OUTLINE
ENGLISH IMPLICATIVE DISCOURSE MARKERS
Bruce Fraser (bfraser@bu.edu)
Boston University
An Implicative Discourse Marker (IDM) signals that the state of affairs (SoA) represented in S2
is affected in some way by the SoA represented by S1, or vice-versa.
IDMs in English: all things considered, as a conclusion, as a consequence (of this/that), as a result (of this/that), because (of this/that), consequently, for this/that reason, hence,: accordingly,
in any case, in other that, in this/that case, of course, on this/that condition, so, then, therefore,
thus
There are three subclasses:
Inferentials: SoA(S1) Causes the Result of to the SoA of (S2)
A (So)
B (then, in that case, under those conditions)
C (thus, therefore, hence, consequently)
D (as a result, for that reason, as a consequence, that’s why)
Telic: SoA(S1) Facilitates the Goal of (S2) (so that, in order that, so as, for)
Explanative: SoA (S1) Is a Result Cause by the SoA of (S2) (because, since, for because of that,
given that)
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RELATIONSHIP OF IDMS TO ONE ANOTHER
(This relationship attempts to capture both occurrence and domain information)
INFERENTIAL
TELIC
So
Then
So that
Thus
EXPLANATIVE
As a result
Because
The term SoA stands for State of Affairs and is intended to designate the interpretation of the
segment.
The Status of S1 and S2 (for IDMs only)
For a given IDM, there is a discourse relationship DR(SS,TS), where:
SS is the source segment, and
TS is the target sequence..
It is the TS on which the DM has its primary effect.
For monologic discourse
When the relationship is paratactic, TS = S2
(after all, as a consequence, as a result, consequently, for that reason, hence, so, therefore, thus)
The water wouldn’t boil. Thus we couldn’t have any tea.
He was forced to work overtime. As a result, he up and quit.
When the relationship is hypotactic (“loose subordination”), TS = S1
(because, so that, so as, in order that, since, for)
He shut the door so that the cat couldn’t escape.
Tell me about it, since you’re so smart.
Don’t say any more, because I value your friendship.
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For dialogic discourse, with speaker A and B, the relationship is always paratactic, TS = S2,
and no subordinate conjunction occur.
A: I don’t want to go. B: So don’t go.
A: I locked the door. B: As a result, we are now locked out.
First Segment (S1)
Target Segment (TS)
Source Segment (SS)
Discourse Marker
because
so
Second Segment (S2)
Source Segment (SS)
Target Segment (TS)
INFERENTIAL CLASS: SoA(S1)  Consequence (S2)
He was tired. So he didn’t go to the party.
The Inferentials signal S2 as a consequence to the SoA conveyed by S1. There are four groups,
distinguished by their freedom to occur.
GROUP A contains the most flexible IDM in the class of Inferentials: so. The conclusion signaled by so, conveyed by S2, is very general and leaves open the specific basis that is used for
justification.
Propositional Attitude
Can be justified by the propositional content
Can’t be a cause
Can’t cause a result
Input to an Inference is a proposition, not an IF
The metal is hot so you must avoid it/so don’t touch it
John is starving, so he must be grouchy/so feed him
He loved her, because he came back
He came back, so he loved her
We’re late, so hurry up
I admit I did it, so please drop the argument
Come here, so I can talk to you
The beach is empty, so where do we go from here?
Note:
1. Group A requires the propositional interpretation
2. IDMs do not include conditionals since
Cause is not a defining feature of condition (not part of their semantics)
If X then Y, but neither fact is the cause of the other
Whenever the eight appeared, the red appeared also, but by pure luck
Notion of conditional is not a specific determinant of IDMs
Conditionals alone cannot bring about an act o justification in discourse
However, conditional and IDMs may form a superordinate category
Group A. Propositional Domain - S2 is a conclusion following from S1 which does not require
any implication involving context. This domain requires that S1 and S2 be statement of fact
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without certain modals (must, should, could, can, might, …) with the interpretation that these
facts have been reported to the speaker who is just re-reporting them to the hearer. The messages
are at arms length, without the speaker opinion.
These cases can be reported as: I report that [S1-IDM-S2], where the S1 and S2 are propositions.
I was required to work overtime. So I quit.
