Forestry-Based Biomass
Economic and Financial
Information and Tools:
An Annotated Bibliography
United States Department of Agriculture / Forest Service
Rocky Mountain Research Station
General Technical Report RMRS-GTR-244WWW
September 2010
Loeffler, Dan; Brandt, Jason; Morgan, Todd; Jones, Greg. 2010. Forestry-based
biomass economic and financial information and tools: An annotated
bibliography. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-244WWW. Fort Collins, CO: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
52 p.
Abstract
This annotated bibliography is a synthesis of information products available to land
managers in the western United States regarding economic and financial aspects
of forestry-based woody biomass removal, a component of fire hazard and/or fuel
reduction treatments. This publication contains over 200 forestry-based biomass
papers, financial models, sources of biomass and log price information, and
biomass utilization facility locations.
Keywords: biomass, logging residues, annotated bibliography, Joint Fire Science
Program, forest management
Authors
Dan Loeffler, College of Forestry and Conservation, The University of Montana,
Missoula, MT
Jason Brandt, USDA Forest Service, National Interagency Fire Center, Boise, ID
Todd Morgan, Bureau of Business and Economic Research, The University of
Montana, Missoula, MT
Greg Jones, Human Dimensions Science Program, USDA Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station, Missoula, MT
The use of trade or firm names in this publication is for reader information and does not
imply endorsement by the U.S. Department of Agriculture of any product or service.
Available only online at http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_gtr244.html
Rocky Mountain Research Station
Publishing Services
Telephone (970) 498-1392
FAX (970) 498-1122
E-mail rschneider@fs.fed.us
Web sitehttp://www.fs.fed.us/rm/publications
Mailing address Publications Distribution
Rocky Mountain Research Station
240 West Prospect Road
Fort Collins, CO 80526
Contents
Introduction............................................................................................................ 1
Section 1: Models and Tools for Estimating Economic and Financial
Aspects and Quantities of Forest Biomass........................................ 2
Section 2: Biomass Production, Cost, and Related Literature............................ 6
Section 3: Log and Mill Residue Price Information........................................... 46
Section 4: Biomass Utilization Facility Locations............................................... 48
Section 5: Ancillary Biomass Information.......................................................... 50
Introduction
Forest vegetation treatments create large quantities of forest residue biomass, and policies at many
forestland management agencies encourage biomass
removal to achieve fire hazard and/or fuel reduction
goals. Biomass includes non-merchantable portions of
a merchantable tree (that is, tops and limbs) and nonmerchantable small, whole-trees that are removed to
meet management objectives. Following forest vegetation treatments, the most common methods of biomass
disposal are in-woods pile or broadcast burning, which
degrade local air quality and produce large amounts of
unhealthy particulate matter, among other drawbacks.
In geographic areas that have biomass utilization infrastructure, biomass can be removed from the landing
and delivered to a utilization facility to be burned
in boilers with emission control devices for energy
production. However, markets for biomass are underdeveloped or non-existent in many areas throughout
the western United States, and managers often find it
difficult to quantify the biomass that will be removed
during fire hazard or fuel reduction treatments.
In 2007, the Joint Fire Sciences Program (JFSP)
conducted a roundtable discussion with a group of
managers and scientists from partner agencies and
stakeholder groups in order to better understand the
issues, problems, and research needs related to utilizing biomass removed by fuels management projects.
Decision-makers and planners stated they desire easyto-use methods to evaluate the costs and revenues of
implementing treatments that involve biomass removal.
They want methods to compare costs with treatments
that do not remove biomass, and they need ways to
better understand biomass disposal options that are
locally available and what those options mean to disposing different types of biomass. Having recognized
that there are scattered bodies of literature pertaining
to economic and financial aspects of biomass utilization, some of which are extensive, the JFSP roundtable
members chose to sponsor this effort to synthesize existing information rather than to develop new research.
The overall goal of this JFSP-funded project (07-33-03) is to provide a synthesis of available information
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
products to help managers understand and deal with
the economic and financial aspects of woody biomass
removal as a component of fire hazard and/or fuel reduction treatments. This report is a synthesis of the
body of economic and financial biomass information,
literature, models, tools, databases, and other information available to land managers in the western United
States. Ideally, when information about innovative operational biomass handling, removal, and/or utilization
practices and techniques is documented and shared,
land managers may better plan and implement biomass
removal treatments. The information contained in this
bibliography fills the gaps between existing information and tools and managers’ awareness of and ability
to use those tools and information to promote biomass
utilization in place of in-woods burning. This bibliography may also help managers address the issues and
problems discussed above.
This bibliography includes web-based biomass-related resources, literature from peer-reviewed journals,
USDA Forest Service publications, technical reports
and releases, and white papers. It also includes the
location and characteristics of biomass-utilizing facilities in several western states and website links to the
types, tree sizes, and volumes of wood fiber those facilities purchase; the value of wood fiber delivered to
those facilities; and GIS data depicting mill locations
and biomass-utilizing facilities. The first section in this
report lists biomass cost and volume estimator tools,
models, and related information. The second section
contains an annotated bibliography of forest biomassrelated literature from a wide variety of publication
outlets. The third section identifies website links to
regional and national sources of biomass, lumber, and
log prices. The fourth section identifies biomass utilization facility locations, and the fifth section contains
other forestry-based, biomass-related information.
The information contained in this manuscript is also
available in a searchable database format at the JFSPsponsored Fire Research and Management Exchange
System (FRAMES) website: http://frames.nbii.gov/
portal/server.pt.
1
Section 1: Models and Tools for Estimating Economic and
Financial Aspects and Quantities of Forest Biomass
BIOPAK
Biomass Site Assessment Tool (BioSAT)
Means, Joseph E.; Hansen, Heather A.; Koerper,
Greg J.; Alaback, Paul B.; Klopsch, Mark W. 1994.
Software for computing plant biomass—BIOPAK users guide. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-340. Portland, OR:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. 180 p.
Annotation: The BioSAT model is used to identify the
top 20 biomass facility locations for 13 southern U.S.
states. The trucking cost model of BioSAT is used with
Timber Mart-South 2009 (http://www.tmart-south.
com/tmart/index.html) price data to estimate the total,
average, and marginal costs for biomass facilities that
use mill residues for up to 1.5 million dry tons of annual consumption. Costs in south Mississippi, southeast
Georgia, southeast Oklahoma, southwest Alabama,
and east Texas range from $25 to $38 per dry ton for up
to 1.5 million annual dry tons. Additional research on
BioSAT is forthcoming for 33 U.S. states. These studies will include more types of woody and agricultural
biomass (for example, logging residues, pulpwood,
and corn stover). Additional cost models for transportation such as truck combinations with rail and barge
will be components of BioSAT.
Available: http://www.biosat.net.
Data requirements: Unknown; contact BioSAT for
more information.
Contact: James H. Purdue: jperdue@fs.fed.us,
Timothy M. Young: tmyoung1@utk.edu
Last updated: October 2009
Means, Joseph E.; Krankina, Olga N.; Jiang, Hao; Li,
Hongyan. 1996. Estimating live fuels for shrubs and
herbs with BIOPAK. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-372.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 21 p.
Annotation: BIOPAK is a software package that contains
a plant measurement library of over 1100 documented
equations that estimate plant components, for example,
leaf mass, leaf area, stem wood mass, bark mass, and fuel
size classes. BIOPAK can choose equations from those
contained in an equation library using built-in assumptions
based primarily on comparisons of plant dimensions, geographic area sampled, and seral stage sampled for input
data and prediction equations. Alternatively, a user can direct the program to search a specific subset of the equation
library or use a particular equation for particular input data.
In this manner, equations from other species may be used
for species in the data for which equations are unavailable.
Available: http://www.fsl.orst.edu/lter/data/tools/
software/biopak.cfm?topnav=149.
Online database of model equations: http://
andrewsforest.oregonstate.edu/data/abstract.
cfm?dbcode=TP072&topnav=97.
BIOPAK manual: http://andrewsforest.oregonstate.
edu/pubs/webdocs/reports/pub1659.pdf.
Data requirements: Runs with DOS-type commands.
Biomass estimations are made for many species
based on prescribed measurements such as
diameter, stem length, and cover. The independent
variables are equation- and species-specific.
Contact: Don Henshaw dhenshaw@fs.fed.us,
henshaw@fsl.orst.edu, don.henshaw@oregonstate.
edu
Last updated: Unknown
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Coordinated Resource Offering
Protocol (CROP)
Annotation: The USDA Forest Service and USDOI
Bureau of Land Management undertook a series of
CROP pilot projects as a means of addressing the
growing fuel load problem within major forest systems
and the realized potential for fostering catastrophic
wildfires within these systems across the United States.
Focused on biomass removal (versus biomass inventory), the CROP model was initially developed in 2003
to target unlevelized, uncoordinated, and erratic resource offerings from public forest lands at landscape
scale. The key tenets of CROP projects are: facilitate
coordination of biomass removal between public agencies; facilitate the use of long-term, multi-agency stewardship contracts to achieve biomass removal; increase
the certainty of “levelized” biomass supply offerings
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
from public agencies; invite investment back into a
sustainable forest management landscape; and heighten public trust and support for biomass removal from
public lands by operating a transparent process.
Available: http://www.forestsandrangelands.gov/
Woody_Biomass/supply/CROP/index.shtml.
Data requirements: None. Summaries of CROP
projects already conducted are available on the
website.
Contact: Ed Gee: eagee@fs.fed.us
Last updated: March 2009
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FIA BioSum
Fried, Jeremy S.; Christensen, Glenn; Weyermann,
Dale; Barbour, Jamie R.; Fight, Roger; Hiserote,
Bruce; Pinjuv, Guy. 2005. Modeling opportunities
and feasibility of siting wood-fired electrical generating facilities to facilitate landscape-scale fuel
treatment with FIA BioSum. Systems analysis in
forest resources: proceedings of the 2003 symposium:
207-216.
Annotation: FIA BioSum is a concept-based methodology that generates cost estimates, identifies opportunities, and evaluates the effectiveness of fuel treatments in region-wide forested landscapes. The BioSum
modeling framework incorporates a transportation cost
model, a treatment cost accounting module, a log valuation model, and a crown fire hazard evaluator with
Forest Inventory and Analysis plot data.
Available: www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fia/biosum.
Data requirements: Inventory plot data with expansion factors; road network with travel time per unit
distance assigned to the road segments; silvicultural
treatments coded in the Forest Vegetation Simulator;
and product prices. Also, a raft of assumptions, such
as filters on what characteristics lead to an acre being
a candidate for treatment, definitions of hazard and
hazard improvement, choice of logging systems, and
objectives (for example, make money, improve fuel
hazard, maximize material removed, or minimize material removed).
Contact: Jeremy Fried: jsfried@fs.fed.us
Last updated: February 2009
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Forest Residue Trucking Simulator
(FoRTS)
Annotation: FoRTS is a spreadsheet-based calculator that
is designed to help compare alternative methods of moving biomass from the forest to a wood-using facility. The
program estimates loading and hauling costs for different
combinations of equipment, evaluates the best mix (numbers and types) of equipment, compares different hauling
routes, and examines reloading or two-stage hauling opportunities. FoRTS does not provide actual costs because
it does not include factors such as profit and overhead. It is
intended to represent a relative comparison among options.
Available: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/forestops/biomass.
htm.
Data requirements: Road travel route description;
biomass materials (for example, species and moisture
content); and equipment selection
(in-woods, transportation, or processing).
Contact: Jason Thompson: jasonthompson@fs.fed.us
Last updated: 2006
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Fuel Reduction Cost Simulator (FRCS)
Fight, Roger D.; Hartsough, Bruce R.; Noordijk,
Peter. 2006. Users guide for FRCS: Fuel reduction cost
simulator software. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-668.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 23 p.
Annotation: FRCS is a spreadsheet application useful
for estimating the cost of forest operations undertaken
to reduce forest fuel loads by cutting and removing trees
for solid wood products or chips. It can also be used to
estimate the cost of collecting and chipping forest residues. Cost assumptions can be modified by the user. The
software contains four ground-based systems, four cable
systems, and two helicopter systems. Cost estimates are in
U.S. dollars per 100 cubic feet, per green ton, and per acre.
Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/data/frcs/frcs.shtml.
Data requirements: System and cut type, yard/skid/
forward distance, percent slope, elevation, one-way
move-in costs, green wood density, residue fraction,
trees per acre cut, and average volume per tree.
Contact: Dennis Dykstra: ddykstra@fs.fed.us
Last updated: 2007
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3
Harvest Cost-Revenue (HCR) Estimator
Becker, Dennis R.; Larson, Debra; Lowell, Eini
C.; Rummer, Robert B. 2007. User guide for HCR
Estimator 2.0: Software to calculate cost and revenue
thresholds for harvesting small-diameter ponderosa
pine. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-748. Portland, OR:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. 51 p.
Annotation: The HCR Estimator is engineering and financial analysis software used to evaluate stand-level financial thresholds for harvesting small-diameter ponderosa pine in the southwest United States. The HCR can help
contractors and planners identify costs associated with tree
selection, residual handling, transportation of raw materials, and equipment use. Costs are compared against total
financial return for regionally based market opportunities
to calculate potential net profit. Information is used to
identify per-acre cost thresholds for contract appraisal and
for prioritizing project planning for wildfire fuel reduction
treatments and forest restoration efforts.
Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/publications/gtr748.
Data requirements: Cut-tree data, harvesting system,
equipment information, wage and benefit rates,
equipment mobilization distance, simulated log and
biomass markets and distance, overhead and indirect
costs, and desired profit margin.
Contact: http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/contact/index.shtml.
Last updated: 2008
••
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USDA Forest Service Region 6 Forest
Products Web Page: Logging Systems
and Economic Programs
Annotation: This website contains information, programs,
and forms used to implement forest health maintenance,
restoration, and improvement projects on the 19 National
Forests in Oregon and Washington. The website houses
many executable programs developed by the USDA Forest
Service, and the software is public domain. Programs can
only be installed on IBM-compatible machines.
Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/nr/fp/FPWebPage/
FP70104A/Programs.htm.
Data requirements: Variable; program specific.
Contact: Rick Toupin: rtoupin@fs.fed.us
Last updated: 2008
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4
USDA Forest Service Southern
Research Station Moisture Content
Converter
Annotation: This is an Excel spreadsheet that converts
wood moisture contents from either dry basis to wet
basis or wet basis to dry basis. The moisture content
of biomass affects the gross weight of the material that
is being handled. Green material will have a higher
density than drier material because of the extra water
weight in the cells of the wood. In biomass markets, it
is important for all parties to have a common understanding of the dry mass of material that is being sold
or processed. Generally, biomass loads are sampled
for moisture content and then converted to a dry-basis
measure such as “bone dry tons” or “bone dry units.”
Available: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/forestops/
downloads/MC_Converter.xls.
Data requirements: Percent moisture content to
convert.
Contact: Jason Thompson: jasonthompson@fs.fed.us
Last updated: 2008
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USDA Forest Service Southern
Research Station Biomass Heat Values
by Tree Species
Annotation: Located at this website are tables of heat
of combustion (Btu per ovendry pound) of stems and
branches of 6-inch diameter breast height (DBH) trees
from 22 hardwood species growing on southern pine
sites. Heat value, or heat of combustion, is defined as
the total amount of heat obtainable from ovendry material when burned in an enclosure of constant volume,
allowing no deductions for heat losses. Heat value is
useful to know when dealing with biomass.
Available: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/forestops/
biomass.htm.
Data requirements: Species.
Contact: Jason Thompson: jasonthompson@fs.fed.us
Last updated: 2007
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
WEBOFIRE
Annotation: WEBOFIRE links stand inventory data
and visualizations with the Fire and Fuels Extension
(http://www.fs.fed.us/fmsc/fvs/description/ffe-fvs.shtml) and the Fuel Characteristic Classification System
(http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/fera/fccs) to estimate fire
and fuel potentials. WEBOFIRE provides users with
estimates of fire hazard associated with existing forest
conditions in terms of fire behavior potential, crown
fire potential, and available fuel potential; estimates of
the effectiveness of the selected treatment alternative
in reducing hazard; and estimates of net revenue associated with the selected treatment alternative.
Available: http://webofire.cfc.umt.edu/webofire/%28b
opuyhan54dkjjuo00x2puig%29/Default.aspx.
Data Requirements: Three options: (1) select stand
by visualization, (2) enter stand inventory data
(species, trees per acre by diameter class, height,
and crown ratio), or (3) upload existing stand data
(XML file).
Contact: webofire.support@cfc.umt.edu
Last updated: June 2009
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
5
Section 2: Biomass Production, Cost, and Related Literature
Abt, Karen L.; Prestemon, Jeffrey P. 2006. Timber
markets and fuel treatments in the western US.
Natural Resource Modeling. 19(1): 15-43.
Abstract: This paper presents a model of interrelated
timber markets in the U.S. West in order to assess the
impacts of large-scale fuel reduction programs on those
markets and concomitant effects of the market on the
fuel reduction programs. The model maximizes area
treated, given fire regime-condition class priorities,
maximum increases in softwood processing capacity,
maximum rates of annual treatments, prohibitions on
exports of U.S. and Canadian softwood logs from public lands, and a fixed annual treatment budget. Results
show that the loss to U.S. private timber producers is
less than the gains for timber consumers (mills).
Keywords: wildfire, mechanical treatments, spatial
equilibrium, welfare
Geographic relevance: Western United States
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Alabama Forestry Commission. 2009. Woody
biomass energy opportunities in Alabama.
Montgomery, AL: Alabama Forestry Commission.
Available: http://216.226.177.78/Biomass/Woody%20
Biomass%20Energy%20Opportunities%20in%20
Alabama.pdf.
Abstract: This publication provides information on the
woody biomass materials available in Alabama, timber
harvest and price trends, and per unit cost comparisons
with traditional energy sources. It also contains references to information useful to investors when deciding
whether or not to install wood-using energy systems.
References are provided to manufacturers of woodusing energy systems, grant sources, tax credit incentives, and case studies of others who have installed
successful systems.
Keywords: biomass, harvest cost, timber price
Geographic relevance: Alabama
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Angus-Hankin, C.; Stokes, B.; Twaddle, A. 1995.
The transportation of fuelwood from forest to facility. Biomass and Bioenergy. 9 (1-5): 191-203.
6
Abstract: In spite of its simplicity, secondary transport
is typically responsible for between 20 and 40 percent
of the delivered fuel cost. To achieve a full payload
within maximum allowable load dimension restrictions, the transported material must have a minimum
bulk density of about 250 to 280 kg/m3. While conventional forest products generally exceed this limit, fuelwood in an unprocessed form may have a bulk density
of only 120 to 150 kg/m3. Processing fuelwood to a
chip allows the use of standard transport systems that
are designed to transport wood chips for the pulp sector. Major technological gains to improve the transport
efficiencies of fuelwood are unlikely in the immediate
future.
Keywords: wood fuel, residues, transportation, bulk
density
Geographic relevance: Nondescript
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Arola, Rodger A.; Miyata, Edwin W. 1981.
Harvesting wood for energy. Res. Pap. NC-200. St.
Paul, MN: U.S. Deptartment of Agriculture, Forest
Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station.
28 p.
Abstract: This paper illustrates the potential of harvesting wood for industrial energy, based on the results
of five harvesting studies, and it presents information
on harvesting operations, equipment costs, and productivity. It further discusses mechanized thinning of hardwoods, clearcutting of low-value stands, and recovery
of hardwood tops and limbs and includes basic information on the physical and fuel properties of wood.
Keywords: logging, whole-tree chipping, fuelwood,
mechanized thinning, clearcutting, residues
Geographic relevance: Michigan
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Arriagada, Rodrigo A.; Cubbage, Frederick W.;
Abt, Karen Lee; Huggett, Robert J., Jr. 2008.
Estimating harvest costs for fuel treatments in the
West. Forest Products Journal. 58 (7/8): 24-30.
Abstract: The costs for harvesting timber for forest fire fuel reduction purposes were estimated for
12 states in the U.S. West. These simulation inputs
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
were used to estimate average costs for 12,039 Forest
Inventory and Analysis plots in the West, and then
that FRCS output was used develop regression equations that estimated costs as a function of small-, medium-, and large-sized trees per acre as well as slope.
Ground-based, mechanical, whole-tree harvesting systems were cheapest in the areas where they could be
used, with a mean cost of $620 per acre. The other three
ground-based systems had mean costs that ranged from
$958 to $1627 per acre. Cable yarder systems’ mean
costs were much more expensive at $2794 and $3535
per acre. The results indicate that fuel reduction harvests in the West are expensive, and the results provide
magnitudes of these costs that can be used for planning
and budgeting purposes for landowners and forestry
professionals.
Keywords: fuel treatment, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Western United States
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Ashmore, Colin; Sirois, Donald L.; Stokes, Bryce
J. 1987. Evaluation of roll designs on a roll-crusher/ crusher/splitter biomass harvester: test bench
results. Proceedings of the southern forest biomass
workshop; 1986 June 16-19; Knoxville, TN. Muscle
Shoals, AL: Tennessee Valley Authority: 113-116.
Abstract: An alternative to conventional methods of
processing small-diameter trees for energy use is roll
crushing/splitting. The concept involves crushing and
splitting stems to expedite field drying and to facilitate
handling. This method has been considered a feasible
alternative for handling stems found in short-rotation
harvesting. This paper reports on one of these objectives: the evaluation of roll designs by the Southern
Forest Experiment Station for effectively feeding
woody southern biomass into a set of crush rolls. For
each of four roll designs, the specific objectives were
to determine feeding efficiencies, crushing/splitting efficiencies, and operating restraints that would allow the
greatest range of material to feed through the primary
and secondary rolls.
