EVALUATING USER IMPACTS AND MANAGEMENT CONTROLS:
IMPLICATIONS FOR RECREATION CHOICE BEHAVIOR
H a r r i e t H . C h r i s t e n s e n and N a n e t t e J . D a v i s
ABSTRACT: T h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s p o t e n t i a l f a c t o r s
a f f e c t i n g recreation chdice behavior.
Freedom
and l a c k of c o n s t r a i n t s a r e e x p e r i e n c e s f r e q u e n t l y
s o u g h t by r e c r e a t i o n i s t s .
Data i n t h e paper a r e
b a s e d o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e s c o m p l e t e d by a g e n c y
managers and i n f o r m a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h u s e r s i n
t h e Mount R a i n i e r a r e a of Washington S t a t e .
Managers' and u s e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f i m p a c t s s u c h
a s v a n d a l i s m , t h e f t and l i t t e r i n g , and s o c i a l
c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s a r e d e s c r i b e d f o r d e v e l o p e d and
semi-developed campgrounds. A framework
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e r e c u r s i v e n a t u r e of d e v i a n c e a n d
social control.
I m p l i c a t i o n s of i m p a c t s a n d
r e g i m e n t a t i o n p r a c t i c e s f o r i n f l u e n c i n g c h o i c e of
recreation settings a r e discussed.
INTRODUCTION
Demand f o r r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n n a t u r a l
s e t t i n g s c o n t i n u e s t o grow. R e c r e a t i o n u s e o n
N a t i o n a l F o r e s t l a n d s d u r i n g f i s c a l y e a r 1983
numbered 228 m i l l i o n r e c r e a t i o n v i s i t o r d a y s ;
78 p e r c e n t of t h i s u s e o c c u r r e d i n t h e w e s t e r n
S t a t e s and A l a s k a ( U . S D e p a r t m e n t of A g r i c u l t u r e ,
F o r e s t S e r v i c e 1 9 8 4 ) . Only o n e - t h i r d o f t h i s u s e
i s i n improved l o c a t i o n s ; t h e r e m a i n d e r i s found
t h r o u g h o u t u n d e v e l o p e d f o r e s t l a n d s . At t h e s e
a r e a s , u s e r s c a n v i e w w i l d l i f e , s i g h t s e e , camp,
h i k e , p i c n i c , hunt, f i s h , r i d e horseback, canoe,
r a f t , r i d e o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e s , and t a k e p a r t i n
many o t h e r o u t d o o r a c t i v i t i e s . These o p p o r t u n i t i e s
a r e f o u n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e 1 9 1 m i l l i o n a c r e s of
N a t i o n a l F o r e s t l a n d , 87 p e r c e n t of which i s
l o c a t e d i n t h e West, and o n o t h e r p u b l i c l a n d s ,
a l s o located primarily i n western S t a t e s .
.
Paper presented a t t h e Recreation Choice Behavior
Symposium, M i s s o u l a , MT, March 22-23, 1984.
H a r r i e t H. C h r i s t e n s e n and N a n e t t e J. D a v i s ,
r e s p e c t i v e l y , R e s e a r c h S o c i a l S c i e n t i s t , USDA
F o r e s t S e r v i c e , P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t F o r e s t and
Range Experiment S t a t i o n , S e a t t l e , WA., and
P r o f e s s o r , Department o f S o c i o l o g y , P o r t l a n d S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , P o r t l a n d , OR., and V i s i t i n g P r o f e s s o r ,
W e s t e r n Washington U n i v e r s i t y , B e l l i n g h a m , WA.
S e v e r a l s t u d i e s have a d d r e s s e d t h e k i n d s of
experiences people d e s i r e i n n a t u r a l environs-w i l d e r n e s s u s e , Hendee and o t h e r s 1978; s n o m o b i 1 . e
u s e , McLaughlin and P a r a d i c e 1980; r i v e r r u n n i n g ,
S c h r e y e r and Roggenbuck 1978; o f f - r o a d v e h i c l e
u s e , Watson and o t h e r s 1980; d e v e l o p e d camping,
C l a r k and o t h e r s 1971; and d i s p e r s e d u s e , C l a r k
and o t h e r s 1984. S a t i s f a c t i o n s e x p e c t e d by u s e r s
include experiencing n a t u r a l environs t h a t a r e
l a r g e l y u n a l t e r e d by human u s e , f e e l i n g f r e e and
i n d e p e n d e n t , and e s c a p i n g a d v e r s e c o n d i t i o n s s u c h
a s n o i s e , u n s a f e a r e a s , and p o l l u t i o n .
(For a n
e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n o n m o t i v e s and e x p e r i e n c e s
d e s i r e d , s e e Knopf 1 9 8 3 ) .
Recreation choice behavior i n t h i s paper r e f e r s
t o f a c t o r s t h a t may i n f l u e n c e r e c r e a t i o n i s t ' s
d e c i s i o n making and c h o i c e of r e c r e a t i o n s e t t i n g .
The i s s u e o f r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e s h a s become more
i m p o r t a n t . We h a v e r e a c h e d a t u r n i n g p o i n t i n
r e c r e a t i o n management b e c a u s e of i n c r e a s e d u s e
and t h e n e e d f o r more a s t u t e management p r a c t i c e s
t o d e a l w i t h t h e many p r o b l e m s o f c o n g e s t i o n ,
v a n d a l i s m , and r e d u c e d b u d g e t s of f o r e s t
management.
What n e e d s t o b e known i s how p e o p l e
make c h o i c e s and t o what d e g r e e i m p a c t s and
regimentation affect those choices.
This paper has t h r e e o b j e c t i v e s :
(1) t o i d e n t i f y
u s e r i m p a c t s , s u c h a s v a n d a l i s m and t h e f t , a n d
t o d i s c u s s p o s s i b l e i n f l u e n c e s t h e y h a v e on
r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e s u s e r s make, ( 2 ) t o i d e n t i f y
t h e p o s s i b l e n e g a t i v e e f f e c t s of s o c i a l c o n t r o l
and r e g i m e n t a t i o n on u s e r c h o i c e b e h a v i o r , and
(3) t o p r o p o s e a t h e o r e t i c a l model f o r f u t u r e
empirical research.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , we w i l l d i s c u s s
m a n a g e r s ' and u s e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of i m p a c t s ; f o r
example, i l l e g a l e n t r y of p e r s o n a l v e h i c l e s , a
s t o l e n camp s t o v e o r s l e e p i n g b a g , and o t h e r
depreciative behaviors.
