Part 1 of 5
United States
Department of
Agriculture
Wildland Firefighter
Health and Safety
Forest Service
Recommendations of the
April 1999 Conference
Technology &
Development
Program
5100 Fire
December 1999
9951-2841-MTDC
Brian Sharkey
Project Leader
USDA Forest Service
Technology and Development Program
Missoula, Montana
9E92P47—Wildland Firefighter Health and Safety
December 1999
The Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, has developed this information for the guidance of its employees, its contractors, and its cooperating
Federal and State agencies, and is not responsible for the interpretation or use of this information by anyone except its own employees. The use of trade, firm, or
corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader, and does not constitute an endorsement by the Department of any product
or service to the exclusion of others that may be suitable. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), prohibits discrimination in all its programs and activities
on the basis of race, color, national origin, gender, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, sexual orientation, and marital or family status. (Not all prohibited bases
apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (Braille, large print, audiotape, and so forth)
should phone USDA’s TARGET Center at (202) 720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write: USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, Room
326-W, Whitten Building, 14th and Independence Avenue SW, Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (202) 720-5964 (voice or TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity
provider and employer.
Part 1 of 5
Dedication
Arthur H. Jukkala 3/30/35–7/12/99
This report is dedicated to the memory of Arthur H. Jukkala, an MTDC
employee who spent his career working to improve the health and
safety of wildland firefighters. As program leader for the fire and
safety and health programs, he was responsible for the
development of uniforms, personal protective equipment,
tools, nutrition, hydration, fitness, employee health, and
other health and safety projects. After his retirement in
1990 he served as consultant on the development of the
Pack Test, and was active in the Smokejumper’s
Association. Family, sculpting, woodworking, travel, and
vigorous outdoor pursuits filled his retirement years.
He came to rest in his favorite place, the Bob Marshall
Wilderness, while leading a volunteer trail crew
composed of exsmokejumpers.
Part 1 of 5
Table of Contents
Dedication _____________________________ (inside front cover)
Introduction _________________________________________ 4
Recommendations ___________________________________ 5
Conference Papers __________________________________ 11
Director’s Perspective
by Jose Cruz ___________________________________________ 12
Defining Fire and Aviation Safety and Health Issues
by David Aldrich ________________________________________ 15
Illness, Injuries, and Fatalities Among Wildland Firefighters
by Dick Mangan _________________________________________ 17
Demands of the Job
by Brian Sharkey ________________________________________ 20
Energy Expenditure and Energy Intake During Wildfire
Suppression in Male and Female Firefighters
by Brent Ruby __________________________________________ 26
Heat Stress
by Brian Sharkey ________________________________________ 32
Wildland Firefighting and the Immune Response
by Steve Wood __________________________________________ 38
Oxidative Stress and Antioxidants: Fighting the Fire Within
by Wayne Askew ________________________________________ 52
Individual Factors Related to Health, Safety, and Performance
by Paul Davis ___________________________________________ 60
Conference Program _________________________________ 63
Conference Participants ______________________________ 66
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Part 1 of 5
Introduction
W
generations of work capacity tests and
training programs for firefighters, and
employee health (wellness) programs for
agency employees.
Since the 1960’s, the Missoula
Technology and Development Center
(MTDC) has been involved in projects
related to the health and safety of
wildland firefighters. Past work has
involved field studies of the metabolic,
cardiovascular, and thermal strain
associated with the work, uniforms, heat
stress, hydration, nutrition, work/rest
cycles, smoke, and other factors related
to firefighter safety, health, and
performance. MTDC has developed two
The National Wildfire Coordinating Group
(NWCG) coordinates wildfire activities
among federal and State agencies
throughout the United States. Its Safety
and Health Working Team (SHWT)
oversees the safety and health of
wildland firefighters. On April 27 to 29,
1999, the SHWT and MTDC
cosponsored a national conference to
explore ways to enhance the health and
safety of wildland firefighters. The
conference, held in Missoula, featured
invited speakers, panel discussions, and
open forums designed to identify and
discuss current and emerging issues.
Based on the presentations and
discussions, conference participants
met in working groups to develop
recommendations. The recommendations are intended for immediate
implementation, for field evaluation, or for
future research and development. This
report includes the papers presented at
the conference, and the recommendations of the conference participants.
ildland firefighting is arduous
work, performed for long
shifts in difficult environmental conditions. The work can be
dangerous, due to the fire and the
working conditions. Heat, smoke, rolling
rocks, falling snags, and other hazards
threaten the worker. Those hazards
include mountain travel, sharp tools,
heavy loads, and aerial operations.
Fatigue can impair performance and
decision making, increasing the risk of
injuries. Prolonged exposure to fatigue,
stress, smoke, and poor nutrition has the
potential to increase the incidence of
upper respiratory illness and other
illnesses.
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