Moving Beyond Coal?
Household Fuel Transition & Ambient PM
Pollution in Peri-Urban Beijing
Anna Zimmermann
Zoë A. Chafe, Kirk R. Smith
Yu Tao, Shan Ming, Xudong Yang
Yiqun Han, Zhu Tong
Li Haixi, Liu Guangqing
UC Berkeley, School of Public Health
Tsinghua University, Dept. of Building Science
Peking University, College for Environmental
Sciences and Engineering
Beijing University of Chemical Technology
Energy Use in Rural China
• ~ 50% of population is rural
• Rural, peri-urban areas use solid
fuels for cooking & heating
• 1980-1990s: National Improved
Stove Program (NISP)
disseminated ~180 million
biomass chimney stoves
• Recent shifts from biomass to
coal and cleaner fuels
• 1.04 million premature deaths
from household air pollution in
China (2010 GBD, Lim et al 2012)
• 5th leading risk factor for disease
Bonjour et al, CRA-2010, Environmental Health Perspectives (forthcoming 2013)
Percentage of population using solid fuels (%)
0
20
40
60
80
100
Estimating household solid
fuel use – 1980 - 2010
1990
64%
(51, 78)
China
2000
53%
(41, 67)
2010
46%
(33, 59)
95
87
83
Africa
82
82
77
South East Asia
66
62
60
61
Western Pacific
53
World
42
48
46
41
Eastern Mediterranean
38
35
27
Americas
22
14
Europe
1980
1990
2000
7
2010
year
Percent of households cooking with solid fuels by region
Bonjour et al., CRA-2010
1.2 million deaths, 22
million DALYs - OAP
Portion of outdoor pollution
caused by household
Cookfuels, ~0.19 million deaths
How much does household solid fuel use
contribute to ambient air pollution?
• In East Asia, Brauer (2011)
estimated 99% of
population lives in areas
that exceed WHO PM Air
Quality Guideline (10
µg/m3 PM2.5 annual avg)
• Few direct measurements
of ambient air pollution
concentrations in rural
areas
Q u ic kT im e ™ a n d
de compres sor
a r e n e e d e d t o s e e t h is
QuickTime™ and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
% of Ambient PM2.5 from Cooking, 2010
Source: Chafe et al. (submitted)
Study Aims
• Determine solid fuel contribution to outdoor PM air
pollution in a village near Beijng, China
– Measure use of solid fuel stoves / furnaces with SUMS
– Measure outdoor PM2.5, PM10 concentrations
• Understand transition from solid to clean fuels
– Measure the relative use of stoves/electric devices
– Investigate the social, cultural, economic drivers of
the shift
– What barriers remain to make a complete shift to gas,
electricity, renewables in the region ?
Er He Zhuang Village, 40 km from central Beijing
Village demographics
• 200 households
• Recruited 32 households for our study (from Tsinghua
survey of 102 households in April, 2011)
• Average household size = 3 people
• Middle school – high school education
• Farming, work in industry/retail outside village
• Median household income = 30,000 RMB ($4,800 US)
• Most families own refrigerator, washing machine, TV,
rooftop solar hot water heater
Fuels Used in EHZ (survey data)
Fuel Type
Number of households
reporting use
% households
reporting use
Twigs (wood)
17
53.1%
Charcoal (wood)
1
3.1%
Crop residue
8
25.0%
Honeycomb coal
20
62.5%
Loose coal / coal balls
27
84.4%
Electricity
31
96.9%
LPG (liquid petroleum
gas)
29
90.6%
Reported Solid Fuel Use by Task
Task (winter)
Does
NonUse
not
solid
Solid
perform
fuel (0) fuel (1)
this task
NonUse
Does not
Task (summer) solid
Solid
perform
fuel (0) fuel (1) this task
Stirfry cooking
31
1
0
Stirfry cooking
31
1
0
Rice cooking
32
0
0
Rice cooking
32
0
0
Bread cooking
29
1
2
Bread cooking
29
1
2
Animal feed
cooking
10
5
17
Animal feed
cooking
10
5
17
Water boiling
24
8
0
Water boiling
24
8
0
Primary heating
fuel
1
31
0
Secondary
heating fuel
3
9
20
Measure Stove & Appliance Use
• 120 appliance / stove use monitors employed during
summer + 50 additional SUMS in winter
• Average cooking stoves/appliances per household = 3.7
• Average space heating stoves/systems per hh = 1.7
• Provide objective stove use data over time
Stove Use Monitoring System (SUMS)
• Placed SUMS on/near solid fuel cooking and water
heating devices starting summer 2012.