Second, we w i l l l o o k a t
u s e r s ' and m a n a g e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of r e g i m e n t a t i o n ,
such a s enforcement p r a c t i c e s .
F i n a l l y , we w i l l
p r e s e n t a c o n t r o l model t h a t summarizes t h e
r e c u r s i v e n a t u r e of d e p r e c i a t i v e behavior i n
some i n s t a n c e s , and how i m p a c t s and c o n t r o l
p r a c t i c e s can produce unanticipated r e s u l t s i n
t e r m s of p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s on r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e
behavior.
Throughout t h e p a p e r we draw on t h e R e c r e a t i o n
O p p o r t u n i t y Spectrum model (ROS).
Inherent i n the
ROS i s t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t o p p o r t u n i t i e s i n c l u d e
a c t i v i t i e s s u c h a s camping and h i k i n g ; s e t t i n g s
t h a t encompass p h y s i c a l , s o c i a l , a n d m a n a g e r i a l
environments; experiences such a s freedom, s o l i t u d e ,
a d v e n t u r e , and s o c i a l i z i n g w i t h p e o p l e ; and
b e n e f i t s s u c h a s improved h e a l t h .
The ROS model
p o s i t s t h a t a wide r a n g e of c h o i c e s i s a v a i l a b l e
t o u s e r s w i t h m u l t i p l e t y p e s of a c t i v i t i e s a n d
e x p e r i e n c e s p o s s i b l e . Two e l e m e n t s of t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y s p e c t r u m - - l e v e l o f v i s i t o r i m p a c t s and
l e v e l of r e g i m e n t a t i o n - - w i l l b e u s e d i n t h i s p a p e r
t o s p e c u l a t e o n how u s e r s d e f i n e a v a i l a b l e
r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e s ( C l a r k and S t a n k e y 1 9 7 9 , D r i v e r
and Brown 1 9 7 8 ) .
VALUES, IMPACTS, AND SOCIAL CONTROL
A v a i l a b l e f i n d i n g s on u s e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s r e v e a l
a v a r i e t y o f v a l u e s . As r e g i m e n t a t i o n i n c r e a s e s ,
we, i n r e s e a r c h , i n c r e a s i n g l y n e e d t o c o n s i d e r
f r e e d o m , q u a l i t y e x p e r i e n c e , and s e c u r i t y ( o r
a b s e n c e of v i c t i m i z a t i o n ) a s c r u c i a l v a l u e s i n
t h e outdoor experience. Quality experiences a r e
e x p e c t e d by u s e r s i n t h e o u t d o o r e n v i r o n s .
R e c r e a t i o n a l enjoyment a s a n a s p e c t o f q u a l i t y
e n t a i l s a n a b s e n c e of t h r e a t s f r o m v a n d a l i s m ,
t h e f t , and l i t t e r .
Kinds of d e v i a n c e t h a t may b e
d i s t r a c t i n g i n c l u d e r e s t rooms w i t h heavy g r a f f i t i ,
t h e f t of a backpack o r w a l l e t , o r b r e a k i n g a n d
e n t e r i n g a v e h i c l e a t a t r a i l h e a d . Yet we know
t h e r e i s d i s c r e p a n c y between v a l u e s and b e h a v i o r
t lark and o t h e r s 1 9 7 1 ) . With l i t t e r , , f o r example,
we b e l i e v e i t i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o l i t t e r , y e t we
do i t anyway ( C l a r k and o t h e r s 1972, H e b e r l e i n
1971).
T h e r e f o r e , we need t o m o n i t o r c h o i c e s of
b e h a v i o r a c t u a l l y made r a t h e r t h a n r e l y t o t a l l y
on what u s e r s s a y a b o u t t h e i r b e h a v i o r .
Freedom and s e c u r i t y a r e two p r i m a r y q u a l i t i e s of
the recreation experience t h a t u s e r s expect.
In
f a c t , t h e n a t u r e , e x t e n t , and l e v e l of c o n t r o l
over use a r e f a c t o r s t h a t characterize various
r e c r e a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Control measures
r a n g e from s u b t l e t e c h n i q u e s , s u c h a s b a r r i e r s
f o r t r a f f i c c o n t r o l ( a form of s i t e d e s i g n ) and
p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o u s e r s , t o more
a u t h o r i t a r i a n k i n d s of c o n t r o l , s u c h a s l a w
e n f o r c e m e n t . The s t a t e of t h e a r t o n s o c i a l
dichotomies such a s
c o n t r o l i s n o t advanced:
d i r e c t versus indirect, manipulative versus
r e g u l a t o r y , o r coercive versus benign approaches
have been addressed i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e (Christensen
and D a v i s 1984, F i s h a n d Bury 1981, Hendee a n d
o t h e r s 1978).
I n d i s p e r s e d a r e a s , one of t h e v a l u e s a p p e a l i n g
t o u s e r s i s t h e l a c k of r e g i m e n t a t i o n a n d c o n t r o l
found w i t h o t h e r k i n d s of r e c r e a t i o n ; t h i s v a l u e
was r e p o r t e d by n e a r l y t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e campers
i n t h r e e d i s p e r s e d a r e a s i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest
( C l a r k and o t h e r s 1 9 8 4 ) . Most o f t h e d i s p e r s e d
2 r e a u s e r s who had b e e n r e t u r n i n g t o t h e same
l o c a t i o n f o r about 6 y e a r s agreed t h a t being
f r e e t o a l t e r c a m p s i t e s t o meet t h e i r own needs-by s e t t i n g up t a b l e s o r b u i l d i n g f i r e r i n g s ,
f o r example--was i m p o r t a n t . A s e n s e o f s e c u r i t y
i s a l s o i m p o r t a n t . N e a r l y 75 p e r c e n t o f campers
and d a y u s e r s i n t h i s s t u d y r e p o r t e d f e e l i n g
s a f e although they expressed a d e s i r e t o be kept
i n f o r m e d by r e c r e a t i o n managers of p o t e n t i a l
dangers such a s u n s a f e drinking water, poisonous
snakes, and dangerous roads.
S i m i l a r r e s u l t s a r e found i n t h e Downing and
M o u t s i n a s (1978) s t u d y o f d i s p e r s e d , r o a d e d
f o r e s t l a n d u s e r s i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest. Users
want t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o "do t h e i r own t h i n g . "
They p r e f e r l i t t l e development a n d v a l u e p r i v a c y ,
f r e e d o m , a n d p e a c e and q u i e t (Downing and C l a r k
1979).
