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Design and Implementation Strategy for the
Creation of a Basic GIS Infrastructure for
Supporting Forest Ecosystem Resources
Inventorying, Monitoring and Management1
Rafael Moreno-Sanchez2
Celedonio Aguirre-Bravo 3
Anita Hoover4
Johnell Geddes4
Frederick COUCh4
Abstract-The organizations in charge of inventorying, monitoring and managing forest ecosystems in Mexico operate with
limited human, fmancial and material resources. In this context,
the introduction of new tools and methods to assist them in improving the efficiency and effectiveness oftheir operations is fundamental. However, this must be done in such a way that: (1) there is
little extra demands on their already stretched resources, (2) there
is minimum disruption of their day to day activities during the
transition period, and (3) the new tools and methods are customized
with the aim of achieving a high perceived usefulness paired with a
high perceived easy of use. This paper describes a design and
implementation strategy for creating a GIS infrastructure (human
resources, hardware, software, and data) that addresses these
requirements for a pilot study area in northern Mexico. With respect
to data it is important to make the most out to readily available
geographic digital data. For the pilot study area the 3-arc second
resolution DEM was processed to defme "Working Watersheds" to
be used as Ecological Accounting Units. 2D and 3D perspectives
were created to visualize the spatial relationships between and
among these units.
Issues related to the management of ecosystems can be
best addressed in the context of "geographic areas" defined
by explicit environmental parameters rather than by geopolitical and administrative criteria. In natural resources
management, for example, resource planners and managers
make little use of ecological principles for delineating
management and harvesting units. In most cases, boundaries between forest stands are established to emphasize the
operational aspects of timber management and harvesting
plans. Management units, under this traditional approach
to forest resource management, are treated as if they
were independent from the rest of the ecological context
IPaper presented at the North American Science Symposium: Toward a
Unified Framework for Inventorying and Monitoring Forest Ecosystem
Resources, Guadalajara, Mexico, November 1-6, 1998.
2Professor of Land Use Planning and GIS, The Metropolitan State College
of Denver, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences. Campus Box 22,
P.O. 173362, Denver, CO 80217-3362 USA.
3Researcher, USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
Fort Collins, Colorado, USA.
4Students, Land Use Planning and GIS, The Metropolitan State College of
Denver, Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences.
42
(i.e., landscapes, watersheds, etc.). Ecosystem attributes
such as connectivity and relationships between and among
units and their elements are often ignored for the sake of
making resource management plans simpler. In Mexico, for
example, planners and managers of ecosystem resources
often make little use of ecological principles for delineating
resource management units (Thoms and Betters 1998).
Traditional approaches to forest land classification based
on a single resource are now coming into question in many
parts of the world. Forestry concepts such as "forest stand"
and "forest cover type" do not necessarily represent meaningful ecological units (Smith 1986). Such concepts were
borrowed directly from the European experience of growing successive tree crops of economically desirable species
on the same site for many generations. For implementing
ecosystem management, as it is now the trend in many
industrialized countries, land resource classification should
be based on ecological principles (Boyce and Haney 1997).
Various hierarchical land classification systems using ecological principles have been developed for geographical scales
ranging from global to local (Bailey 1996). Linking these
land classification systems to local plans of resource utilization is fundamental to implementing ecosystem management. At the local level, however, land resource classifications are often not available, and if they are, they need to be
revised in order to improve their ecological foundations and
utility.
This lack of ecological context has impacted not only the
functional integrity of ecosystems, but also the economies
and institutions, which depend upon them. More and more
we have come to realize that what we manage does not exist
in isolation. Instead, it is inherently part of a complex
interplay of ecosystems, within which all components are
hierarchically linked. At a landscape level, therefore, approaches for mapping the diversity of these different geographical contexts are fundamental for integrating ecological principles to the management of terrestrial ecosystems.
