CHOOSING RECREATION SETTINGS: PROCESSES, FINDINGS, AND RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
S t e p h e n F. McCool, George H.
ABSTRACT: T h i s p a p e r r e v i e w s t h e d i s c u s s i o n cont a i n e d i n t h e 1 1 p r e s e n t a t i o n s g i v e n a t a sympoIt a d d r e s s e s
s i u m on r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r .
m a j o r p o i n t s o f commonality i n t h e p a p e r s , a s w e l l
I t a l s o suga s a r e a s where d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t .
g e s t s a number o f a r e a s i n w h i c h a d d i t i o n a l
r e s e a r c h on r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r i s n e e d e d .
INTRODUCTION
Many i s s u e s c o n f r o n t u s a s we b e g i n t o t r y t o
understand r e c r e a t i o n choice behavior.
Choice i s
o b v i o u s l y n o t a random p r o c e s s , n o r i s i t a p r o c Some a r e a s
e s s t h a t i s unique t o each i n d i v i d u a l .
and r e c r e a t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a r e enormously p o p u l a r ,
o t h e r s a r e not.
However, i s t h e p o p u l a r i t y a n
a r e a o r a c t i v i t y enjoys ( o r lacks) a function of
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s it possesses (or l a c k s ) , o r i s
i t a r e f l e c t i o n of o t h e r f a c t o r s such a s r e l a t i v e
availability, intervening opportunities, o r the
knowledge o r s k i l l h e l d by t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ? Do
p e o p l e c h o o s e a c t i v i t i e s o r p l a c e s b e c a u s e o f what
t h e y a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h , o r b e c a u s e t h e y want t o
"go a l o n g w i t h t h e crowd"?
RECREATION CHOICE BEHAVIOR--SO
WHAT?
How do r e c r e a t i o n i s t s c h o o s e t h e s e t t i n g s i n which
t h e y p a r t i c i p a t e ? What a r e t h e f a c t o r s t h a t
f a c i l i t a t e and c o n s t r a i n t h e c h o i c e p r o c e s s ? Are
some f a c t o r s e s s e n t i a l t o c h o i c e , w i t h o t h e r s
p l a y i n g only a supplementary r o l e , o r do r e c r e a t i o n i s t s compensate f o r t h e u n a v a i l a b i l i t y of one
f a c t o r by s u b s t i t u t i n g a n o t h e r ? Answering t h e
q u e s t i o n s i s an important s t e p i n g a i n i n g a b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f what p e o p l e s e e k from r e c r e a t i o n
a n d i n d e t e r m i n i n g how management c a n b e t t e r p r o vide desired recreation services.
One m i g h t a s k , "So w h a t ? So we h a v e a b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f c h o i c e and t h e r o l e o f a t t r i b u t e s ; i n t h e f i n a l a n a l y s i s p e o p l e w i l l u s e what
i s a v a i l a b l e , r e g a r d l e s s o f what a manager d o e s . "
However, i f we assume t h a t t h e g o a l o f r e c r e a t i o n
management i s t o p r o v i d e b e n e f i t s t o t h e p u b l i c ,
i t becomes i m p o r t a n t t h a t we u n d e r s t a n d how b e s t
t o do t h i s .
Because p e o p l e u s e what i s c u r r e n t l y
provided does l i t t l e o t h e r than t e l l u s t h a t they
u s e what i s t h e r e ; i t i n no way e n s u r e s t h a t a n
o p t i m a l l e v e l of b e n e f i t s i s b e i n g p r o v i d e d , n o r
d o e s i t e n s u r e t h a t t h e b e s t u s e of l a n d i s o c c u r ring.
R e c r e a t i o n managers n e e d t o a d d r e s s s u c h
S t e p h e n F. McCool i s p r o f e s s o r , S c h o o l o f
F o r e s t r y , U n i v e r s i t y o f Montana, M i s s o u l a , MT;
George H. S t a n k e y i s r e s e a r c h s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t ,
USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e , I n t e r m o u n t a i n R e s e a r c h
S t a t i o n , M i s s o u l a , MT; Roger N. C l a r k i s p r o j e c t
l e a d e r , USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e , P a c i f i c N o r t h w e s t
F o r e s t a n d Range E x p e r i m e n t S t a t i o n , S e a t t l e , WA.
S t a n k e y , a n d Roger N.
Clark
c o n c e r n s a s c h o i c e b e h a v i o r and s i t e a t t r i b u t e s ,
j u s t a s timber managers i d e n t i f y a p p r o p r i a t e silv i c u l t u r a l systems f o r each timber type.
Further,
i d e n t i f y i n g d e s i r e d a t t r i b u t e s m i g h t r e d u c e conf l i c t , p a r t i c u l a r l y between renewable r e s o u r c e
management a c t i v i t i e s a n d r e c r e a t i o n a l v a l u e s .
A r e c r e a t i o n s e t t i n g may b e d e f i n e d a s a p l a c e
where t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l - b i o l o g i c a l ,
s o c i a l , and m a n a g e r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r a t t r i butes gives that place value a s a locale f o r
l e i s u r e b e h a v i o r ( C l a r k and Stankey 1979). Physic a l - b i o l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e s , such a s topography,
v e g e t a t i o n , o r w a t e r , p r o v i d e t h e b a s i c raw mater i a l f o r many r e c r e a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s .
They a r e
a l s o f a c e t s o f t h e s e t t i n g t h a t management c a n
i n f l u e n c e , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , through
a c t i o n s t a k e n t o a c h i e v e o t h e r management o b j e c tives.
The i m p o r t a n c e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l - b i o l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e s of a s e t t i n g v a r i e s
among r e c r e a t i o n i s t s , b e t w e e n r e c r e a t i o n i s t s and
managers, and, l i k e l y , w i t h t h e timing and extens i v e n e s s o f m a n i p u l a t i o n s of s u c h a t t r i b u t e s .
T h i s l a t t e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c makes i t d i f f i c u l t t o
inventory physical-biological a t t r i b u t e s i n a
f a s h i o n t h a t c a n b e commonly i n t e r p r e t e d b y a l l
users o r f o r a l l uses.
The f o l l o w i n g 1 1 p a p e r s i n t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s
explore t h e i s s u e of r e c r e a t i o n choice behavior a t
b o t h t h e o r e t i c a l and e m p i r i c a l l e v e l s .
They w e r e
p r e s e n t e d a t t h e 1984 a n n u a l m e e t i n g of t h e N o r t h w e s t S c i e n c e A s s o c i a t i o n h e l d i n M i s s o u l a , MT.
The theme o f c h o i c e b e h a v i o r was s e l e c t e d a s a
r e s u l t o f t h e r e a l i z a t i o n by many i n v e s t i g a t o r s
t h a t e x i s t i n g models of r e c r e a t i o n b e h a v i o r d i d
n o t a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n how r e c r e a t i o n i s t s came t o
use p a r t i c u l a r s e t t i n g s i n t h e f i r s t place, nor
d i d they a d e q u a t e l y cope w i t h t h e l i n k a g e between
t h e f a c t o r s o r a t t r i b u t e s t h a t comprise r e c r e a t i o n
s e t t i n g s (and w h i c h management i s a b l e t o i n f l u ence) and t h e k i n d s of e x p e r i e n c e s r e c r e a t i o n i s t s
d e r i v e from p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n t h e s e s e t t i n g s .
AM ATTRIBUTE APPROACH
The s e t t i n g - - t h e p l a c e w h e r e r e c r e a t i o n o c c u r s - - i s
c l e a r l y a m a j o r component o f t h e p r o c e s s w i t h i n
which r e c r e a t i o n s e r v i c e s a r e demanded ( D r i v e r a n d
Brown 1978; C l a r k and S t a n k e y 1 9 7 9 ) . The a c t i v i t i e s i n which i n d i v i d u a l s and groups p a r t i c i p a t e
and t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o r s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l o u t comes t h e y d e r i v e f r o m s u c h p a r t i c i p a t i o n a r e a l s o
important.