C e r t a i n l y freedom and s e c u r i t y a r e v a l u e s a l s o
e x p e c t e d i n w i l d e r n e s s a r e a s ; however, t h e y may
t a k e o n a d i f f e r e n t meaning by w i l d e r n e s s u s e r s
t h a n u s e r s of d i s p e r s e d o r d e v e l o p e d r e c r e a t i o n
areas.
Some s t u d i e s on w i l d e r n e s s u s e r a t t i t u d e s
h a v e shown s u p p o r t f o r t r a i l h e a d r e g i s t e r i n g ,
wilderness r a n g e r s p a t r o l l i n g t h e backcountry,
some r e g u l a t i o n of a r e a s , w i l l i n g n e s s t o a c c e p t
more c o n t r o l s , and s o f o r t h .
Charging e n t r a n c e
f e e s and a s s i g n i n g v i s i t o r s t o campsites a r e n o t
f a v o r e d by w i l d e r n e s s u s e r s (Lucas 1980; S t a n k e y
1973, 1 9 8 0 ) .
R e s e a r c h e r s do n o t know much a b o u t u s e r s '
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of f r e e d o m and c o n s t r a i n t i n
outdoor r e c r e a t i o n s e t t i n g s .
Some u s e r s may
a r r i v e a t an area; expect r u l e s , o f f i c i a l contact,
o r v i s i b i l i t y o f t h e r a n g e r ; and f e e l t h e a b s e n c e
i f the controls a r e not present. Dissatisfaction
and r e a c t i o n may o c c u r .
Inappropriate social
c o n t r o l may t h u s l e a d t o d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e
r e c r e a t i o n e x p e r i e n c e : some u s e r s may d e s i r e a n d
e x p e c t f a i r l y c o m p r e h e n s i v e and e x p l i c i t
r e g u l a t i o n s , some may p r e f e r no r e g u l a t i o n s . We
do n o t know how much i s t o o much and how l i t t l e
i s t o o l i t t l e i n d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s o r what e f f e c t s
t h e s e have on r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e behavior.
I n t r i n s i c a l l y , w i l d e r n e s s i m p l i e s fewer c o n t r o l s
and c o n t r o l s t h a t a r e more s u b t l e and b e n i g n i n
n a t u r e compared t o t h o s e f o r o t h e r a r e a s .
In
f a c t , we do n o t know i f t h e r e a r e f e w e r r u l e s i n
w i l d e r n e s s t h a n i n d i s p e r s e d a r e a s . Many p o l i c i e s
govern p r a c t i c e s i n w i l d e r n e s s areas--these
i n c l u d e p o l i c i e s o n minimum i m p a c t h i k i n g and
camping, f i r e r i n g s , and wood f i r e s .
By c o n t r a s t , d e v e l o p e d s e t t i n g s f o r o v e r n i g h t o r
d a y u s e h a v e many r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s and
e x p e c t a t i o n s by t h e managing a g e n c y . C l a r k and
o t h e r s (1971) found t h a t u s e r s of s u c h a r e a s
e x p e c t e d t o e n j o y t r a n q u i l i t y and s o l i t u d e b u t
d i d n o t s e e k e x c l u s i o n f r o m n e i g h b o r i n g campers.
F u r t h e r m o r e , campers r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i r
r e c r e a t i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e was n o t r e d u c e d by t h e
p r e s e n c e of a d d i t i o n a l r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s ,
sound of o t h e r campers t a l k i n g and s i n g i n g , o r
people bringing c i t y conveniences t o t h e
campgrounds.
Freedom a n d s e c u r i t y t o p e o p l e i n d e v e l o p e d
s e t t i n g s may mean s o m e t h i n g q u i t e d i f f e r e n t t h a n
f r e e d o m and s e c u r i t y i n t h e w i l d e r n e s s ,
b a c k c o u n t r y , o r d i s p e r s e d a r e a s . Lee (1972)
s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e everyday normative c o n s t r a i n t s
a r e s t i l l p r e s e n t d u r i n g some l e i s u r e b e h a v i o r b u t
p e r h a p s o p e r a t e a t a low l e v e l of a w a r e n e s s . U s e r s
i n developed s e t t i n g s s t i l l experience t r a f f i c
c o n s t r a i n t s and p r o h i b i t i o n of dogs o f f l e a s h ,
f o r example, b u t n o t t o t h e d e g r e e t h e y do i n t h e
urban s e t t i n g .
People r e c r e a t e i n d i f f e r e n t developed s e t t i n g s
d e p e n d i n g on t h e i r s o c i a l g r o u p , t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s ,
and t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s f o r s p e c i f i c a c t i v i t i e s .
If
r e g i m e n t a t i o n and o f f i c i a l i n t e r v e n t i o n exceed
t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s of a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r o l ,
d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d , i n some i n s t a n c e s , r e a c t i o n
w i l l o c c u r . R e a c t i o n may i n c l u d e d i s p l a c e m e n t and
s e l e c t i n g o t h e r l o c a t i o n s and o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
r e c r e a t i o n where r e g i m e n t a t i o n i s l e s s and more
a p p r o p r i a t e " i n t h e e y e s of t h e b e h o l d e r " ( C l a r k
and o t h e r s 1 9 7 1 ) . R e a c t i o n may a l s o e n t a i l
deviance:
r u l e b r e a k i n g , t h e f t , and v a n d a l i s m .
The
q u e s t i o n we p o s e i s , "What a r e u s e r s 1 e x p e c t a t i o n s
of l e g i t i m a t e s o c i a l c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s and p o l i c i e s
o v e r t h e u s e of s p a c e and s o c i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n ? "
according t o a predetermined systematic schedule.
Forest Service researchers unobtrusively c i r c u l a t e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s , r e a c h i n g a s many
p e o p l e a s were a v a i l a b l e and e n g a g i n g i n i n f o r m a l
a n d open c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h u s e r s a t t h e i r c a m p s i t e .
The r e s u l t i n g sample was non-random and d i d n o t
represent a l l users a t these specific sites.
Given t h e e x p l o r a t o r y and q u a l i t a t i v e n a t u r e of
t h e s t u d y , however, t h e s a m p l e was c o n s i d e r e d
s u f f i c i e n t t o i d e n t i f y t h e r a n g e of i s s u e s of
c o n c e r n t o u s e r s and u s e r s 1 r e s p o n s e s .