This paper outlines a strategy for the design and implementation of a basic GIS infrastructure (hardware,
software, data and people) to support forest ecosystems
inventorying, monitoring and management activities under
the conditions of limited resources faced by most Forest
Administration Units (UAF's) in Mexico. A case study for a
forest region in northern Mexico describes how GIS is being
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-12. 1999
used for meeting the need to define Ecological Accounting
Units using a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) and
LANDSAT satellite imagery available for this specific pilot
study area. The results of this study are a fundamental part
of a North American undertaking on integrated inventory
and monitoring approaches for ecosystem resource management in northern Mexico.
Current Challenges _ _ _ _ __
During the 70's and 80's the Mexican federal government
subdivided the forested areas in each State into Forest
Administration Units (UAF's/uCODEFO's for their acronyms in Spanish). Central to the purpose of these "Units"
was to provide technical services for the administration of
forest resources. In the early 90's the forest technical
services were deregulated allowing the forest owners to
contract these services with private companies or certified
professionals. Many landowners chose to continue working
with the professionals of these Units. Currently, most of these
Units face a number of technical and resource limitations:
Work overload-Professionals in these Units are responsible for providing the following technical services: (a) Inventorying of forest resources; (b) formulation and implementation of forest resource management practices (i.e., natural
regeneration, thinnings, timber harvest scheduling, wildlife
habitats, soil conservation, water quality protection, etc.);
(c) monitoring and control of forest pests and diseases;
(d) monitoring and control offorest fires, (e) social education
and organization for forest resources utilization and conservation; and (f) preparation and presentation of reports and
submission of permissions to state and federal regulatory
agencies.
Shortage of personnel-Usually there are between
three to five professionals working in each Unit, depending
on the forest area extent to cover. This forces them to perform
more than one role limiting the time available for training
and specialization in a single" task including the deployment
and implementation of new tools and techniques.
Limited budgets-Negotiated each year, budgets are
based on a fixed fee charged per cubic meter, with respect to
the annual total timber production harvested. Buying a new
computer or software most compete with fixing or maintaining vehicles, or controlling fires or pest outbreaks.
Limited material resources-Vehicles, tools, instruments, computers and software are in short supply.
Requirements to meet increasing demands and more
strict regulations-While landowners and society impose
higher constraints and demands on forest resource management practices, at the same time, state and federal agencies
issue and demand the meeting of more strict regulations on
the production and conservation of forest ecosystems.
Access to technical and educational resources is
limited by Units geographic location-Significant distances must be traveled to have access to libraries, education
and training institutions, high-tech facilities, and other
professionals in different fields of expertise.
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-12. 1999
Limited, or no experience, working with large computer systems in general and GIS in particularDepending on the size (area and personnel), financial resources, and technical leadership, many Units do not have
appropriate computer systems to support their day-to-day
activities.
Shortage of readily available geographic digital
data at the appropriate scale or level of resolutionMexico's National Institute of Statistics, Geography and
Information Systems (ENEGI) and the National Forests
Inventory Department work closely to provide geographic
data in digital form. However, this information is scarce,
and most of the time not at a level of detail required for
supporting tactical-level decision making. Currently, the
information· available at the national level·includes: soils
and vegetation layers scale 1:250,000 and the Digital Elevation Model at a resolution of 3" of degree (roughly 90 meters
per side) per cell.
Strategy for Implementation
Design
Given the resource limitations under which most Units in
Mexico operate, a design and implementation strategy for
the creation of a GIS infrastructure, must address the
issues of hardware, software, data and human resources,
and must strive to meet the following desirable characteristics: (1) it would impose little extra demands on the already
stretched human, financial and material resources; (2) it
would provoke minimum disruption of the day-to-day activities during the implementation and transition periods;
(3) the new tools and methods would be customized with the
aim of providing a high perceived usefulness paired with a
high perceived easy of use as later defined; and (4) it would
make the most out of the available geographic digital data.
Design Considerations
Without attempting to be a complete design methodology, the following aspects must be considered when designing a GIS:
Solve the problem, do not fit the problem to a
preconceived solution-Because of the technological capabilities of GIS developers can feel compelled to fully
exploit these capabilities and this can lead them to apply
their preconceived ideas about how to solve a problem.
