Global Voices, Village Choices: Fire
Management Strategies for People and
Wildlife in Wyanad, Kerala, India
A. H. Moosvi
Robert W. Mutch
Abstract—Global interest in wilderness and wildlife issues is a
phenomenon of today’s world. The interest generated by people,
agencies, and organizations to perpetuate sustainable habitats in
wilderness and other wildlands has done much to conserve vanishing resources. Project Tiger in India is one such example. Biologists
and policy makers within India and elsewhere have joined forces to
reverse the alarming downward trend in numbers of the Bengal
tiger on the sub-continent.
The pressures of people and environmental factors often adversely impact natural resources. This fact is especially true in
India where approximately 200,000 villages containing 250 million
people are located within or near the 72 million hectares of India’s
forests. This statistic is similar to placing the entire population of
the United States within the comparably sized National Forest
System in that country! Villagers in India use wildland fire during
the dry season for many beneficial purposes, often without provisions for controlling the extent of these fires. Initiating joint fire
management practices is essential to the welfare of people and
natural resources.
The Kerala Forestry Project, sponsored by the World Bank, is
unique because it brings newly developed forest sector reforms to
the forests of the Western Ghats in southern India. This paper
highlights the Fire Protection Strategy for the forest resources of
Kerala as one phase of the overall Project because wildfires are
debilitating even to the forests of tropical Kerala. Although a
statewide strategy for fire protection was developed during the 1996
to 1998 period, the focus here will be primarily on issues and
recommendations for the Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary, a 344 km2
reserve of forests. Wyanad also is home to 1,338 Tribal and 1,068
non-Tribal families.
The Setting _____________________
Strategic Significance of Wyanad Wildlife
Sanctuary
The Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary covers 334 km2 of forests
and is contiguous with the Protected Area network in the
Western Ghat Mountains in southern India called the
Nilgiris. The Nilgiris is comprised of the Nagarhole and
Bandipur National Parks in Karnataka, and Mudumalai
National Park in Tamil Nadu. The Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary is joined to the western part of the recently formed
Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, and is also a part of “Project
Elephant” launched recently by the Central Government for
the in situ conservation of the largest of Indian mammals
and its precarious habitat. Being wetter than both Nagarhole
and Mudumalai, Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary is home to
many migratory herbivores from the two sanctuaries when
forage is scarce. It also is part of the catchment of two major
rivers: Kavari and Baavali.
Area and Land Use
One-third of the original wilderness area (about 110 km2)
was planted with teak and several other species. About 150
human settlements are located in the Sanctuary. Wyanad
receives a large number of visitors during the nonrainy
season for recreation and ecological education.
The Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary has over 34,443 hectares
of forests organized into four “ranges,” or districts. It is
managed by a Warden with the rank of Deputy Conservator
of Forests; the Warden is assisted by four Range Officers.
Climate
In: Watson, Alan E.; Aplet, Greg H.; Hendee, John C., comps. 2000.
Personal, societal, and ecological values of wilderness: Sixth World Wilderness Congress proceedings on research, management, and allocation, volume II;
1998 October 24–29; Bangalore, India. Proc. RMRS-P-14. Ogden, UT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
A.H. Moosvi, formerly of the Indian Forest Service, is Principal Investigator, Proforest Consulting, Hyderabad, India, e-mail: moosvi@hotmail.com.
Robert W. Mutch, formerly of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Missoula, MT, U.S.A., is Team Member, Proforest Consulting, email: bobmutch@montana.com
224
Temperatures in the Sanctuary vary from 13 to 32 oC.
Rainfall totals about 2,000 mm and is associated with the
southwest monsoon, which starts in June and ends with the
northeast monsoon in December. The most important precipitation, from a fire management perspective, occurs in
April and May. Although the amount is small at this time of
year, it is effective in dampening the wildfires that are at
their peak. Humidity also increases at that time of year,
impeding new ignitions during the remainder of the fire
season. Thus, the fire season is generally confined to the
January-March period when it is hot and dry. The climate,
vegetation, and presence of numerous perennial water bodies are all factors that might have combined to make fire a
nonissue in Wyanad. But the people found in the 150
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settlements and enclosures have legitimate needs that conflict with sanctuary management objectives.