Contacts
w i t h u s e r s w e r e u n s t r u c t u r e d , t h u s u s e r s had an
o p p o r t u n i t y t o e x p r e s s t h e i r f e e l i n g s and judgments
i n a manner t h a t d i d n o t r e s t r i c t r e s p o n s e s y e t
a l l o w e d f o r c o m p a r a b i l i t y between them.
A b r i e f summary of u s e r s 1 and m a n a g e r s 1
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s g i v e n i n t a b l e 1 . Four
Federal natural resource agencies are represented
i n t h e sample of managers from t h e Mount R a i n i e r
a r e a . D u t i e s were d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r i n t h e paper.
Most managers were i n t h e i r p r e s e n t j o b f o r s i x
y e a r s and had management and a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
responsibilities.
METHODS
To s t u d y t h e m a g n i t u d e and dynamics o f v a n d a l i s m
a n d o t h e r t y p e s o f d e p r e c i a t i v e b e h a v i o r , we h a v e
drawn d a t a from two s o u r c e s : q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
c o m p l e t e d by agency managers and i n f o r m a l
c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h u s e r s i n t h e Mount R a i n i e r
a r e a of Washington S t a t e .
M a n a g e r i a l d a t a a r e b a s e d on a c o m p r e h e n s i v e
m u l t i - a g e n c y s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g autumn 1982.
Agencies p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e assessment included
t h e U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , F o r e s t S e r v i c e ;
U.S. Department o f t h e I n t e r i o r , F i s h a n d W i l d l i f e
S e r v i c e , N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e , and Bureau of Land
Management; and t h e U.S. Army Corps of E n g i n e e r s .
The c e n s u s was c o n d u c t e d o f m a n a g e r s w o r k i n g a t
various administrative levels i n recreation o r
r e s o u r c e management, l a w e n f o r c e m e n t , p l a n n i n g ,
m a i n t e n a n c e , and c u l t u r a l r e s o u r c e management i n
C a l i f o r n i a , Oregon, Washington, and A l a s k a .
Total
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s m a i l e d numbered 667 w i t h a n o v e r a l l
r e t u r n r a t e of 90 p e r c e n t .
F o r t h i s p a p e r , we
e x t r a p o l a t e d t h e r e s p o n s e s of 36 managers i n t h e
Mount R a i n i e r a r e a t o compare w i t h v a l u e s o f
u s e r s i n t h e same r e g i o n .
Table 1.--Selected characteristics of users and managers in the
Mount Rainier Area
Study
Participant
Users :
Location where contacted-National Forest
National Park
Total
Approximate age-Under 18
18-30
31-50
Over 50
Total
Sex of user group-Male only
Female only
Male and female
Total
Number of visits to area-First visit
Once before
2-3 times before
4 times or more before
Total
Managers :
I n f o r m a l c o n t a c t s w e r e made w i t h u s e r s i n Mount
R a i n i e r N a t i o n a l P a r k and Mount Baker-Snoqualmie
S p e c i f i c s i t e s chosen f o r study
National Forest.
w e r e a P a r k campground and a r a n g e of d a y u s e a n d
o v e r n i g h t r e c r e a t i o n s i t e s a l o n g a 30-mile s t r e t c h
o f Washington S t a t e Highway 410 n o r t h e a s t of t h e
park.
Study s i t e s included: White River
Campground, d e v e l o p e d campground managed by t h e
N a t i o n a l P a r k S e r v i c e i n Mount R a i n i e r N a t i o n a l
P a r k ; D a l l e s and S i l v e r S p r i n g s , two semi-developed
campgrounds; and Greenwater d r a i n a g e , a d i s p e r s e d
r e c r e a t i o n a r e a i n t h e Mount Baker-Snoqualmie
N a t i o n a l F o r e s t . Each s t u d y a r e a was v i s i t e d d u r i n g
two o r t h r e e weekends t h r o u g h o u r t h e summer of 1980
Agency represented-Forest Service
National Park Service
Fish and Wildlife Service
Corps of Engineers
Total
Major duty of job-Managementladministration
Law enforcement
Planningle~aluatin~
Combination of above
0 ther
Total
Other characteristics-Mean of 6 years at this position
Mean of 6 years assigned to
this recreation area
Mean of 10 years working in any
recreation area
Percent (Number)
The 1 9 1 u s e r s r q p r e s e n t e d a mix of m a l e a n d f e m a l e
visitors.
The a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n r e f l e c t s t h e
o b s e r v e r ' s e s t i m a t e of t h e u s e r ' s a g e and i s
a c c u r a t e only a s a general i n d i c a t o r .
These u s e r s
w e r e p r i m a r i l y f r o m w e s t e r n Washington; however,
t h e i r h i s t o r y of previous v i s i t a t i o n i n d i c a t e d a
wide v a r i a t i o n i n t h e amount of p a s t e x p e r i e n c e
t h e y had w i t h t h e s p e c i f i c r e c r e a t i o n l o c a t i o n i n
w h i c h t h e y were c o n t a c t e d .
The p e r c e p t i o n d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s p a p e r o f f e r
a b e g i n n i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d c h o i c e s u s e r s ' make
(Worchel and Cooper 1983, p . 5 2 4 ) : d i f f e r e n t
p e r s p e c t i v e s l e a d t o d i f f e r e n t perceptions about
T h i s means t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s
what i s a v a i l a b l e .
b e t w e e n m a n a g e r s 1 and u s e r s ' p e r s p e c t i v e s r e l a t e
t o c h o i c e s u s e r s make r e g a r d i n g r e c r e a t i o n b e h a v i o r .
But a s y e t , we d o n o t know t o what e x t e n t t h e s e
d i f f e r e n c e s l e a d t o changes i n e x p e c t a t i o n s u s e r s
h a v e o r i n c h o i c e s u s e r s make.
T a b l e 2 shows m a n a g e r s ' and u s e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of
p r o b l e m s i n semi-developed and d e v e l o p e d campgrounds
i n t h e Mount R a i n i e r a r e a .