System development efforts that are technology-driven rather
than end-user-demand-driven are less likely to succeed
(Hutchinson and Toledano 1993). We argue they are also
less likely to be perceived as useful as defined below"
Consider the concepts of Perceived Usefulness and
Perceived Ease of Use-Perceived Usefulness is defined
as "the degree to which a person believes that using a
particular system would enhance his or her job performance", and Perceived Ease of Use (EOU) is "the degree to
which a person believes that using a particular system
would be free from effort" (Davis 1989). Usefulness and EOU
are important factors in determining acceptance and use of
43
information systems. Software developers place a disproportionate amount of emphasis on EOU. In many cases, the
intended users have found a product easy to use but have
been unconvinced about its usefulness. High EOU with low
usefulness is a "toy", low EOU with high usefulness is a
"Power User Tool", high EOU with high usefulness is a
"Super Tool" (Keil et al. 1995). The goal for a GIS is to be a
"Super Tool". Emphasis on improving EOU should be
made only after insuring the system has high perceived
usefulness.
Clearly identify the client(s) and carefully study
the decision making process to be supported-Staying
close to the end users during the design and development
processes is likely to improve the perceived usefulness of a
GIS.
Provide reasonable initial EOU-The findings of
Davies and Medyckyj-Scott (1994) point to several desirable
characteristic that would improve EOU: (a) comprehensive
error messages, (b) on-line help facilities, (c) compliance
with national and international interface standards, and
(d) customization based on careful consideration of user's
needs, avoiding the introduction of inconsistencies with the
original software.
Make provisions for effortless and cost-effective
future system development-Stand alone GIS can easily
become "snapshots" of existing conditions running the
risk of becoming outdated shortly after completion (Shiffer
1995b). In UAF's and environmental agencies a GIS will
play the role of a DSS, therefore it will be a substantial longterm investment that will require maintenance and future
development.
Prioritize user's needs and address them through
self-contained modules-A modular design breaks problems into small subproblems and addresses them by specific
pieces of software. Modularity improves consistency by always solving problems in the same way, reduces du plica tion
of efforts by facili ta ting reusability of code, facili ta tes development, tracking of bugs, system documentation and maintenance (ESRI 1992). Modules provide short-term reachable
goals for system development and as self-contained units,
they can be created following the established needs' priorities and start supporting operations without waiting for the
whole system to be completed.
Involve on-site end users in the design and development processes-This involvement allows them to
promptly take charge of adding new information and content to the system.
Provide detailed support documentation for the
system's design, development stages and code-This is
essential to the autonomy of professional end-users in the
maintenance and future development of the system.
Development Considerations
Some aspects to consider in the development of a Geographical Information System are:
Develop the system in short development cycles
making extensive use of prototyping-A fundamental
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assumption of traditional methodologies for systems
development is that requirements and specifications can
be completely defined during the analysis phase. This is not
the case for decision support tools since the user may not
fully understand or be able to articulate requirements early
in the development cycle. The process of requirements specification for a decision support tool is best characterized as a
learning experience which takes place continuously during
the development (Chaudhry et al. 1995). This learning is
facilitated by short development cycles concentrating in
specific modules and quick generation of prototypes. During
these cycles interviews with the users insure mutual understanding of needs and the system's capabilities to satisfy
them. The interviewing techniques outlined by Scott et al.
(1991) can be used as guidelines for these interactions.
This approach also favors the minimization of disruptions
of day-to-day activities, and the imposition of significant
extra demands on human, financial and material resources.
The first development efforts should concentrate on GIS
system's functions that: (a) have high priority, (b) are easy to
develop, (c) rely on ready available data, and (d) can be
implemented as soon as possible. In this way, short-term
successful objectives can be achieved providing developers
and end-users with experience, and fostering trust and
support for further system's development efforts.
Evaluate the available development tools-A GIS
system which will be operated by professional users in
support of forest inventorying, forest monitoring and management operations will need to integrate extensive GIS
functionality. Also, the issues and challenges for the development of this type of systems must be considered when
evaluating the software tools for their development. We
suggest that they should:
• Offer ample ready-to-use GIS functionality, which is
easy to access and customize.
