Quigley and Wisdom 1
The Starkey Project: Long-Term Research for Long-Term Management Solutions
Thomas M. Quigley1 and Michael J. Wisdom
Introduction
The Starkey Project is a unique, long-term research program designed to study the effects of key
resource uses of National Forests on mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) and elk (Cervus elaphus) habitats
and populations. Located at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range (Starkey), the purpose of the
Project was to fill key knowledge gaps that posed difficult impediments to effective management of
ungulates, and to facilitate transfer of this knowledge in mediums most useful to managers. The original
studies were completed in the 1990s, but research to understand the effects of emerging resource uses on
deer and elk continues today. In addition, new studies are underway to understand the role of these
ungulates as disturbance agents that can dramatically alter the ecological patterns and processes in forest
ecosystems.
The following papers at this special session of the 69th North American Wildlife and Natural
Resources Conference address this evolution of research topics by the Starkey Project and associated
research programs. This research now has a 22-year history. With this history is a compelling array of
scientific accomplishments made possible through long-term commitments from a wealth of scientists
and partners.
In our introductory paper, we summarize the long-term commitments of the Starkey Project, and
acknowledge the many partnerships that made this research possible. We also describe what we consider
to be the key “ingredients” of a successful, long-term research program, using the Starkey Project as a
case example. Finally, we discuss the accomplishments and credibility that result from long-term research
involving diverse partnerships and public interests.
Ingredients for Successful, Long-term Research
Long-term research is rare and invaluable. Few research programs have the opportunity to
operate, without interruption, for five years, let alone 10, 15, or 20 years. The history of the Starkey
Project is one such exception. Born of controversy over management of timber, grazing, roads, and
hunting, the planning stage alone took four years (1982-1985) (Wisdom et al. 2004a). Another four years
(1986-1989) were required to establish the research facility (Rowland et al. 1997). Finally, the original
studies took five to seven years to complete (1990 through mid-1990s).
Today, the research at Starkey (Wisdom et al. 2004a) continues to flourish as it diversifies
(Thomas and Wisdom 2004). Known as the Starkey Project since inception (Rowland et al. 1997), the
research was designed to address the most contentious problems regarding management of mule deer and
elk on National Forests in the western United States. While the original issues were addressed in research
during the 1990s, a myriad of new issues have emerged. As a result, the Starkey Project has evolved to
address these new issues, with continued focus on studies designed to gain a better understanding of the
role of ungulates in managed ecosystems (Vavra et al. 2004).
The record of the Starkey Project provides a convincing example of what defines an effective,
long-term research program. Our examination of its history (Rowland et al. 1997, Wisdom et al. 2004a)
and achievements (Thomas and Wisdom 2004) led us to identify four key ingredients of the Project’s
1
Suggested citation: Quigley, T. M., and M. J. Wisdom. 2005. The Starkey Project: Long-Term Research for
Long-Term Management Solutions. Pages 9-16 in Wisdom, M. J., technical editor, The Starkey Project: a synthesis
of long-term studies of elk and mule deer. Reprinted from the 2004 Transactions of the North American Wildlife
and Natural Resources Conference, Alliance Communications Group, Lawrence, Kansas, USA.
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success: (1) diverse, stable partnerships, (2) long-term commitment, (3) high relevance to management,
and (4) effective technology transfer.
Diverse, Stable Partnerships
From inception, the Starkey Project sought support and involvement from all groups with strong
interests and investments in management of National Forests in the western United States. These interests
included state wildlife agencies, federal land management agencies, timber companies, livestock
associations, tribal nations, and conservation groups. University partners became increasingly involved as
the diversity of research topics increased and opportunities for involvement of graduates studies was
enhanced. Over 40 groups ultimately played an active role in planning and implementing the research
(Table 1). Importantly, the distribution of different groups has been relatively even, with highest number
of partners having private, university, and federal affiliations (Figure 1).
The diverse partnerships provided strong ownership in the research and subsequent results. Over
100 scientists, representing more than 40 partners, have participated in the publication process (Figure 1).