Yet, t h e s e t t i n g p l a y s an e s p e c i a l l y
It i s w h e r e a c t i v i m p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h i s scheme.
i t y p a r t i c i p a t i o n o c c u r s a n d i t s a t t r i b u t e s and
c o n d i t i o n can f a c i l i t a t e ( o r h i n d e r ) n o t only t h e
a c t i v i t y engagement b u t t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n s o b t a i n e d
a s well.
U l t i m a t e l y , i t i s t h e s e t t i n g and t h e
s p e c i f i c a t t r i b u t e s t h a t comprise i t t h a t i s t h e
f o c u s o f p l a n n i n g and management.
Having a b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how r e c r e a t i o n i s t s c h o o s e s e t t i n g s and how t h e y e v a l u a t e them c a n g i v e managers
a b e t t e r g r a s p o f how t h e i r d e c i s i o n s a f f e c t u s e r
judgments o f a s i t e ' s a b i l i t y t o accommodate p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s a s w e l l a s provide d i f f e r e n t
experiences.
Social a t t r i b u t e s a r e those elements of the s e t t i n g t h a t a r e a function of t h e r e c r e a t i o n use i t
r e c e i v e s and would i n c l u d e t h e amount, t i m i n g , and
type of use.
Social a t t r i b u t e s a r e very important
t o many u s e r s a n d , a s w i t h t h e p h y s i c a l - b i o l o g i c a l
a t t r i b u t e s , t h e i m p o r t a n c e a t t a c h e d t o them w i l l
v a r y among u s e r s , between managers and u s e r s , and
w i t h t i m e , g r o u p a f f i l i a t i o n , and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s .
V a r i a b l e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s of s o c i a l a t t r i b u t e s can
l e a d t o v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s ( f o r example,
t h e number of o t h e r p e r s o n s i n s i g h t o r s o u n d )
b e i n g d e f i n e d commonly ( f o r example, s o l i t u d e ) , o r
vice-versa.
The t y p e , amount, and o b t r u s i v e n e s s o f m a n a g e r i a l
a c t i v i t y r e p r e s e n t s t h e t h i r d c l a s s of a t t r i b u t e
t h a t s h a p e s t h e n a t u r e of r e c r e a t i o n a l s e t t i n g s .
T h i s a t t r i b u t e i s a s u b t l e i n f l u e n c e b e c a u s e many
a c t i o n s a r e u n d e r t a k e n f o r t h e e x p l i c i t p u r p o s e of
protecting a particular setting, yet the very
p r e s e n c e o f t h e management a c t i v i t y c a n l e a d t o a
change i n t h e k i n d o f p l a c e i t i s . A l s o , a c t i o n s
i n s t i t u t e d by managers t o p r o t e c t r e s o u r c e q u a l i t y
can thwart i n a d v e r t e n t l y t h e o b j e c t i v e s of t h e
r e c r e a t i o n i s t , l e a d i n g t o s h a r p c o n f l i c t s between
t h e two g r o u p s . As C h r i s t e n s e n and D a v i s ( t h i s
proceedings) note, there a r e o f t e n sharp d i f f e r e n c e s n o t o n l y between t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f i m p a c t s
by managers and u s e r s , b u t a l s o between t h e i r
v i e w s a s t o t h e most e f f e c t i v e methods o f c o n t e n d i n g w i t h such problems.
The r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e of e a c h t y p e o f a t t r i b u t e
w i l l v a r y among r e c r e a t i o n i s t s d e p e n d i n g upon a
v a r i e t y of f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g a c t i v i t y i n t e r e s t s ,
e x p e r i e n c e , and e x p e c t a t i o n s . R e g a r d l e s s of t h e
s p e c i f i c significance associated with an a t t r i b u t e , however, a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r o l e a t t r i b u t e s p l a y i n t h e c h o i c e p r o c e s s employed by
r e c r e a t i o n i s t s i s c r i t i c a l t o management.
It i s
t h e s e t t i n g ( d e s c r i b e d by i t s a t t r i b u t e s ) t h a t
r e c r e a t i o n i s t s s e e k , u s e , and i m p a c t ; i t i s t h e
s e t t i n g t h a t managers m a n i p u l a t e , m o d i f y , o r
influence; it is the s e t t i n g t h a t is allocated t o
o n e dominant u s e o r a n o t h e r .
I n t h i s p a p e r , we
b r i e f l y r e v i e w t h e themes u n d e r l y i n g t h e p a p e r s i n
t h i s volume t h a t d e a l w i t h how r e c r e a t i o n i s t s
s e l e c t s e t t i n g s and a c t i v i t i e s , and s u g g e s t
r e s e a r c h d i r e c t i o n s t h a t hold promise f o r addressi n g unresolved questions. Understanding choice
b e h a v i o r i s a l s o f u n d a m e n t a l t o management b e c a u s e
r e c r e a t i o n i s t s w i l l use information about s e t t i n g
a t t r i b u t e s i n making c h o i c e s ; t h u s , managers p l a y
a n i m p o r t a n t and a c t i v e r o l e i n c h o i c e p r o c e s s e s
through provision of information about a t t r i b u t e s .
A BROADENED RESEARCH FOCUS
Over t h e p a s t d e c a d e , o u r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f what
p e o p l e s e e k from r e c r e a t i o n a l engagements--indeed,
our understanding of t h e n a t u r e of t h e r e c r e a t i o n
p r o c e s s - - h a s i n c r e a s e d g r e a t l y . Much of t h i s
increased understanding can be a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e
work of Brown, D r i v e r , a n d t h e i r a s s o c i a t e s .
T h e i r work, b u i l t upon t h e e x p e c t a n c y - v a l e n c e
t h e o r i e s o f A j z e n a n d F i s h b e i n (1980), c o n c e i v e s
o f r e c r e a t i o n a l engagements a s b e i n g a b e h a v i o r a l l y founded p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s .
I n t h i s concept i o n , v i s i t o r s a r e s e e n a s coming t o s i t e s w i t h
e x p e c t a t i o n s and d e s i r e s f o r s p e c i f i c t y p e s of
satisfaction.
They e n g a g e i n a c t i v i t i e s a t s i t e s
where t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f p h y s i c a l , s o c i a l , and
m a n a g e r i a l c o n d i t i o n s h e l p s them a c h i e v e t h e i r
desired satisfactions.
And, upon l e a v i n g t h e
s i t e , t h e achievement of d e s i r e d s a t i s f a c t i o n s is
s e e n a s l e a d i n g t o s u b s e q u e n t p e r s o n a l , and p e r h a p s s o c i e t a l , b e n e f i t s (Brown 1 9 7 9 ) .
Expectancy-Valence Model S h o r t c o m i n g s
This conception of t h e r e c r e a t i o n production proce s s r e s t s upon a model o f human b e h a v i o r i n which
behavior is r a t i o n a l .
It a l s o s u g g e s t s a reduct i o n i s t a p p r o a c h t o t h e s t u d y of b e h a v i o r . Nevert h e l e s s , t h e model h a s s e r v e d w e l l i n i d e n t i f y i n g
systematically c r i t i c a l elements of recreation
behavior.
It h a s , p e r h a p s most i m p o r t a n t l y ,
h i g h l i g h t e d t h e human e x p e r i e n c e s o b t a i n e d from
r e c r e a t i o n a l engagements a s t h e key p r o d u c t o f
r e c r e a t i o n management e f f o r t s r a t h e r t h a n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l measures of a c r e s designated, f a c i l i t i e s
b u i l t , o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n recorded.