John was hungry, so he ate a sandwich.
The metal was heated so it expanded.
Pi equals 3.14 so it is not a whole number
He loved her so he came back
He was very tall, so he was able to reach the ceiling.
There are only D-D instances for Semantic domain, since it requires the explicit message, not an
implication, and a question or an imperative do not give rise to an explicit fact.
Group A. Pragmatic Domain - There has to be some additional implication of S1 or contextual
assumption make in order for S2 to make sense.
The water won’t boil. So we can’t have any tea.
The movie is over. So, there is no point in going over there
John was hungry, so he must have been very grouchy/
The beach is empty, so where do we go from here?/We need smaller bills. So can you…?
Mary is here. So where is John?
A: The train is late again. So don’t wait up for me.
A: Hurry up the order. B: So you’re hungry after all
A: Don’t tale any unnecessary risks. B: So, are you suggesting that I not go?
A: Wash the dishes right away. B: So give me the soap, you jerk.
There are no cases of Q-D, Q-Q, or Q-I, presumably because the Inferentials (all of them) require
an explicit proposition (which the declarative and imperative provide) which can serve as the basis for the following consequence.
Semantic: John was very hungry, so he ate a sandwich [that’s what was reported to me]
Epistemic: John was very hungry, so he must have been very grouchy [my conclusion]
Speech Act: John was very hungry, so go get him some food, please.
OTHER USES OF SO IN ENGLISH
Denotative so Here the so is equivalent to the lexical expression true as ini
He said things that simply were not so. [true]
Is that so? [true]
Anaphoric so
Did he leave yet? B: I think so. 1 [he left already]
I think the Celtics will win. All my friends say so.
A: Is he here? B: I believe so/I don’t believe so.
Did he leave yet? B: So I think.
1 There are certain adjustments which have to be made, for example, yet/already, you/I, etc.,the deletion
of if in (3h), and the fact that in (4g-h) one of the special verbs is not necessary in S2.
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A: Did you speak with Ned? B: I did so yesterday. [I spoke with him yesterday]
John can throw the ball, and so can I (throw the ball).
If he’s a criminal, it’s his parent who have made him so.
Emphatic so
A: You won't go. B: I will SO/TOO (go).
You’re so: vain.
Deictic so (like so, about so)
He did it like so. (gestures)
She moved the handle like so before it broke. (gestures)
He was about so tall.(gestures)
The rail was about so narrow. (gestures)
So IN COMBINATION
ever so
He walked ever so quietly across the floor.
You look ever so much better today.
so many
He comes into the store every so many days.
He placed markers every so many feet.
so long as
I like ice cream (just) so long as it is chocolate.
She may go, so long as he goes with her.
in so far as
In so far as I know, it’s ready to go.
So far as I can tell, you are the best person for the job.
not so much…as
I didn’t so much love her as admire her.
He won’t so much as deign to speak to her.
so called
We were confronted by the so-called Irish Mafia.
This debate is about the so-called academic freedom at universities.
or so
I've known him for 20 years or so.
This costs $10 or so
so, too = similarly
A chisel is hard to use. So, too, a saw demands years of practice.
Mathematics is difficult. So, too, Biology requires constant study.
in so doing that = in the process of doing that
He calculated the amount of dirt needed. In so doing that, he made an error.
Mary spoke about his problems. In so doing that, she was very suave.
Idiomatic Cases
You old so-and-so! How the hell are you? [good friend]
He is too young, so-to-speak. [roughly speaking]
Be so good as [Please] to help John.
I'm feeling so-so. [not good, not bad]
So long! [Good bye.]
So help me God! [I put myself at God’s mercy.]
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So far so good. [Up to this point, everything is fine.]
Ah so! [I understand now.]
And so forth and so on. [It continued further]
GROUP B contains then, in that case, and under those conditions. S2 is a conclusion conditioned on the information provided by S1. The conclusion found in S2 reflects that it is the
speaker’s opinion that is being asserted: A: S1. B: (If p,) then S2.
Note: There must be two speakers with this group.
Note: then = in that cases/under those conditions and signals that S1 provides a sufficient condition why S2 would be the case. If condition is provided by one person, usually can’t have then.
Group B. Propositional Domain
A: John was required to work overtime. A: Then/so he quit.