Keywords: biomass, crushing, splitting
Geographic relevance: Canada
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Atkins, Dave; Rummer, Robert; Dodson, Beth;
Thomas, Craig E.; Horcher, Andy; Messerlie, Ed;
Rawlings, Craig; Haston, David. 2007. A report on
conceptual advances in roll on/off technology in forestry. Missoula, MT: Smallwood News; 2007 October
8: 1-14.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Abstract: This report summarizes advances in
forest-related roll on/off container technology. It also
outlines several studies that tested the economic and
environmental viability of these technologies. Hookliftenabled trucks with roll on/off containers were found
to make slash collection more efficient under certain
conditions at remote landings. Also, several conceptual advances in roll on/off technology have been made,
including the use of hooklift-enabled forwarders with
roll on/off containers for slash and roll on/off bunks for
logs. A multi-use grinder/processor boom attachment
shows promise to make hooklift-enabled forwarders
even more efficient for collecting slash and logs in the
woods.
Keywords: biomass, roll on/off container, hooklift
truck, forwarder
Geographic relevance: Montana
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Badger, Phillip C. 2002. Processing cost analysis for
biomass feedstocks. Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
Oak Ridge, TN. ORNL/TM-2002/199.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify
and characterize all the receiving, handling, storing,
and processing steps required to make woody biomass
feedstocks suitable for use in direct combustion and
gasification applications, including in small modular
biopower systems, and to estimate the capital and operating costs at each step. Since biopower applications
can be varied, a number of conversion systems and
feedstocks required evaluation. The boundaries of this
study were from the power plant gate to the feedstock
entry point into the conversion device.
Keywords: biomass, gasification, modular bioenergy,
cost
Geographic relevance: United States
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Bain, Richard L.; Overend, Ralph P. 2002. Biomass
for heat and power. Forest Products Journal. 52(2):
12-19.
Abstract: Bain and Overend provide a national history
of biomass used for energy, a brief market and supply
analysis, and a current status of technology, and they
identify research needs.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy history
Geographic relevance: United States
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7
Barger, Roland L. 1979. The forest residues utilization R&D program. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November 2830; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 5-16.
Abstract: This publication reports the results of research
conducted by the Residues R&D Program in harvesting
and utilization opportunities for forest residue. It also provides a record of proceedings of the three-day symposium
that explored both research and industrial experience in
residues utilization and a compendium of information useful to those involved or interested in improving the recovery and utilization of forest residues.
Keywords: forest residues, wood utilization, timber
harvesting, forest practices
Geographic relevance: Intermountain and Northern
Rocky Mountains
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Barger, Roland L.; Benson, Robert E. 1979. Intensive
utilization with conventional harvesting systems. In:
Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen.
Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 77-95.
Abstract: Field evaluations in this study included the use
of in-woods chipping systems in gentle terrain, crawler
skidder systems in gentle terrain, and skyline systems in
steep terrain. In each situation, utilization standards ranged
from conventional saw log utilization to near-total utilization of available fiber. Intensive utilization has been
achieved concurrent with saw log harvesting, rather than
through postharvest salvage. The total costs of harvesting
merchantable material and residue together are partitioned
to derive costs of residue recovery. Costs of recovery vary
significantly among the case situations studied and vary
with the method by which costs are allocated. Residue recovery costs commonly run $30 to $60 per dry ton.
Keywords: forest residues, timber harvesting, wood
residues, utilization, logging systems, timber
harvesting productivity
Geographic relevance: Rocky Mountain Region
(Montana and Wyoming)
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Barnett, Paul E.; Sirois, Donald L.; Ashmore,
Colin. 1986. Reduction of biomass moisture by
crushing/splitting—A concept. In: Proceedings of the
southern forest biomass workshop: 1985 June 11-14;
Gainesville, FL. University of Florida: 13-16.
Abstract: A biomass crusher/splitter concept is presented as a possible means of maintaining rights-ofway or harvesting energy wood plantations. The conceptual system would cut, crush, and split small woody
biomass, leaving it in windrows for drying. A subsequent operation would bale and transport the dried material for use as an energy source. A survey of 20 southern power companies shows the potential applicability
of a biomass harvesting system. Drying characteristics
and power requirements are presented for three southern tree species.
Keywords: biomass, crusher/splitter, baler
Geographic relevance: Canada and southeastern
United States
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Baughman, Ronald K.; Stokes, Bryce J.; Watson,
William F. 1990. Utilizing residues from in-woods
flail processing. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of
the International Energy Agency, task VI, activity
3 workshop: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1990 May 28; Copenhagen, Denmark. Auburn,
AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southern Forest Experiment Station: 21-30.
Abstract: A tub grinder was employed to process debris discharged by a flail. The machine successfully
passed the material through a 7.62-cm screen and discharged the reduced debris into a chip van for transport.
It was found that fuel production is directly dependent
upon the production of clean chips by the flail/chipper
portion of the system and the available biomass of the
stand. Clean chips were produced at 57 green tonnes
per productive machine hour (PMH) with fuel yields
of 14 to 21 green tones per PMH.
Keywords: biomass, grinder, chips
Geographic relevance: Oklahoma
•
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Becker, Dennis R.; Abbas, Dalia; Halverson,
Kathleen E.; Jakes, Pamela J.; McCaffrey, Sarah
M.; Moseley, Cassandra. 2009. Characterizing lessons learned from Federal biomass removal projects. Final report submitted to Joint Fire Science
Program, 07-3-2-08. Boise, Idaho.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify and
assess biomass utilization challenges in different parts of
the United States. The information collected through case
studies was used to address persistent conventional wisdoms to biomass utilization that may help land managers
better accomplish project objectives through informed
planning and implementation. The information may also
be used to illuminate particular barriers to biomass utilization that can be addressed through policy development at
the local, state, or national level.
Keywords: biomass, policy
Geographic relevance: United States
••
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Benson, Robert E.; Schlieter, Joyce A. 1979. Residue
characteristics in the northern Rocky Mountains. In:
Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues
in the northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings
1979; November 28-30: Missoula, MT. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 33-43.
Abstract: In the northern Rocky Mountains, 350 to 450
million cubic feet of logging residue is generated each
year. Up to 60 percent of the residue material is technologically suitable for wood products; but condition, size,
and product potential vary among forest types. Other factors that influence residue utilization are level of harvest,
trends in wood processing, industrial uses, and economic
conditions.
Keywords: forest residue, logging residue, utilization
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
••
•••
Benson, Robert E.; Johnston, Cameron M. 1976.
Logging residues under different stand and harvesting conditions, Rocky Mountains. Res. Pap. INT-181.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station. 15 p.
Abstract: Volume and characteristics of logging residues
from 34 clearcut and partial cut harvest areas are presented.
Residue volumes ranged from almost 3600 cubic feet per
acre down to 550 cubic feet per acre, depending on treatment. More than 60 percent of the residues were sound.
Keywords: biomass, logging residue, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Montana, Wyoming, and Idaho
•
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Bergman R.; Zerbe, J. 2008. Primer on wood biomass for energy. (Rev. January 2008). Madison, WI:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, State
and Private Forest Technology Marketing Unit, Forest
Products Laboratory. Available: http://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/
documnts/tmu/biomass_energy/primer_on_wood_biomass_for_energy.pdf.
Abstract: This paper explains and describes the concepts
of wood energy on a residential, commercial, and industrial
scale in the United States so that the USDA Forest Service
can help meet the demands of communities involved in
the forest-products industry. In addition, terminology associated with this field is explained so that individuals can
develop a basic understanding of and familiarity with technical terms common to bioenergy. Definitions specific to
wood energy are given at the end of this report.
Keywords: biomass, forest products, bioenergy
Geographic relevance: United States
••
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Blackard, J.A.; Finco, M.V.; Helmer, E.H.; Holden,
G.R.; Hoppus, M.L.; Jacobs, D.M.; Lister, A.J.;
Moisen, G.G.; Nelson, M.D.; Riemann, R.; Ruefenacht,
B.; Salajanu, D.; Weyermann, D.L.; Winterberger,
K.C.; Brandeis, T.J.; Czaplewski, R.L.; McRoberts,
R.E.; Patterson, P.L.; Tymcio, R.P. 2008. Mapping U.S.
forest biomass using nationwide forest inventory data
and moderate resolution information. Remote Sensing
of Environment. 112: 1658-1677.
Abstract: This paper presents a spatially explicit dataset
of aboveground live forest biomass made from groundmeasured inventory plots for the conterminous United
States, Alaska, and Puerto Rico. The plot data are from
the USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis
program. To scale these plot data to maps, models relating
field-measured response variables to plot attributes serving
as the predictor variables were used. The mapping models
for the United States are segmented into 65 ecologically
similar mapping zones, plus Alaska and Puerto Rico. The
authors found there was a tendency in all regions for the
models to over-predict areas of small biomass and underpredict areas of large biomass, not capturing the full range
in variability.
Keywords: forest biomass, MODIS, classification and
regression trees, forest probability, carbon, FIA
Geographic relevance: United States, Alaska, and
Puerto Rico
•
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9
Bolding, M. Chad; Lanford, Bobby L. 2005.
Wildfire fuel harvesting and resultant biomass utilization using a cut-to-length/small chipper system.
Forest Products Journal. 55 (12): 181-189.
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
(Idaho and Montana)
Abstract: This study examined and measured the
feasibility of ground-based mechanical harvesting to
reduce forest fuel buildup and produce energywood.
This study shows that a cut-to-length harvesting system coupled with a small, in-woods chipper provided
a low impact way to harvest pre-commercial trees and
tops along with merchantable logs. A smaller, less expensive chipper allowed operations to stay small and
more efficient when compared to a larger operation and
grinder. Productivity and cost results showed that the
system was capable of harvesting non-merchantable
trees and utilizing non-merchantable portions of merchantable-sized trees as energywood chips.
Keywords: biomass, chipper, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Alabama
Brown, James K. 1976. Predicting crown weights
for 11 Rocky Mountain conifers. Working part on
forest biomass, International Union of Forest Research
Organizations congress; 1976 June 22; Oslo, Norway.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 103-115.
Abstract: For 11 conifer species in the Rocky
Mountains, the best-fitting regression relationships between live and dead crown weight and DBH, crown
length, tree height, and crown ratio were determined.
Also determined were fractions of crown weight in foliage and branchwood diameter classes.
Keywords: tree biomass, crown sampling, crown
weights, forest fuels
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
(Idaho and Montana)
•
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Brinker, Richard W.; Tufts, Robert A. 1989. Wholetree chipping in the southern United States. In:
Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the International Energy
Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting
small trees and forest residues; 1989 June 5-7; Auburn,
AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southern Forest Experiment Station: 140-149.
Abstract: This paper provides a general overview of
chipping wood for pulp and energy wood including
fuel chip production costs, problems, innovations, and
system designs.
Keywords: biomass, chipper, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Southern United States
•
••••
Brown, James K. 1978. Weight and density of crowns
of Rocky Mountain Conifers. Res. Pap. INT-197.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station. 56 p.
Abstract: Relationships between live and dead crown
weight and DBH, crown length, tree height, and crown
ratio are presented for 11 Rocky Mountain conifers.
Also included are partitioned estimates of crown foliage and branchwood. This study shows a high correlation between DBH and crown weight.
Keywords: tree biomass, crown sampling, crown
weights, forest fuels
10
•
•
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Brown, James K.; Kendall Snell, J.A.; Bunnell,
David L. 1977. Handbook for predicting slash
weight of western conifers. Gen. Tech. Rep. INTGTR-37. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 35 p.
Abstract: Procedures are provided for predicting
weights of slash using tables of either slash weight per
tree by DBH or slash weight per square foot of tree
basal area by DBH. Slash weights include crowns and
non-merchantable bole tips to 3- to 6-inch diameters.
Slash can be predicted for material less than and greater than 3-inch diameters.
Keywords: tree biomass, slash, forest fuels
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
(Idaho and Montana)
•
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Calkin, David; Gebert, Krista. 2006. Modeling
fuel treatment costs on Forest Service lands in the
western United States. Western Journal of Applied
Forestry. 21(4): 217-221.
Abstract: This report was intended to increase the accuracy of cost data available for planning and prioritizing fuel
management in National Forests. A survey of fire management officers was used to develop regression models
that may be used to estimate the cost of hazardous fuel
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
reduction treatments. The model is based on USDA Forest
Service Region, biophysical setting, treatment type, and
design. The authors found that treatment size described the
largest amount of variation in cost per acre, with increased
size reducing cost per acre, on average.
Keywords: fuel treatments, prescribed burning,
economics
Geographic relevance: Continental United States
•
••••
Cleaves, David; Martinez, Jorge; Haines, Terry.
2000. Influences on prescribed burning activity
and costs in the National Forest system. Gen. Tech.
Rep. SRS-GTR-37. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research
Station. 34 p.
Abstract: This study covers the results of survey concerning National Forest System prescribed burning activity
and costs from 1985 to 1995. Four types of prescribed fire
were looked at, including slash reduction; managementignited fires; prescribed natural fires; and brush, grass,
and rangeland burns. Ninety-five of 114 national forests
responded to the survey, providing rankings of importance
for 9 resource enhancement targets, 14 possible barriers
to burning, and 12 factors that influence burning costs.
Furthermore, respondents were asked to anticipate burning levels over the next 10 years and what burning levels
would be needed to achieve the desired management goals
on National Forest System lands.
Keywords: ecosystem management, environmental
laws, hazard reduction, management ignited fire,
national forests, prescribed natural fire
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Clark, A.; Saucier, J.R. 1990. Table for estimating
total-tree weights, stem weights, and volumes of
planted and natural southern pine in the southeast.
Georgia Forestry Commission, Forest Research Paper
79. 23 p.
Abstract: This article has tables and equations that can
be used to estimate total-tree weights, stem weights,
and volumes of plantation-grown loblolly and slash
when DBH and height to a 4-inch top or total height
are known.
Keywords: tree biomass, tree weight, stem weight,
forest fuels
Geographic relevance: Mid-Atlantic and Southeast
United States
•
Clark, A.; Saucier, J.R.; McNab, W.H. 1986. Totaltree weight, stem weight, and volume tables for
hardwood species in the Southeast. Georgia Forestry
Commission, Forest Research Paper 60. 44 p.
Abstract: This paper is a summary of the cooperative
research with the USDA Forest Service, Southeastern
Experiment Station and the Georgia Forestry
Commission. Together, members of the agency conducted a study to develop reliable weight and volume
equations and tables for the hardwoods in the Southeast
that are commercially important. The tables and equations can be used to estimate the green weight of wood
and bark and volume of wood excluding bark in the total
tree, stem to a 4-inch top, and stem to sawlog top. The
tables and equations contain estimates for numerous
commercially viable southeastern hardwood species.
Keywords: tree biomass, tree weight, stem weight,
forest fuels
Geographic relevance: Southeast United States
•
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Conner, Roger C.; Adams, Tim O.; Johnson, Tony
G. 2009. Assessing the potential for biomass energy
development in South Carolina. Res. Pap. SRS-46.
Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Southern Research Station. 19 p.
Abstract: This paper provides an assessment of the
potential for developing a sustainable biomass energy
industry in South Carolina. Several possible sources
of biomass were analyzed: unutilized logging residue
and standing residual inventory trees on acres with tree
harvesting, commercial thinning, precommercial thinning on overstocked natural sapling/seedling stands,
mill residue, and urban wood waste. A range of prices
from $20 to $30 per ton was established using surveys
sent to South Carolina’s timber producers (2008 market conditions). The estimates of potential biomass
distributed across these price points rose from 4.8 million tons to a total of 16.5 million tons annually. Nearly
7.7 million tons are being utilized. New facilities that
use wood to produce energy could capitalize on the 8.8
million annual tons of unutilized biomass and operate
without overly impacting existing forest industries or
increasing harvest levels above 2006 estimates.
Keywords: biofuel, biomass markets, FIA, forest
landowner, green tons, hardwood poletimber, haul
distance, softwood poletimber, timberland
Geographic relevance: South Carolina
•
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••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
11
Daugherty, Peter J.; Fried, Jeremy S. 2007. Jointly
optimizing selection of fuel treatments and siting of
forest biomass-based energy production facilities
for landscape-scale fire hazard reduction. INFOR.
45(1): 17-30.
Abstract: This study was conducted to look into landscape-scale fuel treatments for forest fire hazard reduction that can potentially produce large quantities of
material suitable for biomass energy production. The
analytic framework FIA BioSum addresses this situation by developing detailed data on forest conditions
and production under alternative fuel treatment prescriptions and by computing haul costs to alternative
sites where forest biomass-based energy production
facilities could be constructed. This research presents
a joint-optimization approach that simultaneously selects acres to be treated by fuel treatment prescription
and assigns bioenergy production facility locations and
capacities. Effects of alternative fuel treatment policies on fuel treatment effectiveness, economic feasibility, material produced, generating capacity supported,
and the location and capacity of assigned facilities are
evaluated.
Keywords: joint optimization, spatially explicit
facility siting, forest biomass energy
Geographic relevance: Central Oregon and northern
California
•
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Demchik, Michael C.; Abbas, Dalia; Current, Dean;
Arnosti, Don; Theimer, Myra; Johnson, Patty. 2009.
Combining biomass harvest and forest fuel reduction in the Superior National Forest, Minnesota.
Journal of Forestry. 107 (5): 235-241.
Abstract: The impact of combined biomass/fuel reduction harvests on the pools of forest fuels was analyzed
in this paper to determine whether biomass harvest
reduced the cost of mechanical fuel treatments. Two
potential biomass harvest systems were tested in wildland-urban interface areas on the Superior National
Forest in Minnesota. Both systems performed similarly
in terms of cost and efficiency at harvesting biomass.
It was found that the cost of biomass harvest was impacted by site conditions, forwarding distance, number
of units harvested with one machine haul, number of
machines that were hauled, acres harvested, and roundwood inclusion. Income from the sale of biomass did
not cover the costs of harvest and delivery.
Keywords: energy, harvesting, cost assessment
Geographic relevance: Minnesota
•
12
Dwivedi, Puneet; Alavalapati, Janaki R.R. 2009.
Stakeholders’ perceptions on forest biomass-based
bioenergy development in the southern US. Energy
Policy. 37 (5): 1999-2007.
Abstract: This study analyzes perceptions of four
stakeholder groups regarding forest biomass-based
bioenergy development in the southern United States.
Results suggest that non-governmental organization
representatives perceived rural development as an important opportunity. The government stakeholder group
noted that less or no competition with food production
and promoting energy security were major strength
factors. Conversion technologies that are still under
trial were identified as a major weakness by industry
representatives. Representatives of academia felt that
the competition from other renewable energy sources
could be a major threat. Overall, all stakeholder groups
were in favor of forest biomass-based bioenergy development in the southern United States.
Keywords: southern United States, forest biomassbased bioenergy development, stakeholders’
perceptions
Geographic relevance: Southern United States
•
••••
Edman, F. Talmage. 1989. Small stem thinning in
the Pacific Northwest with barking and chipping
in the woods. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the
International Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989
June 5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
126-130.
Abstract: This paper provides a brief history of
the development of a system to economically thin
overstocked, naturally seeded stands in the Pacific
Northwest. It also provides a comparison of flail debarking efficiency in the woods with small alder systems with a pulp log debarker in a satellite yard.
Keywords: thinning, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Puget Sound and Washington
•
••••
Emergent Solutions, Christopher Allen and
Associates. 2003. Pre-feasibility assessment: Small
diameter under (SDU) wood feedstock for a 10 MW
co-generation facility at the Milltown dam site.
Submitted to U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, State and Private Forestry, Montana
Community Development Corporation, Bonner
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Development Group. Available: http://www.mtcdc.
org/news-events/reportspublications.html.
Abstract: This pre-feasibility assessment was conducted to explore the potential of using SDU wood
from local forests as the feedstock for a 10 MW cogen plant concept at the Milltown Dam site. The assessment indicates that with green tags and Federal
tax credit for renewable energy production, the highest
likely price for the sale of electricity from the facility
would be approximately $.077 per kWh. Typical generation costs in large-scale direct-fired biomass plants
are $.09 per kWh. The assessment also indicates that
sufficient woody biomass is physically available from
local forests to meet the 84,000 BDT per year feedstock requirement of a 10 MW facility.
Keywords: biomass, biomass power, bioenergy, cogeneration
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
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Evans, Alexander M. 2008. Synthesis of knowledge
from woody biomass removal case studies. Santa Fe,
NM: The Forest Guild. 39 p.
Abstract: Woody biomass—usually logging slash,
tops and limbs, or trees that cannot be sold as timber—
is the lowest valued material removed from the forest
and presents economic and logistic challenges. This
report brings together 45 case studies of how biomass
is removed from forests and used across the country to
demonstrate the wide variety of successful strategies,
funding sources, harvesting operations, utilization outlets, and silvicultural prescriptions.
Keywords: biomass, harvest cost, silviculture
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Evans, Alexander M.; Perschel, Robert T. 2009. An
assessment of biomass harvesting guidelines. Santa
Fe, NM: The Forest Guild. 20 p.
Abstract: This report compares the guidelines for
harvesting woody biomass from various states including Maine, Minnesota, Missouri, Pennsylvania, and
Wisconsin. The biomass harvesting guidelines as well
as this paper cover topics such as dead wood, wildlife,
water quality, soil productivity, silviculture, and disturbance as it pertains to biomass removal.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Northeast United States and
Canada
•
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Eza, Douglas A.; McMinn, James W.; Dress, Peter
E. 1984. Wood Residue Distribution Simulator
(WORDS). Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-28. Asheville, NC:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 6 p.
Abstract: WORDS attempts to find a least-cost allocation of residues from local sources of supply to local sources of demand, given the cost of the materials,
their distribution, and the distribution of demand. The
results are useful in evaluating the feasibility of developing wood energy either for a sub-region in general
or for specific locales. This paper gives an example of
WORDS application to mill residues in the State of
Georgia.
Keywords: energy, supply, demand, Georgia
Geographic relevance: United States
•
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Fahey, Thomas D. 1979. Value ranking for utilizing
lodgepole pine residues. In: Harvesting and utilization
opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 239-250.
Abstract: Relative values per ton of log input are developed for poles, corral poles, house logs, lumber,
studs, veneer, chips, and fuel on a current market basis. The techniques to reevaluate on different markets
are demonstrated. Product specifications, demand,
and potential to salvage significant volumes are also
addressed.