T h i s f o c u s on t h e e x p e r i e n c e s o r outcomes o b t a i n e d
by r e c r e a t i o n i s t s l e d t o n e c e s s a r y c o n c e r n s w i t h
t h e r e c r e a t i o n a l s e t t i n g . It i s t h e s e t t i n g t o
which r e c r e a t i o n i s t s come; where t h e y c a r r y o u t
a c t i v i t i e s , which t h e y i m p a c t ; and from where, i n
association with t h e a c t i v i t y , they derive t h e i r
e x p e r i e n c e . The s e t t i n g i s a l s o t h e e l e m e n t o f
t h e r e c r e a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n model t h a t managers can
i n f l u e n c e , e i t h e r d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y , through
their actions.
Finally, i t l o g i c a l l y follows t h a t
t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r a t t r i b u t e s of t h e s e t t i n g
should a t l e a s t i n f l u e n c e , i f not c o n t r o l , t h e
kinds of experiences t h a t r e c r e a t i o n i s t s a r e a b l e
t o obtain.
For example, i f s o l i t u d e i s t h e
d e s i r e d outcome, t h e n a s e t t i n g w i t h few o t h e r s
would seem n e c e s s a r y .
Conversely, i f challenge
and r i s k a r e d e s i r e d , a s e t t i n g l a d e n w i t h s i g n s ,
b a r r i e r s , and r a n g e r s h a r d l y would b e c o n d u c i v e t o
a c h i e v i n g t h o s e outcomes.
The l i n k a g e between s e t t i n g and outcome, however,
h a s p r o v e n t o b e a complex o n e , l a c k i n g a n y d i r e c t
o r e a s i l y p r e d i c t a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p . No d e t e r m i n i s t i c t i e between s e t t i n g and outcome e x i s t s ( n o r
h a s s u c h a r e l a t i o n s h i p e v e r b e e n i m p l i e d ) . At
b e s t , t h e l i n k between a p a r t i c u l a r combination of
a t t r i b u t e s w i t h i n a s e t t i n g and t h e r e a l i z a t i o n o f
some outcomes c a n o n l y b e e x p r e s s e d i n p r o b a b i l i s t i c t e r m s , o r even more r e a l i s t i c a l l y , i n b r o a d ,
o r d i n a l l y measured s t a t e m e n t s of l i k e l i h o o d . Some
experiences appear t o be e s s e n t i a l l y independent
of t h e s e t t i n g ; f o r example, p h y s i c a l e x e r c i s e o r
f a m i l y k i n s h i p c a n b e a c h i e v e d i n many s e t t i n g s
and a r e n o t d i s t i n g u i s h e d by v a r y i n g s e t t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( D r i v e r and o t h e r s , i n p r e s s ) .
I f we l o o k a t t h e s e t t i n g - o u t c o m e l i n k a g e from t h e
o t h e r d i r e c t i o n (Can we i d e n t i f y d e s i r e d s e t t i n g s
i f we know t h e d e s i r e d o u t c o m e s ? ) , t h e r e i s l i t t l e
change i n t h e s i t u a t i o n .
F o r example, H a r r i s and
o t h e r s ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) r e p o r t " t h e few e f f o r t s
made t o p r e d i c t from p e r c e i v e d r e c r e a t i o n outcomes
o r e x p e r i e n c e t o u s e o f d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g s have
The more complex and
had mixed r e s u l t s
m e n t a l l y t a x i n g compensatory p r o c e s s e s l i k e t h o s e
o p e r a t i o n a l i z e d w i t h a t t i t u d e and m o t i v a t i o n
t h e o r i e s do n o t seem t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s of r e c r e a t i o n i s t s ' decisionmaking processes."
S c h r e y e r and o t h e r s ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s )
r e i n f o r c e t h i s p o s i t i o n when t h e y s t a t e t h a t " t h e
capacity t o p r e d i c t e i t h e r behavioral o r environm e n t a l c h o i c e t h r o u g h knowledge of m o t i v e s c o r e s
h a s y e t t o be demonstrated."
However, s u c h
expressed d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n does n o t c o n s t i t u t e s o
much a r e j e c t i o n of t h e e x p e c t a n c y - v a l e n c e model
of r e c r e a t i o n behavior a s i t r e f l e c t s a recognit i o n t h a t t h i s model d o e s n o t a d e q u a t e l y cope w i t h
t h e complex p r o c e s s u n d e r l y i n g how r e c r e a t i o n i s t s
choose s e t t i n g s . This conclusion i s a r e c u r r e n t
theme t h r o u g h o u t t h e p a p e r s i n t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s .
....
C o g n i t i v e Development Models
F o l l o w i n g a l o n g t h e s e l i n e s , s e v e r a l of t h e p a p e r s
give p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e r o l e of cognitive
development i n t h e r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e p r o c e s s .
W i l l i a m s n o t e s t h a t t h e c o g n i t i v e development
l e v e l of an i n d i v i d u a l r e f e r s t o t h e amount and
t y p e of i n f o r m a t i o n a p e r s o n h a s a n d t h a t t h i s i s
thought t o i n f l u e n c e t h e frame of r e f e r e n c e w i t h i n
which t h a t i n d i v i d u a l makes d e c i s i o n s a b o u t r e c r e a t i o n choices. H a r r i s and o t h e r s a t t r i b u t e t h e
g r o w t h of i n t e r e s t i n t h e c o g n i t i v e development
model t o a number o f f a c t o r s , i n c l u d i n g t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of i n c r e a s i n g l y s o p h i s t i c a t e d s t a t i s t i c a l
t e c h n i q u e s , t h e n e e d f o r b e t t e r d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e
r e t u r n s on r e c r e a t i o n i n v e s t m e n t s , a n d , a s n o t e d
e a r l i e r , the general dissatisfaction with the
p e r f o r m a n c e of t h e e x p e c t a n c y - v a l e n c e model i n
explaining r e c r e a t i o n i s t s ' choice behavior.
Because t h e c o g n i t i v e development model f o c u s e s
a t t e n t i o n on t h e i n f o r m a t i o n an i n d i v i d u a l poss e s s e s and how t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i s u s e d , a number
o f i m p o r t a n t q u e s t i o n s must b e a d d r e s s e d : What
t y p e s of i n f o r m a t i o n h a s t h e i n d i v i d u a l a c q u i r e d ?
Through what s o u r c e s ? Through what e x p e r i e n c e s i s
t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n b a s e u p d a t e d ? How d o e s t h e
a c q u i s i t i o n o f new i n f o r m a t i o n l e a d t o c h a n g e s i n
choice behavior? Williams ( t h i s proceedings)
n o t e s t h a t t o d i s t i n g u i s h c o g n i t i v e development
from mere change, t h e r e must b e some u n d e r l y i n g
p r o g r e s s , o r d e r , and d i r e c t i o n .
Thus, w i t h
expanded c o g n i t i v e development comes i n c r e a s i n g
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n (an i n c r e a s i n g r e c o g n i t i o n of
conceptual complexity), a s well a s increasing
s p e c i a l i z a t i o n (Bryan 1979) o r a n i n c r e a s i n g l y
r e f i n e d s e t of p r e f e r e n c e s and b e h a v i o r s .
With
b o t h comes a more complex manner i n which t h e
individual processes information regarding recrea t i o n choice.
Compensatory V e r s u s Noncompensatory Models
A major i s s u e discussed i n s e v e r a l papers i s t h e
c o n c e p t of c o m p e n s a t o r y v e r s u s noncompensatory
c h o i c e models.
B r i e f l y , t h e compensatory a p p r o a c h
suggests t h a t recreationists evaluate setting
a t t r i b u t e s u s i n g a s u b j e c t i v e l y determined weighti n g system. A cumulative p o t e n t i a l s i t e u t i l i t y
s c o r e i s d e r i v e d f o r each a l t e r n a t i v e s i t e based
on t h e w e i g h t a s s i g n e d e a c h a t t r i b u t e . The s i t e
w i t h t h e h i g h e s t p o t e n t i a l u t i l i t y i s c h o s e n by
the recreationist.