• Facilitate the development of the system following a
modular design.
• Provide characteristics of a Rapid Application Development (RAD) tool (refer to Linthicum 1994 for details).
• Support inter-application communications (such as Dynamic Data Exchange (DDE) and/or Object Linking and
Embedding (OLE) (refer to Thomas et al. 1995 for
details).
• Have low hardware requirements.
• Be low-priced.
• Be easy to learn.
• Allow easy interface customization.
• Be capable of develop applications that comply with
national and international interface standards (such as
Microsoft Windows).
• Have a broad and rich support base (training books,
rd
courses, users groups, journals, 3 party developers,
WWW sites and forums).
• Have continuous development and support from the
software's proprietary company and 3 rd party developers.
• Have the potential to be used in developing different
system components and links as the GIS system is integrated into a Spatial Decision Support System (e.g., simulations, models, databases, client/server architecture).
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-12. 1999
Make the Most Out of Readily Available
Digital Data
The Instituto Nacional de Estadistica, Geografia e
Informatica (lNEGI) y the Instituto Nacional de
Investigaciones Forestales y Agropecuarias (INIFAP) among
others, are working intensively to produce thematic layers
in digital form. Of the layers available with national coverage, the Digital Elevation Model at a 3-arc second resolution
(roughly 90 m per cell side) can be processed to support
strategic level and some tactical level decisions. Given that
it is in raster format it can be used as a matrix to create
spatial models, for example through geostatitiscal analysis.
In the next section of this paper we provide examples of
how this layer can be processed to extract information that
is important to define ecological units and later visualize
and query them in 2 and 3 dimensions.
The most expensive and time-consuming activity in creating a fully functional GIS is the creation of the spatial
database (Berry 1995). For most of the UAF's this is an
activity they cannot afford to carry out in terms of time and
money. They are in need of immediate information and
results to support their decision-making processes. Hence, it
is important to make the most out of readily available
geographic digital data. The following are sources of digital
data with national coverage in Mexico:
• Digital Elevation Model (DEM). National Institute
for Statistics, Geography and Information (ENEGI). 3-arc
seconds resolution (roughly 90 m per cell side).
• Forest vegetation. National Forest Inventory, National
Autonomous University of Mexico (UNAM). Major forest
types scale 1:250,000.
• Soils. National Forest Inventory, UNAM, National Insti tute for Forestry, Agriculture and Livestock Research
(INIFAP). Major soils units according to FAO classification scale 1:250,000.
• Satellite Imagery. UNAM, EROS Data Center United
States Geological Survey (USGS). LANDSAT imagery
for different dates for the decades of the 70's, 80's and
90's. Resolution of 60 m and 30 m per pixel side.
Definition of Ecological Accounting
Units -----------------------------------At different scales, the watershed concept provides a
flexible and consistent approach to mapping "geographic
areas" for purposes of environmental accounting and ecosystem resource management. For a given hydrological region,
or basin, there are a large number of smaller interconnected
watershed systems in which many of their physiographic
indicators, such as slope, aspect, altitude, soils, morphology,
drainage patterns, natural boundaries, and connectivity
can be considered as permanent physical attributes. Most
importantly, the spatial distribution of these physical attributes is geographically fixed. While these parameters
experience change on a geological time scale, their geographic location and dynamics remain almost invariant
for centuries for purposes of classification. Because of
these permanent qualities, watershed systems provide a
USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-12. 1999
consistent geographical framework for purposes of environmental accounting and assessment of ecosystems.
GIS systems have the capability of using DEM data for
delineating watershed systems at different levels ofresolution. GIS can also be used to define drainage systems and
provide tridimensional perspectives of watershed units and
their spatial connectivity. Terrain features within each
watershed unit, such as aspect, slope, and altitude, can also
be effectively mapped for purposes of ecosystem analysis.
Remote sensing can provide additional information for purposes of ecological unit design. Watershed units may be
analyzed individually, as a group of a larger system, or
linked at different scale levels so that situations of resource
connectivity and interdependencies are accounted for to
improve ecosystem management decisions at the local level.