Keywords: residues, forest products, lodgepole pine,
poles, house logs, lumber, veneer, chips
Geographic relevance: Rocky Mountain Region
•
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Faurot, James L. 1977. Estimating merchantable
volume and stem residue in four timber species: ponderosa pine, lodgepole pine, western larch, Douglas
fir. Res. Pap. INT-196. Ogden UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station. 55 p.
Abstract: This report presents tables and equations
for estimating total cubic volumes of wood, wood
residue, and bark for ponderosa pine, western larch,
and Douglas-fir. The equations and tables provide a
means for estimating wood and bark residue volumes
from tops, bole sections, and smaller sub-merchantable
13
stems. Tables and equations can also be used to estimate total cubic volume for the size classes, species,
and locales sampled.
Keywords: tree biomass, residue, bark, forest fuels
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
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Fiedler, Carl E.; Keegan, Charles E., III; Wichman,
Daniel P.; Arno, Stephen F. 1999. Product and economic implications of ecological restoration. Forest
Products Journal. 49 (2): 19-23.
Abstract: This study evaluated restoration prescriptions for three widely occurring ponderosa pine stand
conditions, and researchers determined to what level
the value of product removal could finance the treatment costs. The article compares the cost in both terrain suitable for ground-based harvesting systems as
well as in cable systems and with or without a roundwood/pulpwood market.
Keywords: biomass, harvest cost, pulp market
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
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Fiedler, Carl E.; Keegan, Charles E.; Morgan, Todd
A.; Woodall, Christopher W. 2003. Fire hazard and
potential treatment effectiveness: a statewide assessment in Montana. Journal of Forestry. 101(2): 7.
Abstract: This assessment of Montana used data collected from Forest Inventory and Analysis plots across
Montana and is summarized by forest type, density,
and structure. The focus of the analysis was ponderosa
pine/Douglas-fir/dry mixed conifer forests that had historically seen low-intensity fires. Applying the Fire and
Fuels Extension to the Forest Vegetation Simulator,
crown fire hazard was modeled and two fire hazard reduction approaches, a thin from below approach and
a comprehensive ecologically based treatment, were
evaluated.
Keywords: fuel treatment, fire hazard, silviculture
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
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Fight, Roger D.; Barbour, James R. 2005. Financial
analysis of fuel treatments. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-GTR-662. Portland, OR: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Research Station. 20 p.
Abstract: This paper discusses the My Fuel Treatment
Planner software to show the effect treatment variables have on the cost and net revenue from fire hazard
14
reduction treatments in dry forest types of the western
United States. The study was meant to help design a
hazard reduction treatment with cost estimation of four
ground-based systems, four cable systems, and two helicopter systems.
Keywords: financial analysis, silviculture, fire,
prescriptions, economics, fuel treatments
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
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Fire Science Digest. 2009. Making biomass pay: obstacles and opportunities. Joint Fire Science Program,
issue 6. Available: http://www.firescience.gov/Digest/
FSdigest6.pdf.
Abstract: Getting woody biomass from the forest to
the consumer is economically and logistically difficult,
and efforts to make biomass utilization profitable have
been disappointing so far. Joint Fire Science Programfunded researchers have found that, while there is no
recipe for building a successful economy around forest
biomass, certain elements are essential: commitment
and budget support from land-management agency
leaders, processing and transportation infrastructure,
developed or potential markets, and the ability of community members to work together. The researchers’
findings give land managers and community leaders a
basis for assessing whether biomass utilization can be
successful in their communities.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy market, land
management
Geographic relevance: United States
•
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Forest Guild. 2008. Woody biomass removal case
studies. Santa Fe, NM: Forest Guild. Available: http://
biomass.forestguild.org.
Abstract: These case studies show that all aspects of
woody biomass removals, from markets to mechanization, are evolving. This report identifies the building blocks for successful biomass projects–including
public involvement, partnerships with contractors, and
judicious mechanization of harvesting operations–that
are present in the management of many forests across
the country.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy market, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: United States and Alaska
•
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USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Forest Resources Association. 2007a. Adding a chipper to a treelength system for biomass collection.
Technical Release 07-R-3. Rockville, MD. Available:
http://www.forestresources.org.
Abstract: Forest Resources Association partnered with
Langdale Industries of Valdosta, Georgia, to evaluate
the performance of a tree-length Southern pine operation that added a small Conehead 565 chipper to chip
material otherwise left in the woods. Three treatments
were evaluated: in one treatment there was no attempt
to harvest and chip unmerchantable material, but the
other two treatments included unmerchantable material chipping. The crew produced an average of 8 loads
of roundwood per day in the chipper treatments and 9
loads per day in the conventional treatments. A load of
chips was produced for every 5 and 18 loads of roundwood in chipper treatments.
Keywords: biomass, chipper
Geographic relevance: Georgia
•
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Forest Resources Association. 2007b. Chipping biomass: a challenge in first thinnings. Technical Release
07-R-32. Rockville, MD. Available: http://www.
forestresources.org.
Abstract: Forest Resources Association partnered with
Langdale Industries of Valdosta, Georgia, to evaluate
the performance of a tree-length Southern pine operation that added a small Conehead 570 chipper to chip
material otherwise left in the woods. Two treatments
were evaluated: a clearcut and a first thinning. The
clearcut removed around 65 tons per acre of roundwood compared to 20 tons per acre in the first thinning.
If only limbs and tops were chipped, the volumes per
acre of biomass chips were similar: 3.8 tons per acre in
the clearcut and 3.0 tons per acre in the thinning. When
understory was also chipped, the volumes of biomass
chips differed significantly. The clearcut produced 10.8
tons per acre when limbs, tops, and understory were
chipped, compared to 20.0 tons per acre with this treatment in the first thinning.
Keywords: biomass, chipper
Geographic relevance: Georgia
•
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Forest Resources Association. 2008a. Gathering
and transporting hogfuel from logging slash.
Technical Release 08-R-28. Rockville, MD. Available:
http://www.forestresources.org.
Abstract: This paper provides a brief description of how
an Idaho logging contractor has developed an innovative
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
collection and transportation method for gathering scattered logging slash and then processing and concentrating it into volumes more easily accessed by chip vans.
Maneuverable, high-sided farm trucks with modified,
easily latched rear gates collect the processed slash as
the grinder moves along the road and then transport the
material to a nearby road intersection or other location
where typical 53-foot quad-axle chip vans can more efficiently turn themselves around and be loaded. A frontend loader fills each van with 8 to 12 loads.
Keywords: biomass, grinder, chip van
Geographic relevance: Idaho
•
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Forest Resources Association. 2008b. New sizing
head for processing slash piles. Technical Release
08-R-29. Rockville, MD. Available: http://www.
forestresources.org.
Abstract: Working with neighboring industrial forest landowners, Grays Harbor Paper in Hoquiam,
Washington, has developed a new processor head to
help secure additional hogfuel from existing logging
slash piles. The processing head consists of a brush
grapple with one chain saw mounted on each side,
configured so that an operator can control each independently. When the operator picks up a full grapple of
slash, he or she can trim the material sticking out at either side, creating shorter length stems and, ultimately,
a denser material that is ready to transport.
Keywords: biomass, forest engineering, processor
Geographic relevance: Washington
•
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Fresco, Nancy; Chapin, Stuart F., III. 2009.
Assessing the potential for conversion to biomass
fuels in interior Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-RP-579.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 56 p.
Abstract: The feasibility of switching from fossil fuels
to wood energy in rural Alaskan villages in forested
regions of interior Alaska were assessed in this study.
This analysis demonstrated that conversion to biomass
fuels is economically viable and socially beneficial for
many villages across interior Alaska. Modeling results
based on recent data on rural energy use, demographics, economics, and forest dynamics indicated that
the installation costs of biomass systems would be recouped within 10 years for at least 21 communities in
the region. In addition, results showed that all but the
largest remote communities could meet all their electrical demand and some heating needs with a sustainable
15
harvest of biomass within a radius of 10 km of the
village. Biomass conversion also offers potential social benefits of providing local employment, retaining
money locally, and reducing the risk of catastrophic
wildfire near human habitation.
Keywords: biomass fuel, carbon offset, interior
Alaska, wood energy
Geographic relevance: Alaska
•
••••
Fried, J.S.; Christensen, G.; Weyermann, D.;
Barbour, R.J.; Fight, R.; Hiserote, B.; Pinjuv, G.
2005. Modeling opportunities and feasibility of
siting wood-fired electrical generating facilities to
facilitate landscape-scale fuel treatment with FIA
BioSum. In: Bevers, Michael; Barrett, Tara M., comps.
Systems analysis in forest resources: Proceedings of
the 2003 Symposium; 2003 October 7-9; Stevenson,
WA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-656. Portland, OR:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station: 195-204.
Abstract: The FIA BioSum modeling framework that
incorporates Forest Inventory and Analysis plot data, a
transportation cost model, a treatment cost accounting
module, a log valuation model, and a crown fire hazard
evaluator was applied to a 28 million-acre study area of
western Oregon and northern California. It was shown
that with four 50 MW biomass-fueled power plants
strategically distributed over the study area, up to 5.3
million acres could be effectively treated with net revenue of $2.6 billion, a merchantable yield of 9.5 billion
cubic feet, and a biomass yield of 79 million green tons
if net-revenue maximizing fuel treatments are selected.
Keywords: FIA, biomass, bioenergy
Geographic relevance: Western Oregon and northern
California
•
••••
Gan, Jianbang; Smith, C.T. 2007. Co-benefits of
utilizing logging residues for bioenergy production: The case for East Texas, USA. Biomass and
Bioenergy. 31(9): 623-630.
Abstract: This study evaluated the co-benefits associated
with utilizing logging residues for electricity production in
East Texas, USA. The benefits evaluated included the value of carbon dioxide emissions displaced due to substituting logging residues for coal in power generation, reductions in site preparation costs during forest regeneration,
and creation of jobs and income in local communities.
Based on the 2004 Forest Inventory Analysis data and a 70
percent biomass recovery rate, annual recoverable logging
16
residues in East Texas were estimated at 1.3 megatons
(dry). These residues, if used for electricity production,
would displace about 2.44 megatons of carbon dioxide.
Removing logging residues would also save $200 to $250
per hectare in site preparation costs. Input-output modeling revealed that logging residue procurement results in
about 1340 new jobs created and $215 million in valueadded generated annually.
Keywords: forest residues, carbon value, site preparation
costs, community impact, electricity
Geographic relevance: Texas
••
•••
Gibson, L. 2007. WMSP economic assessment.
Conducted for WMSP multi-party monitoring FAO
2001. Global forest resources assessment. Forestry Paper
140. Rome, Italy: 75-80.
Abstract: The goal of this paper was to look into the
Healthy Forests Initiative to find the economic impacts on
the timber harvesting and processing industry in Arizona’s
White Mountain Region. The goal of the study was to
obtain a factual and critical baseline that quantitatively
describes changes in firms in the forest industries in the
Region and that point out new ways that the area might
capitalize on current and potential industry for more economic benefit from the forest cluster.
Keywords: HFRI, biomass
Geographic relevance: Arizona
••
•••
Gingras, J-F. 1995. Harvesting small trees and forest
residues. Biomass and Bioenergy. 9 (1-5): 153-160.
Abstract: This report summarizes the progress achieved
under the auspices of the activity “Harvesting small trees
and forest residues” during 1992 to 1994. The work included literature reviews to assess potentially recoverable material as a function of harvesting system, analysis
of factors affecting chipping quality and productivity, a
comparison of firewood processing technologies, small
tree and residue harvesting method reviews, a description
of some prototype combination machines for recovering
roundwood and forest biomass, and an update on multipletree handling harvester head development in the Nordic
countries.
Keywords: harvesting, residues, forest biomass,
firewood, multiple-tree handling
Geographic relevance: Canada, Finland, Norway,
United Kingdom, and Sweden
••
•••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Gonsior, Michael J. 1979. Outlook for new harvesting technology. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 113-146.
Abstract: This paper analyzes harvesting as well as
its role in the total forest management picture. Models
are presented for testing the sensitivity of total management cost and the harvesting components of cost
to alternative silvicultural, utilization, and other forest
management objectives. These models were used to
discern opportunities for new harvesting technology.
Keywords: logging systems, timber harvesting, forest
management, cost modeling, new technology
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
Grushecky, Shawn T.; Wang, Jingxin; McGill,
David W. 2007. Influence of site characteristics
and costs of extraction and trucking on logging
residue utilization in southern West Virginia. Forest
Products Journal. 57 (7/8): 63-67.
Abstract: In this study, the authors investigated the relationship between logging residue accumulations and
site characteristics on 70 timber harvests in southern
West Virginia. The average overall weight of wood
residue remaining after timber harvest in the 14-county
region was 10.4 tons per acre. Scenarios of residue extraction and trucking indicated a cost range of $58.20
per cunit or $94.30 per million board feet (MBF) to
$193.10 per cunit ($312.80 per MBF). These results
suggest that extracting residues to the landing during
harvesting would be most cost-effective. Likewise, the
use of grapple skidders and appropriate loading and
trucking equipment would be more economical than
other systems modeled.
Keywords: biomass, logging residue, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: West Virginia
•
••••
Hall, Richard B. 2008. Woody bioenergy systems in the United States. In: Zalesny, Ronald S.,
Jr.; Mitchell, Rob; Richardson, Jim, eds. Biofuels,
bioenergy, and bioproducts from sustainable agricultural and forest crops: Proceedings of the short
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
rotation crops international conference; 2008 August
19-20; Bloomington, MN. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-31.
Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 18.
Abstract: This paper describes how most wood bioenergy crop systems in the United States are still in the
early stages of development, with a wide variety of approaches under test in different regions of the country.
In the United States, dedicated wood biomass cropland
is expected to increase to more than 2 million hectares
with an average production rate of 18 tons per hectare.
Another 334 million dry tons per year can come from
forest residues and wood wastes. This short paper provides a few examples.
Keywords: adoption impediments, cultural systems,
Populus, Salix, yields
Geographic relevance: United States (New York,
Pacific Northwest, and Minnesota)
•
••••
Hampton, H.M.; Sesnie, S.E.; Dickson, B.G.;
Rundall, J.M.; Sisk, T.D; Snider, G.B.; Bailey, J.D.
2008. Analysis of small-diameter wood supply in
northern Arizona. Forest Ecosystem Restoration
Analysis Project, Center for Environmental Sciences
and Education. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona
University. 210 p.
Abstract: This report describes how forest products
businesses are likely to play a key role in achieving
forest management activities to restore fire-adapted
ponderosa pine ecosystems in northern Arizona by
reducing treatment costs and providing economic opportunities through harvesting, processing, and selling
wood products. A 20-member working group was put
together to identify a level of forest thinning treatments
as well as potential wood supply from restoration byproducts in northern Arizona. Study participants developed up-to-date, remote sensing-based forest structure
data layers to inform the development of treatment
scenarios and to estimate wood volume. If mechanical
thinning occurred on 41 percent of the landscape analyzed, a total of 850 million cubic feet of wood byproducts from tree boles alone and an additional 8 million
green tons from branches and other tree crown biomass
would be available.
Keywords: biomass, treatment cost, GIS
Geographic relevance: Northern Arizona
•
••••
17
Han, H.; Halbrook, J.; Pan, F. 2008. Economic evaluation of a roll-off trucking system removing forest
biomass resulting from shaded fuelbreak treatments. Submitted to U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Eureka, CA. Arcata, CA: Humboldt
State University. 28 p.
Abstract: This study shows that mechanical removal
of slash has not been successfully implemented in
many areas due to limited accessibility to sites and
the high costs associated with slash collection and
transportation. To address these issues, a roll-off truck
paired with a small skid-steer loader was used to collect and transport slash to a centralized processing site
where slash was ground as hogfuel for energy production. Financial analysis indicated that contractors can
receive high rates of return on their invested capital after accounting for inflation and income taxes, but limited work opportunities are a concern for contractors.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy, fuel treatment, forest
fires, roll-off containers
Geographic relevance: Northern California
•
••••
Han, Han-Sup; Lee, Harry W.; Johnson, Leonard
R.; Folk, Richard L.; Gorman, Thomas M. 2002.
Economic feasibility of small wood harvesting and
utilization on the Boise National Forest—Cascade,
Idaho City, Emmett Ranger Districts. Moscow, ID:
University of Idaho, College of Natural Resources,
Department of Forest Products. 61 p.
Abstract: This report discusses opportunities for biomass energy in southwest Idaho, looking at the amount
of biomass available and potential costs and economic
feasibility of harvesting small-diameter trees. Biomass
in this report is classified into three different potential
sources: tops, limbs, and small stems (slash) generated
from harvesting larger commercial timber; the volume
generated from thinning younger stands; and chips,
shavings, and sawdust generated from traditional manufacturing processes.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Idaho
•
••••
Han, Han-Sup; Lee, Harry W.; Johnson, Leonard.
2004. Economic feasibility of an integrated harvesting system for small-diameter trees in southwest
Idaho. Forest Products Journal. 54 (2): 21-27.
Abstract: Considered in this article is the economic
feasibility of small wood thinning and utilization
18
in order to reduce the risk of wildfire in the Interior
Northwest of the United States. The major factors influencing economic feasibility were forest harvesting
methods used, road accessibility and conditions, hauling distances to processing facilities, and the market
price of thinning materials. This article also includes
a detailed discussion of tree volume and potential
product recovery in (roundwood/sawlog, clean chip,
biomass fuel) with respect to a variety of harvesting methods (stump-to-truck, skyline, helicopter, and
mechanized whole-tree) and their associated economic
considerations.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest, transportation
Geographic relevance: Idaho
•
••••
Hardy, Colin C. 1998. Guidelines for estimating
volume, biomass, and smoke production for piled
slash. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-364. Portland, OR:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. 28 p.
Abstract: Guidelines in the form of a six-step approach are provided for estimating volumes, oven-dry
mass, consumption, and particulate matter emissions
for piled logging debris. Seven stylized pile shapes and
their associated geometric volume formulae are used
to estimate gross pile volumes. The gross volumes are
then reduced to net wood volume by applying an appropriate wood-to-pile volume packing ratio. Next,
the oven-dry mass of the pile is determined by using
the wood density, or a weighted-average of two wood
densities, for any of 14 tree species commonly piled
and burned in the western United States. Finally, the
percentage of biomass consumed is multiplied by an
appropriate emission factor to determine the mass of
particulate matter (PM; PM10 and PM2.5) produced
from the burned pile. These estimates can be extended
to represent multiple piles, or multiple groups of similar piles, to estimate the particulate emissions from an
entire burn project.
Keywords: fuel, emissions, piled slash, smoke
management
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Hartsough, Bruce R. 1989. Harvesting small stems
and forest residues in the pacific southwestern
United States. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the
International Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989
June 5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
100-107.
Abstract: At the time of this paper, most forest residues were too expensive to recover but some materials were being chipped at the roadside. This paper describes biomass-powered generating facilities and the
sources of materials for the plants in California at the
time it was produced.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy power plant, chipper
Geographic relevance: California
•
••••
Hartsough, Bruce R.; Stokes, Bryce J. 1990.
Comparison and feasibility of North American
methods for harvesting small trees and residues
for energy. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the
International Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 workshop: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1990
May 28; Copenhagen, Denmark. Auburn, AL: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern
Forest Experiment Station: 31-40.
Abstract: In this study, a database of North American
harvesting systems was developed. Parameters for
each system were site, material and product characteristics, equipment mix, and production rate. Onto-truck
and delivered costs per green tonne and breakeven oil
prices were developed using standard costing methods.
Systems costs were compared over the ranges of piece
size, volume per unit area removed, capital/labor ratio,
and other variables. Feasibilities of various systems
were also compared.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy, timber harvest
Geographic location: North America
•
••••
Hartsough, Bruce R.; Drews, Erik S.; McNell,
Joseph F.; Durston, Thomas A.; Stokes, Bryce J.
1997. Comparison of mechanized systems for thinning ponderosa pine stands and mixed conifer
stands. Forest Products Journal. 47(11/12): 59-68.
Abstract: This article presents a comparative study of
three systems used for thinning pine plantations and
mixed conifer stands: whole-tree methods, cut-tolength systems, and hybrid systems. All three produced
small sawlogs and fuel chips. Time-motion data were
collected to predict cost per unit volume.
Keywords: biomass, time-and-motion
Geographic relevance: California
•
Hartsough, Bruce R.; Zhang, Xiaoshan; Fight,
Roger D. 2001. Harvesting cost model for small
trees in natural stands in the interior northwest.
Forest Products Journal. 51(4): 54-70.
Abstract: Data from numerous published studies were
combined to estimate the costs of harvesting small
trees in natural stands in the Interior Northwest of
North America. This article discusses cost estimates
for harvesting small trees in natural stands. The cost
relationships for six harvesting systems were modeled.
Specifically, four harvesting methods for gentle terrain
were discussed (manual log-length, manual whole-tree,
mechanized whole-tree, mechanized cut-to-length systems), and two harvesting methods for steeper terrain
were discussed (manual log-length and mechanized
cut-to-length systems).
Keywords: biomass, harvest costs
Geographic relevance: Inland Northwest United
States
•
••••
Hazel, Dennis W.; Bardon, Robert E. 2008.
Evaluating wood energy users in North Carolina
and the potential for using logging chips to expand
wood fuel use. Forest Products Journal. 58(5): 34-39.
Abstract: A survey to characterize the extent and
nature of commercial-scale wood energy in North
Carolina was sent to 200 primary wood-processing,
secondary wood-manufacturing, and nonwood-processing facilities known to have used wood fuels in
2004. Ninety-four percent of responding facilities estimated their energy savings were 40 percent or greater
after using wood energy instead of fossil fuels. Twelve
percent of facilities were generating electricity and 22
percent expressed interest in exploring the feasibility
of generating electricity. Results suggest most wood
residues produced by wood-processing facilities in
North Carolina are being used as fuel. Thus, expansion
of wood energy must be based on use of logging chips
or municipal woodwastes. The main constraints found
for using logging chips as a fuel were price, moisture,
dirt, and chip size. Facilities that purchase wood residues for fuel indicated a willingness to purchase logging chips at similar prices in the future.
