I ntergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
technical series
A Comprehensive Plan for the Global
\\
Investigation of Pollution in the
Marine Environment
and Baseline Study Guidelines
Unesco 1976
ISBN 92-3-101430-7
French edition 92-3-201430-0
Spanish edition 92-3-3014304
Russian edition 92-3-401430-8
Published in 1976 by the United Nations Educational,
Scientific and Cultural Organization
7,Place de Fontenoy,75700 Paris
Printed in Unesco’s workshops
OUnesco 1976
Printed in France
PREFACE
This document is an amalgamation of document IOC/INF-263rev., entitled "A Comprehensive Plan
for a Global Investigation of Pollutionin the Marine Environment (GIPME)",
and document IOC/INF-276,
entitled "Report of the IOC/ICES Working Group on Baseline Study Guidelines", as amended by the
IOC Executive Council at its seventh session (Bergen, 21-26 June 1976).
In the present text some editorial changes have been made to bring the information contained
in these two component documents up to date, and to make them compatible with the overall format.
This version takes into account comments received by the Secretary from Member States and
interested international organizations up until 1 July 1976, without prejudice to further revisions
based on further comments from M e m b e r States and from experience gained in the conduct of baseline studies.
It is hoped that Member States and international organizations concerned with marine pollution
on a global or regional scale, particularly as regards marine pollution research, will find this
publication useful in orienting their work so that it will contribute effectively to the construction, in
due course, of a complete picture of the pollution of the marine environment.
3
TABLE OF C O N T E N T S
A Comprehensive Plan for the Global Investigation of
Pollution in the Marine Environment and Baseline Study Guidelines
Page
___
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
The scientific framework
1.
1 .1
2.
Organizational principles
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elements of the Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1
2.2
2 .3
2.4
2.5
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tasks and aims
Types of pollutants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phase A of the Comprehensive Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Phase B of the Comprehensive Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
3.
Baseline studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
4.
Mass halance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
10
10
5.
Introduction
Inputs . . .
Outflows . .
Distribution
Transfer processes
5.1
5.2
5.3
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11
11
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11
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Priorities for the study of processes . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
12
13
6.
Provision of basic standards for exposure to pollutants . . . . . . .
13
7.
Co-ordinating mechanisms
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
7. 1
7.2
Overall co-ordination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laboratory networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
18
The implementation framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
1.
Regional marine pollution workshops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
2.
Marine pollution monitoring programmes
.............
22
3.
Baseline studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.
Research on marine pollutants
5.
Other implementation recommendations
22
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
22
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
5
Page
Baseline study guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
.........................
24
1.
Introduction
2.
Evaluation of present knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3.
Possible major pollutants.
...................
25
4.
Identification of inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.
Selection of sample types and sampling arrays
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
..
Water
Organisms
Sediments .
Air.. . .
.......................
.......................
.......................
.......................
................
6.
Sampling and storage procedures
7.
Analytical methods .
8.
Allocation of analytical tasks
9.
Intercalibration
10.
Compilation and processing of data
11.
General advice
12.
Special problems of tropical and/or developing countries.
......................
List of acronyms
..................
........................
...............
........................
.....
26
21
28
30
31
31
32
32
32
33
33
34
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40
..........................
41
Glossary of key terms used
6
..........
26
THE SCIENTIFICFRAMEWORK(')
1.
Introduction
The GIPME Comprehensive Plan provides an international framework within which national
and regional programmes on various aspects of marine pollution m a y be co-ordinated to contribute
to an understanding of global pollution problems.
The ultimate objective of a comprehensive investigation of marine pollution is to provide a
sound scientific basis for the assessment and regulation of the pollution problem, including sensibly
planned and implemented monitoring programmes. Whilst monitoring, in a regulatory context, is
not a part of GIPME, its proper planning and execution are dependent on the successful outcome of
GIPME. Monitoring needs will, in some respects, be different between regions and will change
with time, but in order to give an early start and sensible orientation to such activities, a first
priority in GIPME should be the conduct of baseline studies. These will largely be conducted on a
national or regional basis, but it is essential that they be conducted within a carefully thought out
framework in order to facilitate collation and interpretation of data as future "health of the ocean"
statements. As the picture of global distribution of marine pollutants builds up from baseline
studies, requirements for larger scale surveys on a more closely integrated internationalbasis
m a y emerge. A major element of the plan, therefore, provides for the first type (national or
regional) of baseline study and takes due account of the need to cater for mass-balance calculations,
for the provision of exposure standards and other needs for rational regulatory action.
In order to satisfy these latter requirements, equal priority is given to a number of research
activities dealing with inputs, pathways, sinks, effects and dose/response relationships; although
these activities will have to proceed on a longer time scale than individual baseline studies, they
nevertheless should start now.
Baseline studies will provide valuable data on inputs, distributions and pathways, and to some
degree will help the mass-balance studies. However, much important work will need to go forward
on mass balance and particularly on transfer processes between major reservoirs, such as the sea
and the atmosphere, and similar requirements have yet to be met for river inputs and exchange of
pollutants between water and bed sediments.
Nor can a proper understanding of the pollution problem be envisaged without the provision of
adequate basic exposure standards for m a n and other organisms and an evaluation of effects on
climate, etc.
In formulating the programme due account has been taken of relevant United Nations resolutions
and the activities and requirements of various United Nations bodies, and particular use has been
made of the modified Castellabate Report (document IOC/GIPME-I1/7)and the Programme for the
Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine Environment presented by the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (document IOC/INF198).
(1) A glossary of the key terms and a list of the acronyms used in this document are given at the
end, The technical terms defined in the glossary are underlined at their first appearance in
the text.
7
1. 1 Organizational principles
The baseline studies envisaged in the Comprehensive Plan can be at three levels:
1. I. 1 National studies of pollution in estuaries and coastal waters, including circulation
studies.
1. 1. 2 Regional studies of pollution carried out by groups of States sometimes under the auspices of a regional body such as ICES or GFCM.
1. 1. 3
Studies of pollution in open-ocean areas, carried out by Member States, by regional
bodies or under other intergovernmental arrangements.
The measurement and evaluation of pollution levels carried out by participating States must
be conducted on the basis of agreed methods. The co-ordination of regional and open-ocean studies
with those conducted by Member States on an individual basis will need to be arranged by IOC in
agreement with the appropriate States and regional bodies.
2.
Elements of the Plan
2.1 Tasks and aims
The Plan selects the elements considered to be most relevant to immediate needs.
2. 1. 1 Planning and executing systematic baseline observations of the concentrations of
selected pollutants in the marine environment, including marine organisms, sea water
and bottom deposits.
2. 1. 2 Identifying the major pollutant sources, determining rates of input via various pathways, identifying the sinks and determining rates of removal; this will lead to massbalance estimates.
2. 1. 3 Development of basic standards for exposure to pollutants, of either m a n or elements
of the marine environment, thus providing an essential part of the basis for control of
marine pollution.
The above tasks, when successfully completed, will permit:
(i)
a systematic picture of the level of pollution, and of the spatial distribution of major
pollutants, as a necessary preliminary to an assessment of the health of the ocean;
(ii)
a quantitative understanding of the transfer to and within the marine environmmt of
major pollutants;
(iii)
the provision of a sound scientific basis for measures controlling the introduction of
pollutants to the ocean;
(iv)
the development of the predictive capacity to assess the potential effects on the marine
environment caused by changes in the pattern of pollutant introduction.
2. 2 Types of pollutants
At the present time attention should be paid to the study of heavy metals and other toxic elements
(e.g. lead, mercury, cadmium), the halogenated hydrocarbons, both aromatic (DDT,P C B s and
others) and aliphatic (hydrocarbonwastes f r o m PVC manufacture and others), petroleum, microbiological pollution (sewage disposal), nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus )and artificial radioactivity (plutonium and some of the fission and activation products). Since the importance of a pollutant varies from area to area, any form of ranking is unwarranted.
2. 3 Phase A of the Comprehensive Plan
The diagram below indicates the principal areas requiring action now and relates them to the final
regulatory objective:
8
~
[;---------I
INPUTS
+
TRANSFER PROCESSES
D1STR I B UTI 0NS
I
I
4
'
BASELINE 4-------A
I
+a
I
I
I
I
_ _ _ _ _ _I _ _ _ -1I
MASS BALANCE
implies development on
longer time scale
I
E F F ECTS
+
DOSE/RESPONSE
+
PRIMARY STANDARDS
~
REGULATORY ACTION AND MONITORING
The various elements of the phase A plan are discussed in more detail in sections 3-6.
2.4 Phase B of the Comprehensive Plan
In many research programmes, after the basic data are collected and a model is developed, there
is a need to test the model. Accordingly, phase B of GIPME will involve the examination of conditions after a period of ten years, say, following imposition of controls on inputs, if these are found
necessary after initial mass-balance calculations.
Phase B will require the feedback of results from not only baseline studies and research, but
also from any monitoring programmes that m a y be instituted. Therefore, it would be difficult to
develop a realistic plan for phase B at this time.
2. 5 Data exchange
A n important element of the Comprehensive Plan is the management of information and data produced during the investigation. Close collaboration between the IOC Working Committee on IODE
and GIPME is essential in dealing with data problems. Systematization and processing of data on
marine pollution are now being carried out, to a limited extent, by the World Data Centres A and
B (Oceanography), by some National Oceanographic Data Centres, and by s o m e Regional and
Specialized Data Centres. Information management is probably less well developed and the plan
will need in due course to take account of intergovernmental efforts at present under way; e. g.
the IRS of UNEP and ASFIS of FAO.
3.
Baseline studies
Investigations of the present distribution of certain selected pollutants in the marine environment
are known as baseline studies, and constitute the basis for future pollution monitoring. Baseline
studies are considered the most important immediate actions to be taken.