A: John was hungry. A: Then/So he ate a sandwich.
I think these examples can be treated as semantic inference, since the then is the speaker’s opinion based on the statement of facts in S1, not his knowledge or belief which would make it epistemic. In fact, these examples are more like:
A: John was hungry. A: If John was hungry, then he ate a sandwich.
which does rely on belief or knowledge.
Group B. Pragmatic Domain
Note: Some sequences with so don’t occur acceptably with then.
A: The water won’t boil. B: Then/So we can’t have any tea.
A: The movie is over. But: Then/So, there is no point in going over there.
A: The beach is empty. B: *Then/So where do we go from here?
A: We need smaller bills. *Then/So can you…?
A: The train is late again. B: Then/So don’t wait up for me.
A: Hurry up the order. B: Then/So you’re hungry after all.
A: Don’t take any unnecessary risks. B: *Then/So, are you suggesting that I not go?
A: Wash the dishes right away. B: Then/So give me the soap, you jerk.
GROUP C contains thus, therefore, hence, and consequently. S2 signals a conclusion which is
“logically” or necessarily grounded in the message S1.
Note: as a consequence requires that S2 be a consequence, not just follow from S1, whereas
consequently requires no such thing.
The sun is yellow: Consequently/*As a consequence, that blue dot is not the sun.
Note: thus can mean thereby
They shook hands and thus the contract was agreed to.
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They planned to reduce waste and thus to cut costs.
Note: hence/thus are used otherwise: His mother was Italian, hence his name – Luca.
Note: all things considered might be considered here but it has a different scope.
John was required to work overtime. Thus/*All things considered, he quit.
The faucet was broken. The stove was dirty. The sink was full. All things considered/Thus,
it was time to go home.
Note: there are intuitively two types of “thus” conclusions:
Analytical/Definitional, where sometime in the meaning of the words plays a role.
That toy has three wheels. Thus, it’s not a bicycle.
Dale is a bachelor. Thus he is a male.
Contextual, where the situation plays the crucial role.
The movie is over. Thus, it’s not worth going over there.
He’s here now. Thus you can talk with him.
Group C. Propositional Domain
A: John was required to work overtime. B: Thus/Then/so he quit.
We missed the last flight. Therefore/thus, I decided to spend the night at the airport
A: We were unable to get funding. B: Therefore/thus, we had to abandon the project.
Group C. Pragmatic Domain
A: The water won’t boil. B: Therefore/Thus/Then/So we can’t have any tea.
A: The beach is empty. B: *Therefore/*Thus/Then/So where do we go from here?
A: The train is late again. B: *Therefore/Thus/Then/So don’t wait up for me.
A: Hurry up the order. B: *Therefore/*Thus/Then/So you’re hungry after all.
A: Don’t tale any unnecessary risks. B: *Therefore/*Thus/Then/So, are you suggesting
that I not go?
A: Wash the dishes right away. B: *Therefore/*Thus/Then/So give me the soap, you jerk.
GROUP D consists of as a result, for that reason, as a consequence, and that’s why. S2 signals a which simply follows from the facts as they are presented in the semantic reading of the
sentence and as might be reported to the speaker whose is just re-reporting them. These IDMs
operate only on the semantic domain.
We missed the last flight. Therefore/thus, I decided to spend the night at the airport.
A: We were unable to get funding aid. B: Therefore we had to abandon the project.
He is retiring in March and thus not able to take on the project.
Note: Analogy with Nevertheless [need anaphoric marker]
Note: consequently = with the result that/as a result/accordingly
The captain had steered a course close in to the shore.
As a result,
they avoided the worst of the storm.
As a result of this,
As a result of this move,
As a result of his caution,
She didn’t know the rules. Consequently she died
She died. For she didn’t know the rules.
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???A: Most of the students left when the lights went out. B: As a result, who do we have left?
Most of the students left when the lights went out. As a result, who do we have left?
Notes:
1. In some cases of a Resultative, where the S2 (=TS) is speculative (Jane is pregnant. As a result, I don’t think she will be able to go), the modality seems to transcend the limited cases of an
Assertion.