Keywords: biomass, wood energy
Geographic relevance: North Carolina
•
••••
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
19
Henley, John W. 1979. Technical and economic
aspects of harvesting dead lodgepole pine for energy. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities
for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains:
Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30;
Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
213-215.
Abstract: This study highlights the results of a study
of the economic feasibility of harvesting dead lodgepole pine for fuel and products. Costs, production
rates, and recoverable wood volumes were obtained
from a three-month study of a whole-tree logging operation in which dead lodgepole was harvested for fuel
and products.
Keywords: lodgepole pine, harvesting, energy,
residues
Geographic relevance: Oregon
•
••••
Host, John R. 1979. Low capital investment logging
systems. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities
for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains:
Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30;
Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
97-111.
Abstract: This report, part of a larger study of factors
affecting the utilization of small trees, deals with the
impact of capital investment on logging productivity. Equipment selling price is not an indicator of machine productivity. Translated into machine production
costs, which do not include any wages, supervision,
or overhead; it cost 12 to 48 cents to skid each piece,
with higher costs associated with higher priced skidders. Ten skidders and 15 yarders were studied. The
selling price of these machines ranged from $72,000
to $240,000. Yarding costs varied directly with selling price and ranged from $1.10 to $4.30 per piece and
$5.77 to $23.90 per cunit.
Keywords: capital productivity, logging production,
logging costs, yarding, skidding
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
Howard, James. 1978. A technique for predicting
logging residue volumes in the Douglas-fir region.
Res. Pap. PNW-235. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of
20
Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest
and Range Experiment Station. 14 p.
Abstract: This report presents the findings of a study
for determining the feasibility of predicting the volume
of logging residue on clearcuts prior to harvesting. Data
were collected from 160 clearcuts on USDOI Bureau
of Land Management and USDA National Forest lands
in western Oregon and western Washington. Multiple
regression techniques were used to develop equations
relating preharvest stand and economic characteristics
to measured residue volumes. The regression procedure
resulted in the development of individual equations for
each of four Bureau of Land Management Districts in
western Oregon. Separate equations were also derived
for the National Forests in Oregon and Washington.
Keywords: residue measurements, clearcutting
systems, computation, Oregon, Washington
Geographic relevance: Pacific Northwest (Oregon
and Washington)
•
••••
Howard, James O. 1979. Wood for energy in the
Pacific Northwest: An overview. Gen. Tech. Rep.
PNW-GTR-094. Portland, OR: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Research Station. 28 p.
Abstract: The first section describes fuel values and
significant processes used to generate various energy
products from wood. Physical, technical, and economic availability of the wood resource is discussed in the
second section. The paper concludes with an outline
of some critical problems in handling wood and some
socioeconomic factors that impact the production of
energy from wood.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy, wood utilization,
Pacific Northwest
Geographic relevance: Pacific Northwest
•
••••
Hunter, M.E.; Shepperd, W.D.; Lentile, J.E.;
Lundquist, J.E.; Andreu, M.G.; Butler, J.L.; Smith,
F.W. 2007. A comprehensive guide to fuels treatment practices for ponderosa pine in the Black
Hills, Colorado Front Range, and Southwest. Gen.
Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-198. Fort Collins, CO: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky
Mountain Research Station. 93 p.
Abstract: This paper presents recommendations
for fuels treatments in ponderosa pine forests in the
Southwest, Colorado Front Range, and Black Hills of
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
South Dakota stemming from a synthesis of existing
knowledge in the peer-reviewed literature and discussions with fuels treatment practitioners. Specific treatments; the circumstances under which they can be applied; treatment effects; and recommendations related
to where, how, and how often fuels treatments may be
prescribed to achieve desired outcomes are described.
Keywords: southwest, Black Hills, ponderosa pine,
wildfire, forest thinning, prescribed fire
Geographic relevance: Southwest United States,
Colorado Front Range, and South Dakota Black
Hills
•
••••
Hurteau, M.D.; Koch, G.W.; Hungate, B.A. 2008.
Carbon protection and fire risk reduction: toward a
full accounting of forest carbon offsets. Frontiers in
Ecology and the Environment. 6(9): 493-498.
Abstract: This study looked into the carbon sequestering abilities of forests, and researchers found that
policies in place promoted avoidable carbon releases
and discouraged actions that would actually increase
long-term carbon storage. After stand-replacing catastrophic fires moved through an area, the study found
that thinning the area and implementing prescribed
burns would have reduced the carbon dioxide release
from live tree biomass by as much as 98 percent.
Keywords: biomass, carbon, prescribed fire
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Hurteau, Matthew; North, Malcolm. 2009. Fuel
treatment effects on tree-based forest carbon storage and emissions under modeled wildfire scenarios. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 7(8):
409-414.
Abstract: This paper provides results of modeling the
effects of eight different fuel treatments on tree-based
carbon (C) storage and release over a century, with and
without wildfire. Model runs show that after a century of
growth without wildfire, the control stored the most C.
However, when wildfire was included in the model, the
control had the largest total C emission and largest reduction in live-tree-based C stocks. In model runs including
wildfire, the final amount of tree-based C sequestered
was most affected by the stand structure initially produced by the different fuel treatments. In wildfire-prone
forests, tree-based C stocks were best protected by fuel
treatments that produced a low-density stand structure
dominated by large, fire resistant pines.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Keywords: carbon, wildfire, fuel treatments
Geographic relevance: Sierra Nevada (California)
•
••••
Ince, Peter J.; Henley, John W.; Grantham, John B.;
Hunt, Douglas L. 1984. Costs of harvesting beetlemilled lodgepole pine in eastern Oregon. Gen. Tech.
Rep. PNW-GTR-165. Portland, OR: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest
Research Station. 32 p.
Abstract: The cost of harvesting and recovering roundwood logs and whole-tree chips from small-diameter
lodgepole pine infested by mountain pine beetle was
studied in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon in
1979. The average cost of producing chips was $31.30
per ton, wet, delivered 50 miles from harvest sites. A
gross energy balance indicates that energy required by
harvesting was about 3.4 percent of the gross energy
content of the delivered products.
Keywords: logging enterprise costs, lodgepole pine,
wood utilization, energy, insect damage, forest
products, mountain pine beetle
Geographic relevance: Oregon
•
••••
Jenkins, Jennifer C.; Chojnacky, David C.; Heath,
Linda S.; Birdsey, Richard A. 2003. National scale
biomass estimators for United States tree species.
Forest Science. 49: 12-35.
Abstract: This report compiled all available diameterbased allometric regression equations for estimating
total aboveground and component biomass, defined in
dry weight terms, for trees in the United States. A modified meta-analysis based on the published equations
to develop a set of consistent, national-scale, aboveground biomass regression equations for U.S. species
was implemented. Equations for predicting biomass of
tree components were developed as proportions of total aboveground biomass for hardwood and softwood
groups. This analysis represents the first major effort to
compile and analyze all available biomass literature in
a consistent, national-scale framework.
Keywords: allometric equations, forest biomass,
forest inventory, global carbon cycle
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
21
Johansson, J.; Liss, J.; Gullberg, T.; Bjorheden,
R. 2006. Transport and handling of forest energy
bundles—advantages and problems. Biomass and
Bioenergy. 30(4): 334-341.
Abstract: This study shows that bundles (especially if
dry) are cheaper to transport than fuel chips in road
transport bins. The useful cargo space is the limiting factor for trucks when transporting dry material.
Transport cost decreased until the moisture content
reached the critical levels: below 40.9 percent for
chips in road transport bins and below 44.7 percent for
bundles on timber truck. However, there are also other
advantages with a dryer material.
Keywords: bundle, forest fuel, main hauling,
terminal, timber truck, road transport, road
transport bins, transport cost, wood chips
Geographic location: Sweden
•
••••
Johnson, Leonard R. 1989. Recovery of woods residues in the Intermountain Region. In: Stokes, B.J.,
ed. Proceedings of the International Energy Agency,
task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting small trees
and forest residues; 1989 June 5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern
Forest Experiment Station: 11-31.
Abstract: At the time of this paper, it was found that
residue recovery operations in the Intermountain
Region were mostly experimental, as mill residue supplies were adequate for hogfuel demand. However, it
was recognized that future wood fiber supplies and
environmental concerns would provide incentives and
markets for more residue recovery from the woods.
This paper summarizes residue recovery research
projects using a variety of equipment. Cost results are
provided.
Keywords: biomass, residues, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and
Washington
•
••••
Johnson, L. 2002. Adapting conventional harvesting equipment to small diameter stands—The Fritz
Experiments. In: Baumgartner, D.M.; Johnson, L.R.;
DePuit, E.J., comps. and eds. Small diameter timber:
resource management, manufacturing, and markets;
2002 February 25-27; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA:
Washington State University Cooperative Extension.
MISC0509. 268 p.
22
Abstract: In this study, two units (one on steep slopes
and one on gentle slopes) were harvested using variations to conventional harvesting systems in northeastern Washington. On the steep slope unit, cut-to-length
processing and forwarding were observed in smalldiameter timber. Adjacent stands were harvested using
the cut-to-length processor and a feller-buncher but
were transported to the landing with a cable yarder.
On the gentle slope units, cut-to-length harvesting at
40-foot trail spacing was compared to whole-tree harvesting. Harvesting costs on the gentle slope units were
significantly less than on the steep slopes. Whole-tree
harvesting was the least costly system. On steep slopes,
the lowest costs were observed with the cut-to-length
processor and forwarder, followed by the costs of cable
yarding and bunched logs uphill. The processing and
bunching provided by the cut-to-length processor appeared to improve production of the cable yarder when
handling small timber.
Keywords: cable-yarding, cut-to-length, whole-tree
harvesting, small timber harvesting
Geographic relevance: Washington
•
••••
Johnson, Maxine C. 1979. Residue utilization and
the regional economy. In: Harvesting and utilization
opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 289-292.
Abstract: This paper describes the state of the wood
products industry and the economy of western Montana
in the late 1970s. Forty to 45 percent of the earnings
in western Montana’s basic or export industries at the
time came from the wood products and paper industries. The author believed the future of forest industries
in Montana depended mostly upon Montana’s ability
to compete in the national market and upon the availability of raw materials. The author also believed that
increased residue use may be Montana’s only chance
of maintaining the forest industry at or near the level at
the time this report was published.
Keywords: residues utilization, timber availability,
Montana
Geographic relevance: Rocky Mountain Region and
Montana
•
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Johnson, Morris C.; Peterson, David L. 2005. Forest
fuel treatments in western North America: Merging
silvicultural and fire management. The Forestry
Chronicle. 81(3): 365-368.
Abstract: In order to accomplish complex and multiple management objectives related to forest structure,
fuels, and fire disturbance, silviculture and fire management must be effectively integrated in science and
practice. The authors linked scientific and management
tools to develop an analytical approach that allows resource managers to quantify and evaluate the effectiveness of alternative fuel treatments in dry interior forests
of western North America.
Keywords: fire behavior, fire hazard, fuel treatments,
silviculture
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Keegan, Charles E., III. 1979. The economic availability of forest residue in the northern Rocky
Mountains: a preliminary analysis. In: Harvesting
and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the
northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings
1979; November 28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech.
Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 55-63.
Abstract: The goal of this project was to estimate the
cost of harvesting and transporting forest residues to
processing centers in the northern Rocky Mountains.
Regionwide estimates were to be made based on the
detailed analyses of the volumes and types of forest
residues available to selected individual manufacturing
centers. The results of the analysis of the first manufacturing center are presented in this paper. The initial study area selected was Lincoln County, Montana,
with Libby, Montana, as the processing center. It appears from the analysis that substantial volumes of logging residue material would be available at a cost that
would allow for its use in fuel and reconstituted wood
fiber products as well as solid wood products.
Keywords: residue availability, residue utilization,
residue cost
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
••••
Keegan, C.E.; Niccolucci, M.J.; Fiedler, C.E.; Jones,
J.G.; Regel, R.W. 2002. Harvest cost collection approaches and associated equations for restoration
treatments on National Forests. Forest Products
Journal. 52(7/8): 96-99.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Abstract: This article provides several harvest cost
estimation methods for forest managers. Methods
discussed include elements of stump-to-truck timber
harvest cost estimation methods in ecosystem restoration prescriptions. Particular attention is given to cost
estimation models for tractor and skyline systems in
Montana with additional focus on cost variances incurred at different tree diameters and skidding/yarding
distances.
Keywords: fuel treatments, harvest costs
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
••••
Keegan, Charles, III; Fiedler, Carl E.; Stewart,
Fred J. 1995. Cost of timber harvest under traditional and “new forestry” silvicultural prescriptions. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 10(1):
36-42.
Abstract: Harvest costs were estimated for New
Forestry silvicultural prescriptions designed for application on National Forest lands in western Montana.
Estimates were derived using an expert opinion format
and were compared using constant dollars with actual
1991 costs based on more traditional prescriptions.
Costs were developed for three major logging systems
(tractor with hand-felling, tractor with mechanical-felling, and uphill skyline with hand-felling) and four major stand types (lodgepole pine, mature ponderosa pine/
Douglas-fir, second-growth pine/fir, and mixed conifer). Average harvest costs for New Forestry prescriptions ranged from no increase to 48 percent ($72 per
million board feet [MBF]) higher. In light of stumpage
price increases of >$200 per MBF since 1991, these
increased costs should be a minor factor in determining
the feasibility of future timber harvest.
Keywords: silviculture, harvest costs, logging
systems
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
••••
Kellogg, L.D.; Bettinger, P. 1994. Thinning productivity and cost for a mechanized cut-to-length
system in the Northwest Pacific coast region of the
USA. Journal of Forest Engineering. 5(2): 43-54.
Abstract: This production study of the single-grip harvester and forwarder combination focused on delayfree productive machine hour rates in a second growth
thinning operation in western Oregon. Rates of production of “marked by forester trees” and trees “selected
by machine operator” are discussed as well as specific
23
techniques of forwarder operation in relation to site
conditions.
Keywords: mechanized logging, single-grip
harvester, forwarder, logging cost, thinning
productivity
Geographic relevance: Pacific Northwest (Oregon)
•
••••
Kelsey, Rick G.; Shafizadeh, Fred. 1979. Chemical
characteristics of wood residues and implications
for utilization. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 203-221.
Abstract: In the Northern Rocky Mountains, where
dry or cold conditions predominate, woody residues
remain sound without visual signs of decomposition
for many years. The chemical composition of this
weathered material does not change significantly and
it can be utilized like greenwood. Since wood and
woody residues are heterogeneous, there are two basic approaches to its chemical utilization: (1) whole
wood processing and (2) separation of the heterogeneous components followed by processing. The
chemical utilization of woody residues is almost limitless, the major barrier being economics rather than
technology.
Keywords: residue utilization, wood composition
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
Kerstetter, James D. 1979. Review of biomass gasification. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities
for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains:
Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30;
Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 223-236.
Abstract: This paper reviews the topic of biomass air
gasifiers. The gasification process chemistry is outlined and the operating characteristics of two types of
gasifiers are presented. A few typical applications are
discussed and the economics for a particular system
are presented in comparison with the costs of natural gas. Finally, the appendix gives a list of biomass
research, demonstration projects and manufacturers.
24
Keywords: gasification, biomass fuel
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Kirkland, Larry A.; Steinhagen, H. Peter; Campbell,
Alton G. 1991. The University of Idaho wood-fired
boiler: A case study. Forest Products Journal. 41(6):
54-56.
Abstract: The University of Idaho converted its campus steam generating plant from natural gas to wood
residue fuel. The combustion system typically burned
chipped or hogged wood fuel 2 inches or less at 35 to
50 percent moisture content (wet basis). Pre-dried fuel
was used initially but the fraction of fines caused operating and emissions problems. High quality, low moisture content fuel purchased in the summer was blended
with wet hogfuel during the winter when steam loads
were high. The wood-fired unit net fuel cost savings of
several hundred thousand dollars a year.
Keywords: biomass, hogfuel, biomass boiler
Geographic relevance: Idaho
•
••••
Klepac, John; Rummer, Bob; Thompson, Jason.
2006. Evaluation of a cut-to-length system implementing fuel reduction treatments on the Coconino
National Forest in Arizona. In: Chung, W.; Han, H.S.,
eds. The 29th council on forest engineering conference,
Coer d’Alene, ID: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Research Station: 405-414.
Abstract: Time-and-motion-derived production and
costs were estimated for a cut-to-length system while
implementing fuel reduction treatments in two stands
on the Coconino National Forest in Arizona. Product
recovery and fire behavior within each stand were also
examined. Time-and-motion data collected revealed
the harvester produced 33 cubic feet per productive
machine hour while harvesting biomass. Biomass
unit costs were $9.62 per cubic foot while harvesting
biomass.
Keywords: fuel reduction, time-and-motion, timber
harvest
Geographic relevance: Arizona
•
••••
Lambert, Michael B. 1989. Harvesting small stems
and forest residues in the Pacific Northwestern
United States. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the
International Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
June 5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
90-99.
Abstract: This paper addresses the imbalance of unused resources, costs of onsite fuel treatment, electrical
power demands, technology and economic deficiencies
in harvesting and transportation, and the shrinking average size of trees being harvested. In this paper, two
examples of integrated harvesting systems that produce energy wood and emphasize decisive allocation
of the entire above-ground tree biomass are discussed.
The processing systems and reasons for their approach
are also discussed.
Keywords: biomass, harvesting systems, wood
energy
Geographic relevance: Pacific Northwest
•
••••
Leenhouts, Bill. 1998. Assessment of biomass burning in the conterminous United States. [Online].
Conservation Ecology. 2(1). Available: http://www.
consecol.org/vol2/iss1/art1.
Abstract: Wildland fire has been an integral part of
the landscape of the conterminous United States for
millennia. Analysis of contemporary and pre-industrial
conditions, using potential natural vegetation, satellite
imagery, and ecological fire regime information, shows
that wildland fires burned 35 to 86 by 106 Mha annually in the pre-industrial era, consuming 530 to 1230 Tg
of biomass. At present, in comparison, 5 to 7 Mha per
year burn, consuming 77 to 189 Tg of biomass annually. For each era, 11 biomass (wildland and agricultural)
burning emissions were estimated and differences of
similar magnitude were found. Estimates of contemporary fossil fuel emissions are also provided for comparison. Atmospheric, climatic, social, and ecological system effects from the decrease in area burned, biomass
consumed, and emissions produced are discussed.
Keywords: air quality, biomass burning, climate
change, conterminous United States, emission
estimates, fire regimes, pre-industrial conditions,
prescribed burning, wildland fire.
Geographic relevance: Continental United States
•
••••
Leicht, Richard E. 1979. Intermountain Region
wood utilization and wood energy application program. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities
for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains:
Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30;
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
217-221.
Abstract: In 1978, the USDA Forest Service initiated a National Wood Utilization and Wood Energy
Application Program to focus attention on application
of existing and developing technology. In this paper,
the mission and goals of this program are discussed.
Additionally, problems such as access, economic feasibility, and long-term guarantees are discussed. The
benefits and hazards of utilizing forest residues are
summarized and the paper closes with mention of the
USDA Forest Service and Regional commitment and
the future opportunities (at the time the paper was written) for wood energy.
Keywords: wood energy, wood residues, firewood,
wood utilization
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
Loeffler, Dan; Calkin, David E.; Silverstein, Robin
P. 2006. Estimating volumes and costs of forest biomass in western Montana using forest inventory
and geospatial data. Forest Products Journal. 56(6):
31-37.
Abstract: This report studied the feasibility of using
biomass for renewable energy production as an alternative to onsite burning. Due to the relatively low value
of biomass, accurate estimates of volumes and costs
of collection and transport are necessary if investment
in this type of renewable energy production will be
possible. Through the use of forest inventory data, remotely sensed data, and spatial data of Ravalli County
in Western Montana, it was determined that 12 to 14
green tons per acre of biomass are potentially available
for biomass energy production at a reasonable delivered cost. A spatial framework for estimating biomass
volumes and costs is established in this article utilizing
publicly available forest inventory and remotely sensed
data for Ravalli County, Montana. This study identified
67,000 acres of forestland where a fuel reduction treatment could potentially deliver renewable biomass to
the county at reasonable delivered costs.
Keywords: biomass, harvest costs, biomass
availability
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
••••
25
Lowell, Eini; Larson, Debra; Rummer, Robert;
Becker, Dennis. 2005. In-woods decision making of
utilization opportunities to lower costs of fire hazard
reduction treatments. Joint Fire Science Program:
Project #01-1-2-03. Boise, ID. Available: http://www.
firescience.gov.
Abstract: The result of this research is an accumulation of information on harvest costs and product values necessary for identifying economic thresholds of
fuels reduction projects. This information was used to
develop a Windows-based, public domain financial/
engineering software program called the Harvest CostRevenue (HCR) Estimator that can be used to evaluate
stand-level economic thresholds for harvesting smalldiameter ponderosa pine in the southwestern United
States. The HCR Estimator was developed for a variety
of users including logging contractors and forest planners. Its purpose is to identify costs of fuel reduction
treatments and evaluate in-woods decisionmaking regarding tree selection, residuals left onsite, and product
suitability for regionally based wood markets.
Keywords: biomass, harvest costs, logging
Geographic relevance: Arizona
•
••••
Lowell, E.C.; Becker, D.R.; Rummer, R.; Larson,
D.; Wadleigh L. 2008. An integrated approach to
evaluating the economic costs of wildfire hazard
reduction through wood utilization opportunities
in the southwestern United States. Forest Science.
54(3): 273-283.
Abstract: This paper describes the development of an
integrated wildfire fuels reduction system from silvicultural prescription through tree selection, harvesting,
in-woods processing, transport, and market selection.
Data on harvest equipment productivity, lumber recovery, and net profit (loss) for different levels of fuels reduction treatments in small-diameter ponderosa
pine were collected from four 20-acre sites in northern
Arizona. These data were used in the development of
the Harvest Cost-Revenue Estimator, a financial and
engineering software program.
Keywords: ponderosa pine, wildfire fuel reduction,
financial analysis, harvest cost-revenue estimator
Geographic relevance: Northern Arizona
•
26
••••
Lowery, David P. 1979. Extended use of residue for
conventional solid wood products. In: Harvesting
and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the
northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings
1979; November 28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech.
Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 181-189.
Abstract: There is no inherent difference between
the wood from dead trees and green trees. Solid wood
product studies have indicated that dead trees can be
used for lumber, house logs, and posts and poles, although the amount of usable lumber is usually lower
for dead trees than for green trees. Dead trees may be
preferred for house logs, posts, and poles; however, extra care is required in selecting and processing these
products.
Keywords: dead tree utilization, dead tree lumber,
posts and poles, lodgepole pine, western white pine
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
MacDonald, A.J. 2009. Assessment of economically
accessible biomass. FP Innovations Technical Report,
Quebec. 2 p.
Abstract: FP Innovations calculated the amount of
forest biomass generated by timber harvesting operations on Vancouver Island and the south coast mainland. Field measurements related the volume of roadside residues to the volume of harvested merchantable
logs in a factor called the biomass ratio. Roadside residue volumes for the entire study area were calculated
by applying the biomass ratio. Comminution and transportation costs were calculated, and volume reductions
were made to account for accessibility and transportation costs.
Keywords: biomass, inventory, residue, cost,
roadside, dispersed
Geographic relevance: Vancouver Island and
southwestern Canada
•
••••
Maloney, T.M. 1979. Particle and fiber building
products from residue raw material. In: Harvesting
and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the
northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings
1979; November 28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech.
Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 171-179.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Abstract: This paper covers the definitions of the
composition and composite materials, provides a brief
history of this segment of the forest products industry,
describes types of building materials that have been
produced or are possible to produce, discusses past developments, and presents the role of forest residue raw
materials. Considerable research has been conducted
on the use of dead standing trees of western white pine
and lodgepole pine for use in various composition
board materials. Economic analyses have shown that
there is no particular cost penalties associated with the
use of the dead material in comparison with standard
green material after the raw material has been delivered to the plant site.
Keywords: residue utilization, building materials
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
Manfredo, Michael J.; Fishbein, Martin; Hass,
Glenn E.; Watson, Alan E. 1990. Attitudes toward
prescribed fire policies. Journal of Forestry 88(7):
19-23.
Abstract: This article discusses social considerations
with respect to public wildland forest fire policy. Social
attitudes, beliefs, and behavioral intentions of wildland
fire are described as well as the public’s knowledge of
the effects of fire. This study details those social issues
with regard to the “let burn” policy and the 1988 fires
in Yellowstone National Park.
Keywords: biomass, prescribed fire, wildland fire,
social science
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Mason, C.L.; Lippke, B.R.; Zobrist, K.W.; Bloxton,
T.D., Jr.; Ceder, K.R.; Comnick, J.M.; McCarter,
J.B.; Rogers, H.K. 2006. Investments in fuel removals to avoid forest fires result in substantial benefits.
Journal of Forestry. 104(1): 27.
Abstract: Although large trees can be removed for
valuable products, the market value for the smaller logs
may be less than the harvest and hauling charges, resulting in a net cost for thinning operations. However, failure to remove these small logs results in the retention
of ladder fuels that support crown fires with destructive
impacts to the forest landscape. A cost/benefit analysis
broadened to include market and non-market considerations indicates that the negative impacts of crown fires
are underestimated and that the benefits of government
investments in fuel reductions are substantial.
Keywords: forest fuels, non-market values, smalldiameter logs, cost/benefit analysis, forest fires
Geographic relevance: United States
•
McIver, J.D.; Adams, P.W.; Doyal, J.A.; Drews,
E.S.; Hartsough, B.R.; Kellogg, L.D.; Niwa, C.G.;
Ottmar, R.; Peck, R.; Taratoot, M.; Torgersen, T.;
Youngblood, A. 2003. Environmental effects and
economics of mechanized logging for fuel reduction in northeastern Oregon mixed-conifer stands.
Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 18(4): 238-249.
Abstract: Fuel reduction by mechanical thinning and
removal was studied in mixed-conifer stands in northeastern Oregon. A single-grip harvester was coupled
with either a forwarder or a skyline yarding system;
and operational economics, fuel reduction, stand damage, soil disturbance, effects on soil biota, and downwoody material were measured.
Keywords: fire risk reduction, soil compaction,
skyline yarding, forwarder, single-grip harvester
Geographic relevance: Oregon
•
••••
McMichael, Marvin. 1979. Utilizing residue material in pulping. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 194-196.
Abstract: The pulp raw material shortage in 1973 and
1974 provided incentives for using whole-tree chips at
a number of pulp mills in the United States. From 1974
to the time of this paper, pulp raw materials supplies
returned to more acceptable levels, and as a result,
whole-tree chips were being used only on a limited basis. However, at the time of this paper, energy shortages provided incentives for the utilization of whole-tree
chips, and projects were underway in Montana, Idaho,
and Washington to increase the demand for waste fuel.
Keywords: residue utilization, pulping
Geographic relevance: Montana, Idaho, and
Washington
•
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
••••
••••
27
McMinn, James C.; Clark, Alexander, III. 1988.
Predicting residuals by stand condition and type of
harvest. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 12(3):
190-193.
Abstract: This paper describes how in mixed pinehardwood stands in central Georgia, the tonnage of
all trees not designated for harvest accounted for 89
percent of the variation in tonnage of standing residuals after conventional harvesting. Standing residuals
weighed 5.4 to 29.3 tons per acre after conventional
harvests, but an additional 2 to 13 tons of broken and
uprooted material and 1 to 8 tons of hardwood tops hindered recovery. A whole-tree system, for which small
stems were harvested first, recovered 16 to 43 tons per
acre, which was 56 to 94 percent more material than
would have been left standing after conventional harvest of the same areas.
Keywords: biomass, logging, whole-tree harvest
Geographic relevance: Central Georgia
•
••••
McMinn, James C.; Clark, Alexander, III. 1989.
Influence of whole-tree versus conventional harvesting on recoverable biomass in pine-hardwood
mixtures. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the
International Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989
June 5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
32-43.
Abstract: Seven areas in Georgia were harvested with
a conventional system and three with a whole-tree
system. Pre- and post-harvest sampling of all standing woody biomass provided base data for estimating
standing and downed residuals by initial stand conditions and harvest system. Relationships were developed
to permit estimation of recoverable stand components.
Keywords: biomass, hardwood, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Central Georgia
•
••••
Meyer, Vernon W. 1979. Harvesting efficiency: A
historical perspective. In: Harvesting and utilization
opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 67-76.
28
Abstract: This paper briefly describes the history of
the logging industry in the United States. Specifically,
harvesting technology and methods are discussed.
Many significant and far-reaching changes have taken
place in the logging industry since its inception in the
mid-seventeenth century. But technological advances
aimed at improved timber utilization have not come
about quickly. It has been an incremental and continuous process.
Keywords: logging, harvesting, history
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Miller, D.; Straka, T.; Stokes, B.; Watson, W. 1987.
Productivity and cost of conventional understory
biomass harvesting systems. Forest Products Journal.
37(5): 39-43.
Abstract: In this study, conventional harvesting equipment was tested for removing forest understory biomass
for use as fuel. Two types of systems were tested: a onepass system and a two-pass system. In the one-pass system,
the energywood and pulpwood were harvested simultaneously. In the two-pass system, the energywood was harvested in a first pass through the stand, and the pulpwood
was harvested in a second pass. Equations were developed
to estimate the cost per green ton of energywood. The twopass system exhibited high harvesting costs when biomass amounts were low, but costs moderated as biomass
amounts increased. The one-pass system harvesting costs
were not sensitive to the amount of energywood present.
Keywords: biomass, logging, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Southern United States
(Alabama)
••
•••
Mitchell, Dana L. 2005. Assessment of current technologies for communition of forest residues. ASAE Paper
05-8024. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural
Engineers. 9 p.
Abstract: This paper provides an overview of existing
literature related to the harvest, communition, and transport of forest residues. Past studies have investigated the
systems associated with biomass harvesting. Researchers
have explored whether to incorporate the biomass component with other forest product removals or to harvest it in
a separate entry. Land managers do not have the tools to
adequately assess the cost of biomass processing prior to
treatments. Handling residue can be awkward due to the
size and arrangement of the material. Dirt and rocks can
contaminate residues and cause equipment repair problems or reduced utilization of the resource. These issues
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
coupled with the problems of comparing existing production studies lead to some of the reasons why land managers
have difficulty assessing communition processing costs.
Keywords: biomass, chippers, grinders, production,
communition, forest residues, fuel, chunks
Geographic relevance: Nondescript
•
••••
Mitchell, Dana. 2008. Felling small trees with a
drive-to-tree feller-buncher. Technical Release 08-R16. Rockville, MD: Forest Resources Association, Inc.
2 p.
Abstract: Conventional forestry equipment is often used to harvest small-diameter trees. The typical
ground-based logging operation is highly mechanized,
with the most common operation using feller-bunchers,
grapple skidders, and a chipper or grinder. But these
machines may not be economical when used in precommercial or unmerchantable thinning operations
in which the number of trees to be removed per acre
is high but volume per tree is low. Published studies
commonly find that feller-buncher productivity (tons
per productive machine hour) is directly proportional
to tree diameter. As tree diameters increase, the tons
produced per hour increase, resulting in a lower cost
per unit of wood produced.
Keywords: biomass, logging, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Mitchell, Dana; Ayala, Renee, comps. 2005. Biomass
publications of the forest operations research unit: a
synthesis. [CD-ROM]. Auburn, AL: U.S. Department
of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research
Station. Available: http://www.treesearch.fs.fed.us/
pubs/20138.
Abstract: The authors of this synthesis have implemented several studies over the years, and this CDROM is a compilation of these data into a usable format. The Executive Summary contains 10 primary
research topic areas related to biomass: baling/bundling; biomass harvesting systems; biomass inventory’
chipping systems; drying, storing, transporting, and
roll splitting; economic analysis; environmental effects; individual machines; proto-type machines; short
rotation woody crop production.
Keywords: biomass, Southern Research Station,
harvest cost
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Mitchell, Dana; Gallagher, Tom. 2007. Chipping
whole trees for fuel chips: A production study.
Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 31(4): 176-180.
Abstract: This time-and-motion study determined the
productivity and costs of an in-woods chipping operation to create biomass fuel from processing whole
small-diameter trees. It was found that the cost of biomass chipping was comparable to other existing treatments such as cut-and-pile or mulching. Two different
overstocked stands were studied with the same harvesting and chipping method.
Keywords: biomass, hogfuel, harvesting, production
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Mitchell, Dana; Klepac, John. 2008. Processing
woody biomass with a modified horizontal grinder.
In: Proceedings of the 31st annual meeting of the council on forest engineering: Addressing forest engineering challenges for the future. 7 p.
Abstract: This study documents the production rate
and cost of producing woody biomass chips for use in
a power plant that has specific raw material handling
requirements. None of the samples from machines met
the specifications needed. A horizontal grinder was
modified to replace the teeth on the drum with chipping
blades in order to process whole-trees into biomass
chips that met the power plant’s size specification. The
time-and-motion study gathered data on whole-tree
processing for short and long fiber chips. The average
production rate ranged from 24.9 to 38.2 green tons per
productive machine hour. A machine rate of $161.20
per productive machine hour was calculated, resulting
in a cost of $4.22 per green ton for producing the long
fiber biomass chips.
Keywords: biomass, grinder, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Mitchell, Dana; Rummer, Bob. 2007. Processing
woody debris biomass for co-milling with pulverized coal. In: American Society Agricultural and
Biological Engineers 2007 annual international meeting; 2007 June 17-20; Minneapolis, MN. Paper No.
078049. 6 p.
Abstract: This project proposed removing small-diameter stems and unmerchantable woody material from
National Forest lands and delivering it to a coal-fired
power plant in Alabama for energy conversion. The
biomass fuel that was created in this project needed to
29
meet unique criteria that differentiate fuel chips created for the power plant from typical fuel chips. The
wood fuel was to be created from whole-tree chips and
co-milled with coal. After further review, it was determined that a cutting action, as opposed to a shearing
action, was needed to meet the raw material handling
requirements within the plant. A specially equipped
horizontal grinder was the final equipment choice.
Keywords: biomass, forest engineering, harvesting,
logging, chipper, grinder
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Mitchell, Dana; Seixas, Fernando; Klepac, John.
2008. Modified Precision-Husky progrind H-3045
for chipping biomass. Forest Operations Review.
10(4): 1-5.
Abstract: A specific size of whole-tree chip was needed to co-mill wood chips with coal. The specifications
are stringent because chips must be mixed with coal, as
opposed to a co-firing process. In a partnership involving several entities, a trial was conducted to determine
if wood chips could be created in a one-step, in-woods
process that would meet the stringent requirements of
the power plant. Precision-Husky of Leeds, Alabama,
volunteered to work with the partnership to manufacture a machine that would create the chips to the stringent specifications.
Keywords: biomass, grinder, logging cost
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Morris, G. 1999. The value of the benefits of U.S.
biomass power. NREL/SR-570 27541. Golden, CO:
National Renewable Energy Laboratory. 24 p.
Abstract: This report estimates the value of ancillary services provided by the U.S. biomass industry
in order to inform policy makers on the viability of
the biomass industry. Specifically, criteria air pollutants, greenhouse gas emissions, landfill capacity use,
forest and watershed improvement, rural employment
and economic development and energy diversity and
security of the biomass industry are discussed in detail.
Keywords: biomass, greenhouse gas, forestry
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Nicholls, David. 2009. Wood energy in Alaska—
Case study evaluations of selected facilities. Gen.
Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-793. Portland, OR: U.S.
30
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific
Northwest Research Station. 33 p.
Abstract: This case study review considers successes
and lessons learned from current wood energy systems
in Alaska, and it also considers opportunities for future
bioenergy development. Biomass resources in Alaska
are extensive and diverse, comprising millions of acres
of standing small-diameter trees, diseased or dead
trees, and trees that have low-grade timber. Biomass
products in Alaska that have potential for development
are as diverse as wood pellets, cordwood (firewood),
compost, wood-plastic composite products, and liquid
fuels.
Keywords: Alaska, biomass, bioenergy, wood energy,
renewable, cordwood, sawmill residues
Geographic relevance: Alaska
•
••••
Nicholls, David L.; Monserud, Robert A.; Dykstra,
Dennis P. 2008. A synthesis of biomass utilization
for bioenergy production in the western United
States. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-753. Portland,
OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Research Station. 48 p.
Abstract: This study examines the use of woody
residues, primarily from forest harvesting or wood
products manufacturing operations, as a feedstock for
direct-combustion bioenergy systems for electrical or
thermal power applications. Opportunities for utilizing
biomass for energy at several scales, with an emphasis
on larger scale electrical power generation at standalone facilities and on smaller scale facilities such as
governmental, educational, or other institutional facilities, are examined. Barriers that tend to inhibit bioenergy applications, including accessibility, terrain, harvesting costs, and capital costs, are identified and an
evaluation of the role of government as a catalyst in
stimulating new technologies and new uses of biomass
material is conducted.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy, fuel hazard reduction,
renewable energy, harvesting, forest products
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Nicholls, D.; Monserud, R.; Dykstra, D. 2008.
Biomass utilization for bioenergy in the western
United States. Forest Products Journal. 58(1/2): 6-16.
Abstract: This study examines the use of woody
residues, primarily from forest harvesting or wood
products manufacturing operations (and to a limited
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
degree from urban wood wastes), as a feedstock for
direct-combustion bioenergy systems for electrical or
thermal power applications. Opportunities for utilizing
biomass for energy at several different scales, with an
emphasis on larger scale electrical power generation
at stand-alone facilities and on smaller scale facilities
(thermal heating only) such as governmental, educational, or other institutional facilities, are examined.
Keywords: biomass, forest products, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
NREL. 1998. International and domestic market opportunities for biomass power, volumes I
and II. NREL/SR-570-25492. Golden, CO: National
Renewable Energy Laboratory. 155 p.
Abstract: This report examines the domestic and international markets for biopower. Domestic and foreign
markets present fundamentally different challenges to
private power developers. The domestic challenge lies
in finding economically viable opportunities for biopower. These volumes contain an outline of the state of
the U.S. biomass industry (at the time this report was
written), a discussion of the policies affecting biomass
development, a description of some demonstration
projects, and a discussion of the future direction of the
industry. The volumes then explore the relationship between biopower and the impending restructuring of the
electric power industry. The U.S. market assessment
concludes with a discussion of various technological
applications of biomass power.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy, emerging market
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Page-Dumroese, Deborah S.; Jurgensen, Martin;
Terry, Thomas. 2010. Maintaining soil productivity
during forest or biomass-to-energy thinning harvests in the western United States. Western Journal
of Applied Forestry. 25(1): 5-11.
Abstract: Forest biomass thinnings can potentially impact soil resources by altering soil physical, chemical,
and/or biological properties. This paper provides basic
recommendations and findings derived from standremoval studies to guide biomass thinnings for forest
health, fuel reduction, or energy production. The focus of these recommendations is to reduce the impact
of thinning operations on soil productivity and subsequent stand growth.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Keywords: thinning, best management practices
(BMP), site productivity, soil management
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Pan, F.; Han, H.-S.; Johnson, L.R.; Elliot, W.J. 2008.
Net energy output from harvesting small-diameter
trees using a mechanized system. Forest Products
Journal. 58(1/2): 25-30.
Abstract: This paper examines the efficiency of forest biomass used for energy. The study used net energy
ratios to compare how much energy was consumed
by mechanized harvesting systems of small-diameter
trees that were transported and used for forest biomass
energy to the amount of energy (in BTUs) the forest
biomass produced. The overall conclusion showed that
forest biomass energy had an encouraging net energy
ratio compared to other biomass sources, however increases in miles traveled and diesel fuel costs can inhibit the use of forest biomass for energy.
Keywords: biomass, energy ratio, timber harvest,
carbon
Geographic relevance: Arizona
•
••••
Parhizkar, Omid; Smith, Robert L. 2008.
Application of GIS to estimate the availability of
Virginia’s biomass residues for bioenergy production. Forest Products Journal. 58(3): 71-76.
Abstract: Forest residues are widely dispersed across
large geographical areas in Virginia, and there is little
information on the location and the quantity of these
materials. Geographic Information System (GIS) was
used in this study to identify the availability of residues from wood manufacturers, landfills, and loggers.
A graphical-mapping GIS program allowed for the location of biomass residue from those facilities and estimated the available biomass residue in each county in
Virginia. Residue information was collected through a
survey of primary and secondary wood manufacturers,
landfills, and loggers in Virginia. It was then incorporated into a GIS so that locations and quantities of various residues could be plotted.
Keywords: biomass, forest residues, GIS
Geographic relevance: Virginia
•
••••
31
Patterson, David W.; Pelkki, Matthew H.; Steele,
Phillip H. 2008. Productivity of the John Deere
slash bundler in removing in-forest residues from
pine harvest sites in the mid-South: Four case studies. Forest Products Journal. 58(7/8): 31-36.
Abstract: In the summer of 2006, the John Deere
1490D slash bundler was brought to Arkansas so that
four independent case studies could be conducted
where no previous studies on the machine had been
conducted in the South. The study sites were: a clear
cut, a second thinning, and a first thinning harvested
with conventional equipment. The fourth site was a
thinning by cut-to-length equipment. The productivity rate of the machine ranged from 60 to 78 percent.
Delays (for example, saw binding, materials handling,
and twine spools collapse) were the main problem of
the first three sites and movement was the major nonproductive element at the fourth site. The bundles can
be economically produced (based on current markets)
and they can be stored for seven to eight months.
Keywords: biomass, slash bundler
Geographic relevance: Arkansas
•
••••
Patton-Mallory, Marcia; Nelson, Richard; Skog,
Ken; Jenkins, Bryan; Parker, Nathan; Tittmann,
Peter; Hart, Quinn; Gray, Ed; Schmidt, Anneliese;
Gordon, Gayle. 2008. Strategic assessment of biofuels potential for the western U.S. In: Zalesny, Ronald
S., Jr.; Mitchell, Rob; Richardson, Jim, eds. Biofuels,
bioenergy, and bioproducts from sustainable agricultural and forest crops: Proceedings of the short rotation crops international conference; 2008 August 1920; Bloomington, MN. Gen. Tech. Rep. NRS-P-31.
Newtown Square, PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Northern Research Station: 42.
Abstract: This is a short summary of an effort to address the technical feasibility of producing biofuels in
the western United States. This paper contains spatially explicit biomass resource supply curves, a detailed
transportation network model for the region, and costs
for converting biomass to refined biofuels. This paper
also presents biofuel supply curves that estimate potential future supplies of liquid fuels from biomass in
the western United States as a function of market price.
Keywords: biofuels, agriculture residues, wood
residues, thinnings, grease, herbaceous energy
crops, biomass supply estimates, network analysis
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
32
••••
Perez-Verdin, Gustavo; Grebner, Donald L.; Sun,
Changyou; Munn, Ian A.; Schultz, Emily B.;
Matney, Thomas G. 2009. Woody biomass availability for bioethanol conversion in Mississippi.
Biomass and Bioenergy. 33(3): 492-503.
Abstract: This study evaluated woody biomass from
logging residues, small-diameter trees, mill residues,
and urban waste as a feedstock for cellulosic ethanol
conversion in Mississippi. Supply and cost of four
woody biomass sources were derived from Forest
Inventory Analysis information, a recent forest inventory conducted by the Mississippi Institute for Forest
Inventory, and primary production costs. According
to the authors’ analysis, about 4.0 million dry tons of
woody biomass are available for production of up to
1.2 billion liters of ethanol each year in Mississippi.
The feedstock consists of 69 percent logging residues,
21 percent small-diameter trees, 7 percent urban waste,
and 3 percent mill residues. Of the total, 3.1 million dry
tons (930 million liters of ethanol) can be produced for
$34 per dry ton or less. Woody biomass from smalldiameter trees is more expensive than other sources of
biomass. Transportation costs accounted for the majority of total production costs.
Keywords: logging residues, mill residues,
Mississippi, production costs, small-diameter trees,
urban waste
Geographic relevance: Mississippi
•
••••
Perez-Verdin, Gustavo; Grebner, Donald L.; Munn,
Ian A.; Sun, Changyou; Grado, Stephen C. 2008.