During these studies the analytical methods are developed and tested, and experience is
gained in making observations. The manifold problems of sampling at sea, avoiding contamination, and necessary pretreatment and storage of samples taken, must be resolved. The procedures developed m a y later be used in a monitoring system. Finally, an initial appreciation of the
nature and magnitude of marine pollution in the region concerned is acquired.
A fundamental element of baseline studies is intercalibration,which m a y lead to a selection
of commonly agreed methods. For an intercalibration exercise it is usually necessary to develop
first a set of carefully selected and prepared reference samples. The data produced in the
9
intercalibrationexperiment have to be evaluated finally according to standard quality assurance
methodology.
Baseline studies should first be carried out in those regions of the ocean that seem to exemplify a particular aspect of marine pollution. Baseline study guidelines are given in the third
major section of this document; they are not included at this point because they deal with the
general operational aspects of baseline studies rather than the conceptual aspects.
1
It is essential that the results and experience of these preliminary baseline studies be
evaluated by the Working Committee for GIPME and that similar studies be developed in other
relatively unpolluted regions, including sub-polar and tropical seas, so that a more comprehensive picture of the present state of marine pollution can be obtained.
The experience gained by ICES in its North Sea baseline study could serve as a basis for similar studies elsewhere, although it is recognized that each region would have special conditions,
needs and circumstances.
It is important that the main direction in which the baseline study is to go has to be developed
firmly at the beginning. The most straightforward approach would undoubtedly be directed towards
public health; however, effects of pollutants on living resources, ecosystems, amenities, shipping, fishery and other legitimate uses of the sea m a y be more imperative in other geographical
areas. Baseline studies would also be a very useful exercise in some very remote regions, to
document the undisturbed "natural" state before specific large-scale human activities are started.
Any baseline study, since it is aimed at yielding an "instant" picture of the pollution situation,
should be carried out rapidly in as short a time as possible: preferably not more than one year.
The distribution of pollutants determined by baseline studies can be used with their input estimates to derive approximate mass-balance statements for specific pollutants in the marine environment. When more accurate input and removal estimates are made available through the developments of research on the "processes" involved, the accuracy of the mass-balance relationships will
be improved accordingly. The improved mass-balance relationships of pollutants in specific
regional areas, as well as on a world-wide scale, will greatly help the future diagnosis of the
"health of the oceans".
4. Mass balance
4.1 Introduction
The formulation of mass balances for selected pollutants in the marine environment constitutes a
basic component of the scientific strategy of the comprehensive plan for GIPME. The concept of
mass balance or mass budget is essentially a simple accounting procedure which requires estimates of the input, storage and output rates for a reservoir such as the ocean. The value of such
a procedure is in identifying the major pathways of pollutants through the system, and thus in
pointing out areas in which our information is inadequate.
Mass balances m a y be usefully determined for specific pollutants on either a regional or a
global basis. Although such a calculation is necessarily approximate initially, it m a y become
progressively more precise as results from baseline studies and research become available. It
is essential to note, however, that the exercise does not provide an understanding of the details of
basic processes that control the inputs and outputs of the systems or the distribution of pollutants
within the reservoir.
Examples of studies contributing to the formulation of mass balances include the open-ocean
studies (polygon studies), proposed by the USSR, and the regional study of the pollution of the
North Sea by ICES.
4.2 Inputs
The relative importance of the various pathways of pollutants entering the ocean will depend upon
the location and geographic scale of the ocean region under consideration as well as on the individual pollutant. Assessing these various inputs will present a wide range of problems including the
10
procurement of information, the understanding of the basic processes involved, and the difficulties
of measurement. The following are possible pathways from other reservoirs to the oceans.
(i)
influx from rivers in dissolved or suspended state;
(ii)
influx from the atmosphere in the liquid, solid or gas phase;
(iii)
influx from coastal outfalls including pipeline discharge, seepage and run-off;
(iv)
influx from intentional discharge, such as ship operation, and dumping or accidental
discharge, such as collision or shipwreck;
(v)
influx from the sea bottom by mining, drilling, seepage,leaching or natural disturbance.
In addition, pollutants m a y be transferred from one region of the ocean to another by physical
or biological transport, or they m a y be introduced by chemical or biological transformation from
other substances.
4.3 Outflows
Although there is not as much emphasis on pollutant removal from the ocean in the early stages of
GIPME, it is, nevertheless, important from a mass-balance point of view, and for identifying
sinks. There is less known about this subject than about inputs, but some of the major outflow
pathways are:
(i)
deposition as sediments following coagulation or accretion of dead organisms;
(ii)
loss to the atmosphere;
(iii)
deposition of oil and marine litter on shores.
A s with input from one region to another, outflow will also occur, as will loss by chemical
and biological transformation.
4.4 Distribution
The other important early objective oi baseline studies is to investigate pollutant levels and distributions; this is related to the storage term in the mass-balance equation. It must be :LO:
mat
interpretation of data on pollutant distribution within the various elements of a reservoir, or on
pollutant levels, or changes in pollutant levels, is not possible without a thorough understanding of
the processes responsible. In this regard the study of water movements, both coastal and open
ocean, are important.
,
5.
Transfer processes
5. 1 Introduction
The next element in the framework of a strategy for investigating marine pollution is a study of the
physical, chemical and biological processes in which the pollutants take part. It is convenient to
consider the "pathway" or "route" of a substance through that part of its biogeochemical cycle
which is the marine environment. A substance originates from a source in the atmosphere or on
land, for example, and passes through the oceanic reservoir, which consists of the ocean and its
inhabitants, until it is eventually removed to a sink, such as the ocean-bottom sediment, or perhaps the atmosphere. The time scale for this progression m a y vary from near-instantaneous to
millions of years. During this time, a pollutant takes part in a number of processes, which m a y
be usefully defined in this context as a physical, chemical or biological link between adjacent
stages of the pollutant's pathway through the marine environment.
It is the study of these various processes that will provide an indication of the relationship
between observed pollutant inputs and distributions - the two essential elements of baseline surveys. Processes are thus a significant part of the mass-balance scheme. Additionally, the
observed effects upon which dose-response relationships and ultimately standards are based, can
only be interpreted in terms of the processes responsible for those effects.
11
One of the ultimate aims.of this investigation is to develop a predictive capacity for future
change in the marine environment. Only when constituent processes are thoroughly understood will
it be possible to attempt the construction of a model for this purpose.
5.2 Types of processes
The marine environment is a complex system - it comprises portions of the atmosphere, the land
mass, and,ri!vers, in addition to the ocean itself. Within the oceans are distinct regions and a multitude of organisms. Each of these elements m a y have associated with it a large number of individual prucesses requiring investigation. It is convenient then to divide the system into manageable
sections.which contain a number of related elements, whose processes m a y be discussed and examined together. These are listed below with their components:
(i)
other reservoirs - atmosphere, river, land, sediment;
(ii)
reservoir interfaces - atmosphere/ocean, riverlocean, landlocean, sediment/ocean;
- coastal waters/open ocean, surface mixed layer/deep ocean;
(iii)
internal interfaces
(iv)
ocean - coastal waters, deep ocean, surface mixed 1a.yer;
(v)
biological element
- water/organism, organism/organism, sediment/organism.
For each of the elements in the five groups it is possible to identify types of processes and
often list individual processes deserving attention. This is considered below.
However, it is first informative to comment briefly on these groups. The first involves processes that affect the nature of the pollutants before they are transferred to the ocean itself. Although the results are very important to this programme, such investigations should not be included
in the framework of GIPME. Rather, information should be actively sought from appropriate, responsible bodies, such as the RIOS and proposed TTP Working Groups. The second group involves
those processes that govern the rates and points of entry (and exit) of pollutants to (and from) the
ocean. Knowledge of these is urgently required for mass-balance calculations. The third group,
internal interfaces, includes processes that control mass transport between different oceanographic
zones of the ocean, and the fourth group includes processes that occur within each of the main
oceanographic zones of the ocean. The last group, biological in nature, includes processes that
govern the interaction of pollutants with organisms and also the distribution within the marine
bio-system.
Table 1 shows types of processes and specific examples for the various categories. There is
no attempt to provide an exhaustive listing.
Table 1
-
Processes in various areas of the marine environment
CATEGORY
ELEMENT
T Y P E S O F P R O C E S S AND E X A M P L E S
Other
reservoir
atmosphere
river systems
land
sediment
transport, transformation (photo-oxidation)
I1
I1
(sedimentation)
11
TI
(bio-reduction)
11
11
(compaction)
Reservoir
interfaces
atmosphere-ocean
air-sea exchange, interface film transformation (gas-phaseexchange)
mixing, chemical transformation (flocculation)
physical, chemical, biological exchange
(dissolution)
II
I1
II
(bioturbation)
rivers- ocean
land-ocean
sediment-ocean
Internal
interfaces
coastal waters
open ocean
-
surface mixed layer
deep ocean
12
-
reactions between liquid, solid phases,
biological uptake, transport by currents,
mixing (advection)
vertical exchange: diffusion, mixing,
biological transport (turbulentmixing)
CATEGORY
ELEMENT
T Y P E S OF P R O C E S S AND E X A M P L E S
Ocean
coastal waters
deep ocean
mixing, tides, currents (biologicalmigration)
transport, chemical transformation
(sedimentation)
mixing, tides, biological transport and
transformation
(turbulent mixing)
surface mixed layer
Biological
systems
water
- organism
organism - organism
sediment - organism
direct exposure processes (absorption,
flushing)
indirect exposure (trophic magnification)
process
(ingestion)
5. 3 Priorities for the study of processes
With the recognition that each investigation and each scientist will assign specific priorities to
research on these processes according to their objectives, interests and facilities, it is, nevertheless, helpful to indicate the areas in which new knowledge would most rapidly aid the progress of
GIPME. At this stage, study of those processes that contribute to a knowledge of pollutant inputs
and distribution should be emphasized. Within these areas, priorities will be subject to the specific pollutants and specific target species examined.