The noncompensatory a p p r o a c h
views r e c r e a t i o n i s t s a s ranking t h e importance of
a t t r i b u t e s , t h e n e v a l u a t i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s i t e s on
For each a t t r i an a t t r i b u t e - b y - a t t r i b u t e b a s i s .
bute, t h e l e a s t s a t i s f a c t o r y s i t e ( s ) is elimin a t e d , u n t i l o n l y one a l t e r n a t i v e r e m a i n s .
The compensatory c h o i c e model h a s i t s o r i g i n s i n
t h e e x p e c t a n c y - v a l e n c y framework d e s c r i b e d e a r l i e r . By c o u p l i n g i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e v a l u e o f spec i f i c outcomes w i t h t h e p e r c e i v e d p r o b a b i l i t y of
a c h i e v i n g t h a t outcome i n p a r t i c u l a r s e t t i n g s ,
compensatory t h e o r i s t s a r g u e t h a t b e h a v i o r a l
i n t e n t i o n s c a n b e p r e d i c t e d . But t h e c o m p e n s a t o r y
model i s complex and m i g h t r e p r e s e n t an o v e r r a t i o n a l i z e d v i e w of r e c r e a t i o n i s t d e c i s i o n behavi o r . The noncompensatory model i s o f t e n s u p p o r t e d
a s a s i m p l e r and more r e a l i s t i c a p p r o x i m a t i o n of
how p e o p l e make d e c i s i o n s , p r o c e s s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n
i n a s e q u e n t i a l f a s h i o n from most i m p o r t a n t t o
l e a s t important.
H a r r i s and o t h e r s ( t h i s proceedings) suggest t h a t
r e s p o n d e n t s u s e noncompensatory c h o i c e p r o c e s s e s
r a t h e r t h a n s u b j e c t i v e u t i l i t y a p p r o a c h e s . Watson
and Roggenbuck ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) expand on t h i s
a s s e r t i o n by s u g g e s t i n g t h a t a l e x i c o g r a p h i c
d e c i s i o n model i s employed by r e c r e a t i o n i s t s i n
s i t e s e l e c t i o n . The l e x i c o g r a p h i c s e m i - o r d e r
c h o i c e model u s e d i n t h e i r s t u d y a s s u m e s t h a t r e c r e a t i o n i s t s o r d e r t h e r e l e v a n t a t t r i b u t e s and comp a r e a l t e r n a t i v e s on t h e b a s i s o f a c c e p t a b i l i t y ;
alternatives a r e systematically eliminated u n t i l
t h e r e i s o n l y one s a t i s f a c t o r y a l t e r n a t i v e l e f t .
Such a model p r e d i c t e d o v e r o n e - h a l f of t h e f i r s t
c h o i c e s o f s e t t i n g s by t h e s u b j e c t s i n t h e i r
s t u d y , and i n n e a r l y t h r e e - f o u r t h s of t h e c a s e s ,
e l i m i n a t e d 80 p e r c e n t of t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s .
P e t e r s o n and o t h e r s ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) a l s o d i s c u s s t h e importance of examining a l t e r n a t i v e ,
p r o c e s s - o r i e n t e d c h o i c e models.
I n t h e i r discuss i o n , t h e y h y p o t h e s i z e t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among
some a t t r i b u t e s m i g h t b e l e x i c o g r a p h i c , w h i l e f o r
o t h e r s i t i s compensatory. T h e i r r e s e a r c h u s i n g a
n e s t e d c h o i c e model was o n l y p a r t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d ,
and a s t h e y c o n c l u d e , "a good s t a r t b u t f a r from
complete."
What i s r e f r e s h i n g i n t h e s e p a p e r s i s t h e w i l l i n g n e s s of r e s e a r c h e r s t o d e v e l o p , t e s t , and a p p l y
o t h e r approaches t o choice behavior.
These
a p p r o a c h e s seem t o h a v e a n i m p l i c i t r e c o g n i t i o n o f
t h e dynamic n a t u r e of c h o i c e b e h a v i o r , a n d , t o
some e x t e n t , a r e more c o m p r e h e n s i v e t h a n e a r l i e r
attempts.
Psychological Versus S o c i o l o g i c a l P e r s p e c t i v e s
N e a r l y a l l t h e p a p e r s i n t h i s volume f o c u s on
p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e
person i n t h e choice s i t u a t i o n .
Only a few
e x p l i c i t l y a d d r e s s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of g r o u p p r o c e s s e s , normative standards, o r o t h e r s o c i a l i n f l u e n c e s i n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r . A l t h o u g h most r e s e a r c h e r s r e f e r t o c h o i c e s s a t i s f y i n g t h e n e e d s of
i n d i v i d u a l s , C l a r k and Downing c o n t i n u a l l y r e f e r
t o t h e i m p o r t a n c e of "group n e e d s , " r e s o l v i n g
i n t r a g r o u p c o n f l i c t a b o u t a l t e r n a t i v e s , and t h e
d e s i r e s of t h e g r o u p i n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r s i t u a tions.
S c h r e y e r and o t h e r s a l s o r e c o g n i z e t h e
i m p o r t a n c e o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h i s d i m e n s i o n when
t h e y s t a t e t h a t "we c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e l i n k
between m o t i v e and c h o i c e u n l e s s we know t h e
s o c i a l c o n t e x t . I'
One s u s p e c t s t h a t t h e s o c i a l c o n t e x t i s a much
more s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r i n t h e c h o i c e p r o c e s s t h a n
c u r r e n t l y r e c o g n i z e d and u n d e r s t o o d .
Recreation
i s almost exclusively a s o c i a l behavior; d e c i s i o n s
a b o u t what t o do and where t o g o l i k e l y a r e made
w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t of a g r o u p r a t h e r t h a n by a
s i n g l e i n d i v i d u a l . L i t t l e i s known a b o u t how
g r o u p s o b t a i n and i n t e r p r e t i n f o r m a t i o n o r how
c o n f l i c t i n g i d e a s , motives, and d e s i r e s a r e
resolved.
The dominance of p s y c h o l o g i c a l models
of behavior probably accounts f o r t h e l a c k of
r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e p o t e n t i a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e of
g r o u p i n f l u e n c e s on c h o i c e b e h a v i o r .
It i s import a n t t o b u i l d t h i s e l e m e n t i n t o models of c h o i c e
b e h a v i o r now, r a t h e r t h a n " r e t r o f i t t i n g " them
l a t e r when t h e f u l l i m p o r t a n c e i s i d e n t i f i e d .
Choice B e h a v i o r and S u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y
I f we assume t h a t r e c r e a t i o n i s t s f o l l o w some s o r t
of s y s t e m a t i c p r o c e s s i n t h e i r e v a l u a t i o n of s e t t i n g a t t r i b u t e s , how do t h e y accommodate, and
r e s p o n d t o , s i t u a t i o n s where t h e i r c h o i c e i s cons t r a i n e d ? What h a p p e n s , f o r example, i f a key
a t t r i b u t e is not s a t i s f a c t o r y o r missing a l t o gether, but t h e s e t t i n g i s t h e only f e a s i b l e
a l t e r n a t i v e ? Is i t s t i l l a n a c c e p t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e , and, i f s o , i s i t capable of p r o v i d i n g t h e
same s a t i s f a c t i o n t o t h e r e c r e a t i o n i s t ?
Such q u e s t i o n s r a i s e t h e c r i t i c a l i s s u e o f s u b s t i tutability.
I n t h e most g e n e r a l t e r m s , s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y r e f e r s t o t h e e x t e n t t o which o n e s e t t i n g
could e f f e c t i v e l y replace another i n terms of i t s
a b i l i t y t o accommodate p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s and
t o p r o d u c e p a r t i c u l a r outcomes.
