-Fahey
Phone/ email :
243-4602
Program Chair(s)/Director:
Liz
Ametsbichler,
Jannine
Montauban
Dean(s):
Chris Comer
All other affected programs:
Approve
 Yes  No
 Yes  No
 Yes  No
 Yes  No
Anthropology
 Yes  No
 Yes  No
Are other departments/programs affected by this
modification because of
(a) required courses incl. prerequisites or corequisites,
(b) X perceived overlap in content areas
(c) cross-listing of coursework
Signatory Comments (required for disapproval):
Please obtain signature(s) from the
Chair/Director of any such department/ program
(above) before submission
IV: To Add a New Course Syllabus and assessment information is required (paste syllabus into
section V or attach). Course should have internal coherence and clear focus.
Common Course Numbering Review (Department Chair Must Initial):
YES
NO
Does an equivalent course exist elsewhere in the MUS? Check all relevant disciplines if
X
course is interdisciplinary. (http://www.mus.edu/Qtools/CCN/ccn_default.asp)
If YES: Do the proposed abbreviation, number, title and credits align with existing course(s)? Please indicate
equivalent course/campus. 
If NO: Course may be unique, but is subject to common course review. The course number may be changed
at the system level.
Short Title (max. 26 characters incl. spaces) SRAS: Understanding C. A.
Exact entry to appear in the next catalog (Specify course abbreviation, level, number, title, credits,
repeatability (if applicable), frequency of offering, prerequisites, and a brief description.) 
U 372 SRAS: Understanding Central Asia 3 cr. Offered autumn, spring and summer Restricted to students
in the SRAS program. Taught at The London School in Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. The course offers a broad
overview of the cultural and social, as well as the historical and religious, dimensions of Central Asia
(including Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan, in addition to Afghanistan
and Xinjiang because of their influential role in greater Eurasia). Prereq., consent of instructor.
Complete for UG courses (UG courses should be assigned a 400 number).
Describe graduate increment - see procedure 301.30
http://www.umt.edu/facultysenate/procedures/default.aspx
Complete for Co-convened courses
Companion course number, title, and description (include syllabus of companion course in section V)
See procedure 301.20 http://www.umt.edu/facultysenate/procedures/default.aspx
New fees and changes to existing fees are only approved once each biennium by the
Board of Regents. The coordination of fee submission is administered by
Administration and Finance. Fees may be requested only for courses meeting specific
conditions according to Policy 940.12.1 http://mus.edu/borpol/bor900/940-12-1.pdf .
Please indicate whether this course will be considered for a fee.
If YES, what is the proposed amount of the fee?
Justification:
V. Change an Existing Course
1. Current course information at it appears in catalog
(http://www.umt.edu/catalog) 
NO
X
2. Full and exact entry (as proposed) 
3. If cross-listed course: secondary program & course
number
4. Is this a course with MUS Common Course Numbering?
http://www.mus.edu/Qtools/CCN/ccn_default.asp
If yes, please explain below whether the change will eliminate the common course status.
5. If co-convened course: companion course number, title, and description
(include syllabus of companion course in section V) See procedure 301.20
http://www.umt.edu/facultysenate/procedures/default.aspx
YES
YES NO
6. Graduate increment if level of course is changed to UG.
Reference procedure 301.30:
http://www.umt.edu/facultysenate/procedures/default.aspx
Have you reviewed the graduate
increment guidelines? Please check (X)
space provided.
(syllabus must be attached)
7. Other programs affected by the change
8. Is there a fee associated with the course?
VI Department Summary (Required if several forms are submitted) In a separate document list course
number, title, and proposed change for all proposals.
See attached.
VII Copies and Electronic Submission. After approval, submit original, one copy, summary of
proposals and electronic file to the Faculty Senate Office, UH 221, camie.foos@mso.umt.edu.