Economic impacts of woody biomass utilization for
bioenergy in Mississippi. Forest Products Journal.
58(11): 75-83.
Abstract: This study examined the economic impacts
of woody biomass utilization for bioenergy conversion
in Mississippi. Analysis of economic impacts was organized around three groups of events: (1) recovery of
logging and thinning residues, (2) electricity generation from co-firing systems, and (3) construction and
operation of biofuel facilities. Results showed that the
single activity of recovery of all available logging and
thinning residues would create a considerable number
of jobs and stimulate the rural economy with more resources coming to local industries and households. Due
to construction and operation costs, economic impacts
of biofuels were higher than biopower. However, biofuels reported the lowest employment and value-added
multipliers of all three groups.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Keywords: biomass, slash, bioenergy, economic
development
Geographic relevance: Mississippi
•
••••
Peterson, David L.; Johnson, Morris C.; Agee,
James K.; Jain, Theresa B.; McKenzie, Donald;
Reinhardt, Elizabeth D. 2005. Forest structure and
fire hazard in dry forests of the western United
States. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-628. Portland,
OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Pacific Northwest Research Station. 30 p.
Abstract: This document synthesizes the relevant scientific knowledge that can assist fuel-treatment projects
on national forests and other public lands and contribute to National Environmental Policy Act analyses and
other assessments. It was intended to support sciencebased decisionmaking for fuel management in dry forests of the western United States at the scale of forest
stands (about 1 to 200 acres). It highlights ecological
principles that need to be considered when managing
forest fuel and vegetation for specific conditions related to forest structure and fire hazard. It also provides
quantitative and qualitative guidelines for planning and
implementing fuel treatments through various silvicultural prescriptions and surface fuel treatments.
Keywords: crown fire, fire hazard, forest structure,
fuel treatments, prescribed burning, silviculture,
thinning
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Prestemon, Jeffrey P.; Abt, Karen Lee; Holmes,
Thomas P. 2002. The economic impacts of firerelated biomass reduction on government lands.
In: Baumgartner, D.M.; Johnson, L.R.; DePuit, E.J.,
comps. and eds. Proceedings: Small diameter timber:
Resource management, manufacturing, and markets;
2002 February 25-27; Spokane, WA. MISC0509.
Pullman, WA: Washington State University
Cooperative Extension. 268 p.
Abstract: This paper outlines a Joint Fire Science
Program (JFSP) funded study A national study of the
economic impacts of biomass removals to mitigate
wildfire damages on Federal, State, and private lands.
The study involves the treatment-product and cost
information provided by the Fire and fire surrogates
study, another JFSP-funded research effort. This information is combined with timber inventory information
across fire-prone regions of the United States to develop treatment supply schedules for fire-prone regions.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Using GIS and other modeling techniques, this approach quantifies the small region and broad region
supply responses to alternative scales of fire risk-related biomass reduction programs. Concurrently, information on timber product output was to be assembled
to identify product demand relationships.
Keywords: biomass, JFSP, GIS
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Puttock, G. 1995. Estimating costs for integrated
harvesting and related forest management activities. Biomass and Bioenergy. 8(2): 73-79.
Abstract: Often, the deciding factor in the economical recovery of wood fuel is its relationship with some
other objective such as stand establishment, stand improvement, or forest access. The costs and benefits
arising from these related management activities are
discussed in this article. Two different approaches to
estimating the cost of producing conventional products
and fuel wood with integrated harvesting systems are
also examined.
Keywords: forest energy, biomass, integrated
harvesting, marginal cost, joint product cost
Geographic relevance: Canada, United Kingdom,
northern Europe, and United States
•
••••
Puttock, G. 1987. The economics of collecting and
processing whole-tree chips and logging residues
for energy. Forest Products Journal. 37(8): 15-20.
Abstract: In this study, the economics of collecting
and processing whole-tree chips and logging residues
(slash and residual timber) for energy use have been
compared using data collected from four timber harvesting operations. Fuel produced from whole-tree
chips is competitive with natural gas when hauling
distances are 80 km or less. Whole-tree chips are a feasible substitute for oil when distances are less than 200
km. Logging residues are an attractive alternative to oil
at hauling distances of less than 100 km but cannot be
competitive with the lower priced fossil fuels such as
natural gas and coal.
Keywords: forest energy, biomass, integrated
harvesting, marginal cost, joint product cost
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
33
Raymond, Crystal L.; Peterson, David L. 2005. Fuel
treatments alter the effects of wildfire in a mixedevergreen forest, Oregon, USA. Canadian Journal of
Forest Research. 35: 2981-2995.
Abstract: The authors quantify the relationship between fuels and fire severity using pre-fire surface and
canopy fuel data and fire severity data after a wildfire.
Modeled fire behavior showed that thinning reduced
canopy fuels, thereby decreasing the potential for
crown fire spread. The potential for crown fire initiation
remained fairly constant despite reductions in ladder
fuels because thinning increased surface fuels, which
contributed to greater surface fire intensity. Thinning
followed by underburning reduced canopy, ladder, and
surface fuels, thereby decreasing surface fire intensity
and crown fire potential. However, crown fire is not a
prerequisite for high fire severity; damage to and mortality of overstory trees in the wildfire were extensive
despite the absence of crown fire. Mortality was most
severe in thinned treatments (80 to l00 percent), moderate in untreated stands (53 to 54 percent), and least
severe in the thinned and underburned treatment (5
percent). Thinned treatments had higher fine-fuel loading and more extensive crown scorch, suggesting that
greater consumption of fine fuels contributed to higher
tree mortality.
Keywords: biomass, fuel treatments, wildfire
Geographic relevance: Oregon
•
••••
Rawlings, C.; Rummer, R.; Seeley, C.; Thomas,
C.; Morrison, D.; Han, H.; Cheff, L.; Atkins, D.;
Graham, D.; Windell, K. 2004. A study of how to decrease the costs of collecting, processing, and transporting slash. Montana Community Development
Corporation. Missoula, MT. 21 p.
Abstract: This study compares the costs of various slash transportation systems and found a roll on/
off container system is not competitive with a regular
highway chip van unless part of that distance is inaccessible to the chip van. The roll on/off container system allows for recovery of residue from difficult-toaccess locations. There are many variables to consider
when determining the cost of hogfuel production, and
a simple spreadsheet model has been developed to help
evaluate those variables as users choose the best combination of options.
Keywords: biomass, roll on/off container, hooklift
truck, chip van
Geographic relevance: Western Montana
•
34
Robatcek, John G. 1979. The implications of improved residue utilization on timber sale activities. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities for
forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains:
Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30;
Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
269-272.
Abstract: The purpose of the paper is to discuss some
of the implications of improved residue utilization on
timber sales activities. Improved residue utilization on
timber sales requires new and innovative economic
and practical approaches on timber sales. Varying uses,
resource needs, and economic limitations complicate
the land manager’s task of salvaging this material.
Keywords: residues, utilization, economics,
complicate
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Roos, Anders; Graham, Robin L.; Hektor, Bo;
Rakos, Christian. 1999. Critical factors to bioenergy implementation. Biomass and Bioenergy. 17:
113-126.
Abstract: This paper contributes to the identification
and analysis of barriers and drivers behind bioenergy
market growth. It presents a framework for the analysis
of both existing and projected bioenergy market potential using economic concepts and models from transaction cost theory and industrial organization. The framework can be used for assessments of the potential for
market growth of different bioenergy systems by decision-makers in administration and industry. The framework is demonstrated with five cases of real bioenergy
markets: pellet residential heating in the United States,
bioenergy power in the United States, pellet residential
heating in Sweden, biomass district heating in Sweden,
and biomass district heating in Austria.
Keywords: bioenergy market, nontechnical barriers,
energy policy
Geographic relevance: United States, Sweden and
Austria
•
••••
Rummer, Robert. 2004. Forest residues bundling
project: new technology for residue removal. [CDROM]. 0451-2M25-MTDC. Missoula, MT: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Missoula
Technology Development Center.
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Abstract: This CD-ROM provides an overview of biomass issues, a determination of where bundling works
and does not, productivity and cost estimates, and an
assessment of properties and quality of bundled biomass for energy production. The objective of this project was to examine the operational performance of the
Timberjack 1490D Slash Bundler across a wide range
of conditions found on typical western United States
forests. The bundler operated for approximately two
weeks at each location to develop a productive operating environment. Stand conditions were assessed pre
and post-biomass collection. In addition, detailed data
about productivity, soil disturbance, residual stand impacts, and bundle quality were recorded.
Keywords: biomass, slash bundler
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Rummer, Bob; Klepac, John. 2003. Evaluation of
roll-off trailers in small-diameter applications. In:
Proceedings of the 2003 council of forest engineering
26th annual conference. Bar Harbor, ME: University
of Maine, New England Regional Council on Forest
Engineering. 5 p.
Abstract: This project studied the performance and costs
of an innovative wood transport system using roll-off pallet racks to facilitate handling of small-diameter thinning
material. Elemental studies defined the transport cycles,
and cost analysis compared the economics of the new system with conventional transport technology–a conventional five-axle logging truck with a shortwood trailer operating at 85 percent utilization and a conventional shortwood
trailer system operating at 30 percent utilization.
Keywords: biomass, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: New Mexico
•
••••
Sampson, George R. 1979. Evaluating in-woods
chipping feasibility. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 159-167.
Abstract: This paper presents an evaluation of the
test results and uses the results to predict the future of
in-woods chipping. Economic analysis of data from a
demonstration test showed that in-woods debarkingchipping was only marginally competitive with conventional methods of harvesting roundwood for pulp
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
chips. The future for in-woods chipping appears to be
whole-tree chipping. Cost of delivered chips may not
be much different from conventional roundwood systems unless credits are taken for increased utilization
and slash disposal.
Keywords: chipping machines, logging economics
Geographic relevance: Arizona and Colorado
•
••••
Samson, R. Neil; Smith, Megan S.; Gann, Sara B.
2001. Western forest health and biomass energy
potential. Submitted to the Oregon Office of Energy.
Alexandria, VA: The Samson Group, Inc. 53 p.
Abstract: This article discusses the need for a reduction of fuels in forest ecosystems in order to mitigate
the risk of catastrophic wildfire and the ability of the
biomass industry to play a role in managing this risk.
Generally, this article concludes that significant opportunities exist to link forest health treatments and
biomass energy production. Several obstacles to this
are discussed, including the feasibility of biomass fuel
delivery, the availability of viable biomass markets to
forest managers at a reasonable distance, and security
assurances for the initial investment in biomass production facilities. The coordination of land management and energy policy is discussed.
Keywords: biomass, biomass markets, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Western United States
(Oregon)
•
••••
Schnepf, Chris; Graham, Russell T.; Kegley, Sandy;
Jain, Theresa B. 2009. Managing organic debris
for forest health: Reconciling fire hazard, bark
beetles, wildfire, and forest nutrition needs. Pacific
Northwest Extension Publication 609. Moscow, ID:
University of Idaho. 66 p.
Abstract: This publication outlines the role of forest
organic debris (biomass) in inland northwest forests
and provides general management strategies. It helps
forest owners and those who work with them ask more
effective questions in order to plan the best treatments
strategy for each site and keep forests and wildlife
more healthy and sustainable while keeping risks from
fire and insects within acceptable limits.
Keywords: biomass, land management, wildfire, bark
beetles
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
35
Schweitzer, Dennis L. 1979. An economist’s perspective of residues. In: Harvesting and utilization
opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky
Mountains: Symposium proceedings 1979; November
28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110.
Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment
Station: 273-279.
Abstract: As the values of wood products increase,
there are more economic opportunities to utilize residues. This is true both for dead-and-down materials
and for previously unharvested stands, which together
make up the potential economic residues resource. This
report describes how a variety of research efforts were
developing the information and technology necessary
to utilize these opportunities at the time of this report.
The authors note that the key to minimizing future residues problems is to integrate residues considerations
with overall forest resource planning.
Keywords: biomass, harvest, integrated harvest
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Scott, D. Andrew; Tiarks, Allan. 2008. Dualcropping loblolly pine for biomass energy and
conventional wood products. Southern Journal of
Applied Forestry. 32(1): 33-37.
Abstract: This study explores a dual-cropping system
for southern pine bioenergy and solidwood products
that began in 1982 in Louisiana. Direct-seeding pine in
the interrows of a traditional pine plantation produced
about 10.2 Mg per ha of biomass for energy at the age
of five years but had no lasting effect on the planted
pine height, diameter, or standing volume. The system is a viable method to produce both bioenergy and
solidwood products. Herbaceous competition control
and nitrogen fertilization likely would make the system
even more productive and profitable.
Keywords: fertilization, phosphorus, competition,
stand development
Geographic relevance: Louisiana
•
••••
Sedjo, Roger A. 1997. The economics of forest-based
biomass supply. Energy Policy. 25(6): 559-566.
Abstract: This paper undertakes a preliminary exploration into the economics of generating energy from
forest-based biomass. The study assesses the feasibility
of greatly expanding the share of total energy consumption in developed countries that could be economically
36
satisfied by biomass without fiscal subsidy support
given the technologies at the time of this report and
with plausible potential technologies 10 years into the
future. The study briefly considers the environmental
effects of biomass usage compared with fossil fuels.
Since wood has uses both as fuelwood for energy and
as industrial wood for wood products, the comparative
economics of these alternative uses are examined.
Keywords: forest economics, forest-based energy
competitiveness of forest-based biomass
Geographic relevance: Worldwide
•
••••
Silverstein, Robin P.; Loeffler, Dan; Jones, J.
Greg; Calkin, Dave E.; Zuuring, Hans R.; Twer,
Martin. 2006. Biomass utilization modeling on the
Bitterroot National Forest. In: Andrews, Patricia L.;
Butler, Bret W., comps. Fuels management—How to
measure success: conference proceedings. 2006 March
28-30; Portland, OR. Proc. RMRS-P-41. Fort Collins,
CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station: 673-688.
Abstract: The potential for biomass utilization to enhance the economics of treating hazardous forest fuels was examined on the Bitterroot National Forest
and surrounding areas. Initial forest stand conditions
were identified from Forest Inventory and Analysis
data, and the Forest Vegetation Simulator was used to
simulate stand growth and development and to estimate removed volumes. Harvest and haul cost models
were used to estimate stump to mill costs. Temporal
and spatial implications of utilization were examined
to identify sustainable quantities and associated costs
based on accessibility, haul distance, flow, and quantity
of small-diameter material.
Keywords: biomass, harvest cost, GIS
Geographic relevance: Western Montana
•
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Sirois, Donald L.; Ashmore, Colin. 1986. Design
considerations for a roll crusher/splitter for woody
biomass. In: Program and abstracts: Fourth southern
biomass energy research conference; 1986 October
7-9; Athens, GA. Research University of Georgia and
TVA/Southeastern Regional Biomass Energy Program:
33.
Abstract: The principal focus of biomass harvesting in
the past has been the use of chipping systems to reduce
a wide variety of woody materials down to small pieces
for easier handling and transporting. However, chipping systems have several shortcomings that limit their
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
operational environments. For example, a conventional
chipping system might not be applicable for harvesting small-diameter trees growing in powerline rightsof-ways and energywood plantations. An alternative
to conventional methods of harvesting small-diameter
trees for energy use is roll crushing/splitting. The concept involves the crushing and splitting of small-diameter stems to expedite field drying and to facilitate
handling by producing a uniform material for baling or
modulating.
Keywords: biomass, forest engineering
Geographic relevance: Nondescript
•
••••
Sirois, Donald L.; Stokes, Bryce J. 1985. Preparation
of wood for energy use. In: Proceedings of the 5th annual solar and biomass energy workshop; 1985 April
23-25; Atlanta, GA. Tifton, GA: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Research Service: 173-174.
Abstract: This paper presents an overview of sources
and forms of raw materials for wood energy use and
the types of machines available to convert them to the
desired form for boiler fuel. Both the fuel source, or
raw material, and the combustion furnace dictate the
requirements for the processing system. Because of the
wide range of processing equipment available, systems
can be designed to meet most wood burning boiler
requirements.
Keywords: biomass, boiler, harvest system
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Skog, Kenneth E.; Barbour, James. 2006.
Estimating woody biomass supply from thinning
treatments to reduce fire hazard in the U.S. West.
In: Andrews, Patricia L.; Butler, Bret W., comps. Fuels
management—How to measure success: conference
proceedings. 2006 March 28-30; Portland, OR. Proc.
RMRS-P-41. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research
Station: 657-672.
Abstract: This paper identifies timberland areas in 12
western states where thinning treatments (1) are judged
to be needed to reduce fire hazard and (2) may “pay
for themselves” at a scale to make investment in forest
product processing a realistic option. A web-based tool,
Fuel Treatment Evaluator 3.0, is used to select highfire-hazard timberland plots from the Forest Service
Forest Inventory and Analysis Program database and
provide results of simulated thinning treatments.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Keywords: fire, fire ecology, fuels management,
woody biomass supply, thinning treatments, fire
hazard, Fuel Treatment Evaluator 3.0, Forest
Service Forest Inventory and Analysis Program
(FIA), fuel treatment market model, FTM-West
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Skog, Kenneth E., Barbour, R. James; Abt, Karen
L.; Bilek, E.M. (Ted); Burch, Frank; Fight, Roger
D.; Hugget, Robert J.; Miles, Patrick D.; Reinhardt,
Elizabeth D.; Shepperd, Wayne D. 2006. Evaluation
of silvicultural treatments and biomass use for reducing fire hazard in western states. Res. Pap. FPLRP-634. Madison, WI: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory. 29 p.
Abstract: The purpose of this report was to begin to
identify locations in the West where fire hazard reduction treatments have a potential to “pay for themselves”
at a scale in order to, over a long enough time, make investment in additional forest product processing infrastructure a reality. Treatments analyzed would treat 7.2
to 18.0 million acres, including 0.8 to 1.2 million acres
of wildland urban interface area, and would provide
169 to 640 million oven-dry tons of woody biomass
(about 55 percent of biomass would be from sawlogs).
Sixty to 70 percent of acres that were to be treated are
in California, Idaho, and Montana.
Keywords: Hazardous fuel reduction, simulation, FIA
data, biomass utilization, harvesting costs, western
states
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Skog, Kenneth E.; Rummer, Robert; Jenkins,
Bryan; Parker, Nathan; Tittman, Peter; Hart,
Quinn; Nelson, Richard; Gray, Ed; Schmidt,
Anneliese; Patton-Mallory, Marcia; Gayle, Gordon.
2009. A strategic assessment of biofuels development
in the Western States. In: McWilliams, Will; Moisen,
Gretchen; Czaplewski, Ray, comps. Forest Inventory
and Analysis (FIA) symposium 2008; October 2123 2008; Park City, UT. Proc. RMRS-P-56CD. Fort
Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest
Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 13 p.
Abstract: This paper describes the methods used to estimate forest biomass supply curves and selected overall results of the analysis, including information on all
forest and agricultural supply sources and maps that
indicate the estimated location of biofuels plants using
cellulosic feedstocks that would include forest biomass
37
feedstocks. The model developed here included information on forest biomass supply curves by county (developed using USDA Forest Service FIA data), agricultural biomass supply curves, transportation networks,
and capital and operating costs of selected conversion
technologies. Results indicate biofuels could potentially
provide between 5 and 10 percent of projected transportation fuel demand in western states with fuel price between $2.40 and $3.00 per gasoline gallon equivalence
(GGE), excluding local distribution costs and taxes. At
a target price of $2.40 per GGE, forest biomass could
supply an estimated 11 million oven dry tons per year, or
about 9 percent of total feedstock supplied.
Keywords: biofuels, agriculture residues, wood
residues, thinnings, grease, herbaceous energy
crops, biomass supply estimates, network analysis
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Smith, Douglas S. 1979. Legislation and policy influencing wood resource utilization. In: Harvesting
and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the
northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings
1979; November 28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech.
Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 281-284.
Abstract: The framework for harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues includes a number
of long standing as well as recently enacted statutes.
Air and water quality standards set forth in legislation
also have an effect on utilization opportunities. A further emerging factor pertaining to the harvesting and
utilization of the forest biomass is our land base and
its availability. Around the time of this publication, the
Senate enacted a number of bills dealing with timber
economics.
Keywords: residues utilization, forest policy,
legislation
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Snell, J.A. Kendall; Brown; James K. 1980.
Handbook for predicting residue weights of Pacific
Northwest conifers. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-103.
Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range
Experiment Station. 51 p.
Abstract: Procedures are given for estimating weights
of potential residue from Douglas-fir and western
38
hemlock. Preliminary estimates are given for six other
species. Estimates are provided in pounds per tree and
pounds per square foot of basal area for a 6- or 8-inch
top. Estimates are also separated into less than 3 inches DBH and greater than or equal to 3 inches DBH.
Tabular weigths include foliage, live and dead branchwood, and non-merchantable top.
Keywords: biomass, residue weights, conifers,
weight tables
Geographic relevance: Western Oregon and Western
Washington
•
••••
Snider, G.; Daugherty, P.J.; Wood, D. 2006. The irrationality of continued fire suppression: An avoided cost analysis of fire hazard reduction treatments
verses no treatment. Journal of Forestry. 104(8):
431-437.
Abstract: This study shows that without large-scale
implementation of fire hazard reduction treatments,
the costs of uncharacteristic crown fires in southwest
United States forests will continue to increase. The authors examined the economic rationality of continuing
this policy of emphasizing fire suppression activities
over restoration-based fire hazard reduction treatments.
They also compared treatment plus fire suppression
costs to the cost of fire suppression without treatments
over 40 years for southwestern forests. This avoidedcost analysis estimates the amount one could invest in
treatments to avoid the future cost of fire suppression.
Keywords: economics, restoration, avoided cost, fire,
fire hazard reduction
Geographic relevance: Southwest United States
•
••••
Stephenson, Everett H. 1989. Flail debarking: a historical perspective and review of current technology. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the International
Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium:
Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989 June
5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
162-169.