Substitutability
i s a c o n c e p t w i t h i m p o r t a n t i m p l i c a t i o n s t o mana g e r s and p l a n n e r s who a r e f a c e d w i t h i d e n t i f y i n g
and i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a c t i o n s t h a t
eliminate or a l t e r recreation settings.
W i l l prov i d i n g a new s e t t i n g t o r e p l a c e one e l i m i n a t e d by
a timber x a r v e s t c o n s t i t u t e an adequate and
a c c e p t a b l e r e p l a c e m e n t f o r r e c r e a t i o n i s t s ? Are
s e t t i n g s j u s t t h e sum o f a s e t of a t t r i b u t e s , o r
a r e there antecedent o r s i t u a t i o n a l f a c t o r s c r i t i c a l t o the area's definition a s a substitute?
The q u e s t i o n of what c o n s t i t u t e s a s u b s t i t u t e g o e s
beyond t h e o n s i t e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
F o r an a r e a t o
s e r v e a s a s u b s t i t u t e i t must c o n s t i t u t e a r e a l
choice f o r the recreationist.
The i d e a l l y endowed
s i t e c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s u b s t i t u t e i f it i s
i n a c c e s s i b l e , o r i f r e c r e a t i o n i s t s a r e unaware o f
it.
One c a n r a i s e t h e i s s u e of s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y i n
terms of a c t i v i t i e s o r t h e s o c i a l context w i t h i n
which p a r t i c i p a t i o n o c c u r s . F o r example, an i n d i v i d u a l f a c e d w i t h t h e l o s s of c e r t a i n s e t t i n g
a t t r i b u t e s m i g h t s u b s t i t u t e one a c t i v i t y f o r
a n o t h e r o r might s u b s t i t u t e a p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t y
s t y l e f o r another s t y l e i n an e f f o r t t o maintain
participation a t a favorite recreation s i t e . In
t h i s s e n s e , changes i n t h e s e t t i n g have induced
s h i f t s i n demand f o r p a r t i c u l a r a c t i v i t i e s . C l a r k
and Downing ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) a l s o a r g u e t h a t t h e
c o n c e p t of s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y c a n encompass s u b s t i t u t i o n s i n s o c i a l group context.
The e x t e n t o f t h e l i n k a g e between t h e c o n c e p t o f
s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y and c h o i c e behavior i s r e f l e c t e d
i n i t s o c c u r r e n c e i n t h e p a p e r s i n t h i s proceedings.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e p a p e r by P e t e r s o n and
others ( t h i s proceedings) h i g h l i g h t s t h e various
d i s c i p l i n a r y p e r s p e c t i v e s and models of s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y , suggesting t h a t t h e general behavior
involved i n t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n process occurs i n a
w i d e v a r i e t y of l i f e s e t t i n g s . It i s t h e r e f o r e
l i k e l y t h a t i n i n v e s t i g a t i n g i t s n a t u r e and r o l e
i n r e c r e a t i o n s e t t i n g s we w i l l d i s c o v e r i m p o r t a n t
i n s i g h t s by c a r e f u l l y e x a m i n i n g how s u b s t i t u t i o n
works e l s e w h e r e .
Shelby ( t h i s proceedings) d e t a i l s an i n t e r e s t i n g
i n v e s t i g a t i o n of t h e perceived s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y
between two salmon f i s h i n g s t r e a m s i n New Z e a l a n d .
H i s study provides c l e a r evidence t h a t recreationi s t s p e r c e i v e i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between a p p a r e n t l y s i m i l a r r e c r e a t i o n r e s o u r c e s and i l l u s t r a t e s
how t h e f o r e c l o s u r e o f o n e o p p o r t u n i t y c a n n o t b e
presumed t o b e o f f s e t by t h e p h y s i c a l p r e s e n c e o f
a n o t h e r i n some s i m p l e one-for-one f a s h i o n .
S h e l b y ' s r e s u l t s p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r noncompensat o r y choice processes.
Allen ( t h i s proceedings) s p e c i f i c a l l y addresses
t h e problem of c h a n g e s i n s i t e a t t r i b u t e s b e c a u s e
of t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a m a j o r p o w e r l i n e and i t s
i n f l u e n c e on b i g game h u n t e r s . H i s s t u d y found
t h a t new r o a d s c o n s t r u c t e d f o r a c c e s s t o t h e powe r l i n e right-of-way and t o w e r s would n e g a t i v e l y
i m p a c t t h e e x p e r i e n c e of t h o s e h u n t e r s s e e k i n g
r e m o t e - t y p e o p p o r t u n i t i e s . For t h i s g r o u p of r e c r e a t i o n i s t s , a l e g i t i m a t e question t o a s k concerns
t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of s u b s t i t u t e s e t t i n g s , t h e i r
r e l a t i v e l o c a t i o n s , and a c c e s s i b i l i t y - - W h a t a l t e r n a t i v e r e a l c h o i c e s do t h e y h a v e ?
Williams ( t h i s proceedings) i d e n t i f i e s t h e d i f f i culties that w i l l a r i s e a s increasingly speciali z e d r e c r e a t i o n i s t s , w i t h h i g h l y s p e c i f i c demands
f o r s e t t i n g s , f i n d an i n c r e a s i n g l y narrower range
of c h o i c e i n t e r m s of s e t t i n g s t h a t meet t h e i r
requirements.
I n t h e most e x t r e m e c a s e , h i g h l y
s p e c i a l i z e d r e c r e a t i o n i s t s ( f o r example, advanced
w h i t e w a t e r k a y a k e r s ) m i g h t have o n l y one a r e a
t h a t o f f e r s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n of a t t r i b u t e s t h e y
d e s i r e . Because of t h e s c a r c i t y of s u c h s e t t i n g s ,
t h e i r v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o c h a n g e and t h e l i k e l i h o o d
t h a t u s e r s w i l l be displaced a r e high, a s i t u a t i o n
n o t u n l i k e t h a t d e s c r i b e d f o r many t h r e a t e n e d and
endangered s p e c i e s .
FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
The s t u d y of r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r h a s o n l y
r e c e n t l y s t a r t e d . However, t h e s e l e c t i o n of
p a p e r s i n c l u d e d i n t h i s volume s u g g e s t s t h e r a n g e
o f p e r s p e c t i v e s and r e s e a r c h m e t h o d o l o g i e s
employed i n p u r s u i t o f g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h i s t o p i c . Much r e s e a r c h r e m a i n s t o b e cond u c t e d . Rased upon t h e d i s c u s s i o n s i n t h e symposium p a p e r s and among p a r t i c i p a n t s , t h e f o l l o w i n g
i s s u e s appear t o warrant f u r t h e r research attent i o n i f we a r e t o a c h i e v e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of r e c r e a t i o n choice behavior.
Compensatory and Noncompensatory Models
The p a p e r s i n t h i s volume f o c u s on examining t h e
d i f f e r e n c e s i n compensatory v e r s u s noncompensatory
c h o i c e models and t h e r e b y r e p r e s e n t t h e b e g i n n i n g
of new r e s e a r c h models.
It might v e r y w e l l b e
t h a t f o r some a t t r i b u t e s d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s e s a r e
compensatory, w h i l e f o r o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s such
p r o c e s s e s a r e noncompensatory.
Watson and
Roggenbuck a r g u e t h a t r e s e a r c h e r s must c o n s i d e r
t h e l a t t e r model f o r i t h o l d s g r e a t p r o m i s e f o r
manager-developed i n f o r m a t i o n s y s t e m s , a n d , c o n s e quently, v i s i t o r s . C l a r i f i c a t i o n of t h e choice
p r o c e s s and i t s v a r i a b i l i t y a c r o s s t h e v a r i o u s
contexts of decisionmaking i s c r i t i c a l . For
example, d o e s t h e p r o c e s s v a r y f o r d i f f e r e n t s e t t i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s , a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of resolut i o n i n t h e c h o i c e p r o c e s s ( f o r example, macroversus microscale d e c i s i o n s ) , o r f o r d i f f e r e n t
l e v e l s of s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o r d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ?