• SUMS placed on coal heating stoves, furnaces, and
biomass heated beds ‘kang’ in winter 2012-2013.
Stove Use Monitoring System (SUMS)
SUMS Data
Biomass Kang 11.17-12.13.2012
60
Temp (C)
50
40
30
20
10
0
16-Nov-12
19-Nov-12
22-Nov-12
25-Nov-12
Time
28-Nov-12
1-Dec-12
• Clear diurnal use patterns from kangs in 25% of homes
• November – March heating season
4-Dec-12
SUMS Data
Radiator (Coal Powered) 1.2-1.7.2013
40
35
Temp (C)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2-Jan-13
4-Jan-13
6-Jan-13
8-Jan-13
Time
• Coal furnaces with radiators as primary heating in 86% of homes
Outdoor (ambient) PM2.5 and PM10 monitoring
•Dust Trak PM monitors co-located on 2 rooftops in village
•Meteorological data collected throughout study
Ambient PM2.5 Concentrations
• Winter: 260-680 µg/m3 24-hr Averages
• Peak at night, often in morning
• Summer: 60-99 µg/m3 24-hr Averages
PM2.5 (mg/m3
January 17-18, 2013 - Ambient PM2.5
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1:54 PM 5:14 PM 8:34 PM 11:54 PM 3:14 AM 6:34 AM 9:54 AM 1:14 PM
Time
Er He Zhuang Village Site
24-hr PM2.5 (Jan 18-19): 680 µg/m3
Urban Beijing
24-hr PM2.5 (Jan 18-19): 334 µg/m3
Source: PM data from US Embassy monitors in Beijing - https://twitter.com/BeijingAir
Photo from AP Images: http://seattletimes.com/html/nationworld/2020288471_chinapollutionxml.html
Stove Use & PM Monitoring
• Stove use & PM2.5 time series data at 1-5 minute intervals for
collected from June 2012 – May 2013
• Winter: diurnal patterns of household solid fuel combustion &
ambient PM concentrations were positively correlated
• Summer: limited household solid fuel use, significant
correlations with PM levels not detected
Non-household Emissions
Mobile Air Quality Monitoring
EHZ
• Measured BC, PM, CO, NOx, O3, SO2 pollutant concentrations in
village and surrounding area
• Identified additional non-household (mobile and industrial) sources
of local air pollution, particularly traffic during summer
• Elevated PM2.5, SO2 in winter indicate household coal contributions
Qualitative Methods
To understand social, cultural, and economic drivers for fuel transition:
•Held 2 focus groups with villagers using a range of solid and improved
fuels
•Completed survey in 32 study homes
•Interviewed village leaders
Focus Group Results
• 13 middle aged participants in 2 groups
• Changes over time: used to cook more with biomass.
– “Before the 1990s, everyone cooked with wood.”
– “Living conditions improved, so people were able to
use gas to cook.”
• Village electrified 1960-70s
• Some started using LPG or electricity (rice cooker, griddle,
hot plate) to cook 10+ years ago
– “Now I still don’t use them, I don’t dare. My pressure
cooker and hot plate are just decorations”
– Initial fear of leaks & fires with LPG -> most prefer it
now
Focus Group Results
• Switch to cooking with clean fuels saves time, hassle, less
smoky than before
• Taste preferences: Biomass > LPG > Hot plate for stirfry.
– “The dishes taste best using the big [biomass] stove.”
– “I’m not willing to use the electric hot plate to stirfry.
But use it for noodles or dumplings.”
• Heating with coal furnaces and ‘kang’ beds:
– “Sleeping on a kang is very comfortable.” “Better than
sleeping on an electric blanket.”
– “Even if the price of coal went up, we’d still have to
use it. We’ve been doing this for generations.”
– “Heating with electricity is too expensive.”
Survey Results
• Collected data on fuel, stove prices,
installation date
– LPG starting in early 1990s, stoves
~200 RMB
– Coal furnaces newer, 1000+ RMB.
