International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science, Volume XXXVIII, Part 8, Kyoto Japan 2010
EARTH OBSERVATIONS AND HEALTH DECISIONS
a
L. Barrie, bP. Dickerson, cG. Foley, dM. Lafaye, eK. Magulova, fN. Pirrone, cM. G.
Radtke * , gD. Rogers, aP. Y. Whung † ,
a
World Meteorological Organization, 7 bis, Avenue de la Paix, BP2300, 1211 Geneva 2,
Switzerland – lbarrie@wmo.int
b
United States Environmental Protection Agency ‡ , 109 T.W. Alexander Dr., C404-07,
Research Triangle Park, NC, USA – dickerson.phil@epa.gov
c
United States Environmental Protection Agency, 1200 Pennsylvania Ave, NW, 8105R
Washington, DC, USA – (whung.pai-yei, radtke.meghan, foley.gary)@epa.gov
d
Centre National d’Études Spatiales, 18 Avenue Edouard Belin, 31401 Toulouse, France
- murielle.lafaye@cnes.fr
e
Stockholm Convention Secretariat, UNEP, 11/13 Chemin des An3mones, CH-1219
Ch!telaine, Geneva, Switzerland – kmagulova@pops.int
f
CNR-Institute of Atmospheric Pollution Research, Via Salaria Km 29.300-CP10, Rome,
Italy – pirrone@iia.cnr.it
g
Health and Climate Foundation, 1425 K St., NW, Washington, DC, USA - drogers@hcfoundation.org
KEY WORDS: GEO, Public Health, Earth Observations, Decision-making, Decision
Tools, Monitoring Data
ABSTRACT:
Earth observations can provide a wealth of information for making informed societal
decisions. The Group on Earth Observations (GEO) integrates a variety of organizations
interested in environmental data and/or decision-making to create a sound technical
platform for information-sharing and collaboration. The Global Earth Observation
System of Systems (GEOSS) facilitates the use of Earth observations in decisions by
making decision-support tools and information publically available.
The main principle of GEOSS is to benefit society. The Health Societal Benefit Area
(SBA) spans the science-to-decision-making continuum through three tasks: Information
Systems for Health, Monitoring and Prediction Systems for Health, and End-to-End
Projects for Health. Projects within each overarching task focus on building connections
between basic research, tools, and tangible decisions. Current foci within the Health SBA
include: aerosol impacts on health, air quality forecasting, global monitoring of persistent
organic pollutants and mercury, meningitis in Africa, developing malaria early warning
systems, and decision support tools for ecosystems, biodiversity and health.
*
AAAS Science and Technology Policy Fellow hosted by the USEPA.
Corresponding author.
‡
The views expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views
or policies of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency.
†
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International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science, Volume XXXVIII, Part 8, Kyoto Japan 2010
INTRODUCTION
MAIN BODY
Well-informed decision-making is a
multi-dimensional task requiring data
from disparate disciplines such as
economics, biology, geography, social
sciences, engineering, and others.
However, often information is missing,
leading to uncertainty and sub-optimal
conditions for decision-makers.
Monitoring and Prediction Systems
for Health
The Group on Earth Observations
(GEO) is a voluntary partnership of
governments
and
international
organizations
which
provides
a
framework to support Earth observations
for decision-making. The Global Earth
Observation System
of
Systems
(GEOSS) is a platform through which
Earth observation data and tools are
made publically available. GEOSS
supports data accessibility by linking
together existing and planned observing
systems and supporting the development
of new systems where gaps occur. It
provides an integrated framework of
organizations, data, and technology to
support environmental decisions.
Aerosol Impacts on Health and
Environment: Research, Monitoring
and Prediction: This subtask is
developing new atmospheric aerosol
services and improving forecasting
systems. Small scale events (down burst
of cold air, etc.) are not easily predicted
but are important parts of the dust cycle.
This project focuses on: sand and dust
forecasting, aerosol effects on the ocean,
and societal effects of bioaerosols.
This Task 1) supports the development
of operational health applications; and 2)
connects established and emerging Earth
observation systems to health monitoring
and prediction systems.