For example, when investigating the input and present distribution of DDT in a baseline study,
it is essential to give top priority to those processes governing input from the atmosphere, distribution in the surface mixed layer of the ocean, and uptake and distribution in the target species,
which m a y be fish eaten by humans. Until these first steps are understood, it will be necessary to
give lower priority, for example, to other sink processes removing DDT from the ocean.
Flexibility is important in assigning such priorities, because there will be considerable feedback from each project or survey completed which will point to new areas requiring immediate
attention.
6.
Provision of basic standards for exaosure to oollutants
Sensible control over the introduction of pollutants to the marine environment is dependent upon the
elaboration of suitable basic exposure standards either for m a n or for marine organisms. In order
to define these basic standards, it is necessary to establish suitable dose/response relationships
(criteria)for various categories of pollutant and organism and to take account of cost-risk/costbenefit considerations. These requirements have been achieved in relation to human radiation
exposure, and the resulting widely accepted standards and methodology have greatly facilitated the
establishment of the present effective control over radioactive waste disposal.
For most pollutants the acceptable degree of exposure of m a n or other organisms is either
unknown or poorly quantified. N o quantitative statement can be made on acceptable levels of exposure, without some estimate of the rate of incidence of harmful effect resulting from a given degree
of exposure. There are great difficulties in obtaining this information for man, or for organisms,
in the natural environment. Resort has to be made therefore either, in the case of man, to epidemiological studies, or to exposure of organisms under experimentalconditions at high rates of exposure.
There is an urgent need to develop methods for the assessment, or estimation, of the effects of
chronic exposure of individual organisms, populations and ecosystems, for without such information it will be difficult to define the appropriate standards on which to base rational decisions on
acceptable rates ofintroduction of pollutants, or to interpretproperly environmental monitoring data.
In the absence of sufficient data at the low rates of exposure normally found in the environment,
it m a y be necessary to make linear extrapolations from effects at high exposure rates to zero
effects at zero exposure, as has been done with radioactivity. This m a y provide a suitable initial
basis for setting conservative standards on which adequate environmental quality control measures
can he based. Since these standards will often have to he established from laboratory studies, or
even theoretical considerations, in advance of direct evidence of their validity indeed in many
-
13
cases it m a y never be possible to establish acceptable levels on the bask of observed effects under
natural conditions - the development of a co-ordinated approach to their establishment is urgently
required. The conduct and design of toxicity tests and the use of data from them in developing
dose/response criteria needs to be examined. The application of basic standards to environmental
situations and'the use of such concepts as costlrisk and costlbenefit analyses require attention.
Essential components of a research programme to evaluate the effects of pollutants must
include:
(i)
The determination of acceptable risks (somatic or genetic)to man from the ingestion
of seafoods containing the pollutants or from direct exposure.
The dietary patterns of exposed populations clearly must be ascertained. Exposure
levels and a methodology for establishing m a x i m u m permissible concentrations in seafood have been established for some radioactive substances and for mercury by some
countries. International exposure and derived ingestion standards should be established
for these, and for petroleum, halogenated hydrocarbons and other pollutant heavy metals where appropriate. These standards and methodologies, supplemented with information akitained from a monitoring programme, will allow the establishment of safe
levels for seafaad'ccmsumption. The G E S A M P review of harmful substances will provide a useful basis f w the establishment of first priorities.
(ii)
Multidisciplinary studies of the long-term effects of pollutants on the stability of marine
ecosystems.
The most important effect of pollutants on marine ecosystems which can influence
large areas of the ocean m a y be caused by long-term exposure of marine organisms to
low levels of pollutants. In principle, these effects can be studied by assessment of
long-term changes of community structure in the open ocean or by the manipulation of
controlled ecosystems. In practice, there are serious difficulties in community structur e assessment:
(a) Accurate estimates of biomass are contingent upon the ability to quantify the
effects of uneven population distribution. At present, it is difficult to quantify
and separate temporal and spatial variability from normal random unevenness
in distributions of pelagic populations.
(b) "Critical" (most sensitive) species of a heterogeneous food web are not
always identifiable.
(c) If subtle population alterations are detected, it is presently not possible to
determine whether the cause is due to climate changes, to normal population
fluctuations, or to pollution, or to any particular combination of these factors.
The alternative to open-ocean community structure assessment is to conduct programmes
designed to study the effects of pollutants on marine ecosystems in environments that can be
properly managed, experimentally manipulated, and that are sufficiently like the real world to be
a valid simulation of it. This system(s) must have as its prime requisite the capability of maintaining stable natural mixed-species populations of at least two (preferably more) trophic levels of the
food chain. Several options to accomplish this are:
14
(a)
artificial impoundments (ponds etc. );
(b)
flow-through systems (troughs);
(c)
massive impoundments (e.g. damming of lochs);
(d)
experimental tanks (land-based);
(e)
artificial entrapment of large volumes of water containing natural populations.
Such programmes require a multidisciplinary effort and the co-operation of a number of laboratories to carry out the field programmes and to provide back-up information necessary to design
experimental procedures in the large systems.
T o ascertain and predict the long-term effects of chemical perturbations on marine populations,
it is essential to understand the relationships between trophic levels. T o achieve predictive capability, models must be constructed that can account for effects that operate differentially on different species within and between given trophic levels. Initial model input data on pollutant effects on
such parameters as growth, reproduction and mortality can be obtained by laboratory experimentation. Subsequent model testing can be conducted in large impoundments with controlled levels of
pollutants. The pollutant levels chosen for study should be:
(a)
similar to those presently observed in marine waters;
(b)
an order of magnitude higher; and
(c)
where predictable, those that might be reached in future years.
In addition to determining the concentration of the pollutant itself in water, biota and in sedimenting materials, frequent measurements of pH, redox potential, nutrients, particulate and dissolved organic carbon, illumination, bacterial activity, photosynthesis, phyto-zooplanktonspecies
composition and numerical abundance, and zooplankton grazing, behaviour, reproduction and
species succession, are required for modal development.
Unpredicted catastrophic events frequently provide an opportunity to study the effects of a pollutant on natural systems through exaggerated alteration of community structure. When logistically
feasible such events should be thoroughly studied by the immediate dispatch of qualiyied scientists
to the scene of the episode. The effects of such catastrophes such as those on the members of the
biota, should be examined in as much detail as possible. These studies should continue for as long
as effects are discernible.
The following types of investigations are of high priority and can best be conducted at individual laboratories:
(a)
development of techniques for determining concentrations of human viruses and their
persistence in sea water and seafood;
(b)
studies to ascertain subtle but important changes in living systems, which result from
continued low-level exposure to pollutants (e.g. chromosome aberration, alteration of
behaviour and physiology);
(c)
synergistic or antagonistic effects of pollutants.
Three groups have some bearing on the question of effects on ecosystems: ACMRR/LABO
Working Party on Ecological Indices of Stress to Fisheries and, to a lesser extent, the ACMRR
Working Party on Biological Accumulators and the ACMHR/IABO Working Party on Biological
Effects of Marine Pollutants.
7.
Co-ordinating mechanisms
The successful execution of phase A of the Comprehensive Plan for GIPME requires the establishment of effective management and co-ordinating mechanisms. The future structure of GIPME
should reflect these needs and should therefore contain arrangements for programme evaluation
and review of the major subject areas.
The comprehensive plan identifies several major areas of activity that could conveniently be
allotted to appropriate task teams each with responsibility for organizing, overseeing and coordinating its own work. However, it must be recognized that, due to the interdisciplinarynature
of the problems involved, there are numerous bodies and working groups dealing with several of
the aspects of the comprehensive plan and international scientific effort in marine pollution in
general.
15
Areas of concern
The Comprehensive Plan indicates the following major areas of concern:
Baseline studies
Although these cover a wide variety of marine regions and will
be conducted by a variety of regional, national and even institutional organizations, it is highly desirable, for the purposes
of GIPME and for fundamental scientific reasons, that such
studies conform as far as possible to an agreed basic plan in
respect of intercalibration, analytical and sampling methods,
and media; in short, a logistical uniformity consistent with
the special characteristics, circumstances and needs of each
region; the baseline study guidelines given later were prepared by an IOC/ICES Working Group with this aim in mind.
Inputs
These are broadly classified as atmospheric, fluvial and terrestrial; there is a need to review and evaluate the work being
carried on at the international level, either regionally or
globally; in due course each major group of inputs m a y require a task team.
Mass-balance
Once appropriate information has been assembled on inputs,
outflows and distributions, and as a more thorough understanding is gained of the relevant processes, global balance statements for specific pollutants m a y be possible; the preparation
of such statements m a y be assigned to a task team.
Processes
There will also be a need to evaluate and review on-going work
in this area; processes are broadly subdivided in the plan into
those between the principal media and those within each main
medium, and m a y accordingly require more than one task
team.
Effects, Dose/Response
Relationships, and Standards
These areas are less well-developed and, although of a similar priority to the above-mentioned activities, will require
continuing effort over a longer period; in due course, however, one or more task teams m a y be required.
Activities of other bodies
These areas of activity are also the subject of working groups and other bodies, both governmental
and scientific, now active at the international level. Those whose areas of concern are of immediate relevance to GIPME, and thus with which the Working Committee would expect to work most
closely, are summarized in Table 2 which is, however, not exhaustive. More details on the main
ones are given below:
16
General
S C O R is concerned with the study of the oceans generally and
can form ad hoc working groups, if requested to do so, to
study specific topics. ACMRR, as noted above, can form
working parties to study specific biological topics; some
specific subsidiary bodies of these two committees are mentioned below. ICSU's Scientific Committee on Problems of the
Environment is concerned with the environment as a whole and
works with S C O R on oceanic aspects thereof.