For a v a r i e t y o f
r e a s o n s s u c h a s s t a t u s , i d e o l o g y , and f u n c t i o n ,
t h e r e a r e m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s between u s e r s ' and
m a n a g e r s 1 p e r c e p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e s e r i o u s n e s s of
Table 2.--Managers1 and u s e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f problems i n semi-developed
and developed campgrounds i n t h e Mount R a i n i e r a r e a
Problem
and P e r c e p t i o n
~ r o u ~ l
SemiDeveloped
Campground
Percentage
Point
Difference
Percent ( ~ u n b k r ) ~
Developed
Campground
Percentage
Point
Difference
Percent (Number)
T h e f t o f u s e r s ' equipment:
Managers
Users
Vandalism t o u s e r s ' equipment:
Managers
Users
Litter:
Managers
Users
Rulebreaking:
Managers
Users
C o n f l i c t between u s e r s :
Managers
Users
The q u e s t i o n i n t h e instrument was "How important a r e each of t h e
f o l l o w i n g problems i n t h i s r e c r e a t i o n a r e a ? P o s s i b l e r e s p o n s e s f o r managers
were "not a t a l l , " "somewhat," "very much," and "do n o t know." Values f o r
managers r e f l e c t t h e sum o f r e s p o n s e s "somewhat" and "very much" o f a
problem. U s e r s ' r e s p o n s e s were "a problem" and "not a problem." The
managers' q u e s t i o n n a i r e was s t r u c t u r e d ; informal c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h u s e r s
were unstructured.
Because t h e nature o f instrument c o n s t r u c t i o n was
d i f f e r e n t i n t h e s t u d i e s , r e s u l t s a r e t e n t a t i v e and s u g g e s t i v e .
Numbers i n parentheses s i g n i f y t h e number o f r e s p o n s e s from which t h e
p e r c e n t a g e s were d e r i v e d .
t h e p r o b l e m s ( D a v i s 1 9 8 4 ) . Taking semi-developed
campgrounds, what i s d e f i n e d a s "problems" f o r
u s e r s - - t h e f t o r v a n d a l i s m of t h e i r equipment and
c o n f l i c t between u s e r s , i s s e e n a s e v e n more
p r o b l e m a t i c a l by m a n a g e r s , w i t h a f u l l 2 8
p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t d i f f e r e n c e on t h e t h e f t m e a s u r e ,
26 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t d i f f e r e n c e between managers
and u s e r s o n t h e v a n d a l i s m i s s u e , and a 41
p e r c e n t d i f f e r e n c e on t h e c o n f l i c t between u s e r s
m e a s u r e . Even more d r a m a t i c d i f f e r e n c e s i n
p e r c e p t i o n between m a n a g e r s and u s e r s o c c u r o n
i s s u e s of l i t t e r ( 5 8 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t d i f f e r e n c e )
and r u l e b r e a k i n g (47 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t d i f f e r e n c e )
T u r n i n g t o d e v e l o p e d campgrounds, t h e d a t a show
similar disparities.
T h e f t of u s e r s ' e q u i p m e n t ,
a n i s s u e managers and u s e r s w e r e d i v i d e d on i n
semi-developed campgrounds i s r e c o g n i z e d a s
"somewhat" o r " v e r y much of a problem" by 90
p e r c e n t of t h e managers b u t o n l y 35 p e r c e n t o f
u s e r s (55 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t d i f f e r e n c e ) .
Vandalism
o f u s e r s 1 e q u i p m e n t , a problem a r t i c u l a t e d by
o n l y 39 p e r c e n t of t h e u s e r s , was s e e n a s
"somewhat" o r " v e r y much of a problem" by 77
p e r c e n t of managers.
On t h e o t h e r m e a s u r e s ,
d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two g r o u p s remain s h a r p l y
d i v i d e d , w i t h u s e r s t r a i l i n g b e h i n d managers 55
p e r c e n t on t h e l i t t e r v a r i a b l e , 44 p e r c e n t on t h e
r u l e b r e a k i n g m e a s u r e , a n d 5 5 p e r c e n t on t h e i s s u e
of c o n f l i c t between u s e r s .
Two c o n c l u s i o n s h a v e
b e e n drawn from t h e s e d a t a .
First, there are
s t r o n g d i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n u s e r s ' and m a n a g e r s '
perceptions regarding t h e s e r i o u s n e s s of t h e
p r o b l e m s . Managers i n d i c a t e a f a r g r e a t e r
l i k e l i h o o d t o perceive v a r i o u s impacts such a s
v a n d a l i s m a s a problem.
F o r example, t h e y have
a n e n t i r e l y s e p a r a t e domain of c o n c e r n s o f t e n
u n r e l a t e d t o u s e r s ' i n t e r e s t s and n e e d s .
These
d i f f e r e n c e s s u g g e s t t h a t r a t h e r t h a n a presumed
s e t of i d e n t i c a l i n t e r e s t s t h a t a r e o f t e n s a i d
t o p r e v a i l between managers and u s e r s , t h e s e two
g r o u p s may h a v e c o n f l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s . Managers
may s e t t h e g e n e r a l p a r a m e t e r s f o r r e c r e a t i o n a l
opportunities, but t o enable democratic choice
by u s e r s , t h e y must r e s p o n d t o u s e r s ' s p e c i f i c
i n t e r e s t s and n e e d s .
Second, s o c i a l c o n t r o l a n d r e g i m e n t a t i o n a r e
i n v a r i a b l y r e l a t e d t o impacts.
Regimentation,
d e f i n e d a s t h e n a t u r e , e x t e n t , and l e v e l o f
c o n t r o l over r e c r e a t i o n a l use, h i s t o r i c a l l y has
had two modes. The l i t e r a t u r e h a s t e n d e d t o
contrast social control a s polar opposites:
d i r e c t v e r s u s i n d i r e c t o r c o e r c i v e v e r s u s benign
a p p r o a c h e s ( C h r i s t e n s e n 1 9 8 4 , C h r i s t e n s e n and
These
D a v i s 1984, Hendee and o t h e r s 1 9 7 8 ) .
d i c h o t o m o u s v a l u e s , however, o v e r s i m p l i f y t h e
complex r e a l i t y of s o c i a l c o n t r o l f o r d i f f e r e n t
recreational opportunities.
Control p r a c t i c e s
v a r y a c r o s s t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l s p e c t r u m w i t h more
p r e v a l e n t and p o s s i b l y more c o e r c i v e c o n t r o l
toward t h e d e v e l o p e d end o f t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l
spectrum.