The World Meteorological Organization
(WMO)
has
implemented
an
international Sand and Dust Storm
Warning Advisory and Assessment
System
(SDS-WAS)
(http://www.wmo.int/sdswas).
The
system brings together research and
operational sand and dust forecasts and
atmospheric dust observations to support
a better understanding sand and dust
effects on health. Technical components
include: 1) enhanced use of surfacebased in situ (e.g. IMPROVE,
EUSAAR), remote sensing (e.g.
AERONET, GALION), aircraft (e.g.
IAGOS) and satellite (e.g. NASA
CALIPSO and ESA MSG) observations
relevant to dust; 2) re-analyses using
atmospheric models of sand and dust
and meteorological re-analyses (some
have supported the Implementation of a
Meningitis
Decision-Support
Tool
GEOSS focuses its efforts to benefit
society through nine major themes, or
Societal Benefit Areas (SBAs). The
Health SBA is structured around the
three overarching principles of GEOSS:
collecting
spatial
and
temporal
environmental data; applying monitoring
data to develop decision support tools;
and publically sharing data and tools.
These principles span the spectrum of
data collection, transforming it into
tools, and applying it to solving health
problems. This paper is a synopsis of a
range of health-related activities under
the framework of the science-todecisions continuum.
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countries have such capabilities and air
quality monitoring data is scarce or not
publically available in many parts of the
world. This subtask is expanding a
public information tool, AIRNow
(www.airnow.gov), which makes near
real-time air quality data; forecasts for
particulate matter, ozone and other
pollutants; and tools openly available on
the internet. AIRNow is operational in
the United States and recently launched
AIRNow-International in Shanghai at
the 2010 World Expo. In addition,
Mexico has agreed to pursue a pilot
AIRNow-International project and a
workshop is anticipated for 2010.
project); and 3) building monitoring
capacities in developing countries
through the WMO Global Atmosphere
Watch program.
Oceanic dust deposition is a significant
resource for marine organisms; much of
the iron and phosphorous available in the
oceans is from atmospheric dust. The
WMO is leading the Group of Experts
on Marine Pollution on an assessment of
how dust deposits in the ocean affect
marine ecosystems. This project aims to
better coordinate atmosphere and
oceanic dust impact research and is
connected to the SDS-WAS. Upon
completion of the assessment, a report
emphasizing the key critical issues of the
study will be produced and directed at
policy-makers.
The GEMS/MACC is an effort to deliver
near real-time air quality data to
numerical weather prediction models in
Europe. It is based in the European
Centre for Medium Range Forecast and
relies upon the coordination and
cooperation of a number of regional air
quality models and monitoring networks
in Europe (e.g. environmental agencies,
EMEP, and GAW). An air quality
community of practice has been
established within GEO and will provide
the framework for further international
collaborations and information sharing.
Bioaerosols can be composed of
bacteria, viruses, toxins, spores, and
other biological entities that cause
disease in humans or animals. Adverse
effects of bioaerosols may be reduced
with reliable dust forecast and prediction
tools. WMO will investigate the current
status of bioaerosol monitoring and
modeling capabilities and practices, and
evaluate how they could be improved to
benefit health. Recommendations will
include considerations of international
partnerships and collaborations with
modeling, monitoring, and public health
communities.
Global Monitoring Plan for Persistent
Organic Pollutants (POPs): This
subtask is developing and implementing
a global monitoring plan for tracking
changes in levels of POPs. The
Stockholm Convention has identified a
number of POPs and established a 5-year
monitoring and evaluation period for the
concentrations of these chemicals in the
environment and human tissues (blood,
breast milk). This subtask is evaluating
the current worldwide POPs network
and filling in surveillance and technical
analysis gaps. It is overseeing the
Air Quality Observations, Forecasting
and Public Information: The goal of
this subtask is to produce portable, lowcost, standards-based software that
delivers near real-time air quality
observations and forecasts to the public.