Baseline studies
ICES has recently published a report on the pollution of the
North Sea, including a baseline study thereof. In collaboration with SCOR, ICES is now organizing a similar study of the
Baltic Sea and will, in the next few years, organize and conduct a baseline study of the north east Atlantic Ocean in the
NEAFC area.
The IOC, FAO and UNEP are jointly organizing regional scientific workshops which m a y lay the basis for regional baseline studies; the areas and co-operating regional bodies are:
Mediterranean G F C M / I C S E M ; Caribbean - CICAR/WECAFC;
East Asia - CSK/IPFC.
-
UNEP, working through the IOC and GFCM, is organizing
baseline studies of oil in water, and heavy metals and halogenated hydrocarbons in marine organisms.
The IOC/WMOIGOSS Pilot Projecton Marine Pollution (Petroleum) Monitoring became operational on l January 1975. It is
an operational feasibility study rather than a normal baseline
study, but will produce baseline data.
Inputs, Processes and
Distributions
The GESAMP ad hoc Working Group on Interchange of Pollutants between the Atmosphere and the Oceans, and the proposed S C O R / A C O M R / I A M A P Working Group on the Tropospheric
Transport of Pollutants (TTP)(')would be the most concerned
about air-sea boundary processes.
ICSU's Global Atmospheric Research Programme (GARP)does
not have a specific concern with pollutants but it does deal with
atmospheric processes that are relevant to the distribution of
pollutants.
The GESAMP Working Group on the Scientific Basis for the
Disposal of Waste into the Sea has dealt with mass transport
processes among others.
The SCOR/ACMRR/UmSCO/ECOR/IAHSWorking Group on
River Inputs to Ocean Systems (RIOS)is concerned with the
physical, chemical and biological processes in rivers and
estuaries; it is not directly concerned with global quantities
of materials, including pollutants, entering the sed t--LJugti
rivers. The InternationalHydrological Decade (IHD)
programme, on the other hand, is concerned with quantities of
water and sediments and, in the future, possibly with certain
pollutants, though this remains to be seen. The UNESCO/
UNEP World Registry of Rivers Dischargingto the Oceans m a y
eventually provide information on pollutant inputs.
The IOC ad hoc Group of Experts on Pollution of the Ocean
Originating on Land (POOL)has proposed means of obtaining,
on a global basis, data on production and use patterns of (at
this time) two test-case pollutants (total DDT and PCBs). The
GIPME Task T e a m on Marine Pollution Input Data will undertake the work proposed. POOL has therefore been disbanded.
The ACMRR/IABO Working Party on Ecological Indices of
Stress to Fisheries is concerned with the selection and/or
formation of well-balanced sets of indices; the ACMRR Working Party on Biological Accumulators is concerned with studies on the use of bio-accumulator species as sensitive tools
for measuring concentrations of pollutants. They also are
aimed at developing guidelines for relevant pilot studies.
(1) The formation of this group remains pending the outcome of a workshop on the subject of TTP
organized bythe U.S. National Committee for S C O R in Miami, Florida, U.S.A. , 8- 12 December
1975. ACOMR was disbanded by WMO in June 1976 and its functions assumed by a WMO Execu-
tive Committee Panel on Environmental Pollution.
17
Effects, Dose/Response
Relationships and Standards
The International Commission on Radiological Protection
(ICRP)sets and continuously reviews standards governing
the control of radioactivity in the environment.
The ACMRR/IABO Working Party on Biological Effects of
Marine Pollutants will review and evaluate critically the
methods for bio-assays and toxicity tests.
A GESAMP Working Group on Coastal Water Quality Criteria
has reviewed the scientific basis for establishing certain
standards; a Working Group on the Impact of Oil on the
Marine Environment has reported on the effects of oil on living resources; and a Working Group on the Scientific Basis
for the Determination of Concentrations and Effects of Marine
Pollutants has proposed an open-ocean monitoring system;
this proposal is being developed further by UNEP, WMO and
IOC with a view to carrying out a pilot project in the Atlantic
Ocean.
7. 1 Overall co-ordinatian
The Working Committee for GIPME will obviously co-ordinate the activities of any Task Teams it
creates, It should also co-ordinate those activities contributing to the GIPME programme but
executed by other bodies and organizations as part of their work programmes.
The Working Committee will undoubtedly require to maintain close liaison with other international bodies such as ICES, UNEP and ICSU, among others, which carry out programmes of direct
relevance to GIPME. In maintaining this liaison, for purposes of co-ordination, the Working C o m mittee may, as appropriate, work through the IOC Secretariat. The liaison with UNEP relating to
the GEMS component of Earthwatch (IOCis represented on the Inter-agency Working Group on
Earthwatch - G E M S ) and, in a more generalized way, with ICSPRO agencies, are cases in point.
At a later stage, GIPME recommendations to IOC M e m b e r States would best pass through the
IOC Secretariat.
7.2 Laboratory networks
Research is under way at a number of laboratories, particularly in the developed countries, on
problems related to marine pollution, including the development and application of methods for
determining chemical pollutants in sea water, marine organisms and sediments,and the determination of effects of pollutants on organisms. These laboratories are the elements of the scientific
effort in G I P M E .
Already in some regions laboratories are closely associated in their activities. For example,
in the North Sea and Baltic Sea, marine laboratories are effectively linked through ICES. In the
Mediterranean within the UNEP Joint Co-ordinated Project on Pollution, laboratory networks have
been established for seven marine pollution pilot projects. There are also rudimentary networks,
sometimes of a temporary nature, for specific problems and projects. The organization of networks of co-operating laboratories concerned with marine problems, on regional and subject
bases, for the exchange of information, improvement and intercalibration of methods, provision
of analytical services and co-ordination of scientific effort, training and education, is urgently
required and should be promoted by the Working Committee as a fundamental part of GIPME.
Regional networks should be developed within the context of regional co-operative investigations,
especially baseline studies, and regional organizations where these exist. In the case of subject
networks, high priority should be given to (i) laboratories concerned with development and application of methods for determining chemical pollutants in sea water, marine organisms and sediments, and (ii) laboratories concerned with determiningthe effects of pollutants on marine organisms.
In the developing world, there are few laboratories where studies of marine pollution are being
undertaken. This makes it particularly difficult to carry out baseline and other pollution studies in
tropical regions where the present condition of the marine environment is little known and the
biological effects and processes of transformation are poorly understood. T o investigate effectively
pollution in the tropical oceans, it is necessary to assist countries and laboratories in such regions
to develop the capability of participating in the investigation of marine environmental problems.
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20
THE IMPLEMENTATION FRAMEWORK
The following steps for the implementation of the Comprehensive Plan are recommended:
1.
Regional marine pollution workshops
The first step in implementing the GIPME Comprehensive Plan is the conduct of regional marine
pollution workshops. The purpose of these workshops should be to design anduo-ordinate the
implementation of regional baseline studies and the necessary research programmes using the
present document.
A n InternationalWorkshop on Marine Pollution in the Mediterranean has’been organized by the
IOC in co-operation with the General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean (of FAO) and the
International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean, with the support of
UNEP; and an InternationalWorkshop on Marine Pollution in East Asian Waters has been organized by the IOC with the co-operation of the Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council (of FAO)and UNEP.
A third, an International Workshop on Marine Pollution in the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions, with
the co-operation of the Western Central Atlantic Fisheries Commission (of FAO) and UNEP, will be
held in late 1976.
Consideration needs to be given to other areas where regional marine pollution workshops
would be appropriate. In this context among criteria which might be employed in selection are:
(i)
Known or anticipated degree of pollution.
(ii)
Areas which have already been identified for special attention within a regional or international pollution control framework.
(iii)
Adequate geographical coverage on a global basis and, in particular, the inclusion of
several relatively unpolluted (clean)background sampling areas.
The IOC, in conjunction with the other appropriate bodies, is preparing a time-table for conducting regional marine pollution workshops up to 1980 with the aim of providing a first baseline
coverage of the global marine pollution situation by 1983 at the end of phase A of GIPME, as
reflected above in the section on the scientific framework of the Comprehensive Plan. It is anticipated that areas that might at that time have been covered would include:
1.
North Atlantic
2.
Baltic
3.
Mediterranean Region, including the Black Sea
4.
East Asian Seas (CSK and IPFC areas)
5.
Caribbean
6.
Gulf areas of the north west Indian Ocean region and the Red Sea
7.
Selected Southern Ocean background stations
8.
Various national baselines, e. g. U.S.A.
-
Pacific, Atlantic and Gulf Coasts
21
Regional marine pollution workshops should be organized and conducted by the IOC with the
collaboration of appropriate regional organizations whenever possible. Care should be taken to
avoid overlapping the boundaries of regional organizations (e.g. fishery commissions). In areas
without appropriate regional bodies, the IOC should assume the responsibility for such workshops.
It should be borne in mind that nationally organized workshops have been held or are being
planned. The IOC should arrange for the publication of the reports of such national workshops and
for their distribution to regional organizations conducting regional workshops or other regional
studies2.
Mh-ime pollution monitoring programmes
The Working Committee for GIPME will contribute to the further development and implementation
of marine pollution monitoringprogrammes within IGOSS, in accordance with Resolution IOC.VII1-20
of the eighth session of the IOC Assembly, and within other appropriate frameworks at the international, regional or national levels, by assessing the requirements and providing the scientific basis
for such monitoring, and by providing advice on sampling and analytical techniques and methodology.
A GIPME Task T e a m on Marine Pollution Monitoring has been established chiefly for this purpose.