(See the following web link for a complete list of authors:
http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/starkey/publications/by_author/index.shtml). The strong ownership and
subsequent trust among so many partners has resulted in rapid and effective use of findings (Thomas and
Wisdom 2004).
An additional benefit of the diverse partnerships has been the long-term stability that comes with
a variety of funding sources. For example, federal and state budgets have fluctuated across the many
budget cycles experienced by the Starkey Project, but the two lead agencies—the Oregon Department of
Fish and Wildlife and U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service—have invariably found ways to
match resources with other partners in a cost-effective manner. Moreover, the diverse partnerships have
provided a stable base of support, helping minimize undesired changes in funding and research focus that
can occur with dynamic budgets of any one partner or small group of partners.
The many partners also have contributed a variety of research skills, enhancing the scientific
credibility of publications and subsequent management products. One example is the development of a
model to allocate forage among ungulates for allotment management planning on public lands (Ager et al.
2004). Scientists involved with this work included field biologists, computer programmers, research
analysts, ungulate specialists, and landscape ecologists. Another example is the birth date-nutrition study
of elk (Cook et al. 2004) that involved scientists with expertise in natural history, population genetics,
ungulate ecology, manipulative experiments, animal nutrition, and animal husbandry.
Long-term Commitment
The Starkey Project has a long and productive history. The research facility was formally
established in 1987 with the completion of one of the largest ungulate-proof enclosures ever constructed
(Rowland et al. 1997). The facility became operational in 1989 with the installation a novel, automated
radio-telemetry system that could track the movements of more than 100 radio-collared ungulates
accurately, frequently, and regularly, 24 hours a day (Rowland et al. 1997). Since then, more than 50
studies have been conducted, with more than 140 publications completed or in press (Thomas and
Wisdom 2004).
A central and vital benefit from this long-term commitment has been the accelerating production
of scientific publications (Figure 2). During the late 1980s and early 1990s, the number of publications in
peer-reviewed journals was low, owing to the need to focus on large capital investments in the facility and
to develop, test, and implement a series of innovative research designs (Rowland et al. 1997). As the
original studies were completed during the 1990s, the number of publications increased substantially
(Figure 2). This accelerating pace in publication rate has become particularly apparent during the past six
years, signaling a compelling return from the long-term investment. The publication rate for the Starkey
Project now exceeds 12 peer-reviewed publications per year (not including published abstracts, tours,
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workshops, symposia, videos, magazine articles, television features, and other popular media). This
publication rate surpasses many other state or federal research projects of similar size and budgets.
Importantly, the large number of peer-reviewed publications produced during the past six years
also reflects an increasing depth of study. Since 1998, most publications of the Starkey Project contained
results from data collected over a period of four to five years. By contrast, our examination of
publications appearing in the Journal of Wildlife Management during 2003 indicated that less than 5
percent of the articles were based on data collected over a period of four years or longer.
Research implemented over long time periods is invaluable because results are robust to shortterm anomalies that can confound results. For example, long-term results minimize the confounding
effects of seasonal, annual, and climatic variation that can overwhelm and bias results of short-term
studies. Long-term studies provide valuable opportunities to validate the findings and hypotheses that
emerge from the early years of research; that is, portions of larger data sets, collected over a longer period
of time, can be “held out” to validate initial findings of a given study. Moreover, long-term data provide
opportunities for a variety of follow-on analyses not planned under the original study objectives.
An example is the 2004 release of a voluminous data set by the Starkey Project (Kie et al. 2004).
These data are now available for use by students, educators, and scientists as a complement to past uses
by the Starkey Project. Kie et al. (2004) and Wisdom et al. (2004a) describe these data and their original
uses in Starkey Project studies.
High Relevance to Management
The Starkey Project was designed to address key knowledge gaps identified as impediments to
effective management of ungulates on National Forests in the western United States. The Project operates
under the concept of adaptive management (Holling 1984, Walters 1986). The scientific basis for adaptive
management uses the following process: (1) managers identify knowledge gaps that prevent desired
improvements in targeted resources, (2) managers and scientists jointly develop testable hypotheses to
address the knowledge gaps, (3) scientists design and implement studies to test the hypotheses, (4)
managers and scientists interpret and disseminate results from the studies for management use, (5)
managers and scientists identify additional knowledge gaps and hypotheses for testing, based on study
results and ensuing questions that arise from the results, and (6) the cycle is repeated one or more times, if
desired, using knowledge gained from earlier phases of study.