The state of the art is hourly real-time air
quality data made available via the
internet or other sources; however, few
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publication of five monitoring reports
which correspond to the first ten-year
period of data collection. The reports are
expected to act as a baseline for future
evaluation periods. One challenge has
been to develop sampling and analytical
methods for detecting newly designated
POPs in humans and the environment. In
particular, PFOS (perfluorooctanate
sulfonic acid), and its salts, were adopted
as POPs during the 4th meeting of the
Conference of Parties to the Stockholm
Convention and new sampling and
detection methods are needed. This
subtask will continue to identify, fill
monitoring and analytical gaps, and
build international capacity for a
sustained worldwide evaluation of POPs.
Implementation of a Meningitis
Decision-Support Tool: This subtask is
building and applying a model to predict
meningitis outbreaks in sub-Saharan
Africa. A new long term vaccination will
be deployed across the meningitis belt
over the next ten years. A meningitis
outbreak model will help to prioritize
vaccination efforts to those areas most
immediately at risk.
Meningitis epidemics occur in the winter
when the environment is dry and dusty.
Dust appears to be related to disease
outbreaks,
although
the
exact
mechanism (or combination) is unclear:
abrasive
dust
particles
increase
susceptibility to disease, dust supplies
iron for bacterial growth, dust carries the
bacteria. The meningitis prediction
model incorporates surface-based in situ
observations, remote sensing, and
satellite aerosol observations (provided
by the SDS-WAS project described
earlier) with in situ epidemiological data.
The SDS-WAS research modeling
community is working on models that
accurately predict outbreaks up to two
weeks in advance so that vaccination and
medical resources can be deployed.
Global
Monitoring
Plan
for
Atmospheric Mercury: This subtask is
creating a global monitoring system (25–
50 sites worldwide) of environmental
mercury data and establishing forecast
systems for mercury-related health
effects. The current limitation of a
mercury forecasting system is lack of
coordination among global monitoring
sites. Standard operating procedures
need to be harmonized to ensure high
quality data from monitoring stations. In
addition,
regional
and
global
atmospheric mercury models will be
validated so they can be used to evaluate
policy options. Currently, efforts are
focused on training local people across
the globe who will be collecting mercury
monitoring data.
Implementation of a Malaria Early
Warning System: This subtask uses
satellite data to support the identification
of habitats conducive to mosquito
development, link this information to the
spread of malaria, and create a
prediction tool for decision-makers.
Specific project goals include: 1)
develop country-specific techniques to
use satellite data for early malaria
detection and monitoring paired with in
situ validation; 2) integrate vector risk
products with local mitigation and
prevention efforts; and 3) integrate best
End-to-End Projects for Health
(Applying Decision-Support Tools)
This Task advances the application of
observation, monitoring, and forecasting
systems to health decision-making
processes.
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and other prevention efforts can be
targeted towards the regions most at risk.
practices in satellite use and other
observations for malaria risk prediction
to develop pilot projects (including
training and capacity building). The
National Ocean and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA), the French
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales
(CNES), and the GEO-Informatics and
Space Technology Development Agency
of Thailand (GISTDA) are using satellite
observations to predict malaria outbreaks
and pinpoint areas of risk for disease
transmission. For example, NOAA uses
vegetation health indices from the
NOAA POES AVHRR instrument to
produce weekly malaria risk maps for
Africa, some of which are validated with
epidemiological data. Using a variety of
satellite data (SPOT5, Quickbird,
TerraSarX images, TRMM data) and in
situ
measurements
(entomology,
environment, epidemiology, climate),
CNES is developing rural and urban risk
maps of zones potentially occupied by
mosquitoes (ZPOM) for malaria to better
understand the mechanisms for malaria
vector outbreak, contributing factors to
outbreaks, and environmental conditions
that could act as sentinels of impending
outbreaks. The “tele-epidemiology”
conceptual approach, developed by
CNES, has been applied in North Africa
with ASAL (Algerian Space Agency)
and in South America with CONAE
(Argentinean Space Agency). In
Thailand, GISTDA is using LANDSAT
5TM satellite imagery, spatial analyses,
and time series analyses to determine
malaria distribution patterns. They found
their 2004 – 2008 data predicted the
malaria distribution and morbidity rate
during the 2009 season. The ultimate
goal of this subtask is to link satellite
and climate data to predict malaria
outbreaks so that spraying, treatment,
Ecosystems, Biodiversity, and Health:
Decision-Support Tools and Research:
This subtask is developing integrated
pest management (IPM) strategies to
reduce and prevent infectious disease
transmission to humans. The focus is on
understanding the connection between
biodiversity, animal hosts and vectors,
and human infectious disease, and using
this knowledge to develop tools to
prevent and reduce the risk of infectious
disease transmission. The rate of
biodiversity decline worldwide has
accelerated over the past 50 years. At the
same time, infectious diseases appear to
be emerging and re-emerging at a faster
rate. There is scientific evidence to
support
a
relationship
between
biodiversity loss and increased risk of
infectious
disease
in
humans.