3;-
Baseline studies,
EkaeZine studies are the essential first step to providing data on inputs, distributions and pathways
of polutants. Several regional baseline studies are already, or are nearly, under way, including
for example those of the North Atlantic and the North Sea under the auspices of the International
Council for the Exploration of the Sea, the Baltic Sea under the auspices of ICES and the ICSU
Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research, the Mediterranean under the auspices of GFCM, WHO
and IOC with the assistance of UNEP.
These baseline studies should, where appropriate, be conducted taking full account of the relevant internationalmarine pollution conventions.
In addition to the convening of regional marine pollution workshops, the following steps related
to the conduct of baseline studies should be taken:
(i)
The IOC should request from M e m b e r States and relevant regional bodies, a periodic
statement of their knowledge, concerns, and programmes related to the study of pollutants in marine waters.
(ii)
IOC should determine the possibility of regular provision by IOC M e m b e r States and
international bodies, of information on the production and use of maJor marine pollutants,
identified by GIPME as having particular importance for the marine environment.
4. Research on marine pollutants
The Comprehensive Plan for GIPME calls for continuing research into physical, chemical and
biological processes which govern the inputs, behaviour and the effects of pollutants in the marine
environment. The study of such processes will provide a knowledge of the relationships between
observed pollutant inputs and distributions, as determined by regional baseline surveys, and
assist in the understanding of their effects.
The function of the Working Committee for GIPME in this regard is to assess, promote and
co-ordinate required research activities. The following actions will be taken:
22
(i)
The progress of research into processes which contribute to a knowledge of pollutant
inputs and distribution will be followed closely and applied to mass-balance determinations as data are received from baseline studies and GIPME task teams.
(ii)
The IOC Secretariat will prepare and distribute to M e m b e r States a questionnaire to
obtain a list of major research programmes under way which are relevant to GIPME
goals, and which m a y be designated as GIPME projects. Such a compilation will then
be submitted to the Working Committee for GIPME for assessment and further setting
of priorities.
(iii) The Working Committee for GIPME will review annually the results of marine pollution
investigations, including baseline studies, research programmes and monitoring activities, with the purpose of assessing the progress achieved, identifying gaps in knowledge,
and setting a new list of priorities for research.
(iv) The Working Committee for GIPME will recommend future research activities to the
following:
(a) regional marine pollution workshops;
(b) international co-ordination groups for co-operative investigations;
(c) other working committees of the IOC;
(d) appropriate United Nations Specialized Agencies;
(e) appropriate intergovernmental organizations;
(f) appropriate non-governmentalorganizations.
(v)
The IOC Secretariat will encourage WHO and FAO to establish, on the basis of their
joint programmes on food contamination, a research programme on exposure standards
for humans involving pollutant transfers through the marine environment.
(vi) These groups will be asked to keep the Working Committee for GIPME informed of their
progress.
5.
Other implementation recommendations
In addition to the activities related specifically to the implementation of the Comprehensive Plan
for GIPME, the following actions will also be taken:
(i)
Every effort will be made to ensure the continued participation in GIPME of non-IOC
bodies which are providing relevant information to GIPME through their on-goingactivities.
(ii)
The Working Committee for GIPME will work in close contact with the IOC Working C o m mittee for IODE and particularly its ad hoc Group on Marine Pollution Data in order to
develop existing internationally co-ordinated systems (i. e. forms and formats)for exchange of marine pollution data, and to assist in the further development of existing
inventories of marine pollution data in order to facilitate the implementation of various
GIPME programmes and projects.
(iii) The implementation of the GIPME programme m a y reveal the need for the training of
technicians and scientists in appropriate disciplines. The Working Committee, with the
collaboration of relevant working groups and other bodies, will determine as precisely
as possible what those needs are. It will work closely with the IOC Working Committee
on Training, Education and Mutual Assistance (TEMA).
With regard to data storage, retrieval and exchange, the Working Committee for GIPME
m a y identify needs special to the GIPME programme. Accordingly it will work closely
with the IOC Working Committee on International Ocean Data Exchange (IODE).
23
BASELINE S T U D Y GUIDELINES
1.
Introduction
In the section on the scientific framework for the Global Investigation of Pollution in the Marine
Environment special importance was given to the execution of baseline studies of marine pollution,
and they were given priority in the time-table of activities foreseen by the Plan.
The International Co-ordination Group for GIPME") therefore decided to ask the IOC and
ICES Secretariats to form a Working Group to draw up general guidelines for the execution of
regional baseline studies of marine pollution, with a view to facilitating at least a qualitative c o m parison of results from various regions, and perhaps a quantitative comparison if appropriate
inter-regional intercalibrationexercises could be organized.
The following sequence of operations provides a basis for regional baseline studies:
Evaluation of the present state of knowledge in a given area and identification of major
gaps.
Selection of possible pollutants of importance, taking the regional situation into account.
Selection of types of samples to be analysed for each pollutant.
Identification of possible inputs of pollutants to be measured,
Selection of typical scales for averaging observational data in time and space.
Determining of geographical spacings of sampling stations, taking into account regional
and world-wide distribution of pollutants, averaging in time and space, the physical
oceanography of the geographical region in question, the geology and the sediment distribution of the coastal area, and the distance from pollution sources.
Adoption of appropriate sampling methods and sample storage procedures for each
pollutant.
Adoption of suitable analytical methods for each pollutant.
Allocation of analytical tasks among the participating laboratories.
Intercalibration exercises, regional as well as world wide.
Execution of experimental work in a relatively short period of time (1 year).
Compilation and mapping of pollutant distribution in the areas concerned, with a view to
the eventual synthesis of a global distribution pattern of major possible pollutants, and
the identification of information gaps.
(1) N o w replaced by the Working Committee for G I P M E .
24
These indications are enlarged upon in the following sections, by way of some general indications of steps to be taken which are applicable to baseline studies of all pollutants. The proceedings of a workshop entitled "Marine Pollution Monitoring: Strategies for a National Program"
and sponsored by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration in Catalina, 1972,
have been extensively referred to.
2.
Evaluation of present knowledge
First, a list should be drawn up of all scientific and technical institutions directly concerned with
marine pollution in a given region.
The organizers of the regional baseline study should then ask these institutions to provide all
available information. This is usually done by means of a detailed questionnaire suitably adapted
to the circumstances of the region. This information should also cover the sampling and analytical
capacities of the institutions.
The answers to the questionnaire should be compiled by the organizers and the overall capacity of the laboratories in the area evaluated and synthesized to serve as a basis for further development of the baseline study plans (see, for example, ICES/SCOR Working Group on the Study of
Pollution of the Baltic, Report C.M. 1973/E: 7,Annex 3). In some regions a wide variety of analytical procedures can be expected, in which case it is advisable to nominate one or two experts to
visit each laboratory that responded to the questionnaire, discuss the methods with the analysts,
compile them in a report, and make the report available to everyone (withoutgenerating a manual).
This compilation will be a very valuable basis for the detailed planning of the programme; a lot
of this planning m a y be conveniently done during meetings of analysts. A n example is given by the
"Report on applied methods for the analysis of selected potential pollutants in Baltic laboratories",
prepared by K. Kremling and W. Slaczka for the ICES/SCOR Working Group on the Study of Pollution of the Baltic. At least one meeting of the analysts from the participating laboratories is
needed to formulate specific recommendations (e.g. ICES/SCOR Working Group on the Study of
Pollution of the Baltic, report C.M. 1974/E: 14, Annex 5).
In some cases Member States m a y wish to summarize the information in a national statement
for use in a regional baseline study planning meeting. Experience shows that it m a y be helpful if
a consultant is retained to visit the Member States to assist them in the preparation of the overall
report, particularly where no central national authority on marine pollution matters exists.
In regions where there is an abundant technical and scientific literature on marine pollution,
it m a y be necessary or desirable to retain a consultant to review such literature as part of the
evaluation of present knowledge.
3.
Possible major pollutants
The types of pollutants considered by the ICG for GIPME to require the most urgent attention are
the heavy metals and other toxic trace elements (e.g. lead, mercury, cadmium), the chlorinated
aromatic hydrocarbons (DDT,P C B s and others ), the halogenated hydrocarbons in general (chlorinated aliphatic hydrocarbon wastes from PVC manufacture and others ), petroleum and persistent
petroleum products, microbiological pollution (sewage disposal), excess nutrients (nitrogen and
phosphorus compounds), and artificial radioactivity (plutoniumand some of the fission and activation nuclides). Since the importance of a pollutant varies from area to area, any form of ranking
is unwarranted. The determination of the main pollutants for study in a particular area will depend
chiefly on the outcome of the evaluation of present knowledge, but the decision to include a given
pollutant among those to be studied will also depend on:
(i)
the existence of reliable and generally accepted sampling and analytical methods;
(ii)
the availability in the region of appropriate instruments and technicians for applying
such methods.
It should also be borne in mind that in some regions physical pollutants m a y be more important
than chemical or biochemical ones. For example, silting due to terrestrial run-off from denuded
coastal areas and to inshore sub-marine mining is a significant marine pollution problem in the
East Asian region, and poses a serious threat to coral reef and other benthic communities.
25
4. Identification of inputs
It is probable that the main sources of the pollutants will be identified during the evaluation of existing knowledge. Nevertheless, it is desirable to specify as far as possible the locations and magnitudes of the sources. Information about these can be obtained by means of a questionnaire. A s an
example, see that given in ICES Co-operative Research Report No. 39 entitled "Report of a Working Group for the International Study of the Pollution of the North Sea and its Effects on Living Resources and their Exploitation".
The identification of input sites is of considerable value in planning the sampling array, even
if quantitative data are sparse. Thus, all domestic and industrial pipelines discharging wastes
directly into the sea, all dumping sites, whether on the shore-line or offshore, and all river
estuaries should be mapped.