An example of the Starkey Project’s use of adaptive management is the study of breeding
efficiency of bull elk (Noyes et al. 2004). This study was jointly designed by managers and scientists to
address the issue of whether hunter harvest of bull elk needed modification to improve survival of older
bulls and enhance their breeding performance. The study was conducted from 1989 through 1993, as
implemented over the entire elk population in the 19,180-acre (7,768-ha) Main Study Area. Hunting by
the public was used to implement the research, with hunters working closely with scientists to achieve
desired harvest and collect needed data. Managers then used results from the study to redesign harvest
regulations for bull elk in many states and provinces in western North America. In turn, validation tests
were conducted by repeating the study for another five years at Starkey. Results from the validation
provided strong support for earlier changes in hunting regulations that were made in response to findings
of the original study (Noyes et al. 2004).
Use of adaptive management continues in current research. For example, an emerging, national
issue is the use of all-terrain vehicles (ATVs) on public lands. Land managers and public interests at
national, regional, and state levels worked closely with Starkey scientists in 2002 to design and
implement new landscape research to evaluate effects of ATVs on deer and elk as compared to hiking,
mountain bike riding, and horseback riding. Initial findings are now available (Wisdom et al. 2004b).
Importantly, the findings are already being considered by managers, interest groups and Starkey Project
scientists to devise appropriate management applications. Given the high level of controversy surrounding
off-road recreation on public lands, new study proposals are being drafted by managers and Starkey
scientists to validate aspects of the initial findings, and expand upon this study in future research.
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Effective Technology Transfer
The Starkey Project was one of the first research programs in the Forest Service with full-time
support from a technology transfer scientist (Rowland et al. 1997). This position functioned as part of the
Starkey Project staff from 1987 to 1994, and served as the primary liaison between management and
research. During this time, the Starkey Project shared technologies and results with more than 200,000
recipients encompassing local, regional, national, and international organizations, groups, and agencies.
Transfer mediums included field tours, presentations, workshops, symposia, news releases, newspaper
features, magazine articles, radio interviews, and television coverage. This work helped garner
widespread public acceptance and support of the Project and its initial results (Rowland et al. 1997,
Thomas and Wisdom 2004).
Today, the Starkey Project continues to actively share results and technologies with a wide range
of resource managers. Scientists have averaged more than 15 field tours and more than 20 meeting
presentations per year during the past decade. These communication mediums, beyond the formal
scientific publications, have played an important role in Starkey’s technology transfer program.
Challenges for Long-term Research
Many obstacles prevent successful implementation of long-term research. Short-term priorities,
budget fluctuations, large capital investments, changing political agendas, and impatience with the lack of
immediate scientific production are example impediments. The Starkey Project has overcome these
obstacles because of diverse partnerships, long-term investments, high relevance to management, and
effective delivery of results. Continued emphasis on these key ingredients will enable the Starkey Project
to continue its success in serving land and population managers of deer and elk in the western United
States.
Key to this continued success will be the Project’s reliance on adaptive management and effective
synthesis of results in forms useful for management. Maintenance of healthy and diverse partnerships is
imperative. Considering the wealth of completed and ongoing studies, success of partnerships, and the
utility of the research facility, the future of the Starkey Project appears bright. The many papers presented
at the 69th North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference attest to the Project’s
accomplishments and relevance to resource management over the past 20 years.
Acknowledgments
We thank C. West, E. DePuit, A. Christensen, and M. Vavra for reviewing our paper, J. Boyd for
editing and production of figures, and the many partners (Table 1) who have made the Starkey Project an
effective and exceptional research program for more than 20 years. We particularly thank Donavin
Leckenby and Jack Ward Thomas for their innovative ideas and proposals in initiating the Starkey
Project, and for their perseverance in establishing the facility and implementing the original studies.