London School in Bishkek
Class Syllabus – Fall Semester 2012
Course:
RUSS 372
Understanding Central Asia
Instructors:
Time:
See Schedule
Phone:
Bermet Omurova and
Cholpon Turdalieva
Professor of AUCA, Doctor of
Historical Sciences
0996 (0312) 544474
Email:
turdalieva@gmail.com
Location: London School in Bishkek
Course Description____________________________________________
The course offers a broad overview of the cultural and social as well as the historical and religious dimensions of
Central Asia including Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, and Tajikistan, in addition to Afghanistan
and Xinjiang because of their influential role in greater Eurasia. Students will be expected to keep abreast of
current events in Central Asia to enhance their understanding of the region.
The course surveys various topics within Central Asia: the ancient civilizations and religions of Central Asia during
the pre-Islamic period, the lasting influences of the various empires, khanates, and states of Greece, Persia, East
Asia, and the Middle east, the ancient divide of the nomadic empires and settled centers, the regional trade
networks known as the Silk Road (or Silk Route) and its gradual decline, economic and cultural changes during the
Soviet era following the Bolshevik Revolution, cultural revival and redefining of nationalistic identities following
independence, as well as recent trends.
In addition to examining the cultural dimensions of each Central Asian state individually, the course applies a
regional-based approach at addressing: performing arts, visual arts, architecture, festivals, leisure, religions,
folklore, gender, courtship, marriage, media and the cinema. Throughout the course, the implications of the role of
family, ethnic identity, tribalism, nationalism, and attitudes towards society will be addressed.
Extensive use of audio-visual materials, including music, videos, and other illustrated materials will be incorporated
into the course.
Learning Goals and Outcomes________________________________________
This course will:
•
•
•
•
•
provide basic knowledge of ethnological and historical material on Central Asian countries
introduce students to contemporary research on the subjects
explore the role of the Soviet period in the development of the Central Asian region
encourage students to establish their own critically formed opinions
give students the opportunity to develop their analytical and critical thinking skills by
exploring these issues through class discussion and a course paper
• give students an opportunity to develop their communication and presentation skills by discussing and debating
these issues
• foster independent learning
Required Texts________________________________________________
Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia (Oxford, 1998).
Roy, Oliver. The New Central Asia. The Creation of Nations (Tauris Publishers, 2000).
Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia (Cambridge, 2000).
Rafis Abazov, Culture and Customs of the Central Asian Republics. Culture and Customs of Asia
(Greenwood, 2007)
Seminar Outline______________________________________________
Each class will be divided into two sections.


Lecture on the Topic (15 Minutes)
Presentation / Article Readings / Discussion (45 Minutes)
Grading________________________________________________________________
The final course grade will be determined based on the following distribution:



Participation: 20%
o Attended and on time for classes: 5%
o Polite, active participation in class discussions: 10%
o Polite, active participation in Q&A for other students' presentations: 5%
Mid-term presentation: 30%
Final draft of policy paper: 50% (See separate handout.)
The grading scale is as follows:
93-100 A
90-92 A-
88-89 B+
83-87 B
80-82 B-
78-79 C+
73-77 C
70-72 C-
68-69 D+
65-67 D
64 & below F
Mid-term presentation and Policy Recommendation Paper ________________
See separate Final Paper Assignment: Writing Guide for SRAS Courses.
Class Participation______________________________________________________
The first requirement to receive the participation portion of your grade is attendance. The second
requirement is that you must actively contribute to class discussions. You are also expected to take notes
during guest lecturers and panel discussions in addition to each class.
In terms of class discussions, please maintain an atmosphere of respect; however, feel free to disagree
with the instructor and your classmates as long as the discussion is conducted in an intelligent and
scholarly manner. Please refrain from using cell phones and laptops during class.