Abstract: This paper provides an overview of the concept, development, and technology of flail debarkers.
Keywords: biomass, debarker
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Stokes, Bryce J. 1992. Harvesting small trees and
forest residues. Biomass and Bioenergy. 2(1-6):
131-147.
Abstract: Eight countries collaborated and shared
technical information on the harvesting of small
trees and forest residues in a three-year program.
Proceedings and reports from workshops and reviews
are summarized in a review of activities and harvesting
systems of the participating countries. Four databases
were developed for harvesting and transportation of
these materials.
Keywords: harvesting, residues, forest biomass,
transportation, databases
Geographic relevance: Canada, Italy, New Zealand,
Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, United Kingdom,
and United States
•
••••
Stokes, Bryce J.; Frederick, Douglas J.; Curtin,
Dennis T. 1986. Field trials of a short-rotation biomass feller buncher and selected harvesting systems. Biomass. 11(3): 185-204. Great Britain: Elsevier
Applied Science Publishers, Ltd.
Abstract: Sycamore has high promise as a short-rotation
fiber and energy species on better quality sites in the southeastern United States. There have been few studies on operational harvesting systems for hardwood plantations. A
continuous-speed felling and bunching prototype machine
was evaluated in harvesting a three-year-old, short-rotation sycamore plantation. A small tractor, grapple skidder,
and large chipper were evaluated along with the prototype
machine as complete harvesting systems. Prediction equations, production rates, and costs were developed for each
component of the systems.
Keywords: biomass, yield, production, harvesting
Geographic relevance: Southeast United States
•
••••
Stokes, Bryce J.; McDonald, Timothy P.; Kelley,
Tyrone. 1993. Transpirational drying and costs
for transporting woody biomass—A preliminary
review. In: Proceedings of IEA/BA task IX, activity 6: Transport and handling; 1994 May 16-25; New
Brunswick, Canada. Aberdeen, United Kingdom:
Aberdeen University: 76-91.
Abstract: High transport costs are a factor to consider in the use of forest residues for fuel. Costs can be
reduced by increasing haul capacities, reducing high
moisture contents, and improving trucking efficiency.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
The literature for transpirational drying and the economics of hauling woody biomass is summarized here.
Some additional, unpublished roundwood and chip
drying test results are also included.
Keywords: biomass, forest fuel, transportation
Geographic relevance: Worldwide
•
••••
Stokes, Bryce J.; Sirois, Donald L. 1989. Recovery
of forest residues in the southern United States. In:
Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the International Energy
Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting
small trees and forest residues; 1989 June 5-7; Auburn,
AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southern Forest Experiment Station: 32-43.
Abstract: This paper describes how in the mid-1970s,
accelerated price increases for petroleum products forced
rapid exploration into and adoption of alternative energy
sources. A viable option for the forest industry was the recovery of woody biomass from unmerchantable trees and
logging residues. The authors note that several studies estimated that an abundance of such forest materials existed
in the southeastern United States and how other research
concentrated on economical methods of converting forest
residues into energy for industrial uses.
Keywords: biomass, forest products
Geographic relevance: Southern United States
•
••••
Stokes, Bryce J.; Sirois, D.L. 1986. Evaluation of
chipper-forwarder biomass harvesting concept.
In: Proceedings of the southern forest biomass workshop; 1985 June 11-14; Gainesville, FL: University of
Florida: 62-67.
Abstract: A chipper-forwarder system offers an alternative for biomass harvesting. Components are a small feller
buncher for felling and bunching, and a chipper-forwarder
that chips at the pile and transports the chips to roadside. In
a case study on a mixed pine and hardwood site in Georgia
after conventional harvesting, production rates and cost estimates for a prototype chipper-forwarder were developed.
At forwarding distance of 153 meters, the cost of chipping
and forwarding was estimated to be between $15 and $25
per dry tone, depending on initial investment assumptions.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest, chipper
Geographic relevance: Georgia
•
••••
39
Stokes, B.J.; Sirois, D.L.; Woodfin, S.L. 1987.
Preliminary evaluation of steel-roller round baler
for woody biomass baling. In: Proceedings of the 9th
annual meeting of the southern forest biomass workshop; 1987 June 8-11; Biloxi, MS. Mississippi State,
MS: Mississippi State University, Department of
Forestry: 167-174.
Abstract: A round hay baler with little modification
was used to bale small-diameter, crushed trees. The
trees had been crushed using a series of compression
rollers. Bale cores had to be developed by hand before
the baler became self-feeding. Windrowed material
was packed off the ground by the baler system after a
core had been developed.
Keywords: biomass, baler
Geographic relevance: Southeast United States
•
••••
Stokes, Bryce J.; Watson, William F.; Savelle, I.
Winston. 1985. Alternate biomass harvesting systems using conventional equipment. In: Saucier,
Joseph R., ed. Proceedings of the 1984 southern forest
biomass workshop; June 5-7; Athens, GA. Asheville,
NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southern Research Station: 111-114.
Abstract: Three harvesting methods were field tested
in two stand types. Costs and stand utilization rates
were developed for a conventional harvesting system
without energywood recovery, a two-pass roundwood
and energywood system, and a one-pass system that
harvests roundwood and energywood. The systems
harvested 20-acre test blocks in two pine pulpwood
plantations and in a natural pine sawtimber stand. The
one-pass method resulted in the least cost and better
utilization of biomass residue.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Stokes, Bryce J.; Watson, William F.; Sirois, Donald
L. 1987. Factors affecting power requirements
for chipping whole trees. ASAE Paper 87-6012.
St. Joseph, MI: American Society of Agricultural
Engineers. 10 p.
Abstract: This study was performed to evaluate some
of the factors that affect the power requirements for
chipping whole-trees in the South for energywood.
Results are presented for the effects of tree size, moisture content, and species on power requirements. Large
40
and small in-woods disk chippers were used in field
tests to determine the power requirements for chipping
whole-trees. Hardwood and softwood species were
evaluated over a range of diameter classes and moisture contents.
Keywords: power, chipper, whole-tree
Geographic relevance: Southern United States
•
••••
Sturos, John A. 1979. Outlook and opportunity for
whole-tree chip quality improvement. In: Harvesting
and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the
northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium proceedings
1979; November 28-30; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech.
Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of
Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and
Range Experiment Station: 147-158.
Abstract: Three processes were developed in the
United States, one in Canada, and one in Finland for
improving the quality of whole-tree and forest residue
chips. They had potential application individually or in
combination. Two of them were applied commercially
by the pulp and paper industry. The author believed at
the time of this report that application of these processes, coupled with integrated utilization of the various
output wood, bark, and foliage fractions for fiber and
energy products, would promote the recovery of more
forest residues.
Keywords: bark removal, residues, biomass,
utilization, foliage removal
Geographic relevance: United States, Canada, and
Finland
•
••••
Sturos, John A.; Thompson, Michael A. 1989.
Harvesting small stems and residues in the Lake
States. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the
International Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989
June 5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
108-117.
Abstract: This paper presents an overview of several
harvesting machines and systems considered new at the
time this paper was produced. The systems were being
applied in the hopes of improving profitability from
harvesting small stems and residues. Productivities
and costs typical to the Lake States Region are also
discussed.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Michigan, Wisconsin, and
Minnesota
•
••••
Ter-Mikaelian, Michael T.; Korzukhin, Michael
D. 1997. Biomass equations for sixty-five North
American tree species. Forest Ecology and
Management. 97: 1-24.
Abstract: The paper presents a comprehensive review
of the biomass equations for 65 North American tree
species. All equations are of the form M = aDb, where
M is the oven-dry weight of the biomass component of
a tree (kg), D is DBH (cm), and a and b are parameters.
Equations for the following tree components were included in the review: total aboveground biomass, stem
wood, stem bark, total stem (wood and bark), foliage,
and branches (wood and bark). A total of 803 equations are presented with the range of DBH values of
the sample, sample size, coefficient of determination
R2, standard error of the estimate, fitting method used
to estimate the parameters a and b, correction factor
for a bias introduced by logarithmic transformation of
the data, site index and geographic location of the sampled stand(s), and a reference to the paper in which the
equation (or the data) was published. The review is a
unique source of equations that can be used to estimate
tree biomass and/or to study the variation of biomass
components for a tree species.
Keywords: above-ground biomass, stemwood
biomass, bark biomass, foliage biomass, branch
biomass, dry weight
Geographic relevance: North America
•
••••
Thompson, Jason. 2003. Productivity of a tree
length harvesting system thinning ponderosa pine
in Northern Arizona. In: Proceedings of the 2003
Council of Forest Engineering 26th annual conference.
Bar Harbor, Maine: University of Maine, New England
Regional Council on Forest Engineering. 5 p.
Abstract: A productivity study was performed on a
tree length harvesting system thinning of a ponderosa pine stand in Flagstaff, Arizona, to investigate opportunities to lower the costs of fire hazard reduction
treatments in overstocked stands. The harvesting system consisted of a Hydro-Ax 421 E rubber tired fellerbuncher with a shear head, a Caterpillar 528 grapple
skidder, and a Denharco 4400 stroke delimber mounted on a Caterpillar 320C base. Detailed time study was
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
used to gather productivity data for all machines in the
harvesting system. This paper presents the results of
the study, including a description of the stand, study
methods, and productivity equations for each machine.
Keywords: biomass, thinning, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Arizona
•
••••
USDA Forest Service. 2005. A strategic assessment
of forest biomass and fuel reduction treatments in
western states. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-149.
Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station.
17 p.
Abstract: This article assesses how forest biomass can
be utilized with implementation of fuel reduction and
ecosystem restoration objectives of the National Fire
Plan in the western United States. Variables of both
public and private forests are assessed in the West, including standing tree volume with additional data on
stem, limb, and top volumes. Operational systems to
conduct the treatments and their effects on the ecosystem as well as utilization opportunities and market implications are also discussed.
Keywords: assessment, biomass, fuel reduction,
inventory
Geographic relevance: Western United States
•
••••
Van Hooser, Dwane D. 1979. Resources evaluation
and residue: where we’ve been and where we’re
going. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities
for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains:
Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30;
Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
27-32.
Abstract: This paper outlines how Resources
Evaluation has treated forest residue in the past and
what changes were made at the time this paper was
produced to more adequately address forest residue.
This paper also presents a consideration of what changes will have to be made in to provide basic input into a
forest residue decision model.
Keywords: forest inventory, utilization, residues
Geographic relevance: Rocky Mountain Region
•
••••
41
Van Rees, Ken C.J. 2008. Wood bioenergy systems in Canada. In: Zalesny, Ronald S., Jr.; Mitchell,
Rob; Richardson, Jim, eds. Biofuels, bioenergy, and
bioproducts from sustainable agricultural and forest
crops: Proceedings of the short rotation crops international conference; 2008 August 19-20; Bloomington,
MN. Proc. NRS-P-31. Newtown Square, PA: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern
Research Station: 62.
Abstract: This paper discusses obstacles to woody biomass production in Canadian prairies. One of the firest
obstacles for producer involvement in bioenergy systems
is changing the farmer mindset that growing a crop for
longer than one year is not an impediment to earning
money. At one time or another, most farmers in the
prairies have removed woody biomass on their farms
to increase their capacity for growing crops and are reluctant to go back into “woody” systems. However, the
newer generation of farmers may be less reluctant to
do so because of an ability to take more risks, greater
environmental consciousness, and better education.
Keywords: woody biomass, farmer perceptions,
sustainability
Geographic relevance: Canada
•
••••
Wade, Dale D. 1969. Estimating slash quantity from
standing loblolly pine. Res. Note. SE-125. Asheville,
NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Southeastern Forest Experiment Station. 4 p.
Abstract: No significant differences were found between variances of two prediction equations for estimating loblolly pine crown weight from DBH. One
equation was developed from trees on the Georgia
Piedmont and the other from trees on the South
Carolina Coastal Plain. An equation and table are presented for estimating loblolly pine slash weights from
either cruise data or harvested cords per acre.
Keywords: biomass, slash quantity, loblolly pine
Geographic relevance: Southeast United States
(Georgia and South Carolina)
•
••••
Watson, W.F.; Miller, D.E.; Stokes, B.J.; Broussard,
M.L. 1987. Energy budget for an energywood
harvesting system. Proceedings of the southern forest biomass workshop; 1986 June 16-19; Knoxville,
TN. Muscle Shoals, AL: Tennessee Valley Authority:
113-116.
42
Abstract: The fuel and energy requirements for alternative energywood harvesting operations were determined from field operations. Comparisons were
made among the total energy requirements, including
transportation for conventional operation and one- and
two-pass energywood operations. The two-pass energywood operation required more energy per green
ton than the other operations. Transportation required
twice the energy as did the woods operations.
Keywords: biomass, bioenergy, fuel consumption,
transportation
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Watson, W.F.; Ragan, J.R.; Straka, T.J.; Stokes,
B.J. 1987. Economic analysis of potential fuelwood sources. In: Proceedings of the 1986 Society of
American Foresters national convention; 1986 October
5-8; Birmingham, AL. Bethesda, MD: Society of
American Foresters: 339-342.
Abstract: This paper compares fuelwood produced
from logging residues and energy plantations on the
basis of potential for production and expected costs at
the various levels of production. Prospects for improving the production of fuelwood for each source are also
examined.
Keywords: biomass, logging residue, bioenergy
Geographic relevance: Southern United States
•
••••
Watson, W.F.; Sabo, Robert F.; Stokes, B.J. 1986.
Productivity of in-woods chippers processing understory biomass. Proceedings of the council on forest
engineering; 1986 September 29-October 2; Mobile,
AL. Auburn, AL: Auburn University: 69-72.
Abstract: This paper presents productivity and cost
per ton predictions for two in-woods chippers (Norbark
20 and 27) where DBH, species groups, and moisture
content were varied.
Keywords: transpirational drying, chipper
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Watson, Billy; Stokes, Bryce. 1994. Cost and utilization of above ground biomass in thinning systems.
In: Proceedings of the meeting on advanced technology in forest operations: Applied technology in action;
1994 July 24-29; Portland/Corvallis, OR. Corvallis,
OR: Oregon State University: 192-201.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Abstract: Cost and utilization were compared for a
thinning operation that removed the stems as roundwood with a flail chipper operation. The flail chipper
operation recovered an additional 4.2 tons of acceptable chips per acre, which resulted in a higher return
to the site. There was little difference in the cost of
acceptable chips delivered to the digester between the
two methods of thinning.
Keywords: flail delimbing, debarking, woodlands
chipping, logging costs, thinning
Geographic relevance: Louisiana
•
••••
Watson, William F.; Stokes, Bryce J. 1989.
Harvesting small stems—A southern USA perspective. In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the
International Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium: Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989
June 5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
131-139.
Abstract: Operations that harvest small stems using conventional equipment are discussed. A typical
operation consisted of rubber-tired feller-bunchers
with shear heads, rubber-tired grapple skidders, and
in-woods chippers. The systems harvested the small
stems either in a pre-harvest, post-harvest, or integrated-harvest method. The unused forest biomass offered
forest products firms an easy substitute for the fossil
fuels being utilized at that time.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest, logging system
Geographic relevance: Southern United States
(Alabama)
•
••••
Watson, W.F.; Stokes, B.J.; Savelle, I.W. 1986.
Comparisons of two methods of harvesting biomass
for energy. Forest Products Journal. 36(4): 63-68.
Abstract: This study focused on two harvesting methods for utilizing understory biomass that were tested
against a conventional harvesting method to determine
relative costs. The conventional harvesting method removed all pine 6 inches DBH and larger and hardwood
sawlogs as tree length logs. The two intensive harvesting methods were a one-pass and a two-pass method.
In the one-pass method, all material 1 inch DBH and
larger was simultaneously harvested. With the twopass method, the energywood (same description as in
the one-pass) was harvested in a first pass through the
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
stand, and the commercial-sized wood being removed
as tree length logs was harvested in a second pass.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Windell, Keith; Bradshaw, Sunni. 2000. Understory
biomass reduction methods and equipment catalog. Tech. Rep. 0051-2826-MTDC. Missoula, MT:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Missoula Technology and Development Center.
156 p.
Abstract: This report contains the results of numerous
interviews, a field survey, and a literature search and
discusses fuel reduction equipment and methods that
have been tried in the past, those that are currently being used, and those that may warrant consideration in
the future. There is also a catalog of equipment suitable
to treat landscape areas before prescribed burns.
Keywords: biomass, collection, disposal, Douglas-fir,
fuel treatment, handling, management, ponderosa
pine, prescribed fire, residues, thinning
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Withycombe, Richard. 1979. Applications of a
cost model to northern Rocky Mountain residues. In: Harvesting and utilization opportunities
for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains:
Symposium proceedings 1979; November 28-30;
Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden,
UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
45-54.
Abstract: Whatever decisions are to be made concerning the possible use of forest residues, questions
always arise about the costs of collecting and transporting them to a place where they might be used. The
residue cost model consists of a series of seven tables,
which allow the estimation of the collection costs of
the types of residues common to the northern Rocky
Mountains. The cost tables were developed from published studies of both conventional logging and residue
collection.
Keywords: biomass, residue collection, residue
utilization
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
43
Withycombe, Richard. 1979. Wood product and
market trends influencing residue utilization. In:
Harvesting and utilization opportunities for forest residues in the northern Rocky Mountains: Symposium
proceedings 1979; November 28-30; Missoula,
MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. GTR-INT-110. Ogden, UT:
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station:
285-288.
Abstract: The potential markets for forest residues can
be classified into four primary categories. This paper
deals with each of these categories separately, and attempts to indicate some of the major influences that are
expected to change the trend of forest residue utilization for each of the potential uses. Of the four major
potential uses for forest residues, none offer any immediate prospects for large scale use. We can expect cyclical demand for residues to supplement the material
supply to the pulp and paper industry. The rising cost
of energy could generate the greatest potential demand
for residues.
Keywords: biomass, residues utilization, residue
markets
Geographic relevance: Northern Rocky Mountains
•
••••
Woodfin, Sammy; Frederick, Doug; Stokes, Bryce.
1987. Selected harvesting machines for short rotation intensive culture biomass plantations. ASAE
Paper 87-1567. St. Joseph, MI: American Society of
Agricultural Engineers. 18 p.
Abstract: Numerous harvesting machines were evaluated in a series of annual tests on stands of different
ages. Several different machines were used to harvest sycamore research plots in south Alabama. The
machines varied from manually operated devices
and conventional forestry equipment to sophisticated
prototypes. This paper documents the results of these
evaluations as well as a rationale for the evolving development of short rotation intensive culture harvesting equipment. Field tests showed a system consisting
of the Hyd-Mech FB-7 and extraction machines to be
the least costly.
Keywords: forest engineering, harvesting machinery,
woodlots
Geographic relevance: Alabama
•
••••
Wright, Clinton S.; Vihnanek, Robert E. 2009.
Estimating the biomass of hand-piled fuels for
smoke management planning. Joint Fire Science
44
Program: Project #07-2-1-57. Boise, Idaho. Available:
http://www.firescience.gov.
Abstract: Dimensions, volume, and biomass were
measured for 121 hand-constructed piles composed
primarily of coniferous and shrub/hardwood material
at sites in Washington and California. Equations using
pile dimensions, shape, and type allow users to accurately estimate the biomass of hand piles. Equations
for estimating true pile volume from simple geometric shapes and measurements of pile dimensions were
also developed to assist users who require estimates of
pile volume for regulatory reporting. Biomass and volume estimation equations are being programmed into a
web-based calculator to allow users to estimate either
value from pile dimensions.
Keywords: biomass, smoke management, pile-burn
Geographic relevance: Washington and California
•
••••
Wynsma, B.; Aubuchon, R.; Len, D.; Daugherty,
M.; Gee, E. 2007. Woody biomass utilization desk
guide. 2400-Forest Management. Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
National Technology and Development Program. 84 p.
Abstract: This paper was intended to be a reference
guide to local land managers regarding locating and
collaborating with biomass stakeholders. This document offers suggestions on how to use current National
Environmental Policy Act planning tools to start up and
maintain a biomass-utilization program and how to use
cost-effective sale preparation techniques, including
the preparation of timber sale, stewardship, and service
contracts to provide increased supplies of biomass. The
viability of offsetting the costs of hazardous fuels and
restoration treatments by utilizing small-diameter trees
and other biomass is also discussed.
Keywords: biomass, NEPA, land management,
timber sale
Geographic relevance: United States
•
••••
Yepsen, Rhodes. 2008. Forest thinning strategies for
biomass utilization. BioCycle. 49(12): 32-36.
Abstract: This study looks at several projects that are
testing new equipment and management practices that
treat slash as a marketable commodity. Projects are often combined with research on profitability and best
practices to educate loggers to utilize slash from their
operations and to promote use of woody biomass.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest, bioenergy, slash
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Geographic relevance: Montana
•
••••
Young, T.M.; Ostermeier, D.M.; Mulach, R.W.;
Thomas, J.D.; Brooks, R.T., Jr. 1989. A simulation
of harvesting systems for economic supply models.
In: Stokes, B.J., ed. Proceedings of the International
Energy Agency, task VI, activity 3 symposium:
Harvesting small trees and forest residues; 1989 June
5-7; Auburn, AL: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Forest Service, Southern Forest Experiment Station:
170-183.
Abstract: A harvesting simulation model was developed to estimate average total costs of whole-tree chip
harvesting as a function of equipment configurations
and stand characteristics. The harvesting simulation
model was part of a larger economic model used to
estimate the economic availability of whole-tree chips
for 62 potential energy plants in southeastern United
States. The harvesting model described in this paper
was used to select a balanced harvesting system for 45
possible stand types.
Keywords: biomass, timber harvest, harvest cost
Geographic relevance: Southeast United States
•
••••
Young, Timothy M.; Ostermeier, David M.; Thomas,
J. Daniel; Brooks, Robert T. 1991. The economic
availability of woody biomass for the southeastern
United States. Bioresource Technology. 37: 7-15.
Abstract: In this paper, a deterministic model was developed to estimate the average total cost of producing
whole-tree chips for energy production. The model estimated harvest, transportation, stumpage costs, and total costs for 62 potential plant sites in southeast United
States. The model used a spatial analytical component
and GIS to locate potential sites.