A l t e r n a t i v e Models
A t t r i b u t e R o l e s and Measurement
Here we s u g g e s t development o f a l t e r n a t i v e c h o i c e
models, s u c h a s t h o s e i n t h e d i s c i p l i n e s i n d i c a t e d
by P e t e r s o n and o t h e r s ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) , and
t e s t i n g t h o s e models i n a wide v a r i e t y o f d e c i s i o n
situations.
Such models n e e d e v a l u a t i o n i n t e r m s
o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o g u i d e f u t u r e r e s e a r c h , and
a l s o i n t e r m s of t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s t o management.
We a r e e n c o u r a g e d by r e s e a r c h e r s 1 w i l l i n g n e s s t o
d e v e l o p a l t e r n a t i v e models, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e
noncompensatory domain. We s u g g e s t c o n t i n u e d
e x a m i n a t i o n of models d e v e l o p e d i n o t h e r d i s c i plines for their adaptability t o recreational
choice.
One a r e a o f needed i n v e s t i g a t i o n o n l y b r i e f l y
discussed i n t h e papers i s t h a t of routinized o r
h a b i t u a l choice s i t u a t i o n s .
Given t h e r o l e o f
such choices i n o t h e r spheres of everyday l i f e , it
i s l i k e l y t h a t much r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r
m i g h t a l s o b e i n t h i s c a t e g o r y . We n e e d t o know
n o t o n l y how t h i s b e h a v i o r d e v e l o p s , b u t w i t h what
f r e q u e n c y , and how t o model i t .
The development o f a l t e r n a t i v e c h o i c e b e h a v i o r
models i m p l i e s a need t o examine ways i n which
t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e s might be i n t e g r a t e d .
Some
approaches t o c h o i c e might be founded s o l e l y i n
psychology, o t h e r s i n sociology, s t i l l o t h e r s i n
economics and management s c i e n c e . Our p e r s p e c t i v e
i s t h a t choice behavior i s a c t u a l l y a s e t of
b e h a v i o r s and p r o c e s s e s , some o f which a r e more
e f f e c t i v e l y modeled by o n e d i s c i p l i n e , o t h e r s by
It is important t h a t
o t h e r f i e l d s of endeavor.
r e s e a r c h e r s begin t o t h i n k of l i n k i n g t h e i r
e f f o r t s w i t h t h e aim o f d e v e l o p i n g more h o l i s t i c
models o f c h o i c e b e h a v i o r .
H o l i s t i c model b u i l d i n g w i l l r e q u i r e c o l l a b o r a t i v e
e f f o r t s , l e a d i n g t o s t r o n g e r models t h a t more comp l e t e l y d e s c r i b e and e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s e s i n volved.
The l i n k a g e from o n e d i s c i p l i n e t o t h e
next w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h b u t should be
attempted nevertheless.
We f e e l t h a t s u c h i n t e g r a t i v e model c o n s t r u c t i o n w i l l l e a d t o f a r g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a n c o n t i n u i n g t o p u r s u e models
w i t h i n o n e ' s own d i s c i p l i n e .
What r o l e do a t t r i b u t e s p l a y i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f
r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s ? P e t e r s o n and o t h e r s
( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) c i t e consumer t h e o r y t h a t
p o s i t s t h a t t h e o b j e c t of c h o i c e i s n o t t h e good
i t s e l f b u t r a t h e r t h e a t t r i b u t e s p o s s e s s e d by t h a t
good. Thus, from b o t h a t h e o r e t i c a l and management p e r s p e c t i v e , i t i s c r i t i c a l t h a t we b e a b l e
t o i d e n t i f y t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f r e c r e a t i o n opport u n i t i e s i n terms of t h e i r a t t r i b u t e s .
Within t h i s broad r e s e a r c h realm, a v a r i e t y of
s p e c i f i c endeavors a r e needed.
I n i t i a l l y , it
seems i m p o r t a n t t o d e v e l o p a framework w i t h i n
which a t t r i b u t e s c a n b e d e f i n e d and r e l a t e d t o one
another a s well a s t o other decision factors.
Conceptualizations developed i n t h e v a r i o u s d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t concern themselves w i t h r e c r e a t i o n
behavior need t o be c a r e f u l l y reviewed f o r t h e i r
potential applicability o r adaptation.
Following
t h i s , t h e r e i s a need t o i d e n t i f y t h e a t t r i b u t e
composition of d i f f e r e n t r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s .
What p a t t e r n s o f v a r i a b i l i t y o r s t a b i l i t y c a n b e
d i s c e r n e d a c r o s s s e t t i n g s ? Are some a t t r i b u t e s
deemed e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n of c e r t a i n o u t comes, o r c a n d i f f e r e n t a t t r i b u t e c o m b i n a t i o n s
p r o d u c e t h o s e same outcomes ( t h i s b e a r s on t h e
b a s i c i s s u e o f c o m p e n s a t o r y v e r s u s noncompensatory
d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s e s ) ? What v a r i a b i l i t y i n a t t r i b u t e c o n d i t i o n can occur b e f o r e r e c r e a t i o n i s t s
define i t a s unacceptable?
A b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e r e l e v a n t a t t r i b u t e s
t h a t d e f i n e r e c r e a t i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s h a s many
implications.
F o r e x a m p l e , B e a u l i e u and S c h r e y e r
( t h i s proceedings) express concern regarding t h e
c u r r e n t USDA F o r e s t S e r v i c e ROS U s e r s Guide ( n . d . )
b e c a u s e of i t s heavy e m p h a s i s on p h y s i c a l - b i o l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e s i n defining recreation opportunit i e s and t h e r e l a t i v e l y minor r o l e accorded s o c i a l
and managerial a t t r i b u t e s .
They a r g u e t h a t t h e
f o c u s on p h y s i c a l - b i o l o g i c a l a t t r i b u t e s d o e s
l i t t l e t o p r o v i d e managers w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t
how o t h e r a t t r i b u t e s c o n t r i b u t e t o o p p o r t u n i t i e s
o r experiences.
A d d i t i o n a l l y , we must acknowledge
t h a t i f t h e ROS ( o r a n y o t h e r r e c r e a t i o n p l a n n i n g
s y s t e m ) i s founded upon a c o n c e p t i o n of r e c r e a t i o n
o p p o r t u n i t i e s comprised of a t t r i b u t e s n o t r e l e v a n t
t o u s e r s 1 decisions, i t s u t i l i t y is jeopardized.
C h r i s t e n s e n and D a v i s ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) p r o v i d e
c l e a r e v i d e n c e t h a t u s e r p e r s p e c t i v e s a s t o what
c o n s t i t u t e s t h e r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s of d e s i r a b l e
recreation opportunities a r e not shared with
m a n a g e r s , l e a d i n g t o t h e i m p o s i t i o n of c o n t r o l s
t h a t not only f a i l t o address u s e r concerns but
t h a t c a n a c t u a l l y i n c r e a s e p r o b l e m s of d e v i a n c e
and d e p r e c i a t i v e behavior.
F i n a l l y , i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f a t t r i b u t e s must b e
c o u p l e d w i t h a knowledge of t h e r e l e v a n t u n i t s of
a n a l y s i s . For example, we m i g h t f i n d t h a t t h e
l e v e l o f u s e a t s i t e s i s deemed a n i m p o r t a n t s e t t i n g a t t r i b u t e ; however, how sh,ould t h a t a t t r i b u t e
b e b e s t e x p r e s s e d ? Is i t t o t a l number o f i n d i v i d u a l s , number o f g r o u p s , o r i s i t some b e h a v i o r a l
measure o f who t h e y a r e , what t h e y a r e d o i n g and
w h e r e , and s o f o r t h ? R e c r e a t i o n i s t a d v i c e on t h i s
matter is essential, a s it is likely there are
d i f f e r e n c e s between managers and u s e r s a s t o how
a t t r i b u t e s s h o u l d b e measured.