Current Events_________________________________________________________
As a requirement of the course, students must frequently read news pertaining to Central Asia. Current
event discussions will be conducted throughout the duration of the course with a focus on their cultural
significance and implications. Students should prepare two article readings of their own for each
discussion. The following news sources will provide the basis for discussion; however, students are also
free to use their own sources:

http://www.eurasianet.org/
EurasiaNet provides information and analysis about political, economic, environmental and social
developments in the countries of Central Asia and the Caucasus, as well as in Russia, the Middle
East, and Southwest Asia.

http://iwpr.net/programme/central-asia/
The Institute for War and Peace Reporting (IWPR) is an international media development charity
with several media outlets in Central Asia. Additionally, IWPR has weekly radio programs for
Kyrgyzstan and Tajikistan providing 15 minutes of analysis on current political and social themes.

http://www.rferl.org/section/Central+Asia/172.html
Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFERL) journalists report the news in 21 countries, including
Central Asia, where a free press is banned by the government or not fully established and
provides: uncensored news, responsible discussion, and open debate.

http://www.times.kg/
Academic Honesty______________________________________________________
Academic dishonesty will not be tolerated at the London School in Bishkek. Each of the following will be
considered as plagiarism:





Copying directly from a source without quotations and source citation;
Paraphrasing or summarizing another’s idea without attribution;
Changing a sentence’s structure but copying words;
Changing a sentence’s words but copying its basic structure;
Using media sources without acknowledgement;





Submitting a paper written by another student and claiming it as your own;
Using information obtained through interviewing an expert without attribution;
Purchasing or downloading a paper and claiming it as your own;
Collaborating excessively on an essay with another person;
Submitting an essay that was previously written for another class.
The consequence of students found guilty of plagiarism will vary, depending on the severity of the
offense. However; blatant plagiarism, will not be tolerated and will result in immediate failure of the
course.
Course and Topical Outline______________________________________________
PART I.
STUDYING THE ANCIENT TIME FROM INSIDE:
THE EMERGENCE OF THE CENTRAL ASIAN CIVILIZATION
Class 1 – Topic:
Course Introduction
Student introductions, overview of the course, expectations and requirements.
Assigned Readings:
Class 2 – Topic:
N/A
What is History? Synthesizing the Local, Regional, and World Histories
What is history? Who is a historian? What is historical source? Why is it important to study
history? What is historiography? How does the history of Central Asia relate to the world
history? What are the approaches and subfields of history you know and how do they
explain the events in the past? Do you agree with the definition of Edward Carr that history
is “continuous process of interaction between the historian and his facts, an unending
dialogue between the present and the past”?
Assigned Readings:
Historical images and maps of old Central Asia http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/,
http://www.angelfire.com/nb/russianmaps/latin/index.htm
Carr, Edward. What is History (N-Y, 1990), pg. 7-30
Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia (Cambridge, 2000), pg. 3-29.
Class 3 – Topic: Before the First Written Record
Why are the Stone and Bronze Ages called prehistory? How do we know about those
periods in the world history? When did first humans appear in Central Asia? Where did
they come from? What lifestyle and economies did they lead? What art did they develop?
Assigned Readings and Film:
Film: Tamgaly (UNESCO project, 2007).
Images
of
Altamira
rock
art
in
Spain
at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wtDRA5emVqo&feature=related
Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia (Oxford, 1998), pg. 99-121.
Class 4 – Topic: First Civilizations, States, and Polities in Central Asia
What is civilization? How did Herodotus and Strabo describe Scythians/Sakas? Who were
Wusuns? What kind of political organization was the Davan state and its relationships with
others? What were the relationships between those nomadic and sedentary societies?
What was their lifestyle and traditions?
Assigned Readings:
Herodotus,
History,
trans.
George
Rawlinson,
Book
IV,
http://classics.mit.edu/Herodotus/history.4.iv.html (in the folder).
Christian, David. A History of Russia, Central Asia and Mongolia (Oxford, 1998), pg. 123157.