Recent r e s e a r c h s u g g e s t s t h a t impacts
a l s o v a r y a c r o s s t h e s p e c t r u m ( C h r i s t e n s e n and
D a v i s 1984, C h r i s t i a n s e n 1 9 8 3 ) . Thus, a s u s e of
v a r i o u s o p p o r t u n i t i e s c h a n g e s and a s i m p a c t s
i n c r e a s e , regimentation can a l s o be expected t o
change.
How l i k e l y a r e managers and u s e r s t o a g r e e on
what c o n s t i t u t e s e f f e c t i v e p r e v e n t i o n a n d
.
c o n t r o l s t r a t e g i e s ? T a b l e 3 p r o v i d e s some
t e n t a t i v e a n s w e r s . At d e v e l o p e d campgrounds,
t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n p e r s p e c t i v e s b e t w e e n t h e two
g r o u p s a r e sometimes s h a r p . F o r example, 8 8
p e r c e n t of t h e managers b e l i e v e t h a t m a i n t e n a n c e
of f a c i l i t i e s i s e f f e c t i v e a s a s t r a t e g y f o r
p r e v e n t i n g i m p a c t s , b u t o n l y s l i g h t l y more t h a n
h a l f t h e u s e r s a g r e e . Yet t h e r e i s e x t e n s i v e
l i t e r a t u r e on t h e p o s i t i v e e f f e c t s of maintenance
on reducing d e p r e c i a t i v e behavior (Boston Parks
and R e c r e a t i o n Commission 1978; C h r i s t e n s e n and
C l a r k 1979; Samdahl and C h r i s t e n s e n , i n p r e s s ) .
Although t h e r e a r e sharp d i f f e r e n c e s i n
p e r c e p t i o n s on s i t e d e s i g n , e d u c a t i o n , and
i n c e n t i v e s and r e w a r d s , t h e f a c t t h a t u s e r s l a g
b e h i n d managers a b o u t 20 t o 3 5 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t s ,
suggests that v i s i t o r s perceive the recreational
e x p e r i e n c e f a r d i f f e r e n t l y t h a n managers.
Only i n
t h e u s e of s t r i c t e r e n f o r c e m e n t do we b e g i n t o
s e e t h e g a p between u s e r s and m a n a g e r s c l o s i n g ,
w i t h u s e r s 1 8 p e r c e n t behind managers.
Table 3.--Managersq and users' perceptions about the effectiveness of
various prevention and control strategies in the Mount Rainier area
Management Practice
and
Perception ~ r o u ~ l
SemiDeveloped
Campground
Percent
Percentage
Point
Difference
umber)'
Developed
Campground
(Rural)
Percentage
Point
Difference
Percent (Number)
Stricter enforcement:
Managers
Users
Education:
Hanagers
Users
S h i f t i n g t o t h e semi-developed campground, two
v a r i a t i o n s f r o m t h e d e v e l o p e d campground emerge.
F i r s t , t h e r e a r e s u b s t a n t i a l d i f f e r e n c e s on a l l
m e a s u r e s a c r o s s t h e two o p p o r t u n i t i e s . And,
s e c o n d , t h e d i r e c t i o n s o f d i f f e r e n c e s show two
o p p o s i n g p a t t e r n s . On some m e a s u r e s , t h e r e i s
a n even g r e a t e r p e r c e p t u a l d e p a r t u r e of u s e r s
from m a n a g e r s . For i n s t a n c e , e d u c a t i o n i s
p e r c e i v e d by u s e r s a s e v e n l e s s e f f e c t i v e i n
semi-developed s i t e s t h a n i n d e v e l o p e d campgrounds;
a n d u s e r s a r e h a l f a s l i k e l y a s managers t o
a s s e r t t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of i n c e n t i v e s and rewards.
On o t h e r m e a s u r e s , u s e r s a r e l e s s d i v i d e d o v e r
t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of s p e c i f i c s t r a t e g i e s i n
semi-developed a r e a s , a s compared w i t h d e v e l o p e d
s i t e s . Again, law enforcement a s a c o n t r o l
strategy apparently is held i n relatively high
a g r e e m e n t by b o t h m a n a g e r s and u s e r s , w i t h u s e r s
showing o n l y a 1 2 p e r c e n t a g e p o i n t d i f f e r e n c e .
I n summary, t h e s e d a t a p o i n t t o t h e f o l l o w i n g
conclusions:
(1) t h e r e i s g r e a t e r d i s p a r i t y
b e t w e e n managers and u s e r s o n what c o n s t i t u t e s
a d e p r e c i a t i v e p r o b l e m t h a n on what t o d o a b o u t
i m p a c t s ; ( 2 ) t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c o n f l i c t s between
managers and u s e r s may b e more p e r v a s i v e r e g a r d i n g
c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s than over u s e r s ' p o t e n t i a l o r
a c t u a l l o s s of q u a l i t y r e c r e a t i o n b e c a u s e of
i m p a c t s ; and ( 3 ) t h e f a i l u r e of managers t o
communicate t o u s e r s t h e r a t i o n a l e b e h i n d
deploying s t r a t e g i e s such a s education,
i n c e n t i v e s , d e s i g n , and m a i n t e n a n c e may c o n t r i b u t e
t o t h e i n c i p i e n t and u n a n t i c i p a t e d e x p a n s i o n of
s t r i c t e r l a w e n f o r c e m e n t , which a s t h e s e d a t a
s u g g e s t , b o t h managers a n d u s e r s a r e more l i k e l y
t o a g r e e i s a n e f f e c t i v e c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y . What
t h i s means i s t h a t t h i s d i s p a r i t y between t h e
two g r o u p s may b e i n f l u e n c i n g m a n a g e r s ' i n t e r a c t i o n
w i t h u s e r s i n s u c h a way t h a t managers p e r c e i v e
u s e r s i n n e g a t i v e ways; f o r example, a s a c a u s e
of t h e problem.
F u r t h e r m o r e , b e c a u s e managers
s e e and e x p e r i e n c e more p r o b l e m s , t h e y may
promote n e g a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n . U s e r s , i n t u r n ,
may r e s p o n d n e g a t i v e l y by w i t h d r a w a l and d e v i a n c e ,
thereby lessening t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l experience.
Our r e c u r s i v e model c o n s i d e r s p o s s i b l e
i m p l i c a t i o n s of t h i s n e g a t i v e i n t e r a c t i o n .
.
Incentives and rewards:
Hanagers
Users
Site design:
Managers
Users
Maintenance:
Managers
Users
The question in the instrument was "In your judgment, do you believe the
following strategies would be effective in reducing problems that are
occurring at this recreation areal" Poeeible responses for managers were
"not at all," "somewhat," "very much," and "do not know."