Table 2—Distribution of Tribal and non-Tribal families among four
ranges in the Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary.
Range
Regeneration and Plantations
Regeneration of important endemic species is rather sparse,
presumably due to annual surface fires. This is characterized by the open and thin crop of the younger and middle age
classes; and the replacement of semievergreen species with
fire-hardy ones.
About one-third of the Sanctuary, or 11,500 hectares, is
covered by plantations. Teak plantations are found on 7,554
hectares. Eucalyptus plantations (1,526 hectares) are now
reverting back to a more natural character as required by
new policy.
Although wild animals may be sighted on the plantations,
there is not suitable forage. This is especially true for
elephants, which comprise the main wildlife value in the
Sanctuary.
Wildlife, Wildfire, and the Social
Environment ___________________
Tribal families
Non-Tribal families
Population
520
517
269
32
136
724
135
73
3,137
5,890
1,655
1,064
1,338
1,068
11,746
Sultan Baterry
Kurichiat
Muthanga
Tholpetty
Total
and opportunities for fire management planning. Additionally, cattle and goats maintained by the inhabitants of the
settlements and enclosures compete for food and space with
the wild animals (table 3).
Some of the activities in the Sanctuary that carry a high
fire risk include: grass production, collection of medicinal
and other forest products, “masking” of illicitly cut stumps of
trees, improving visibility for hunting, illicit production of
alcohol in cover provided by forests, and operational forestry
work during the dry season.
Tourism and Economic Pressures
Animals
The Sanctuary abounds in animal life as diverse as its
plant life. Hundreds of species of animals and birds, and
dozens of species of reptiles, fish, and amphibians live in
Wyanad, attracting many tourists. A Census of some of the
animal species is conducted every 3 to 4 years. The results of
the last four counts are found in table 1.
Settlements and Enclosures
The Sanctuary is home to 1,338 Tribal and 1,068 nonTribal families that are distributed among four different
ranges (table 2).
Competition for habitat between human dwellers and
animals on the one hand, and the increasing interest in
tourism on the other, have combined to produce both threats
According to the 1991 census, the population of Tribals
within the forests is 4,230. Additional people are attracted to
Wayanad because of its importance as a center of the “hill
produce” trade. Also, there is tourist pressure from the
States of Kerala, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu, which is high
throughout the nonmonsoon season.
In the absence of a “buffer” zone around the settlements
and enclosures, or around the core wildlife areas, the Sanctuary is frequently in the news regarding losses of life, crops,
and dwellings due to elephants. The boundaries of settlements, enclosures, and villages should be the primary focus
of planning efforts to help resolve some of the conflicts that
exist between people and natural resources.
Because of a high density of people living in the forest,
conflict between people and wildlife is the highest in Kerala.
Elephant raids on crops around settlements are common,
and attacks on people and dwellings are increasing. Use of
excessive force resulting in the death of elephants is being
justified on the grounds of self-defense.
Table 1—Wildlife (mammal) numbers, 1989 to 1996, in the Wyanad
Wildlife Sanctuary.
Animal
Lion tailed macaque
Bonnet macaque
Common langur
Elephant
Guar
Sambar
Chital, or spotted deer
Barking deer
Mouse deer
Wild boar
Malabar giant squirrel
Tiger
Wild dog
Bear
1989
1990
1993
1996
—
25
41
858
780
756
965
219
—
48
206
12
14
4
—
382
427
343
216
223
608
116
12
90
122
—
—
3
1
336
155
127
45
194
488
25
11
57
216
—
—
—
—
—
605
761
500
679
1,286
174
109
110
775
—
—
—
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Table 3— Cattle and goats maintained in settlements and
enclosures of the Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary.