A t t r i b u t e Resolution Levels
A c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i s s u e i s t h e l e v e l of r e s o l u t i o n
o f a t t r i b u t e s p e r c e i v e d by r e c r e a t i o n i s t s and managers.
S c h r e y e r and o t h e r s ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s )
r e c o g n i z e t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h i s d i r e c t i o n when
t h e y comment t h a t " i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u e t h e
c h a r a c t e r of an environment a s ranging a l o n g a
continuum from m a c r o s c o p i c t o m i c r o s c o p i c . "
Clark
and Downing ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) r e i n f o r c e t h i s
p o s i t i o n by s t a t i n g t h a t u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s e q u e n c e of c h o i c e s "may d e t e r m i n e which
macro and m i c r o s i t e ROS f a c t o r s a r e l i k e l y t o b e
s a l i e n t i n f i n a l place selection." Allen ( t h i s
proceedings) recognizes the s i g n i f i c a n c e of
d e t a i l e d p e r c e p t i o n of a t t r i b u t e s i n h i s s t u d y o f
how b i g game h u n t e r s a r e a f f e c t e d by a p o w e r l i n e
right-of-way and a s s o c i a t e d r o a d s .
How do r e c r e a t i o n i s t s p e r c e i v e s e t t i n g s ? Are t h e
general o u t l i n e s of s e t t i n g s perceived, o r a r e t h e
d e t a i l s included i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n ? Here a g a i n ,
c o g n i t i v e p r o c e s s e s m i g h t b e i m p o r t a n t . As
Williams ( t h i s proceedings) suggests, increased
d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n and s p e c i a l i z a t i o n c a n l e a d t o
i n c r e a s i n g l y s p e c i f i c s e t t i n g s ; one would s u s p e c t
t h a t experienced r e c r e a t i o n i s t s perceive a t t r i b u t e s a t a d i f f e r e n t l e v e l than inexperienced
o n e s . More c o g n i t i v e l y d e v e l o p e d r e c r e a t i o n i s t s
p r o b a b l y a l s o r e l y on d i f f e r e n t a t t r i b u t e s t h a n
t h o s e l e s s d e v e l o p e d , even t h o u g h t h e same a c t i v i t y i s involved.
The R o l e o f E x p e r i e n c e
Recognition of t h e r o l e of c o g n i t i v e development
s u g g e s t s t h e i m p o r t a n c e of e x a m i n i n g t h e i n f l u e n c e
o f p r i o r e x p e r i e n c e i n a n a c t i v i t y on o n e ' s p e r c e p t i o n o f a t t r i b u t e s . O u t s i d e of a few p a p e r s
( f o r example, S c h r e y e r 1982), r e s e a r c h e r s h a v e a l l
b u t i g n o r e d how e x p e r i e n c e i n f l u e n c e s r e c r e a t i o n
behavior, including choice behavior.
Bryan's
(1979) monograph c o n c e r n i n g s p e c i a l i z a t i o n c e r t a i n l y p o i n t s t o e v o l u t i o n a r y processes i n development of e x p e r i e n c e , c h a n g e s i n a c t i v i t y s t y l e s ,
and s h i f t s i n s e t t i n g dependency. Whether o n e i s
s p e a k i n g of images o r c o g n i t i v e s e t s , e s t a b l i s h i n g
l i n k a g e s between e x p e r i e n c e and a t t r i b u t e p e r c e p t i o n and p r e f e r e n c e i s a n i m p o r t a n t t a s k i n a
s o c i e t y t h a t i s becoming i n c r e a s i n g l y a t t a c h e d i n
a n e m o t i o n a l way t o r e s o u r c e s .
U n d e r s t a n d i n g how s u c h i m a g e s a r e formed i s a l s o
i m p o r t a n t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e dynamics o f r e c r e a t i o n demand. F o r e x a m p l e , LaPage and Ragain
(1974) n o t e t h a t d e c l i n i n g p e r c a p i t a p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n camping m i g h t b e r e l a t e d t o t h e i n c o n g r u ency between t h e images h e l d by i n d i v i d u a l s and
c r e a t e d e i t h e r by p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e o r t h r o u g h
v a r i o u s m a r k e t i n g s t r a t e g i e s and t h e c o n d i t i o n s
encountered o n s i t e .
What i s Being Chosen?
A fundamental r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n i n v o l v e s resolu-
t i o n of t h i s i s s u e : Are r e c r e a t i o n i s t s c h o o s i n g
l o c a l e s f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y t o produce c e r t a i n
s o c i a l - p s y c h o l o g i c a l o u t c o m e s ? Are t h e y s e l e c t i n g
a l o c a l e b e c a u s e o f i t s a t t r i b u t e s ? Do t h e y v i e w
recreation s i t e s as places f o r activities? O r is
t h e s i t e i n c i d e n t a l t o group processes?
C l a r k and Downing ( t h i s p r o c e e d i n g s ) a r g u e f o r t h e
n e e d t o d e v e l o p a "framework f o r r e l a t i n g p e o p l e ' s
d e c i s i o n s t o choose s p e c i f i c p l a c e s f o r p a r t i c u l a r
activities
.I'
However, t h e r e e x i s t s a subs t a n t i a l l i t e r a t u r e b a s e d on what S c h r e y e r and
o t h e r s ( t h i s proceedings) term t h e "belief
t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n s of behavior i n given
e n v i r o n m e n t a l s e t t i n g s would y i e l d s p e c i f i c , i d e n t i f i a b l e kinds of products."
Although t h i s seems
r e d u c t i o n i s t i c o r even d e t e r m i n i s t i c , t h e r e is a
c o n s i d e r a b l e l i t e r a t u r e b a s e d on t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e .
What i s needed i s a c o n s t r u c t i v e d e b a t e on t h e
question.
...
...
The R o l e o f S u b s t i t u t i o n
When d e c i s i o n s r e g a r d i n g r e c r e a t i o n s e t t i n g s and
a c t i v i t i e s a r e c o n s t r a i n e d , r e c r e a t i o n i s t s must
c o n s i d e r a l t e r n a t i v e u s e s of t h e i r t i m e and
resources.
The i s s u e o f what c o n s t i t u t e s s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y i n r e c r e a t i o n b e h a v i o r and how r e c r e a t i o n i s t s p r o c e s s i n f o r m a t i o n t o make d e c i s i o n s a s
t o whether a s e t t i n g c o n s t i t u t e s an acceptable
s u b s t i t u t e f o r a n o t h e r i s o n e of t h e most p e r p l e x i n g q u e s t i o n s b e f o r e u s . Yet i t i s one w i t h subs t a n t i a l i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r p l a n n e r s and managers
and d e s e r v e s expanded i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
The i s s u e o f s u b s t i t u t i o n r e l a t e s c l o s e l y t o many
of t h e o t h e r r e s e a r c h t o p i c s we have d i s c u s s e d .
F o r example, knowing more a b o u t what i t i s t h a t
p e o p l e c h o o s e when t h e y make d e c i s i o n s i s c r i t i c a l
i n t h e e v a l u a t i o n a s t o whether one s e t t i n g i s an
acceptable s u b s t i t u t e f o r another. Similarly, an
improved u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e d e c i s i o n i t s e l f i n
t e r m s o f t h e c o m p e n s a t o r y v e r s u s noncompensatory
n a t u r e of t h e p r o c e s s n e e d s t o b e o b t a i n e d s o t h a t
t h e e x t e n t of s u b s t i t u t a b i l i t y b e t w e e n s e t t i n g s
can be understood.