Tashbaeva, K. “Localization of the Cities of the Davan State”. Civilizations of Nomadic and
Sedentary Peoples of Central Asia (Samarkand-Bishkek, 2005), pg. 155-166.
PART II
THE ENLIGHTMENT IN CENTRAL ASIA:
Class 5 – Topic: Turks: The Creation of the New Identity and Culture
In the sixth century the region of Central Asia experienced the arrival of new tribes. The
new migrants were different from the old population of Central Asia by appearance,
language spoken, and lifestyle. Their name was Turks. Who were Turks? Where did they
come from? What states did they establish? Why did they succeed?
Assigned Readings:
Turkic inscriptions at http://irq.kaznpu.kz/?lang=e&mod=1 (Kul Tegin, Tonyukuk).
Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia, pg. 51-69.
Barfield, T. The Nomadic Alternative (Prentice Hall, 1993), pg. 136-159.
Class 6 – Topic:
The Golden Age in Eurasia and the Creation of the First Islamic State in Central Asia
One of the Turkic dynasties that established the biggest and the most glorious state in
Central Asia was the Qarakhanids. Who were the Qarakhanids? Where did they come
from? What religion did they make the official religion? What was the role of Islam in the
political unification and cultural revival of Central Asia? What progress did the Qarakhanids
achieve in art, poetry, architecture?
Assigned Readings:
Balasaguni, Yusuf. Beneficent Knowledge, trans. Walter May (Bishkek, 1998).
Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia, pg. 83-92.
Class 7 – Topic: The Leadership of Yenisei Kyrgyz in Eurasia
There are a lot of debates going on about the origin of Kyrgyz living on the territory of
Kyrgyzstan today. The reason was that historical sources recorded two communities under
the same name but living in different regions and different time periods. Who were those
Kyrgyz living on the Yenisei River in 7-13th centuries? Were those Kyrgyz the ancestors of
the present-day Kyrgyz formed on the Tien Shan Mountains? Did the Yenisei Kyrgyz have
any relation with the present-day Kyrgyz? What was the role of Barsbek in the political life
and diplomacy of Eurasia? What is the connection between Manas Kyrgyz epic and the
Great Kyrgyz Empire in the 9-10th centuries?
Assigned Readings:
Yenisei inscriptions at http://irq.kaznpu.kz/?lang=e&mod=1
Syma Tsan, Historical Notes (in the folder).
Akerov T. Ancient Kyrgyz and the Great Steppe (Bishkek, 2007), pg. 85-103.
Map quiz! To prepare for a map quiz work with the interactive map at:
http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/maps/mapquiz/mapquiz.html
“Water
and
Mountains-East” and the “Cities of the Silk Road”.
PART III
THE MONGOL INVASION:
A COLLIDING/COLLUDING LEGACY OF CENTRAL ASIA
Class 8 – Topic: Mongolian Dynasties in Central Asia
The Mongols led by Genghis Khan invaded Central Asian region in the 13th century. Why
did they succeed? What were the implications of the Mongol invasion for Central Asia and
other regions affected? What states emerged in Central Asia and Kyrgyzstan as a result?
What kind of identity developed in Central Asia?
Assigned Readings and Film:
The Secret History of the Mongols, Chapter 1, at http://altaica.narod.ru/shengl.htm (in the
folder)
William of Rubruck's Account of the Mongols (in the folder)
Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia, pg. 103-122
Film: Chinghiz Khan
Class 9 – Topic: Renaissance in Post-Mongolian Period
Timur established one of the greatest empires after the Mongol invasion. It was the most
glorious empire of that time. Science, art, literature developed a lot thanks to the scholars
and other prominent people invited by the Timurids. What was so significant about the
Empire of Timur? What people ruled the empire? What relations did it have with
Mogholistan, the state that existed on the present-day territory of Kyrgyzstan in 14th
century?