This subtask covers a number of disease
systems including: Lyme disease
ecology in disrupted landscapes; West
Nile Virus ecology/bird diversity and
human behavior; demonstration of
environmentally-based integrated pest
management strategies; and a baseline
study of Panamanian mosquito and
sandfly
diversity
and
its
relationship
to
human
disease
prevalence. For example, studies on
Lyme disease ecology suggest that
changes in landscape, such as forest
fragmentation, affect the community of
animal hosts that are important in the
Lyme disease transmission cycle. Forest
fragmentation leads to decreases in
animal host diversity, leaving habitat
that is predominantly occupied by
animal hosts that are efficient carriers of
the Lyme disease pathogen. This
decrease in animal diversity, in turn,
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among the activities will be furthered.
Many environmental drivers for health
(e.g. climate, land-use, natural disasters)
are linked to multiple adverse health
effects and a decision-support tool for
one disease may be applicable to others
as well (e.g. a malaria warning system in
Africa may be relevant for Asia).
facilitates the risk of transmission to
humans. The goal of this subtask is to
develop environmentally-based and
behavioral strategies to prevent risk of
human disease and loss of biodiversity.
Information Systems for Health
This task is developing a global public
health information database which
incorporates earth observations with
health data to improve decision-making.
An important aspect of improving
predictive and decision support tools for
human diseases with environmental
drivers (e.g. malaria, meningitis) is
validation with epidemiological and
observation data. The World Health
Organization is bringing together datasets, tools, and other information
developed in other venues (e.g. IRI,
WMO) in a Global Health Observatory
web-portal. The portal will cover a wide
range of topics including a “Health and
Environment” button which will provide
access to data on disease risk related to
environmental indicators.
GEO directly benefits health. For
example,
AIRNow
demonstration
projects in the United States and China
produce near real-time air quality
information, allowing governments and
individuals to make decisions about
health risks and take precautions when
necessary. The meningitis prediction
model in Africa has the potential to
focus vaccination and treatment efforts
in regions at risk for outbreaks.
Bringing together worldwide health
concerns under the GEO framework
fosters the efficient exchange of
information, benefiting multiple health
problems with minimal effort. The
impact of the sum of the GEO Health
projects is greater than their individual
efforts.
CONCLUSIONS
Finally, the Health SBA spans the
continuum of basic research to health
decision-making with the flexibility to
add projects and expand upon activities
already in progress. New environmental
health issues can be easily incorporated
into the GEO framework, reaping the
benefits of work already accomplished
from other projects while making their
own contributions to the wealth of
knowledge and tools for health decisionmaking.
GEO adds value to environmental
decision-making by providing a platform
for integrated multidisciplinary science
and decision-making collaborations.
GEOSS SBAs focus the advancement of
science-for-decision-making
on
internationally
important
issues.
Working within the context of an SBA
creates a setting for new collaborations
and connections among activities. For
example, the Sand and Dust Storm
Warning Advisory and Assessment
System is supporting the development of
meningitis outbreak models in Africa.
As the Health SBA matures, greater
interconnectivity and natural linkages
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank the Health SBA Task Leads
and everyone involved in the projects for
their contributions to this paper.
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