Literature Cited
Ager, A. A., B. K. Johnson, P. K. Coe, and M. J. Wisdom. 2004. Landscape simulation of foraging by
elk, mule deer, and cattle on summer range. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and
Natural Resources Conference 69:687-707.
Cook, J. G., B. K. Johnson, R. C. Cook, R. A. Riggs, T. DelCurto, L. D. Bryant, and L. L. Irwin. 2004.
Nutrition and parturition date effects on elk: Potential implications for research and management.
Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 69:604-624.
Holling, C. S., editor. 1984. Adaptive environmental assessment and management. New York, New York:
John Wiley and Sons.
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Kie, J. G., A. A. Ager, N. J. Cimon, M. J. Wisdom, M. M. Rowland, P. K. Coe, S. L. Findholt, B. K.
Johnson, and M. Vavra. 2004. The Starkey Database: Spatial-environmental relations of North
American elk, mule deer, and cattle at the Starkey Experimental Forest and Range in Northeast
Oregon. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 69:475490.
Noyes, J. H., B. K. Johnson, B. L. Dick, and J. G. Kie. 2004. Influence of age of males and nutritional
condition on short and long term reproductive success of elk. Transactions of the North American
Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 69:572-585.
Rowland, M. M., L. D. Bryant, B. K. Johnson, J. H. Noyes, M. J. Wisdom, and J. W. Thomas. 1997. The
Starkey project: History, facilities, and data collection methods for ungulate research. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, General Technical Report PNW-GTR-396, Portland,
Oregon.
Thomas, J. W., and M. J. Wisdom. 2004. Has the Starkey Project delivered on its commitments?
Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 69:798-812.
Walters, C. 1986. Adaptive management of renewable resources. MacMillan, New York.
Vavra, M., M. J. Wisdom, J. G. Kie, J. G. Cook, and R. A. Riggs. 2004. The role of ungulate herbivory
and management on ecosystem patterns and processes: future direction for the Starkey Project.
Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 69:785-797.
Wisdom, M. J., M. M. Rowland, B. K. Johnson, and B. Dick. 2004a. Overview of the Starkey Project:
Mule deer and elk research for management benefits. Transactions of the North American
Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference 69:455-476.
Wisdom, M. J., A. A. Ager, H. K. Preisler, N. J. Cimon, and B. K. Johnson. 2004b. Effects of off-road
recreation on mule deer and elk. Transactions of the North American Wildlife and Natural
Resources Conference 69:531-550.
.
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Table 1. Research and management partners and their roles in the Starkey Project, 1982-2004.
Partner
Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife
Role
Lead state agency in Starkey research from time of inception to the present.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station
Lead federal research branch in Starkey Project research from time of inception to the present.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Region 6
Lead federal management branch supporting the establishment of Starkey Project telemetry system,
other technologies, and the technology transfer program.
Boise Cascade Corporation
Private company that provided the means to harvest timber as part of construction of the Starkey
enclosure and as an experimental treatment for the intensive timber management study. Ongoing
partner in research through its staff of scientists. Led research on ungulate herbivory effects in Blue
Mountains.
National Council of the Pulp and Paper
Industry for Air and Stream Improvement
Private nonprofit organization that has participated as a major research partner since inception of
the Starkey Project. Led research on elk thermal cover and nutrition.
Oregon State University
Major academic partner in Starkey Project research. Oregon State University’s Eastern Oregon
Agricultural Research Center has led the cattle-related studies of the Starkey Project since
inception. Graduate students have completed, or are in the process of completing, a myriad of
different studies used in eight Master Theses.
Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation
National non-profit organization that has provided key logistical, funding, and technology transfer
support for Starkey research from time of inception to the present.
Wallowa-Whitman National Forest and La
Grande Ranger District
Provided major funding and staffing in support of installation, maintenance, and repairs of
infrastructure required for the Starkey Project. Helped collect needed data on traffic counts and
other field variables in support of original studies.
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Partner
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Washington Office
Role
Provided majority of funding for establishment of Starkey Project enclosure and other technologies
to launch the start of the Project.
Umatilla National Forest
Provided analytical and software support for the Starkey Project since inception. Have provided
funding and helped plan various studies for the Starkey Project as part of the Blue Mountains Elk
Initiative.