Assigned Readings:
Clavijo, Embassy to Tamerlane in 1403-1406, trans. Guy Le Strance, (New York & London,
1928). The whole electronic version of this source can be found at
http://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/clavijo/cltxt1.html
Soucek, Svat. A History of Inner Asia, pg. 123-148.
Class 10 – Topic:
The Ethnic Processes in Central Asia and Formation of Nations
In the 15th and early 17th centuries the Central Asian tribal confederations and dynastic
clans chose the people grouping. The nomads and settlers identified themselves as
members of concrete nation. What kind of factors did influence such transitions and who
led the ideology of integrity and centralization of power?
Assigned Readings:
Mirza Muhammad Haidar, Tarikh-i-Rashidi (in the folder)
Anderson Benedict Imagined Communities (New York: Verso, 2006) Ch.3. pg.37-46
Class 11 – Topic:
Process of State Formation in Central Asia in 17-19th centuries
Relationships between the people of Central Asia, domination of the Kokand khanate,
Bukhara and Khiva emirates, integration of three tribal unions (Djuz) in Kazakhstan )
Class 12 – Topic:
Central Asia as Part of the Russian Empire
Preconditions for the incorporation of Central Asia into the Russian Empire; political and
economic reasons, peaceful and violent processes of incorporation. Central Asia after
invasion.
Class 13 –Topic:Kyrgyz and Kazakh Culture. Epical Traditions. Preservation.
The “seven cultural highlights” of Kyrgyz culture, music, handicrafts, etiquette, legends,
symbolism, sports and games, cuisine, customs and traditions, sayings and superstitions,
and inter-ethnic conflict. The heritage of folklore and literature of Central Asia, oral
traditions including the Manas epic, distinguished writers and poets of the pre-colonial era,
the development of Russian influenced literature, and post-soviet and modern literature.
Kazakh hospitality, customs and traditions, legends, weddings, sports and games, cuisine,
national dress, music, bazaars, decorative art, folk Islam and pre-Islamic traditions.
Similarities and differences in the cultures of Kyrgyz and Kazakh peoples.
Assigned Readings:
Birth of Manas and his Childhood at
http://www.silkroadfoundation.org/folklore/manas/manasse2.html (in the folder)
Atlas of Central Asian Crafts, Bishkek, 2002, Volume 2, pg. 33-53
Lymer, Kenneth “Rags and Rock Art: The Landscapes of Holy Site Pilgrimage in the Republic
of Kazakhstan” (World Archaeology, Vol. 36, No. 1, March 2004) pg. 158-172.
Class 14 – Topic:
Student Presentation
Student presentations on pre-approved topic.
Class 15 – Topic:
Beliefs and Religions in Central Asia in Past and Present
The complex interaction of spiritual and doctrinal thought with that of popular local
traditions often based on superstition and rituals, Central Asia as the former cradle of
Islamic civilization, pre-Islamic religions: Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Manichaeism, and
Eastern Christianity as well as Shamanism, Animism, Witchcraft, Paganism and the Turkic
Pantheon. A brief history of Islam, Christianity, and Judaism in Central Asia.
Assigned Readings:
Adeeb, Khalid. The Politics of Muslim Cultural Reform. Jadidism in Central Asia (Berkeley,
1998), pg. 80-113
Abazov, Rafis “Culture and Customs of Central Asian Republics” (Greenwood Press, London
2007) pg. 59-77
Class 15 – Topic:
Gender, Kinship and Marriage
The romanticisation of Central Asian women, women’s attire among rural and urban
centers, contrasts in female gender roles, social status of women, marriage traditions,
arranged marriages, women’s rights under Islamic Shariah law, Soviet influence on gender
roles, women in public life, dating and matchmaking, family life, and recent trends.
Assigned Readings:
Werner, Cynthia, The Rise of Nonconsensual Bride Kidnapping in Post-Soviet Kazakhstan in
The Transformation of Central Asia. State and Societies from Soviet Rule to Independence
(London, 2004) pg. 68-89
Kane, Danielle, Duke University and Ksenia Gorbenko, University of Pennsylvania, States
and Women’s Rights in Central Asia, http://www.yale.edu/ccr/kane.pdf
Abazov, Rafis “Culture and Customs of Central Asian Republics” (Greenwood Press, London
2007), pg. 213 – 230.