Range
Cattle
Goats
Sultan Battery
Muthanga
Kurichiat
Tholpetty
1,020
441
1,536
106
859
132
370
140
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Sanctuary Management
Objectives _____________________
Management Plan
The Management Plan for the Sanctuary, in force from
1990 to 1999, specifies several objectives: Conserve endangered, threatened, and rare species of plants and animals;
manage plantations to restore them back to a natural condition; minimize conflicts between humans and wildlife; develop tourism and provide resources to Tribals; and assist
the development of nearby communities.
Kerala Forest Policy
The Sanctuary’s management objectives are supported by
the Forest Policy promulgated by the State Government in
1987:
• All Sanctuaries and National Parks should be rigidly
protected from fire by providing watchtowers and
firefighting units with sufficient staff and equipment in
fire-prone areas.
• Grazing should be completely prohibited in the Sanctuaries and restricted in the forests adjacent to them.
• Greater participation by Tribal communities in afforestation and reforestation programs should be developed
through training, encouragement, and a share in the
proceeds of timber harvest.
• The provisions of the Wildlife Protection Act should not
be implemented in a way that alienates Tribal interests.
Care should be taken to protect Tribal people and
property from wildlife, and to protect the wildlife from
people.
Fire Management ________________
Statistics on areas burned and losses suffered are very
incomplete and unreliable, making it difficult to ascertain
the true nature of the fire problem in the Wyanad Wildlife
Sanctuary. In some ranges, for example, only a few fires are
reported for the 5-year period from 1991 to 1996. No recorded
information is available on the cause of fires, but it is
believed that most wildfires start due to: escapes from fires
started by Tribals for the collection of nontimber forest
products such as honey, fruits, and nuts; escapes from fires
lit to scare wildlife that is straying into the settlements; fires
lit by cattle owners to produce better fodder; escapes from
torches carried by forest travelers; carelessness of tourists;
and arson to spite the staff or destroy the evidence of trees
stolen by poachers. Most fires appear to start along roadsides and in the vicinity of settlements and enclosures.
Because all of the wildfires are started by people, there is an
excellent opportunity to bring villagers and foresters together to develop conservation strategies that would be
mutually beneficial.
A system of preconstructed firelines has been in place for
a long time based on Management Plan prescriptions. This
network provides access and strategic locations for wildfire
suppression operations. The main weakness of the firebreak
system is that it is incomplete and does not protect many
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vulnerable areas of the Sanctuary. The firelines are burned
prior to the fire season to eliminate flammable vegetation,
and seasonal firefighters are hired for suppression work.
The length of the fireline network is about 800 km, and half
of this total is comprised of forest roads. Reduced funding
has greatly restricted the amount of fireline maintenance
work in recent years.
Values and Fire Management
Objectives _____________________
Values at Risk
Impact of Fire on Habitat—Elephants, guar (bison),
sambar, and spotted deer are the main species requiring
most of the fodder in the Sanctuary. Large numbers of
elephants and guar migrate into Wyanad every summer,
adding to the pressure on vegetation. Fodder availability
has been declining due to several factors. Although fire may
rejuvenate fodder in grassland areas, it appears to degrade
undergrowth, bamboo, and flora on the floor of plantations.
Crop-raiding by elephants and the cycle of vengeance it
sets up as people and elephants kill each other is apparently
the result of a shrinking fodder resource. Large fires need to
be excluded, while smaller prescribed fires might be used to
further objectives for habitat restoration and human benefits.
Impact of Fire on the Forest—Of the nearly 34,000
hectares of forest, about one-third is plantation, and the
remainder is moist deciduous forest. Large wildfires in these
types degrade vegetation, cause soil erosion, reduce biodiversity values, and eliminate cover for wildlife.
Impact of Fire on Tourism—There are two designated
tourist zones in the Sanctuary, one in Muthanga and the
other in Tholpetty. The amount of tourism is increasing each
year and the tourist season overlaps with the fire season.
The best tourist experience in this area is one of seeing
wildlife in a natural setting. Smoke from fires can impair
this experience both visually and qualitatively. Conversely,
it has been observed that dense vegetation resulting from
fire exclusion may reduce opportunities for wildlife to be
highly visible. At the Periyar Tiger Reserve further south in
Kerala the staff reported that wildlife often congregates on
recently burned areas, providing enhanced opportunities for
viewing.