P s y c h o l o g i c a l and S o c i o l o g i c a l L i n k a g e s
We d i s c u s s e d e a r l i e r t h e e m p h a s i s t h e p a p e r s i n
t h i s volume h a v e on p s y c h o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s o v e r
s o c i o l o g i c a l ones i n conceptualization about
choice processes.
P e r h a p s t h i s r e f l e c t s t h e domin a n t background o f r e s e a r c h e r s t o d a y .
Perhaps i t
i s s u g g e s t i v e o f t h e e a s e o f measurement. And
perhaps t h e r e i s a presumption t h a t group decis i o n s a r e s i m p l y t h e sum o f i n d i v i d u a l d e c i s i o n s .
Whatever t h e r e a s o n , we f e e l t h a t s o c i o l o g i c a l
f a c t o r s ( g r o u p p r o c e s s e s , development o f i n t e r n a l i z e d norms, and s o f o r t h ) a r e c r i t i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t
i n c h o i c e b e h a v i o r . Most r e c r e a t i o n b e h a v i o r i n
wildland s e t t i n g s occurs i n group s i t u a t i o n s .
The
dynamics o f g r o u p i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e e f f e c t s of d i f f e r i n g l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s , t h e b a l a n c i n g o f conf l i c t i n g i n t e r e s t s among o t h e r s , must a l l p l a y a
s i g n i f i c a n t , i f n o t dominant, r o l e i n c h o i c e
It would b e a m i s t a k e t o d e v e l o p models
behavior.
o f c h o i c e b e h a v i o r t h a t somehow d i d n o t a c c o u n t
f o r o r include these factors.
Choice Behavior Disruption
We h a v e r e c o g n i z e d t h e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t a s h i f t i n
r e s e a r c h f o c u s from outcomes t o p r o c e s s r e s u l t s i n
a much more dynamic v i e w of t h e w o r l d .
But e v e n
w i t h t h e f o c u s on a dynamic model of c h o i c e behavi o r there i s a temptation t o overlook disrupting
f a c t o r s such a s changes i n l i f e c y c l e s o r s i t e
management.
Somehow, r e s e a r c h s h o u l d a l s o a c c o u n t
f o r t h e s e d i s r u p t i n g s i t u a t i o n s : What a r e t h e y ?
Under what c o n d i t i o n s do t h e y o c c u r ? How f r e q u e n t l y do t h e y happen? What i m p a c t s on t h e
c h o i c e p r o c e s s do t h e y p r o d u c e ? I t c o u l d b e t h a t
a model of c h o i c e b e h a v i o r a s e v e n t u a l l y s e t t l e d
upon m i g h t b e a model of b e h a v i o r t h a t i s , s t a t i s t i c a l l y speaking, "average," but t h a t a c t u a l l y
occurs only infrequently.
Given t h e n a t u r a l v a r i a t i o n i n human b e h a v i o r , d i s r u p t i o n s l i k e l y a r e
the r u l e r a t h e r than t h e exception.
We n o t e d e a r l i e r t h a t a g r e a t d e a l o f c h o i c e
There
behavior might be f a i r l y w e l l r o u t i n i z e d .
i s g r e a t s e c u r i t y i n maintaining routine behavior
and i t i s l i k e l y t h i s b e h a v i o r a l mode c a r r i e s o v e r
i n t o r e c r e a t i o n b e h a v i o r . However, what h a p p e n s
when t h i s r o u t i n i z e d b e h a v i o r i s d i s r u p t e d ? What
c o p i n g s t r a t e g i e s do r e c r e a t i o n i s t s employ t o d e a l
w i t h t h e d i s r u p t i o n ? Is t h e d i s r u p t i o n f o l l o w e d
by a r e s u m p t i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l b e h a v i o r o r d o e s
i t lead t o a l t e r e d behaviors? I f the l a t t e r i s
t h e c a s e , does t h e a l t e r a t i o n c o l l e c t i v e l y involve
a c t i v i t i e s , s e t t i n g s , and o u t c o m e s , o r a r e one o r
more o f t h e s e e l e m e n t s of b e h a v i o r m a i n t a i n e d ?
E x p e r i m e n t a l Design Needs
We a r e n o t t h e f i r s t t o n o t e t h e n e a r t o t a l
dependency on t h e e x p o s t f a c t o d e s i g n i n r e c r e a tion research.
C l a r k ( 1 9 7 7 ) , among o t h e r s , h a s
commented on t h e i n t r i n s i c l i m i t a t i o n s and u t i l i t y
of t h i s d e s i g n i n a n s w e r i n g q u e s t i o n s o f i n t e r e s t
t o researchers.
I n t h e f i e l d of c h o i c e b e h a v i o r ,
we s u g g e s t more c r e a t i v i t y i n d e s i g n i n g e x p e r i ments, w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e t r e a t m e n t s , c o n t r o l
g r o u p s , and s o on t o t e s t h y p o t h e s e s .
In t h i s
r e s p e c t t h e Williams paper h e r e r e p r e s e n t s a
desirable research direction.
P r o g r e s s i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g r e c r e a t i o n c h o i c e behavi o r and t h e a s s o c i a t e d i s s u e s we have d i s c u s s e d
w i l l n e c e s s i t a t e i n n o v a t i v e m e t h o d o l o g i c a l app r o a c h e s a n d , l i k e l y , a r e d u c e d dependence upon
cross-sectional surveys a s a primary d a t a source.
I n a p a p e r n o t p r e s e n t e d a t t h e symposium, b u t
included h e r e because of i t s s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e
s t u d y o f c h o i c e p r o c e s s , C l a r k and Downing d e v e l o p
a s t r o n g r a t i o n a l e f o r a q u a l i t a t i v e , grounded
a p p r o a c h t o t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n of c h o i c e b e h a v i o r .
CONCLUSIONS
I n t r i n s i c i n t h e notion of r e c r e a t i o n choice
b e h a v i o r i s t h e r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e dynamic n a t u r e
o f human a c t i v i t y .
C h o i c e b e h a v i o r , what i t i s ,
and how i t o c c u r s , i s i n e x t r i c a b l y r e l a t e d t o s e t ting attributes.
We s u g g e s t t h a t a g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of how p e o p l e c h o o s e among a l t e r n a t i v e s
w i l l l e a d t o a g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s of what s e t t i n g s
a r e , and how m a n a g e r i a l a c t i v i t y i n f l u e n c e s t h o s e
settings.
G r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c h o i c e
p r o c e s s w i l l a l s o a l l o w managers t o d e v e l o p more
sophisticated techniques t o s o f t l y , lighthandedly,
manage b o t h s i t e s and v i s i t o r s .
Although t h e c h o i c e p r o c e s s i s complex, i t seems
i m p e r a t i v e t h a t we g a i n a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
i t . F o r example, i f we b e t t e r u n d e r s t o o d t h e
k i n d s of i n f o r m a t i o n r e c r e a t i o n i s t s c o n s i d e r
e s s e n t i a l t o make d e c i s i o n s , we c o u l d b e t t e r
t a i l o r information programs f o r people t o use.
U n d e r s t a n d i n g more a b o u t t h e d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s
c o u l d i n f l u e n c e how i n f o r m a t i o n i s made a v a i l a b l e
a s w e l l a s i t s t i m i n g and l o c a t i o n . Knowing t h e
i m p o r t a n c e of d e c i s i o n f a c t o r s c o u l d a l s o a i d p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e k i n d s o f i m p a c t s stemming from
a l t e r a t i o n s i n s e t t i n g s and t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s and
c o n s e q u e n c e s of s u c h c h a n g e s . And a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e c h o i c e p r o c e s s i s n e c e s s a r y t o many o f
t h e e d u c a t i o n - o r i e n t e d management programs i n
which t h e r e i s i n c r e a s i n g i n t e r e s t .
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