Users' responses
were "effective" and "not effective." The managers' questionnaire was
structured; informal conversations with users were unstructured. Because
the nature of instrument construction was different in the studies, results
are tentative and suggestive.
Numbere in parentheses signify the number of responses from which the
percentages were derived.
RECURSIVE MODEL OF SOCIAL CONTROL
The a p p a r e n t c o n t r a d i c t i o n between f r e e d o m , t h e
d e s i r e d s t a e e f o r u s e r s , and c o n s t r a i n t , t h e
m a n a g e r s ' mandate t o p r o t e c t p r o p e r t y and
resources, can be depicted using a r e c u r s i v e
model. T h i s model c l a r i f i e s how m u t u a l l y
r e s p o n s i v e e l e m e n t s i n a s y s t e m of i n t e r a c t i o n s
c a n p r o d u c e u n a n t i c i p a t e d r e s u l t s . Such r e s u l t s
o c c u r when m a n a g e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of i m p a c t s a r e
t h e s o l e or nearly exclusive source f o r defining
a s i t u a t i o n . I n b r i e f , t h e model shows t h e
c i r c u l a r , o r r e c u r s i v e e f f e c t of d e v i a n c e :
d e v i a n c e may p r o d u c e s o c i a l c o n t r o l , t h e c o n t r o l
may c r e a t e n e g a t i v e r e a c t i o n s , r e a c t i o n s may
i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e of d e v i a n c e , and t h e d e v i a n c e
may c o n t r i b u t e f u r t h e r t o more c o n t r o l ' ( f i g . 1 ) .
Differential perception
of impacts
Differential perception
of constraints
F i g u r e 1 . - - R e c u r s i v e model of s o c i a l c o n t r o l .
(M-1 = m a n a g e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of i m p a c t s , U-1 =
u s e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of i m p a c t s , M-C = m a n a g e r s '
p e r c e p t i o n s o f c o n t r o l , a n d U-C = u s e r s '
p e r c e p t i o n s of c o n t r o l . )
The d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r c e p t i o n o f i m p a c t s by managers
and u s e r s o c c u r s b e c a u s e o f d i f f e r e n t i n t e r e s t s
and n e e d s o f t h e two g r o u p s , a n d b e c a u s e t h e l i n e s
o f communication between g r o u p s a r e a b s e n t o r
i n a d e q u a t e . Management t h u s d e v e l o p s a n u n s h a r e d
d e f i n i t i o n o f a problem, which becomes t h e s o l e
o r near exclusive d e f i n i t i o n of r e a l i t y .
Thus,
f a i r l y t r i v i a l i m p a c t s ( f o r example, m i n o r
r u l e b r e a k i n g , s i m p l e g r a f f i t i a n d l i t t e r ) may b e
i n t e r p r e t e d by managers a s more s i g n i f i c a n t s i g n s
of t h e g e n e r a l breakdown o f a l l r u l e s .
Despite
t h e s e l e c t i v e (and o f t e n d i s t o r t e d ) d e f i n i t i o n ,
management p u t s p r e s s u r e on t h e c o n t r o l s y s t e m
a n d on u s e r s t o a c c e p t t h i s d e f i n i t i o n o f r e a l i t y
by i n s t i t u t i n g more r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s ( s e e
Lemert 1972 f o r a d i s c u s s i o n o n a d a p t i v e c o n t r o l ) .
u s e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s , where t h e y d i s a g r e e w i t h
managements' d e f i n i t i o n s , a r e e i t h e r i g n o r e d o r
presumed t o b e i d e n t i c a l w i t h m a n a g e r s v v i e w s ,
a n d t h e r e i s a g e n e r a l move t o w a r d t h e e x t e n s i o n
of c o n t r o l .
Thus, e x t e r n a l c o n t r o l s , s u c h a s l a w
enforcement without u s e r s ' consent have t h e
paradoxical e f f e c t of c r e a t i n g s o c i a l r e a c t i o n s ,
i n c l u d i n g a new r o u n d of r u l e b r e a k i n g by r e s e n t f u l ,
d i s g r u n t l e d , o r excluded u s e r s .
D i s p l a c e m e n t of
u s e r s may a l s o o c c u r .
I n t h i s way t h e s t a g e i s s e t f o r i n c r e a s i n g t h e
c r e d i b i l i t y gap between a u t h o r i t y and u s e r s w i t h
p r e d i c t a b l e consequences: u s e r s ' r e a c t i o n s
f u r t h e r g e n e r a t e management r e s t r i c t i o n s .
Given
t h i s context, the recursive e f f e c t is inevitable.
Increased c o n s t r a i n t s c u r t a i l u s e r s ' margin of
f r e e d o m and a r i s e i n d e v i a n c e l e a d s t o
managements' f u r t h e r dependence on r e s t r i c t i v e
approaches t o t i g h t e n s e c u r i t y .
~ ~ e c i f i c a flolc ~
u s i n g on t h e m o d e l , t h e d i r e c t i o n
of t h e a r r o w s i n d i c a t e s t h e d i r e c t i o n of i n f l u e n c e
o r dominance.
Managers' p e r c e p t i o n s o f i m p a c t s
(M-1) o b v i o u s l y i n f l u e n c e c o n t r o l s (M-C) t h e y p u t
i n t o p l a c e . A r e c e n t example i n a m a j o r u r b a n
a r e a i n t h e West b e g a n w i t h rowdyism and v a n d a l i s m
( k n o c k i n g down a few s i g n s ) . U s e r s w e r e d i s p l a c e d
r e m o v a l of t h e p a r k i n g s l i p s ,
by a f e w c o n t r o l s :
p l a c e m e n t of ''no p a r k i n g " s i g n s , and p l a n t e r s
s t r a t e g i c a l l y placed around t h e a r e a . Users'
p e r c e p t i o n s o f a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r o l s (U-C) may b e
deemed i r r e l e v a n t and may b e i g n o r e d i f t h e y do
n o t u n d e r s t a n d o r a g r e e w i t h them.
To a v o i d
c o n f l i c t , managers n e e d t o e x p l a i n t h e r a t i o n a l e
b e h i n d r u l e s and p r a c t i c e s . L e g i t i m a t e f e e d b a c k
from u s e r s , r a t h e r t h a n " c a t c h as c a t c h c a n , " i s
a l s o needed.