Under conditions oflimited resources for GIS analysis, the
development of a geographic is essential for meeting multiple needs concerning ecosystem monitoring, assessments,
and management.
For a pilot study area watershed units were delineated at
different scales for the primary purpose of ecological and
environmental accounting. The basic assumption is that
watershed features and processes such as aspect, slope,
altitude, and hydrology may influence microclimate, soil
characteristics, and potential natural communities.
Landtypes and landtype phases are often identified within
the context offeatures and processes of each watershed unit.
Each watershed unit has a particular ecological and management history. Linked at the landscape level, or at higher
spatial scales, these watershed units may have multiple
ecological relationships and interdependencies. In a number of ways, each watershed is an accounting unit, and as
such, it provides a well defined georeferenced framework for
ecological and environmental accounting of how natural and
anthropogenic drivers of change are impacting ecosystem
resources, processes, and health.
The pilot study area covers a region of roughly 150 km by
50 km around the city of Madera in the northwestern
portion of Chihuahua state, Mexico. The DEM at 3-arc
second resolution was processed using the BASIN function
in the GRID module of ARCIINFO. In this way more than
7,000 watersheds were identified, the smallest measured
less than 2 hectares and the largest had more than 4,000
hectares. Later, using a series of GRID hydrological functions the run offflow accumulation patterns (up to six levels)
were delineated. For the purpose of display and analysis of
this information 2D maps and 3D perspectives were created
a different scales: (a) the whole study area, (b) tiles of 20 x20
km covering the study area, (c) tiles of 10 x 10 km covering
the study area, d) tiles of 5 x 5 km covering the study area.
Different levels of detail of the drainage systems are
displayed at different scales. For example at the study area
scale (roughly 1:500,0(0) only the main flows of the drainage
system are displayed. At smaller scales more detail of the
drainage system is shown. The 3D perspectives were created
using the GRID and TIN modules in ARCIINFO, as well as
the 3D Analyst in ArcView 3.1. These perspectives of the
study area and the tiles provided a much clearer picture of
the configuration of the each watershed and the relationships existing among them. Also, the drainage systems
within each watershed are better appreciated in these
45
perspectives. For examples of these products please visit
The Metropolitan State College of Denver GIS web site at
http://clem.mscd.edul-gis (click on sample student
projects).
The final objective is to compile an "Atlas of Working
Watersheds" that incorporates the 2D maps and 3D perspectives and the different scales previously listed. This atlas
would be produced at a manageable size (letter size or legal
size) to facilitate its use in the field. Currently, LANDSAT
MSS images for 1973, 1983 and 1993 are being processed to
identify changes in land use. This work has not been completed yet. In the future this type of data will be used to
rapidly update vegetation and land use information.
Conclusions ------------------------------Advances in GIS technology and continuos decrease in
hardware costs have made this technology more accessible
than ever to a larger group of nonexpert users with limited
resources. However, it is still important to use an implementation and development strategy for the creation of GIS
infrastructures that increases the chances of a long-term
successful application of GIS technology to support inventorying, monitoring and management of natural resources.
This paper provides suggestions on points to consider
when designing and deploying GIS systems for the conditions faced by most Forest Administration Units in Mexico.
The most expensive and time-consuming activity of creating a fully functional GIS is the creation of the spatial
database. Hence, it is crucial to maximize the amount of
information that can be derived from readily available
geographic digital data.
Using GIS the Digital Elevation Model can be easily and
rapidly processed to provide information on watershed definitions, drainage systems, slope, aspect, altitude and physiographic configuration. This information constitutes the
foundation to delineate Ecological Accounting Units (EAU)
to keep track of how natural. and anthropogenic drivers of
change are impacting ecosystem resources, processes, and
health. The creation of 2D maps and 3D perspectives at
different scales proved to be extremely helpful in visualizing
and understanding the definition of these EAU's and their
46
spatial relationships at different levels of spatial aggregation. Also, the drainage systems are better appreciated in
the 3D perspectives and the tiles produced at different
scales provide the opportunity to display this information
with different levels of detail.
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