Keywords: woody biomass, energy production,
deterministic model, economic availability, average
total cost.
Geographic relevance: Southeast United States
•
••••
Young, Timothy M.; Perdue, James H.; Hartsell,
Andy; Abt, Robert C.; Hodges, Donald; Rials,
Timothy G. 2009. A real-time web-based optimal Biomass Site Assessment Tool (BioSAT):
Module 1. An economic assessment of mill residues
for the southern U.S. In: McWilliams, Will; Moisen,
Gretchen; Czaplewski, Ray, comps. Forest Inventory
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
and Analysis (FIA) symposium 2008; October 21-23;
Park City, UT. Proc. RMRS-P-56CD. Fort Collins,
CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Rocky Mountain Research Station. 22 p.
Abstract: In this paper, optimal locations for biomass
facilities that use mill residues are identified for 13
southern U.S. states using the Biomass Site Assessment
Tool (BioSAT) model. The top 20 areas identified in the
study region are located in south Mississippi, southeast
Georgia, southeast Oklahoma, southwest Alabama,
and east Texas. Costs in these areas range from $25 to
$38 per dry ton for up to 1.5 million annual dry tons.
Additional research on BioSAT is forthcoming for 33
U.S. states. These studies will include more types of
woody and agricultural biomass (for example, logging
residues, pulpwood, and corn stover). Additional cost
models for transportation such as truck combinations
with rail and barge will be components of BioSAT.
Keywords: biomass, economic availability, siting
model, BioSAT, mill residues
Geographic relevance: Southern and eastern United
States
•
••••
Zalesny, Ronald S., Jr.; Mitchell, Rob; Richardson,
Jim, eds. 2008. Biofuels, bioenergy, and bioproducts from sustainable agricultural and forest crops:
Proceedings of the short rotation crops international conference. Proc. NRS-P-31. Newtown Square,
PA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Northern Research Station. 76 p.
Abstract: There is a substantial global need for development of biofuels, bioenergy, and bioproducts systems and technologies that can economically and sustainably produce short rotation crops across multiple
temporal and spatial scales. Topic areas in these proceedings were biological and environmental; and economic and policy implications of sustainable biofuels,
bioenergy, and bioproducts. Presentations addressed
anatomy, breeding, genetics, physiology, ecosystem
services, phytotechnologies, and production systems,
as well as conversion technologies, costs and operational feasibility, environmental impacts and review,
social factors, policy issues, and regional logistics.
Keywords: biodiesel, biodiversity, biomass,
conservation, crop improvement, ethanol,
lignocellulosics, productivity, sustainability, yield
Geographic relevance: United States
45
Section 3: Log and Mill Residue Price Information
Forest Products Industry Research Program,
Bureau of Business and Economic Research,
The University of Montana—Missoula
Annotation: The Forest Products Industry Research
Program monitors industry operations in Montana,
Idaho, Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and
Wyoming, as well as the Pacific Coast states of Alaska,
California, Oregon, and Washington. Research focuses
on the forest products industry’s size, diversity, and
economic impacts, providing quantitative evaluations
of timber sources and use as raw material. Additionally,
mill production and sales; utilization of mill residues;
associated employment and payrolls; and the industry’s role in regional, State, and local economies are
evaluated.
Available: http://www.bber.umt.edu.
Contact: Todd Morgan: todd.morgan@business.umt.
edu
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
National Forestry Association and National
Woodland Owners Association (LogPrice.com)
Annotation: This website provides internet links to
log prices for all 50 states.
Available: http://www.logprice.com.
Contact: info@logprice.com
Last updated: February 2009
•
••••
Oregon Department of Forestry
Annotation: This website provides species-specific
sawlog prices by quarter for Oregon.
Available: http://oregon.gov/ODF/STATE_
FORESTS/TIMBER_SALES/logpage.shtml.
Contact: Dan Corgan: dcorgan@odf.state.or.us
Last updated: January 2009
•
••••
Timber Mart-South
Annotation: Timber Mart-South publishes quarterly
and annual reports used by private companies, consultants, landowners, and others to assess market prices
in the southern United States. Timber Mart-South has
been surveying and reporting timber prices since 1976
and market news since 1996. Quarterly news and prices are available by subscription or by individual issue
to provide information on timber market changes in the
southern United States as well as average prices in 22
areas of the southeastern timber markets.
Available: http://www.tmart-south.com/tmart/index.
html.
Contact: Tom Harris: harris@warnell.uga.edu,
tmart@uga.edu
Last updated: Quarterly
•
USDA Forest Service Northern Region, Forest
and Rangeland Appraisal Information
Annotation: The Northern Region timber sale summary reports and regional accomplishments are available
on this website. Many of the reports are available on a
quarterly basis and are usually posted 20 working days
after quarter end.
Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/r1/forest_range/
timber_reports/timbersales.shtml.
Contact: USFS Northern Region: 406-329-3511
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
USDA Forest Service Southern Research
Station Timber Prices on the Web
Annotation: This website contains internet links to
timber prices, timber selling guidelines, stumpage prices, and/or delivered log prices for many states.
Available: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/econ/data/
prices.
Contact: Jeff Prestemon: jprestemon@fs.fed.us
Last updated: July 2008
•
46
••••
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
WoodPlanet
Annotation: WoodPlanet helps buyers find suppliers
and get price quotes and at the same time allows sellers to move inventory and develop new relationships
with buyers. Sourcing Service is a free service that allows buyers to locate suppliers and get price quotes
quickly and efficiently. Suppliers may take advantage
of a range of free and paid services. WoodPlanet gives
sellers of wood products new opportunities to move inventory and develop relationships with buyers.
Available: http://www.woodplanet.com/woodplanet_
home.cfm.
Contact: info@woodplanet.com, marketing@
woodplanet.com, support@woodplanet.com
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
Wood Industry Sourcebook Website
Annotation: This website provides information and
tools to forestry entrepreneurs to help them develop
new businesses, sustain existing enterprises, and develop business skills that will be necessary to become
sustainable enterprises in southwest United States forests. The site also serves as a reference to community
collaborative organizations that are striving to develop new economic development strategies revolving
around forestry resources in their area. Similarly, economic development agencies may use this site as a decisionmaking tool. It may also be used to provide technical transfer opportunities that promote the science of
healthy forest ecosystems and acceptable practices for
reducing hazardous forest fuels.
Available: http://www.littlecolorado.net/
EntSourcebook/WoodIndustry.htm.
Contact: Herb Hopper: herbert.hopper@rcdnet.net
Last updated: Continuous
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
47
Section 4: Biomass Utilization Facility Locations
Biomass Power Association (BPA)
Annotation: BPA is a member-driven organization
with the goal of increasing the use of biomass power
and creating new jobs and opportunities in the biomass
industry. BPA works to expand and advance the use
of clean, renewable biomass power and represents 80
biomass power plants in 20 states across the United
States. Members include: local owners and operators
of existing biomass facilities, suppliers, and plant developers. The BPA website contains links to biomassrelated news, maps of biomass facility locations, biomass power projects, and biomass-related policy news
and updates.
Available: http://www.usabiomass.org/index.php.
Contact: media@biomasspowerassociation.com
Last updated: 2009
•
••••
California Biomass Energy Alliance
Annotation: This website provides internet links to location and contact information for 29 biomass-fueled
power plant facilities in California as well as information related to the approximately 80 biomass power
plants located in 19 states.
Available: http://www.calbiomass.org/index.html.
Contact: calbiomass@reesechambers.com
Last updated: Unknown
•
••••
Database of State Incentives for Renewable
Energy (DSIRE)
Annotation: The DSIRE website provides a fast and
convenient method for accessing a wide variety of
information about renewable energy and energy efficiency incentives as well as regulatory policies administered by Federal and State agencies, utilities, and
local organizations. DSIRE tracks financial incentives
for energy efficiency upgrades, purchases of energy efficient products and systems, and construction of new
energy efficient buildings.
Available: http://www.dsireusa.org.
48
Contact: http://www.dsireusa.org/library/includes/
GenericContacts.cfm?CurrentPageID=13
Last updated: February 2009
•
••••
Fuels for Schools
Annotation: Fuels for Schools is a collaboration of
USDA Forest Service and Idaho, Montana, Nevada,
North Dakota, Wyoming, and Utah State Foresters. It
is a Federal and State partnership to promote and encourage the use of wood biomass as renewable energy
in public and private buildings to facilitate the removal of hazardous fuels from forest lands. This website
contains links to financing, funding opportunities, and
contacts.
Available: http://www.fuelsforschools.info.
Contacts:
Idaho: ffsidaho@adelphia.net,
Nevada: jperock@forestry.nv.gov,
Utah: geoffmcnaughton@utah.gov,
Bitterroot Resource Conservation and Development
program: bitterrootrcd@cybernet1.com,
Montana: afarr@mt.gov,
North Dakota: thomas.claeys@ndsu.edu,
Wyoming: dperko@state.wy.us,
Other states: http://www.fuelsforschools.info/pdf/
National_State_Forest_Biomass_Contacts.pdf
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
Montana Manufacturers Information System
(MMIS)
Annotation: The MMIS brings Montana Manufacturers
electronically closer to each other by providing detailed
and up-to-date information about each manufacturer’s
products, processes, and capabilities. Manufacturers
and decision-makers can use the MMIS to potentially
identify new markets, sources of materials, supplies,
and services; pursue opportunities to supply products
and services now being purchased out of state; locate
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
potential partners for cooperative production, marketing, buying, and shipping; and analyze the condition
and outlook of Montana’s manufacturing industries.
Available: http://www.mmis.umt.edu.
GIS shapefile of Montana mill locations
available at: http://www.mmis.umt.edu/IndList.
asp?indcode=1000&Name=Wood,%20paper,%20
furniture.
Contact: MMIS@business.umt.edu
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
National Renewable Energy Laboratory
Biomass Maps
Annotation: These maps illustrate the biomass resources available in the United States by county.
Biomass feedstock data are analyzed both statistically
and graphically using GIS. The following feedstock
categories are evaluated: crop residues; forest residues;
primary and secondary mill residues; urban wood
waste; and methane emissions from manure management, landfills, and domestic wastewater treatment.
Available: http://www.nrel.gov/gis/biomass.html.
Contact: http://www.nrel.gov/gis/webmaster.html
Last updated: October 2009
•
••••
USDA Forest Service Southern Research
Station, U.S. Wood-Using Mill Locations
Annotation: This dataset is based on information collected by mill data managers in Forest Inventory and
Analysis Units as well as collaborators in the Texas
Forest Service, the Forest Products Laboratory, and
the Focused Science Delivery Program of the Pacific
Northwest Research Station. The data describe wooddemanding mills of the Continental United States. Data
are restricted to primary wood processors–those that
purchase logs or chips. Secondary processors of wood
such as paper mills that buy market pulp or rely entirely on recycled fiber are excluded.
Available: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gov/econ/data/
mills.
Contact: Jeffrey Prestemon: jprestemon@fs.fed.us
Last updated: October 2008
•
Wood Supply Research Institute (WSRI)
Annotation: The WSRI is a joint project of professional loggers, forest landowners, wood consuming
mills, educators, and manufacturers that facilitates and
funds research to promote and improve efficiency in
the wood supply system. WSRI identifies and documents the structure and performance of the wood supply system and identifies opportunities for improvement; investigates ways to operate more efficiently
and cost-effectively; communicates research findings
directly to WSRI members; and publishes key findings
to benefit the entire forest products industry.
Available: http://www.forestresources.org/WSRI.
Contact: Tom Reed: tom.reed@plumcreek.com
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
Wood2Energy
Annotation: This project accomplishes two primary
objectives related to the state of the science in wood
to energy research and industry: providing a complete
literature review on the state of the science and developing a database of wood to energy related industries
in the United States and Canada. The database is an
important tool for the further development and expansion of wood to energy markets. The development of
this knowledge base enables stakeholders from a variety of backgrounds to understand the current demand
of wood for use as an energy source. This information
also allows stakeholders to conduct analyses for a variety of purposes, including new market development.
Available: http://www.wood2energy.org.
Contact: Sam Jackson: bioenergy@utk.edu
Last updated: Continuous
••••
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
49
Section 5: Ancillary Biomass Information
Biomass Energy Resource Center (BERC)
Annotation: The BERC mission is to assist communities, colleges and universities, State and local governments, businesses, utilities, schools, and others in
making the most of their local energy resources. BERC
further strives to achieve a healthier environment,
strengthen local economies, and increase energy security across the United States through the development
of sustainable biomass energy systems at the community scale. BERC’s particular focus is on the use of
woody biomass and other pelletizable biomass fuels.
Available: http://www.biomasscenter.org.
Contact: http://www.biomasscenter.org/contact.html
Last updated: Unknown
•
••••
Biomass Energy Foundation
Annotation: This website contains discussions of new
developments in liquid fuels from biomass (especially
Biodiesel and methanol), WoodGas stoves, and now
BioChar and Charcoal. Site sponsors are interested in
and knowledgeable about all aspects of biomass energy but particularly in high temperature conversion and
pyrolysis and gasification that can produce heat, power, and fuels. The site is used for research, consulting,
publishing, and travel activities in the field of biomass
and gasification, and the Foundation is able and willing
to sponsor projects related to these purposes.
Available: http://www.woodgas.com/index.htm.
Contact: Tom Reed: TomBReed@comcast.net
Last updated: September 2005
•
••••
Forest Guild
Annotation: The Forest Guild website contains a substantial library of biomass-related publications. Research publications include syntheses of existing literature that were
written in order to answer policy questions. The Forest
Guild practices and promotes ecologically, economically, and socially responsible forestry as a means of sustaining the integrity of forest ecosystems and the human
50
communities dependent upon them. The Guild engages in
education, training, policy analysis, research, and advocacy to foster excellence in stewardship, support practicing
foresters and allied professionals, and engage a broader
community in the challenges of forest conservation and
management.
Available: http://www.forestguild.org.
Contact: info@forestguild.org; Howard Gross:
howard@forestguild.org
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
Fire Research and Management Exchange
System (FRAMES)
Annotation: FRAMES is an Internet-based database that
contains a library of data, documents, projects, tools, and
web pages to support fire management and research. The
goal of FRAMES is to provide a systematic method of exchanging information and transferring technology among
wildland fire researchers, managers, and other stakeholders in order to make wildland fire documents, data, tools,
and other information resources easy to find, access, distribute, compare, and use.
Available: http://frames.nbii.gov/portal/server.pt.
Data Requirements: Vary by selection
Contact: Greg Gollberg: gollberg@uidaho.edu
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
Landscape Fire and Resource Management
Planning Tools Project (LANDFIRE)
Annotation: LANDFIRE is an ongoing research project
and database that contains geospatial data products that
describe existing vegetation composition and structure,
potential vegetation, surface and canopy fuel characteristics, historical fire regimes, and fire regime condition
class. LANDFIRE provides fire and land managers with
the information required to identify lands with wildland
fuel build-up and to facilitate the prioritization, implementation, reporting, and monitoring of landscape fuel treatments. These data may be used during specific wildland
fire incidents to increase firefighter safety, pre-position
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
resources, and evaluate fire behavior under a variety of
weather conditions.
Available: http://www.landfire.gov/index.php.
Data requirements: Extensive. LANDFIRE is
creating spatial data layers that include: all layers
required to run fire modeling applications such
as FARSITE and FlamMap, Existing Vegetation
Type, Canopy Height, Biophysical Setting,
Environmental Site Potential, Fire Regime
Condition Class, and fire effects layers.
Contact: helpdesk@landfire.gov
Last updated: Continuous
•
••••
National Association of Conservation Districts
Woody Biomass Utilization Desk Guide
Annotation: This Guide is designed for use by Resource
Conservation and Development and Extension professionals throughout the United States. The Woody Biomass
Desk Guide and Toolkit provides an overview of woody
biomass production and utilization in the United States,
tips on how to provide effective outreach for clientele, and
educational handouts to share with audiences. The purpose of this guide is to equip natural resource professionals and outreach specialists with the information and tools
needed to increase awareness of the use of woody biomass
for energy in the United States.
Available: http://nacdnet.org/resources/guides/
biomass.
Contact: Sarah Ashton: sashton@warnell.uga.edu
Last updated: Online publication
•
••••
National Biofuels Action Plan
Annotation: This document describes current United
States national fuel challenges in the context of increased renewable energy production. The following
is the Congressionally created Biomass Research and
Development Board’s mandate: “to coordinate programs within and among departments and agencies of
the Federal Government for the purpose of promoting the use of bio-based fuels and bio-based products
by (1) maximizing the benefits deriving from Federal
grants and assistance; and (2) bringing coherence to
Federal strategic planning.” The Board’s Action Plan
is described in seven topical areas: sustainability, feedstock production, feedstock logistics, conversion science and technology, distribution infrastructure, blending, and environment, health and safety.
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Available: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/
pdfs/nbap.pdf.
Contact: Department of Energy: (202) 586-9220;
USDA Rural Development: (202) 720-4581
•
••••
State Bioenergy Primer
Annotation: This State Bioenergy Primer is designed
to bring many resources together that discuss biomass/
bioenergy and provide useful, targeted information that
will enable a state decision-maker to determine if he/
she wants or needs more details. The primer offers succinct descriptions of biomass feedstocks, conversion
technologies, and benefits/challenges of promoting
bioenergy. It includes a step-wise framework, resources, and tools for determining the availability of feedstocks, assessing potential markets for biomass, and
identifying opportunities for action at the state level.
The primer also describes financial, policy, regulatory,
technology, and informational strategies for encouraging investment in bioenergy projects and advancing
bioenergy goals.
Available: http://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/
documents/bioenergy.pdf.
Contact: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,
EPA 430-R-09-024, National Renewable Energy
Laboratory, NREL/TP-6A2-44688
•
••••
USDA Forest Service Southern Research
Station Biomass Publications from the Forest
Operations Research Unit: A Synthesis
Annotation: The Forest Operations Research Unit at
the Southern Research Station has been studying biomass-related topics since 1977. This CD-ROM aids the
reader by organizing these publications in one easy-touse CD-ROM. Included on the CD-ROM are an executive summary, two bibliographies, individual publications, and a keyword listing. The types of publications
on the CD-ROM consist of presentation reports, published reports, portions of books, and master’s theses.
Available: http://www.srs.fs.usda.gv/pubs/biomass_
cd.
Data requirements: Vary by selection
Contact: Dana Mitchell: danamitchell@fs.fed.us
Last updated: 2008
•
••••
51
USDA Forest Service Woody Biomass
Utilization Website
Annotation: The Woody Biomass Utilization Team is
an interdisciplinary team that promotes and facilitates
the planning and delivery of an integrated, interdisciplinary approach to the recovery and utilization of
woody biomass from ecological restoration and hazardous fuels reduction work. Field coordinators have
been designated at each of the National Forest Regions
and Research Stations to coordinate woody biomass
utilization efforts throughout the Forest Service.
Available: http://www.fs.fed.us/woodybiomass/index.
shtml.
State biomass supply links: http://www.fs.fed.us/
woodybiomass/strategy/supply.shtml
Contact: woody_biomass@fs.fed.us
Forest Service Woody Biomass and Bioenergy
Contacts: http://www.fs.fed.us/woodybiomass/
contact/fscontacts.shtml
Last updated: June 2009
•
Southeast Regional Biomass Energy Program:
http://www.serbep.org,
Western Regional Biomass Energy Program: http://
www.westgov.org/wga/initiatives/biomass
Last updated: February 2009
••••
U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Efficiency
and Renewable Energy Biomass Program
Annotation: The Biomass Program primarily facilitates out-of-state and regional partnerships through cooperation with the National Biomass State and Regional
Partnerships, which consists of five regional organizations: Coalition of Northeastern Governors Policy
Research Center, Council of Great Lakes Governors,
Southern States Energy Board, Western Governors’
Association, and U.S. Department of Energy’s Western
Regional Office. Information resources include listings
and links to United States state and regional biomass
energy programs and information for industry, consumers, researchers, policy-makers, and students.
Available: http://www1.eere.energy.gov/biomass/
state_regional.html.
Contacts:
Great Lakes Regional Biomass Energy Program:
http://www.cglg.org/biomass,
Northeast Regional Biomass Energy Program:
http://www.nrbp.org,
Pacific Regional Biomass Energy Program: http://
www.pacificbiomass.org,
52
USDA Forest Service RMRS-GTR-244WWW. 2010.
Rocky
Mountain
Research Station
The Rocky Mountain Research Station develops scientific information
and technology to improve management, protection, and use of the
forests and rangelands. Research is designed to meet the needs of
the National Forest managers, Federal and State agencies, public and
private organizations, academic institutions, industry, and individuals.
Studies accelerate solutions to problems involving ecosystems, range,
forests, water recreation, fire, resource inventory, land reclamation,
community sustainability, forest engineering technology, multiple use
economics, wildlife and fish habitat, and forest insects and diseases.
Studies are conducted cooperatively, and applications may be found
worldwide.
Station Headquarters
Rocky Mountain Research Station
240 W Prospect Road
Fort Collins, CO 80526
(970)498-1100
Research Locations
Flagstaff, Arizona
Fort Collins, Colorado
Boise, Idaho
Moscow, Idaho
Bozeman, Montana
Missoula, Montana
Reno, Nevada
Albuquerque, New Mexico
Rapid City, South Dakota
Logan, Utah
Ogden, Utah
Provo, Utah
The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in all its
prorams and activities on the basis of race, color, national origin, age, disability,
and where applicable, sex, marital status, familial status, religion, sexual
orientation, genetic information, political beliefs, reprisal, or because of all or
part of an individual's income is derived from any public assistance program.
(Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.) Persons with disabilities
who require alternative means for communication of program information
(Braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact USDA's TARGET Center
at (202)720-2600 (voice and TDD). To file a complaint of discrimination, write
to USDA, Director, Office of Civil Rights, 1400 Independence Avenue, S.W.,
Washington, DC 20250-9410, or call (800)795-3272 (voice) or (202)720-6382
(TDD). USDA is an equal opportunity provider and employer.
Federal Recycling Program
Printed on Recycled Paper