1000 RMB per ton anthracite coal
– Portable coal stoves <50 RMB. 0.8
RMB per honeycomb coal briquette
• New village project (~2006-2008)
– Failed biomass gasification systems,
stoves used for <10 days
– New roads, flush toilets, efficient
raised ‘Kangs’
National Fuel Use Survey (Preliminary Results):
91,000 Households, 31 Provinces
Biomass
For either
cooking or
heating
Gas
Other
10.98%
11.86%
46.68%
0.22%
Rural
47.64%
13.53%
10.24%
28.49%
0.10%
Urban
11.98%
8.30%
13.56%
65.82%
0.35%
12.03%
16.12%
16.35%
—
55.50% a
Rural
19.00%
21.45%
9.51%
—
50.04% a
Urban
4.69%
10.52%
23.55%
—
61.24% a
31.77%
21.35%
26.30%
—
—
Rural
49.21%
26.94%
18.50%
—
—
Urban
14.29%
15.75%
34.42%
—
—
Total
For heating
Solar/electricity
30.26%
Total
For cooking
Coal
Total
Source: CRAES, Chinese National Environmental Related Human Activity Survey
Conclusions
• Recent shift away from solid fuels for cooking in EHZ, but
much of rural China still cooks with biomass & coal
• Both progression up energy ladder & fuel stacking
• Household solid fuel use contributes substantially to
ambient PM pollution & burden of disease in rural &
peri-urban China
• Biggest contribution from winter coal & biomass heating
• Need for low emissions, affordable winter heating option
• Comprehensive pollution control efforts for urban air
basins must address household sources
• Funding: UCB - Center for Global Public Health, Center for Chinese
Studies, Kirk Smith Research Group; Tsinghua University; Peking
University; Chinese Alliance for Clean Cookstoves
• Thanks to collaborators in US & China, especially Er He Zhuang village
leaders & residents for their ongoing support.
References
•
Bonjour S, Adair-Rohani H, Wolf J, Bruce N, Mehta S, Pruss-Ustan A, Lahiff M, Rehfuess
E, Mishra V, Smith KR, Solid fuel use for household cooking: Country and regional
estimates for 1980-2010, Environmental Health Perspectives (forthcoming 2013)
•
Brauer M., Amann M., Burnett R.T., Cohen A., Dentener F., Ezzati M., Henderson S.B.,
Krzyzanowski M., Martin R.D., Van Dingenen R., Van Donkelaar A., Thurston G.D. 2012.
Exposure Assessment for Estimation of the Global Burden of Disease Attributable to
Outdoor Air Pollution. Environmental Science & Technology. 46 (2), 652-660
•
Chafe Z., Brauer M., Klimont Z., Van Dingenen R, Mehta S., Rao S, Riahi K, Dentener F,
Smith K.R. Contribution of Household Cooking with Solid Fuels to Ambient Particulate
Air Pollution (PM2.5) . (submitted, 2012)
•
Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Science. Household fuel use for cooking
and heating in China: results from the first Chinese National Environmental Exposure
Related Human Activity Patterns Survey. (correspondence with Xiaoli Duan)
•
Lim, S et al., 2012. The Burden of Disease and Injury Attributable to 67 Risk Factors and
Risk Factor Clusters in 21 Regions 1990-2010: A systematic analysis, Lancet 380: 222460.
•
Yang X., Jiang Y., Yang M., Shan M. 2010. Energy and Environment in Chinese Rural
Housing: Status and Future Perspective. Front. Energy Power Eng. China. 4(1): 35–46
•
Zhang, J and K.R. Smith. 2007. Household Air Pollution from Coal and Biomass Fuels in
China: Measurements, Health Impacts, and Interventions. Environmental Health
Perspectives 115.6: 848-855
Conclusions
• Recent shift away from solid fuels for cooking in EHZ, but
much of rural China still cooks with biomass & coal
• Household solid fuel use contributes substantially to
ambient PM pollution & burden of disease in rural &
peri-urban China
• Biggest contribution from winter coal & biomass heating
• Need for low emissions, affordable winter heating option
• Comprehensive pollution control efforts for urban air
basins must address household sources
Anna Zimmermann, Global Health & Environment MS, UC
Berkeley: zimmermanna@berkeley.edu