Class 17 – Topic:
Cultural Diversity of Afghanistan
Afghanistan’s multi-cultural and multi-lingual tribal society, religion, languages, national
and religious holidays, inter-ethnic and regional conflict, cuisine, sport, education, national
dress, music, and poetry.
Assigned Readings:
Tahir Amin, "Pakistan, Afghanistan and the Central Asian States," in Ali Banuazizi and
Myron Weiner, eds., The New Geopolitics of Central Asia, Bloomington: University of
Indiana Press, 1994, pg. 221-256
Starr S. Frederick. A “Greater Central Asia Partnership” for Afghanistan and Its Neighbors
(Washington, D.C.: Central Asia-Caucasus Institute and Silk Road Studies Program, 2005),
pg. 11
Class 18 – Topic:
Ethnic Minorities of Central Asia
The history of ethnic minorities in Central Asia and the self-presentation of their cultural
identity, the state policy towards the international policy marginalization and the
nationless peoples of Central Asia including the politically and religiously persecuted
Uyghurs and the high unemployment and generally poor living conditions of the
Karakalpaks.
Assigned Readings:
Werner, Cynthia The New Silk Road: Mediators and Tourism Development in Central Asia in
Ethnology, Vol. 42, No. 2 (Spring, 2003), pp. 141-159. University of Pittsburgh- Of the
Commonwealth System of Higher Education at http://www.jstor.org. .Accessed:
31/01/2012.
Gladney C. Dru. Islam in China: Accommodation or Separatism? In The China Quarterly, No.
174, Religion in China Today (Jun., 2003), pp. 451-467. Cambridge University Press on
behalf
of
the
School
of
Oriental
and
African
Studies
at
http://www.jstor.org/stable/20059003 .Accessed: 31/01/2012.
Class 19 – Topic:
Performing Music of Central Asia
Influences on traditional music of Central Asia, the Sovietization and “cultural
modernization” of national music, simplistic nomadic musical expression vs. developed and
highly sophisticated musical traditions of the settled centers, classification and
demonstration of traditional instruments, traditional musical systems, the rise of Western
musical influences and globalization, influences on dance as a performing art and notable
styles, the development of theater, and contemporary music.
Assigned Readings:
Sultanova, Razia Music and Identity in Central Asia: in Ethnomusicology Forum, Vol. 14,
No. 2, Music and Identity in Central Asia (Nov.,2005), pp. 131-142 at http://www.jstor.org.
Accessed: 31/01/2012.
Abazov, Rafis “Culture and Customs of Central Asian Republics” (Greenwood Press, London
2007) pg. 105-129.
Audio material on CD: Music of the Silk Road.
Class 20 – Topic:
Architecture of Central Asia
Introduction to Central Asian architecture, ancient architecture, Islamic (including Timurid)
architecture, Persian architecture, the tsarist and Soviet era of architecture, nomadic
housing, and modern architecture.
Assigned Readings:
Abazov, Rafis “Culture and Customs of Central Asian Republics” (Greenwood Press, London
2007) pg. 191 – 211.
Visiting an open air museum in front of Ministry of Culture and Tourism of KR.
Class 21 – Topic:
Media and Cinema of Central Asia
The influences on media, the press, the challenges of investigative journalism, censorship,
self-censorship, state propaganda, the development of radio, trends in television, the
beginnings of cinema, its challenges, and modern dimensions, the emergence and
importance of the Internet and social networking.
Assigned Readings:
Abazov, Rafis “Culture and Customs of Central Asian Republics” (Greenwood Press, London
2007) pg. 133 – 159.
Film. Documentary cinema of post-Soviet Central Asia.