For each input site some estimate should be made of:
5.
(i)
the gross annual quantity of the pollutant produced by the industries and conurbations
connected with the site;
(ii)
the nature and rate of the discharge.
Selection of sample types and sampling arrays
A given marine pollutant m a y be present in the sea-water, in the organisms, in the sediments and
in the atmosphere near the sea surface. In principle all four media should be sampled. However,
it should be pointed out that considerable difficulties exist in the implementation of this principle
in any baseline survey. These difficulties are due to the fact that in a number of fields the sampling
and analytical techniques are inadequate and need further development and that, even in those fields
where the techniques are adequate, the laboratory facilities and the logistic support are often
insufficient.
ICES has carried out, or is at present carrying out, baseline surveys in the North Sea, Baltic
Sea and the north east and north west Atlantic. A careful study of the problems in each area has
led the Council to the view that priority should be given to a baseline survey for pesticide residues,
P C B s and certain metals in fish and shellfish. The necessary analytical and sampling techniques
for such a survey are relatively well developed. Intercalibration exercises show that good agreement can be obtained between competent laboratories.
Attempts at organizing internationally co-ordinated investigations of certain "dissolved"
metals in sea-water have so far revealed considerable problems in getting comparable results
between laboratories with considerable analytical competence despite numerous intercalibration
exercises.
A s far as surveys of sediments are concerned, it should be noted that while certain scientists
have undertaken localized surveys there has so far been no undertaking of a large-scale regional
survey on an international basis.
In all four media, every effort should be made to take special series of observations to determine as well as possible the variability of the measurements of the pollutants. Such special studies would probably have to be concomitant with the baseline study rather than a part of it, and the
considerable difficulty likely to arise in assigning the causes of the variation can be underestimated.
In view of the desire to limit the programme for technical or analytical reasons, or shortage
of personnel, etc., it m a y be advisable to agree upon a limited number of obligatory substances
and organisms, and to declare certain additional ones as desirable. In selecting the obligatory
ones, the desire for comparison between different regions should be borne in mind, implying that
s o m e c o m m o n organisms should be included.
Various elements (pollutants)can be present in different compounds or complexes; it should
be specified which compounds are to be analysed. The changing chemistry of the natural environment should also be considered as regards silled fjords and semi-enclosed seas like the Baltic
where anoxic conditions can prevail with aperiodic turnovers.
26
5. 1 Water
The sampling programme should take account of:
(i)
the method of introduction into the ocean (atmospheric fall-out, coastal runoff, or man's
activities on the high seas);
(ii)
the character of the introduction (continuously, as in industrial discharges; seasonally,
as in the spring runoff or in the rainy season; or occasionally, as with oil spills); and
(iii)
the mechanism of transport, both horizontal and vertical, within the marine environment (current systems, turbulent mixing, especially vertically, biological activity,
sinking of particulate matter or dispersion as a surface film).
In designing the water sampling programme it should be borne in mind that:
Horizontal advection and turbulent mixing are the principal agents of transport and dispersion within the marine environment. Therefore, in the case of a surface layer
source of material that becomes dispersed in the water, concentrations are higher at
the surface and in the mixed layer than below the pycnocline. Exceptions are particulate material that sinks rapidly to the bottom, and vertical transfer by organisms. The
pycnocline is the main barrier to the spread of pollutants to greater depths and it divides
the relatively mixed surface-layer water from the deep water. The (relatively)strong
stratification in the pycnocline layer suppresses the vertical transfer of matter there by
two to~threeorders of magnitude compared with the mixed surface layer. More samples
should therefore be taken above the pycnocline than below.
The mechanical mixing induced by the wind can erode the pycnocline, thereby forcing it
to greater depths. At the same time the density interface is sharpened. The erosion is
a very slow process and depends upon the strength and persistence of the winds. It is
very c o m m o n to find several density interfaces at different depths in the transition zone
from the wind-mixed layer to the deep water. Clearly the general wind system of a
region and the seasonal variation of climatic factors should be taken into account in planning the sampling array in depth and time.
Special care is required in regions and at times where a s u m m e r thermocline overlies
a deeper permanent pycnocline, since certain pollutants m a y be trapped between the two
layers of strong stratification.
Some attention should in this connexion be given to special conditions in fjords and landlocked seas where incoming contaminated water can spread at intermediate levels. It is
obviously necessary to observe the salinity and temperature profiles in connexion with
the sampling. In some cases it m a y be better to adjust the sample spacing according to
the salinity and temperature distribution rather than to sample at standard depths.
In planning the horizontal array, it should be borne in mind that, as a general rule,
pollutant concentration in sea-water will decrease with increasing distance from the
pollutant source, which is usually on the coast. Also, values nearest the source will
tend to be much more variable in space and time than those far f r o m the source. Inshore or near-shore stations should, therefore, be more closely spaced than those offshore or far from the source. It should be noted that river water is generally less
dense than sea-water and when it enters the sea it tends to remain at the surface, and
that consequently the dissolved pollutants also tend to remain in that layer.
In a generalized situation, a transect perpendicular to the coastline is to be preferred.
In measuring the spread of the discharge from a specific source such as a river or pipeline, an array of sampling stations along the axis of the flow (usually alongshore) of the
discharge is to be preferred. In some regions it m a y be necessary to make s o m e preliminary observations of such flow before planning the array of sampling sites.
Hitherto, oil spills have been the only large-scale events that have been reflected in
major short-term local changes in concentration outside the estuaries.
27
(v)
Available sampling techniques require the facilities of a research ship with laboratory
space and hydrographic winch, and the surface sampling must be done while the ship is
hove to on station. However, in many cases it is preferable to take surface water
samples from the bow of the ship while the ship is moving forward very slowly, in order
to obtain samples unchanged by material originating from the ship itself.
Widely scattered annual observations in the surface layers in the open-ocean part of the region,
with at least one deep series in each open-ocean area, are recommended, together with more
closely spaced seasonal observations on the continental shelves, especially: (a)off estuaries with
important pollution sources, and (b)along the axis of prevailing coastal flow. Sample collection
should be accompanied by measurements of temperature and salinity at all sites and depths. In
coastal areas current measurements are recommended.
Estuaries are important in themselves as parts of the marine environment, and m a y be important pathways for the introduction of certain heavy metals, halogenated hydrocarbons, and petroleum products to the sea. The selection for study of a relatively small number of major estuarine
areas that have great socio-economic value and pollution potential, and that encompass a variety
of estuarine types, is recommended. Standard stations in these estuarine systems for sampling of
pollutants in dissolved and/or suspended particulate form should be established as follows:
(i)
Since the primary natural pathways for the introduction of pollutants into the estuarine
environment are rivers, the rivers flowing into the main estuaries should be sampled
weekly in their lower reaches, but well above the upstream limit of measurable sea salt.
(ii)
One or more mid-estuary stations, depending upon the complexity of the particular system, should be established well away from the influence of local inputs. They should be
occupied at approximately monthly intervals. Samples should be taken from near the
surface, mid-depth, and approximately two metres from the bottom. Care must be
taken to occupy these stations at a consistent phase of the tide, preferably slack water,
in order to minimize difficulties of interpretation. Measurements of temperature, salinity, currents, and p H should be made concurrently with the foregoing.
(iii)
T o assess the relative importance of the inputs of pollutants to the sea from the selected
estuaries, water samples should be collected on a monthly basis in their major outlets
to the sea. Samples should be collected near the surface, at mid-depth, and at 2 metres
above the bottom. Sampling should be done at the end of ebb tide. Concurrent measurements of temperature, salinity, currents, and p H should be made.
At stations both in the open ocean and in the coastal areas, all samples should be taken once in
each main climatic season. Special consideration should be given to the nature of the discharge of
a given pollutant to the area (i. e. whether it is steady or irregular): where such a discharge
occurs at a particular time or times of the year, sampling should be adjusted accordingly.
Table 3 (a)summarizes the main guidelines for sampling sea-water.
5. 2 Organisms
The purposes in analysing marine organisms are:
(i)
many of the organisms are of immediate importance to m a n as food, and hence the concentrations of pollutants in their bodies m a y present hazards to human health;
(ii)
marine organisms concentrate many pollutants and are therefore useful as indicators of
the spatial and temporal distribution of pollutants; and
(iii)
the biosphere is probably an important reservoir and transport medium for pollutants,
and it is therefore of great importance in the attempt to determine mass balances of
pollutants in the world system.
In choosing the organisms to be sampled, the following primary criteria should be satisfied,
as far as present knowledge permits:
28
(i)
the organism bioaccumulates a given pollutant and thus has a significantly higher concentration in its tissues than the ambient water;
(ii)
the organism is either eaten by man, or is directly in the food chain leading to m a n so
that most of its pollutant content passes into, and is retained in, another species which
is eaten by man;
(iii) the organism is abundant and widespread enough to make sampling easy and to form a
significant element in the diet of the target human population.
These criteria are biased in favour of human health considerations, which are, however, likely
to be foremost in regional baseline studies, but broader, ecological considerations should not be
ignored.
Apart from the immediate problem of the hazard to human health from the consumption of contaminated fish and shellfish, there is a need to establish the extent to which pollutants and their
existing levels in the marine environment are doing harm to natural resources and to marine ecosystems in general. Accordingly, an extension of pollution baseline studies to an assessment of
the effects of pollutants on natural resources should be strongly considered.
There are then some secondary criteria by which a decision to sample a particular species
m a y be taken:
(i)
the species represents one of several habitats or ecosystems, such as the littoral zone,
the inshore benthic zone, the coastal pelagic zone, the offshore benthic zone or the offshore pelagic zone;
(ii)
the species is considered by ecologists to be a key species in the particular ecosystem
it comes from, particularly in the sense that it is a main contributor to the biomass of
the ecological zone or ecosystem it represents;
(iii) the species forms part of an ecological suite of species, chosen for sampling, representing the various trophic levels within an ecosystem; e. g. phytoplankton (primary producers), filter feeders (primary herbivores), primary carnivores and secondary
carnivores.