Main Issues in Fire
Management ___________________
Policy Constraints
Kerala Forest Policy does not envisage any role or relationship with the local people for fire protection. It regards
people as external to the entire problem and ignores the
reality that the villagers share the same habitat with the
wildlife. By excluding positive interactions with the villagers, the Policy may actually serve to strengthen mutually
hostile attitudes between the staff and the villagers.
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Another weakness is the fact that the Policy treats all fires
as bad for the forest and they must be fought. Policy does not
differentiate between wildfires and prescribed fires, and
does not regard systematic fire management as part of the
overall conservation strategy for the forests or for the Sanctuary.
The grazing policy, which grants unrestricted right of
entry to local cattle into the forest, is a major cause of
wildfires. Public policy does not recognize or provide for the
involvement of people, the media, and educational institutions in building awareness against wildfires.
•
•
•
Strategic Issues
The custom of the Kerala Forestry Department, like
elsewhere in India, has been to make fire more a matter of
disciplinary fear among the staff than one of planning and
management. As a result, only a fraction of the fires that
occur are reported, and only a fraction of the losses are
reported. Even the reported fires are usually of “unknown”
origin. Fear of this nature is bound to impede the flow of
reliable information vital for management planning and
public awareness. It is essential to know such things as the
location of fire, time of fire, size, weather, fire behavior, fire
effects, and costs. This deeply ingrained agency culture also
limits Department programs in many other ways.
Recommendations ______________
Following an in-depth review of the fire management
situation at the Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary, these recommendations were developed for consideration by the Kerala
Forestry Department:
• The Wildlife Warden at Wyanad should hold fire management meetings in each Range ahead of the fire
season to share the planning and budgeting process
with Range Officers and Foresters. An important part of
these meetings will be to assign responsibilities to carry
out such functions as map and plan preparations, fire
detection, accurate fire reporting, extension and publicity campaigns, and enlisting the support of local villagers in fire suppression and prescribed fire.
• The Wildlife Warden should also inspect the inventory
of tools, equipment, communication network, and vehicles to verify that all components are in readiness for
the fire season. He will also determine the readiness of
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•
•
•
the watch towers and operators. Firefighting assets
from other divisions and agencies need to be committed
for the duration of the peak fire season.
Meetings should be held with people from the respective
settlements, enclosures, and villages to enlist participation in the fire management program for prevention,
suppression, and use of fire.
Honorary Fire Wardens should be appointed in each
settlement, enclosure, and village to provide community leadership in the development of participatory fire
management programs.
At least one Fire Prevention Day should be scheduled
early in the fire season in each of the fire-prone ranges
to heighten awareness for the need to be careful with
fire.
The Wildlife Warden, Range Officers, and Fire Management Officers need to maintain active contacts with all
stakeholders during the fire season to ensure compliance with the Fire Management Plan.
The Kerala Forestry Department should design and
adopt a fire prevention symbol to help people associate
with the concept of forest conservation and fire protection.
The Kerala Forestry Department needs to provide local
training for staff in each Range in fire weather, fire
behavior, fire suppression tactics, and fire safety. The
training center at Arippa might be used to “train the
trainers,” who would then return to local areas to train
range staff and villagers in the basic skills required in
fire management.
Conclusions ____________________
No matter how valuable global, national, or state programs may be, ultimately the people who live and work in
the affected areas must become involved in conservation
choices and strategies at the village level. Joint forest management examples elsewhere in India—cooperative efforts
between the Indian Forest Service and local villages — have
demonstrated on numerous occasions that it is better to
develop partnerships with local people rather than to exclude them or relocate them.
In other words, concerned global voices need to be augmented by informed village choices if conservation measures
are to succeed in the long run. A similar strategy involving
local people can be developed in the Wyanad Wildlife Sanctuary to ensure that natural resources are conserved while
at the same time providing for the well being of local people.
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