2. Is this a case of mutually exclusive utterances, not logically related, like rather?
3. What is the role of intonation for DMs?
4. As a consequence requires that S2 be a consequence, not just follow from S2 whereas consequently requires no such thing:
The sun is yellow. Consequently/*As a consequence, that blue dot is not the sun.
All things considered:
I’ve maxed out on my credit care, have lost my checks, and have a headache. All things considered, we won’t be going out for dinner.
Group D. Propositional Domain
A: John was required to work overtime. A: As a result/Then/so he quit.
A: John was hungry. A: As a result/Thus/So he ate a sandwich.
He worked all day outside. As a consequence/So, He is dead tired.
That number is a prime. That’s why/So you can’t divide it by 3.
Group D. Pragmatic Domain(none occur)
A: The movie is over. B: *As a result/So, there is no point in going over there.
A: The beach is empty. B: *As a result/So where do we go from here?
A: The train is late again. B: *As a result/So don’t wait up for me.
A: Hurry up the order. B: *As a result/So you’re hungry after all.
A: Don’t tale any unnecessary risks. B: *As a result/So, are you suggesting that I not go?
A: Wash the dishes right away. B: *As a result/So give me the soap, you jerk.
Summary of Inferentials
Group A. This conclusion of so, represented in S2, is very general and leaves open the specific
basis that is involved.
Group B. The conclusion of B, represented in S2, reflects that it is the speaker’s opinion that is
being asserted, almost like A: S1. B: (If p,) then S2.
Group C. The conclusion of C, represented in S2, signals a conclusion which is “logically” or
necessarily grounded in the message S1.
Group D. The conclusion of D, represented in S2, signals a conclusion which simply follows
from the facts as they are presented in the semantic reading of the sentence with not contexual
implication - the definition of the semantic domain.
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TELIC CLASS - SoA (S1)  Goal (S2)
This class consists of so that, in order that, and so as and introduces a goal, S2, for which S1 is a
intentional action, S2. The relation between S2 and S1 can be taken as:
S1(Cause=SoA)  S2 (Goal)
S2 is a complete sentence, must be in the subjunctive mood (obviously this doesn’t show up in
English.) The goal sentence must always contain a can, be able could, might but may not contain would, will, must, or past time.
Because these IDMs are similar to subordinate conjunctions, they can only have a Declarative
sentence following them and thus are restricted to three syntactic sequences: D-D; Q-D; I-D.
The so that is reducible to so in all cases, but I don’t think the two form are related semantically.
That is, the telic class doesn’t fall under the Inferentials.
Propositional Domain
I leave early so as to be on time.
He left the door open so that the cat could get out.
Where can we get fresh raspberries, in order that we can make dessert?
Sit up, so that I’m able to see you.
Pragmatic Domain - No Cases
EXPLANATIVE CLASS - SoA (S1)  Explanation (S2)
This class consists of because, since, for, because of that, given that and signals that S2 is an
explanation to the SoA of S1.
Propositional Domain
He came back because/since he loved her.
He loved her. Because of that, he came back.
He ate dinner, since/because he was hungry.
Pragmatic Domain
He loved her, because/since he came back.
*He came back. Because of that, he loved her.
I suggest that you leave because/since I’m sick.
Are you leaving, because/since it’s raining outside now.
It’s raining outside now. Because of that, are you leaving?
Come here, because/since I need to talk to you.
I need to talk to you. Because of that, come here.
Go out and fight, because/since I say so.
Note. There seems to be a perfect relationship between so (though not any of the other Inferentials) and because:
John came back because he loved her.
John loved her, so he came back.
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John love her, because he came back.
John came back, so he loved her.
What are you doing, because there’s a good movie on tonight?
There’s a good movie on tonight, so what are you doing?
Since vs Because
Since/Because the diners fell ill, the restaurant’s licence was suspended.)
(1) John Richman, Jr has been admitted to Belford College without taking an examination because his schoolwork was so outstanding.
(1) implies that Richman's outstanding schoolwork has motivated the College's management to
admit him without a formal examination. This decision was not a necessary act entailed by the
College's statutes. The decision could have been different. It would also have been possible that
Richman's admission had never been taken into consideration in the first place. A possible reaction to (1) could be: 'Is that really true? Wasn't it rather because the father has so much money
and influence?' I.e., a possible objection could be based on the assumption that the becauseclause does not tell the real motivation.