In the coastal area, species m a y be chosen because of possible differences in pathways due to
different physiologies and biochemistries. Filter feeders, for example, are much more closely
associated with the water, and their mucus absorbs material directly from the water much more
readily than the feeding mechanisms of particulate feeders.
Special consideration should be given to any euryhaline species (common in estuaries), particularly shellfish, since the uptake of certain heavy metals is apparently salinity-dependent.
The highest levels of pollutants can be expected in coastal waters, which are, however, the
nursery grounds for several commercially important fish species. Since the young are generally
more susceptible to unfavourable conditions than the adult animals, special attention should be
given to those species which remain for a longer period of their life cycle in coastal zones.
For example, coastal waters are known to be a nursery ground for plaice. The young fish
spend the first one or two years of their life in the shallow water close to the coast. A s they grow,
the plaice move out into deeper water.
In the open-ocean area, organisms should be selected to give as wide a selection as possible
across trophic levels. However, because of contamination problems associated with sampling
phytoplankton, the lowest level in this food chain is the zooplankton. These filter feeding organisms are in close contact with the water and should give an early indication of the appearance of
pollutants. Notes should be made of at least the general composition of the collection, e. g. the
proportion of salps to crustacea.
Because of (i) the patchiness of both spatial and temporalabundances, (ii) variations in physiological and behavioural states, and (iii) varying age-frequency distributions, large within-habitat
29
variances of all measured variables m a y be expected. It is essential, therefore, to conduct presampling studies at each of the sites and for each of the species of organisms and pollutants. The
essential purpose of such studies would be to provide some preliminary information on the relationship of the samples to the universe being sampled. A series of replicate samples should be taken
of each species at each site to be measured for each of the pollutants. Variance estimates could
thus be derived which would be of some use in the interpretation of subsequent samples taken during the baseline survey.
In choosing sampling sites specimens should be taken, as far as possible, from all parts of
an organism's range within the region. Nevertheless, if possible, a distinction should be made
between obviously polluted areas and apparently unpolluted areas, and specimens should be drawn
from both types. Temperature and salinity should be measured when and wherever specimens
are collected.
Special care is required in dealing with diadromous and other migratory species, which m a y
pass from a polluted area to an unpolluted area, and vice versa.
With regard to phytoplankton, it m a y be generally assumed that the bulk of it is to be found
above the thermocline, so that similar considerations to those mentioned in the section on water
sampling apply. However, it appears difficult to include plankton in a baseline study at the
present time.
It is desirable to sample a given species at more than one stage of its life cycle. By sampling
at least four times during the year, it should be possible to cover the main age groups of the resident population in the region and even to gain some indication of seasonal build-up of a pollutant in
the fish of any particular, easily distinguished age group. Care should be taken in dealing with
organisms in which segregation of the sexes is known to occur at certain times; all measurements
should if possible be discriminated by sex.
When developing a programme for sampling fish it is preferable to endeavour to draw only
samples from one specified age group. Similarly, shellfish samples should be drawn only from a
specified size range.
Table 3(b) summarizes the main guidelines for sampling of organisms.
5. 3 Sediments
Shore sediment cores should be taken at several stations, particularly in estuaries, but also in
coastal and open-ocean areas where sediments are allowed by the prevailing hydrographic regime
to settle. Because of the association of s o m e pollutants with fine-grained sediments, such sediments should be preferentially sampled. The station locations, especially in estuaries, should
cover the normal range of salinities. Care must be taken that any disturbance of the topmost layer
is avoided.
Thus samples should be taken at a network of sites covering the region under study, where
appropriate (fine-grained)sedimentary material is known to occur. In general, such a network,
though it need not be at all dense (perhaps 25-50 k m between stations), should be based on inshoreoffshore transects, particularly near known major inputs of pollutants (e.g. rivers, pipelines).
There is usually some initial accumulation, after which an equilibrium is established between
sediments and the surrounding seawater. Unless the exact situation in a given area is known, it is
probably advisable to sample both sediments and ambient seawater at the same time.
Although a regional baseline study would be concerned with current levels of pollutants in the
sediments, and therefore with only the topmost layer of sediment, an effort should be made to
determine the vertical distribution of any given pollutant in the core, since such data m a y be of
value in assessing the build-up of a pollutant in the light of local knowledge of the historical development of the probable land-based sources. For this purpose sedimentation rates should be
determined.
Table 3 (c)summarizes the main guidelines for sampling of sediments.
30
5.4 Air
__
Although the atmosphere is an important pathway from the land to the sea for some pollutants, a
decision as to whether atmospheric sampling can be conveniently included in a regional baseline
study will depend on the nature and technical resources of the region. It is, however, necessary
to note the high desirability of analysing air samples.
Less is known about the importance of atmospheric inputs than most others. A n initial attempt
at a realistic assessment should be made for "designated" pollutants and then appropriate attempts
made to measure them, if necessary.
For guidance on potentially significant atmospheric pollutants, the listing produced by the
IMCO/FAO/UNESCO/WMO/WHO/IAEA/U.
N. Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of
Marine Pollution ( G E S A M P )can be used.
Atmospheric inputs have recently been found to be surprisingly significant in inland waters
(e.g. Great Lakes).
If a pollutant is expected to be significant, then it is extremely important to consider the
input through:
(i)
gas-phase exchange;
(ii)
precipitation; and
(iii)
particulate loading.
Regarding gas-phase exchange, research is necessary to see whether vertical gradients exist
(under ideal conditions); it is necessary to sample across the interface.
Regarding precipitation, careful collection techniques are required; sampling at height is
necessary; sampling should be done under appropriate meteorological regimes (e.g. wind, precipitation type); and frequent sampling is required because of notorious variability of rain-water
composition.
Regarding particulate loading, contamination is a serious problem and it is necessaryto sample
at height. A n alternative approach for gas-phase exchange and particulate loading is to measure
concentrations in air upwind and downwind of the region in question and assess downward flux by
differences. This is perhaps the best way of determining whether the atmospheric input is important.
If atmospheric samples are taken, they should be of the gaseous and particulate phases (dry
fall-out)as well as of rain-water (in which case the particle content of the rain-water itself should
be evaluated). Such samples should be taken above a height of at least 100 metres in calm conditions in order to avoid as far as possible the difficulties of interpretation likely to arise from the
inclusion of sea spray in a sample.
If feasible, a very low density network of stations (perhaps 50-100 k m between stations) covering the region m a y be established. Such a network should be based on a transect parallel to the
direction of the prevailing winds. The main features of the climate will he an important consideration but, if possible, samples should be taken in each season and in each interseasonal period,
again bearing in mind discontinuous discharges.
6.
SamDling and storage Drocedures
These are normally established specifically for each type of pollutant, but there are some general
principles to be observed. Because the level of most pollutants, particularly in sea-water and in
the air, is normally very low, contamination of the samples is a serious problem. It is therefore
necessary to leave such sampling to fully trained technicians. The research vessel's paint is
likely to be a source of heavy metals (e.g. lead and mercury) and PCBs; its lubricants, fuel and
smoke are sources of hydrocarbons. As a rule special samplers must be used in which the chamber to be filled with the water sample must remain sealed until it is in position at the sampling
point.
31
Similar care must be exercised in the storage of samples; again, trained technicians only
must be entrusted with such work. Special care m a y be needed to keep samples in darkness or
subdued light, or away from heat sources, to prevent any unwanted chemical activity (as is the
case even for sea-water samples being prepared for titration to determine the dissolved oxygen
content).
When sampling mollusca (e.g. mussels) care should be taken to avoid including particulate
matter from the shell cavity and gut contents, unless sampling is performed to determine exposure
of people to a pollutant in the mussels they eat, in which case gut contents should be included.
Hence, the need for exclusion of gut contents will depend on the aim of the survey.
Table 4 summarizes the main indications for sampling and storage procedures.
7.
Analytical methods
These are specific for each pollutant and there are therefore few general principles, if any, regarding them. They must be accurate and precise enough to measure the low concentrations likely to
occur. Intercalibrationexercises (see later) generally determine whether the accuracy of the
methods is adequate, but their precision is also important, Whenever possible, replicate samples
should be taken and replicate measurements made. A s far as possible the analyses of a given
pollutant should be entrusted to one technician in order to minimize operator bias.
8.
Allocation of tasks
In a given region all the candidate laboratories and institutions should be invited to declare their
interest in participating in the regional baseline study. Technically qualified representatives of
these laboratories and institutions should meet to draw up the plan of operations for the study,
defining precisely what each will do and what each is adequately staffed and equipped to do. These
arrangements should include contingency plans in case of breakdown of key equipment of research
vessels.
It should be agreed that, if possible, only two or three laboratories should be charged with
analytical work for each main pollutant; this is a compromise between the need for multiple
analyses (as a precautionary measure against analytical error or bias or equipment failure)and
the need to minimize the complexity of a regional intercalibration exercise.
In some regions probably only one laboratory will be able to undertake the analyses for the
whole region.
In all cases the analytical equipment and methods must be calibrated against a standard or a
reference sample.
In allocating the analytical tasks, great care must be taken in determining the true capacity of
each laboratory; it is advisable to minimize the delay between sampling and analysis, and the
demands made on equipment by the laboratories’regular research programmes must be carefully
assessed.
It is inevitable that in most regions the sampling pattern will have to be cut according to the
analytical cloth.
9.