Some u s e r s h a v e more i n p u t t h a n
o t h e r s i n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of p o l i c y and r u l e s ;
f o r instance, wilderness users.
The r e c u r s i v e
model d o e s n o t a p p l y a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e s p e c t r u m
of o p p o r t u n i t i e s ; i t i s f o r d e v e l o p e d and
semi-developed campgrounds.
S i m i l a r l y , m a n a g e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s of c o n t r o l s (M-C)
a r e imposed o n u s e r s ' d e f i n i t i o n o f (U-1)
p o s s i b l e s a n c t i o n s i f t h e y were t o break t h e r u l e .
F o r e x a m p l e , a s i g n i n Y o s e m i t e may r e a d : " P l e a s e
A u s e r may f e e d t h e
do n o t f e e d t h e b e a r s . "
b e a r anyway e v e n t h o u g h t h e y a r e aware of a f i n e
i f caught.
U s e r s ' p e r c e p t i o n s a r e a f f e c t e d by
controls:
t h e y may l e a d t o a g r e a t e r f e e l i n g of
s a f e t y o r t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t u s e r s 1 freedom i s
curtailed.
The model s u g g e s t s u s e r s may n o t b e
h e a r d r e g a r d i n g d e f i n i t i o n s of r u l e b r e a k i n g and
a p p r o p r i a t e c o n t r o l s . Users a r e g u i d e d by
knowledge o f s a n c t i o n s a n d s e l f management;
c o n s t r a i n t s come from a u t h o r i t y :
"Can I p a r k
h e r e ? " "Can I h a v e a f i r e h e r e ? " "Can I g e t
f i r e w o o d h e r e ? " H e r e , we a r e d i v i d i n g s o c i a l
c o n t r o l between d e f i n i t i o n s and p r a c t i c e s - - t h e
c o n c e p t s , i m a g e s , and l a n g u a g e ( " d i s c o u r s e " ) .
Managers i n i t i a t e a d i s c o u r s e b a s e d on t h e i d e a s
and t h e images t h a t u s e r s a r e rowdy, p o t e n t i a l
v a n d a l s , o r d e v i a n t s . T h i s may l e a d t o
o v e r r e a c t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t o c o r r e c t a s s e s s m e n t of
the recreational situation.
CONCLUSIONS
How c a n t h e r e c u r s i v e e f f e c t of t h e b u i l d u p of
deviance and c o n t r o l i n r e c r e a t i o n s e t t i n g s be
p r e v e n t e d ? Given t h a t t h i s model p o i n t s o u t
t h e most n e g a t i v e p o t e n t i a l outcomes between
m a n a g e r s and u s e r s , how c a n f r e e d o m and c o n s t r a i n t
b e b a l a n c e d i n t h i s s y s t e m ? How c a n u s e r s '
choices genuinely be respected i n t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l
e n v i r o n m e n t a t t h e same t i m e t h a t managers must
p r o t e c t t h e p u b l i c domain? The p o l a r d i s t i n c t i o n s
of freedom o r c o n s t r a i n t n e e d t o b e amended t o a
u n i f i e d c o n c e p t i o n o f f r e e d o m and c o n s t r a i n t ,
g i v e n t h e v a r i e t y of d i f f e r e n t r e c r e a t i o n
opportunities.
This requires alternative
s t r a t e g i e s of open communication, l i n k a g e s between
management and u s e r g r o u p s , more d e p e n d e n c e on
informal and benign c o n t r o l p r a c t i c e s , l i m i t e d
u s e of c o e r c i v e c o n t r o l s , and o t h e r a p p r o a c h e s
t h a t r e l y more e x p l i c i t l y o n u s e r s 1 e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Such a d a p t i v e c o n t r o l s u g g e s t s a g r e a t e r o p e n i n g
f o r v o l u n t e e r i s m and o t h e r u s e r - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h e s .
The f l e x i b l e s y s t e m would a d o p t a v a r i e t y o f
interventions (social control) useful f o r different
r e c r e a t i o n a l c o n t e x t s and would a l s o i n t e g r a t e
u s e r s a t v a r i o u s p o i n t s i n t h e system.
Future r e s e a r c h should a d d r e s s t h e e x t e n t t o which
c e r t a i n types of environments, impacts, o r c o n t r o l s
encourage o r discourage v i s i t s .
The r e s e a r c h
should e n t a i l t h e kinds of conditions u s e r s f i n d
a c c e p t a b l e , i n c l u d i n g t h e forms of v a n d a l i s m and
r e g i m e n t a t i o n t h a t d e t e r u s e r s from e n j o y i n g t h e
f u l l r a n g e of r e c r e a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s and
r e t u r n i n g t o formerly v i s i t e d a r e a s .
In this
proposed r e s e a r c h , i t should be i m p e r a t i v e t o
c l a r i f y t h e u s e r s ' p e r s p e c t i v e s i n t e r m s of what
freedom and c o n s t r a i n t s mean i n v a r i o u s s e t t i n g s .
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
T h i s work was b a s e d on a c o o p e r a t i v e a g r e e m e n t
between USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e , P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t
F o r e s t and Range Experiment S t a t i o n , and t h e
Department of S o c i o l o g y , W e s t e r n Washington
University.
A p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x t e n d e d t o D i a n e Samdahl, L i n d a
Sims, Kevin Burke, and M a r t i Henderson f o r t h e i r
a s s i s t a n c e with t h i s study.
C h r i s t e n s e n , H a r r i e t H. ; D a v i s , N a n e t t e J .
Vandalism:
Law, v i o l a t i o n s , a n d i n t e r v e n t i o n
National Park Service
i n recreation settings.
and N a t i o n a l R e c r e a t i o n and P a r k A s s o c i a t i o n .
T r e n d s . March 1984: 12-16.
C h r i s t i a n s e n , Monty L. Vandalism c o n t r o l
management f o r p a r k s and r e c r e a t i o n a r e a s .
S t a t e C o l l e g e , PA: V e n t u r e P u b l i s h e r s , I n c . ;
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C l a r k , Roger N . ; Hendee, J o h n C . ; and B u r g e s s ,
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4 ( 2 ) : 7 p . ; 1972.
C l a r k , Roger N.; Hendee, J o h n C . ; and Campbell,
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Res. Pap. PNW-319.
P o r t l a n d , OR: U.S. Department of A g r i c u l t u r e ,
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