Oregon Department of Parks and Recreation
State agency that provided major research funding for study on effects of off-road recreation, and
helped design of this study.
Ochoco and Malheur National Forests
Helped plan various studies for the Starkey Project as part of the Blue Mountains Elk Initiative.
University of Alaska-Fairbanks
Major partner in recent research on the role of mule deer and elk in ecosystem processes. A Ph.D.
student has completed this research, with multiple publications produced, in press, or submitted.
University of Idaho
Major partner in a variety of studies. Graduate students have completed, or are in the process of
completing, multiple studies that include two Master Theses and two Ph.D. Dissertations.
University of California-Berkeley
Provided major analysis and design for studies of diffusion modeling of animal movements with
use of Starkey Project data. Graduate student is participating in study of effects of off-road
recreation on mule deer and elk.
Purdue University
Partner in DNA-breeding studies of elk.
University of Minnesota
Partner in research on nutritional indices and condition for elk, using Starkey Project’s tame elk.
University of Montana
Partner in research on effects of intensive timber management at Starkey. Graduate student
completed a Master Thesis in support of this study.
Washington State University
Participated in the design of new herbivory research at Starkey, and have provided long-term
veterinary care for tame deer and elk as part of Starkey Project.
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Partner
Washington Department of Fish and
Wildlife
Role
Major partner in elk diet selection grazing trials, using Starkey Project’s tame elk.
Eastern Oregon University
Provided field and office support for the Starkey Project since its inception, in the form of
biological interns under the Student Employment Training Program, and in collaborative research
efforts between faculty and Starkey Project staff.
Oregon State Police, Game Division
Provided law enforcement during the 58 hunting seasons conducted in support of research since
inception.
Idaho Department of Fish and Game
Major partner in research to validate and refine methods of aerial survey for elk.
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
Loaned and demonstrated the use of equipment for Starkey research.
La Grande Animal Health Center
Provided critical veterinary care for deer and elk used in Starkey Project research since inception.
Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian
Reservation
Helped design and participate in tribal hunts conducted in support of Starkey research. Helped plan
various studies for the Starkey Project as part of the Blue Mountains Elk Initiative.
Nez Perce Tribe
Helped plan various studies for the Starkey Project as part of the Blue Mountains Elk Initiative.
Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs
Indian Reservation
Helped plan various studies for the Starkey Project as part of the Blue Mountains Elk Initiative.
Oregon Hunter’s Association
Provided funding and helped plan various studies for the Starkey Project as part of the Blue
Mountains Elk Initiative.
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Indian Affairs
Helped design tribal hunts at Starkey as part of the research. Helped plan various studies for the
Starkey Project as part of the Blue Mountains Elk Initiative.
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Partner
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Land Management
Role
Helped plan various studies for the Starkey Project as part of the Blue Mountains Elk Initiative.
Oregon Cattlemen’s Association
Helped plan and provide support for the animal unit equivalency study at start of Starkey Project.
Dick Snow Ranch
Participated in cattle research as part of the Starkey Project since inception.
Trimble, Incorporated
Provided major technologies needed for the Loran-C automated telemetry system.
Tracor, Incorporated
Provided major technologies needed for the Loran-C automated telemetry system.
Partney and Sons, Incorporated
Established the ungulate enclosure with use of innovative drilling technology.
West, Incorporated
Provided major statistical analyses in support of Starkey Project research.
Statistical Services, Incorporated
Provided major statistical analyses in support of Starkey Project research.
David Marx Consulting
Provided major statistical analyses in support of Starkey Project research.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station
Provided major analysis support for study of effects of off-road recreation on deer and elk at
Starkey, and for studies of diffusion modeling of animal movements.
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Figure 1. Number of partners in the Starkey Project and number of authors of Starkey publications, by
affiliation (state agencies, federal agencies, universities, private groups, and tribal nations).
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Figure 2. Number of Starkey Project publications since 1987, summed by two-year periods through early
2004. Only peer-reviewed publications appearing in journals, books, and graduate theses and dissertations
are included (i.e., the summary excludes all published abstracts, “white papers,” popular news and
magazine articles, and other “gray literature”).