Intercalibration
For each main group of pollutants it is advisable to assign to one laboratory the responsibilityfor
organizing the intercalibration exercise amongst the laboratories charged with analysing the
samples from the region. As far as possible the organizing laboratory should arrange for each
co-operating laboratory to receive samples from all the media chosen for the baseline study and
from a short range of concentrations (e.g. near the limit of accuracy of the analytical methods;
at a low level as found in the environment; and at one or more higher levels). These reference
samples should, if possible, be drawn from the natural environment from areas known to be unpolluted by the given pollutant, as well as from areas of moderate or heavy pollution, in order to
provide a useful range.
32
The organizing laboratory should make its own analyses, including standard and reference
samples, as part of the intercalibrationexercise and to determine the appropriate choices of concentration levels.
Arrangements m a y have to be made for the preparation of standard reference material,
particularly for biological tissues.
For each sample (one from each selected medium and from each of the concentration levels) a
small number of subsamples should, if possible, be analysed. The organizing laboratory should
be responsible for the statistical analysis of the results.
The final aim of allowing for intercomparison between the results from regional baseline
studies in all the different parts of the world ocean makes an intercalibration exercise on a global
scale necessary. Such a world-wide programme for carefully selected reference samples for
certain marine pollutants is being developed by the International Laboratory of Marine Radioactivity of the InternationalAtomic Energy Agency in Monaco.
10. Compilation and processing of data
Each participating laboratory should be responsible for the compilation and processing of the data
relating to the samples it has taken, but a general scheme should be agreed by the laboratories in
the region and should be followed.
Again, one laboratory should be given responsibility for bringing together the data for the
whole region and presenting them in overall tabulations and charts. All such data should be published in the collective n a m e of the supervisory panel that drew up the plan of operations for the
baseline study, or by an appropriate regional body, or, in the absence of such a body, by the Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission, or by any other body agreed to by the participating
laboratories.
The report on the baseline study should include an appropriate tabulation of the answers to the
initial questionnaires concerning Present Knowledge and Inputs, and one or more s u m m a r y tables.
The list of laboratories originally questioned should be included, with an identification of those that
actually participated in the baseline study.
The report should include the results of the intercalibration exercise, together with a list of
those laboratories that took part in it and the analytical methods used.
The results of the baseline survey should be tabulated for each pollutant, for each participating
laboratory and country, for each medium, and for each size or year-class and sex of each species
in the case of the biological tissue medium. A s far as possible maximum, minimum, mean and
standard deviation should be given for each type of measurement.
However, for example, the metal concentrations for individual samples of many fish species
are usually not normally distributed. Consequently the measurements should be expressed in
terms of maximum, minimum and median values. For a given set of observations the median is
the middle observation if there is an odd number of cases and is the mean of the two central observations if there is an even number of cases.
All sampling stations and levels should be tabulated, giving geographical co-ordinates or
other suitable fixes, and standard sampling depths at each station should be identified.
All major input points, including rivers, pipelines and dumping sites should be mapped. The
horizontal distribution of average concentrations for each pollutant in each medium should be m a p ped if applicable. All station locations, including those at which ''zero concentrations" were
observed, should be identified in each map.
11. General advice
The planning of the baseline study should aim at a small, easily executed programme of sampling
and analysis rather than at a large, difficult or unfeasible programme, the object being to obtain
meaningful results, however few.
33
In any baseline study complete comparability is essential, including sampling procedures,
preparation and storage, calibration of methods, and intercalibration.
In some regions it m a y be necessary to make arrangements for analyses of some pollutants to
be done in a laboratory outside the region. Such arrangements should be carefully worked out before the sampling programme starts.
In some regions the availability of suitable research vessels m a y be a limiting factor, in which
cases careful planning of the use of those available, on behalf of the region, m a y be necessary in
order to achieve an adequate set of samples. If necessary, the possibility of using research vessels from other regions should be studied and arrangements made to incorporate such a vessel or
vessels opportunely into the sampling programme.
In some cases an adequate baseline study will require some prior training of technical staff.
In planning the study the organizing panel should evaluate such needs and make arrangements for
satisfying them prior to initiating the baseline work.
12. Special problems concerning tropical and/or developing countries
Generally speaking, the tropical and/or developing countries place a low priority on global marine
pollution monitoring. They have only a small number of scientists working on pollution in general
and on marine pollution in particular. They have neither the manpower nor the instrumentation to
carry out many of the pollutant measurements indicated in Table 3.
However, this does not mean that there exists no interest in marine pollution and, therefore,
in global marine pollution. Pollution committees have been formed in several developing countries
and, with the help of foreign experts and the literature, evaluations of pollution are made. In
Indonesia, for example, the most advanced studies on marine pollution by hydrocarbons are carried out by the laboratories of the national petroleum company.
Some countries m a y initially be able to participate in a regional marine pollution study only in
a limited way; for example, by sample collection. It is also desirable for reasons of economy,
among others, that a rational distribution of analytical services be worked out taking into account
national capabilities and capacities. It is important, however, that all countries in a given region
participate in the regional marine pollution studies, and adequate steps, either at the national or
international level, should be taken to increase national capabilities so that all countries would be
able to participate as fully as possible.
Concerning tropical countries, the GIPME programme could reveal interesting facts about the
behaviour of pollutants in a w a r m environment. For example, the hydrocarbons and oil are more
rapidly decomposed in tropical waters than in temperate areas. The same might be true for
organic substances from sewage, particularly in coastal waters with a high suspended load. Also,
for the behaviour of bacteria in tropical waters, where diseases are more c o m m o n than in colder
areas, the influence of sewage on coastal waters with a strong fishery is an actual problem about
which little information is available.
The pollutants of primary concern are bacteria, oil residues, pesticide residues, and organic
matter from sewage. The discharge of sewage is still in its initial stage, and will increase the
more the country develops. Industrial products, and therefore the pollutants associated with industries, are scarce.
34
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39
G L O S S A R Y 0% KEY T E R M S USED
Baseline study
- A
Regulatory action
-
study of the present distribution and concentration of specified pollutants
in specified media related where possible to an estimate of the input of
that pollutant via specified pathways.
Any action taken by national, regional or international authorities with the
intent of regulating the levels of pollutants entering the marine environment.
Marine environment - That portion of the natural environment pertaining to the oceans, including
sea-water, marine organisms, bottom deposits, and adjacent portions of
the river systems, the land mass and the atmosphere.
Monitoring
-
(a) The repetitive observing, for defined purposes, of elements or indicators of the marine environment according to pre-arranged schedules
in space and time, including the interpretation and the assessment of
the collected data.
(b) In a regulatory context, the assessment of the effects of pollutants on
m a n or specified elements of the marine resources for reasons
related to the control of the effects of those pollutants.
Process
- A
Exposure standard
-
40
physical, chemical or biological link between adjacent stages of the
pollutant's pathway through the marine environment.
A n acceptable level of exposure of a target based on an agreed doseresponse model for the effect(s) under consideration.
LIST OF A C R O N Y M S
ACMRR
Advisory Committee on Marine Resources Research (FAO)
ACOMR
Advisory Committee on Oceanic Meteorological Research (WMO)
ASFIS
Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries Information System
CICAR
Co-operative Investigations of the Caribbean and Adjacent Regions (IOC)
CSK
Co-operative Study of the Kurosnio and Adjacent Regions (IOC)
DDT
Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane
ECOR
Engineering Committee on Oceanic Resources
FA 0
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GA RP
Global Atmospheric Research Programme (WMO/ICSU)
GEMS
Global Environmental Monitoring System (UNEP)
GEOSECS
Geochemical Sections Study (IDOE)
GESAMP
Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution
GFCM
General Fisheries Council for the Mediterranean ( F A O )
GIPME
Global Investigatim of Pollution in the Marine Environment (IOC)
IA BO
InternationalAssociation of Biological Oceanography (IUBS)
TA EA
InternationalAtomic Energy Agency
IAHS
InternationalAssociation of Hydrological Sciences (ICSU)
IAM A P
InternationalAssociation of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics (TUGG)
IA M S
InternationalAssociation of Microbiological Societies (ICSU)
ICES
International Council for the Exploration of the Sea
ICG
International Co-ordination Group (IOCsubsidiary body)
ICRP
International Commission on Radiological Protection
ICSEM
International Commission for the Scientific Exploration of the Mediterranean Sea
ICSPRO
Inter-secretariat Committee on Scientific Programmes Relating to Oceanography
41
ICSU
International Council of Scientific Unions
IDOE
International Decade of Ocean Exploration (IOC)
IGOSS
Integrated Global Ocean Station System (of IOC/WMO)
IHD
International Hydrological Decade
ILMR
International Laboratory of Marine Radioactivity, Monaco (IAEA)
IMCO
Inter-governmental Maritime Consultative Organization
IOC
Intergovernmental Oceanographic Commission
IODE
International Oceanographic Data Exchange (IOC)
IPFC
Indo-Pacific Fisheries Council (FAO)
IRS
International Referral System (UNEP)
IUBS
International Union of Biological Sciences (ICSU) - see IABO
IUGG
International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (ICSU)- see IAMAP
PCB
Polychlorinated biphenyl
POOL
Ad hoc Group on Pollution of the Ocean Originating on Land (IOC)
PVC
Polyvinyl chloride
RIOS
Working Group on River Inputs to Ocean Systems, S C O R / A C M R R / E C O R / I A H S /
UNESCO
SCOR
Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research
TEM A
Working Committee on Training, Education and Mutual Assistance (IOC)
TTP
SCOR/ACOMR/IAMAP Working Group on Tropospheric Transport of Pollutants
UN
United Nations Organization
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNESCO
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
WECA FC
Western Central Atlantic Fishery Commission (FAO)
WHO
World Health Organization
WMO
World Meteorological Organization
42
[B.6]SC.76/14A